<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<query columns="23" rows="1092"><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133</http_url><id_number>1133</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1133.jpg</image_url><iso_code>al,at,be,bg,hr,de,it,ro,sk,si,es,ua</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.0097222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>22.3388888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2011,2017</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;This transboundary property stretches over 12 countries. Since the end of the last Ice Age, European Beech spread from a few isolated refuge areas in the Alps, Carpathians&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;, Dinarides&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;, Mediterranean and Pyrenees over a short period of a few thousand years in a process that is still ongoing. The successful expansion across a whole continent is related to the tree’s &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;adaptability and tolerance of different climatic, geographical and physical conditions. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe</site><states>Albania,Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,Croatia,Germany,Italy,Romania,Slovakia,Slovenia,Spain,Ukraine</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2152</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1459</http_url><id_number>1459</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1459.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar,bo,cl,co,ec,pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-18.2500000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-69.5916666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site is an extensive Inca communication, trade and defence network of roads covering 30,000 km. Constructed by the Incas over several centuries and partly based on pre-Inca infrastructure, this extraordinary network through one of the world’s most extreme geographical terrains linked the snow-capped peaks of the Andes – at an altitude of more than 6,000 m – to the coast, running through hot rainforests, fertile valleys and absolute deserts. It reached its maximum expansion in the 15th century, when it spread across the length and breadth of the Andes. The Qhapac Ñan, Andean Road System includes 273 component sites spread over more than 6,000 km that were selected to highlight the social, political, architectural and engineering achievements of the network, along with its associated infrastructure for trade, accommodation and storage, as well as sites of religious significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System</site><states>Argentina,Bolivia (Plurinational State of),Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Peru</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2003</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/275</http_url><id_number>275</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_275.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar,br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-28.5433333300</latitude><location>State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Province of Misiones, Argentina</location><longitude>-54.2658333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of these Jesuit missions are outstanding examples of a type of building and of an architectural ensemble which illustrate a significant period of the history of Argentina and Brazil. The ruins of Sa&amp;otilde; Miguel das Miss&amp;otilde;es in Brazil and those of San Ignacio Min&amp;iacute;, Santa Ana, Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de Loreto and Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a la Mayor in Argentina lie in the heart of a tropical forest. They are impressive remains of five Jesuit missions, built in the land of the Guaranis during the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All these Guarani &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; (settlements) are laid out on the same model: the church, the residence of the Fathers, and the regularly spaced houses of the Indians are laid out around a large square. However, each of the &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; is characterized by a specific layout and a different state of conservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Ignacio Min&amp;iacute;, founded in 1611, was moved on two successive occasions, settling in its present site in 1696. It incorporates important monumental remains: churches, residence of the Fathers, schools. The ruins are accessible and in a relatively good state of preservation. It is the most eminent example of a &lt;em&gt;reduccion&lt;/em&gt; preserved on Argentinean territory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Ana, founded in 1633 on the Sierra del Tape, was removed in 1638 to the bank of the Paran&amp;aacute; river and once more to its present site, 45&amp;nbsp;km from Posadas. The ruins of the church, which are accessible by a monumental stairway, emerge from a forest site. It resisted pillage following the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de Loreto, founded in 1610, was moved in 1631 to its present site 53&amp;nbsp;km from Posadas. The mission included a printing-press. The church and the Fathers' house were built by Brother Bressanelli, as at San Ignacio Min&amp;iacute;. The ruins of the Indian village have been partially cleared of vegetation&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a la Mayor, founded in 1626, was moved to its present site in 1633. Not far from the ruins of the church, important remains of the residence of the fathers are still standing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sa&amp;otilde; Miguel, founded on the site of the Itaiaceco in 1632, was transferred first to Concepci&amp;oacute;n, and then in 1687 to its present site on the banks of the Piratini. Of the village not one building remains intact; all that are visible are the foundations of the Fathers' residence, the school, and the walls of the cemetery, along with some vestiges of Indian habitations. In a site that is periodically invaded by vegetation are found the ruins of the church attributed to Father Gian Battista Primoli, a Jesuit architect of Milanese origins, well known for his work in Buenos Aires, C&amp;oacute;rdoba and Concepci&amp;oacute;n. This Baroque church, finished in 1750, was ravaged 10 years by fire. It was restored in a rather summary manner during the years which preceded the definitive expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1984</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of S&amp;atilde;o Miguel das Miss&amp;otilde;es in Brazil, and those of San Ignacio Min&amp;iacute;, Santa Ana, Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de Loreto and Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a la Mayor in Argentina, lie at the heart of a tropical forest. They are the impressive remains of five Jesuit missions, built in the land of the Guaranis during the 17th and 18th centuries. Each is characterized by a specific layout and a different state of conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis: San Ignacio Mini, Santa Ana, Nuestra Señora de Loreto and Santa Maria Mayor (Argentina), Ruins of Sao Miguel das Missoes (Brazil)</site><states>Argentina,Brazil</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>326</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1363</http_url><id_number>1363</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1363.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at,fr,de,it,si,ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.2783333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>8.2075000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This serial property of 111 small individual sites encompasses the remains of prehistoric pile-dwelling (or stilt house) settlements in and around the Alps built from around 5000 to 500 B.C. on the edges of lakes, rivers or wetlands. Excavations, only conducted in some of the sites, have yielded evidence that provides insight into life in prehistoric times during the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Alpine Europe and the way communities interacted with their environment. Fifty-six of the sites are located in Switzerland. The settlements are a unique group of exceptionally well-preserved and culturally rich archaeological sites, which constitute one of the most important sources for the study of early agrarian societies in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Prehistoric Pile Dwellings around the Alps</site><states>Austria,France,Germany,Italy,Slovenia,Switzerland</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1782</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Two broad periods can be discerned: from c 6000 BC until the establishment of the Hungarian state in the 11th century AD and from the 11th century until the present. The nomination lies in a region that was Hungarian territory from the 10th century until World War I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape began to be developed from at least the 6th millennium BC. Then, early Neolithic communities lived in large permanent villages: a row of such settlements follows the southern shore of the Lake. Cultural and trading connections with neighbouring areas are characteristics of a later Neolithic phase. Distinct cultural attributes distinguish a phase at the beginning of the 4th millennium when settlements were on different sites and cattle-raising was the basis of the economy. Metallurgy was introduced around 2000 BC, and thereafter this area shared in what appears to be a general European prosperity in the 2nd millennium BC. One of its manifestations was the dispersal of amber: the Amber Route connecting the Baltic and the Adriatic passed near the Lake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 7th century BC onwards the shore of the Lake was densely populated, initially by people of the Early Iron Age Hallstatt culture and on through late prehistoric and Roman times. In the fields of almost every village around the Lake there are remains of Roman villas. Two in Fert&amp;ouml;r&amp;aacute;kos are accompanied by a 3rd century AD Mithraic temple which is open to visitors. The Roman hegemony was ended in the late 4th century AD, however, by the first of numerous invasions, beginning a phase of continual change and bewildering replacement of one people by another until the Avar Empire in the 9th century. Hungarians occupied the Carpathian Basin and became the overlords of the Lake area around AD 900.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new state and public administration system was established in the 11th century. Sopron, a place with prehistoric and Roman origins, became the seat of the bailiff and centre of the county named after it. The basis of the current network of towns and villages was formed in the 12th and 13th centuries, their markets flourishing from 1277 onwards, when they were effectively relieved of many fiscal duties. A migration of German settlers started in the 13th century and continued throughout the Middle Ages. The mid-13th century Tatar invasion left this area unharmed, and it enjoyed uninterrupted development throughout medieval times until the Turkish conquest in the late 16th century. The economic basis throughout was the export of animals and wine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rust in particular prospered on the wine trade. Its refortification in the early 16th century as a response to the then emerging Ottoman threat marked the beginning of a phase of construction in the area, first with fortifications and then, during the 17th-19th centuries, with the erection and adaptation of domestic buildings. The liberation of the peasants after 1848 and the political situation after 1867 promoted development and building activity was renewed. The most important events locally in the second half of the 19th century were the construction of railways and the completion of the water management facilities. In the 20th century, the Austro-Hungarian frontier created after World War I divided the area into two, but true isolation started only with the establishment of the Iron Curtain between the Communist world and the rest of Europe after World War II. It was at Fert&amp;ouml;r&amp;aacute;kos, "the place where the first brick was knocked out of the Berlin wall," that participants at a Pan-European Picnic tore down the barbed wire and re-opened the frontier which still crosses the Lake.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/772</http_url><id_number>772</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_772.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at,hu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Fert&amp;ouml;-Neusiedler Lake has been the meeting place of different cultures for eight millennia, and this is graphically demonstrated by its varied landscape, the result of an evolutionary and symbiotic process of human interaction with the physical environment.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.7192777800</latitude><location>State of Burgenland (AT) / County of Györ-Moson-Sopron (HU)</location><longitude>16.7227222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Fert&amp;ouml;-Neusiedler Lake and its surroundings are an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement and land use representative of a culture. The present character of the landscape is the result of millennia-old land-use forms based on stockraising and viticulture to an extent not found in other European lake areas. The historic centre of the medieval free town of Rust constitutes an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement representative of the area. The town exhibits the special building mode of a society and culture within which the lifestyles of townspeople and farmers form a united whole. The Fert&amp;ouml;-Neusiedler Lake has been the meeting place of different cultures for eight millennia, and this is graphically demonstrated by its varied landscape, the result of an evolutionary and symbiotic process of human interaction with the physical environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lake lies between the Alps, 70&amp;nbsp;km distant, and the lowlands in the territory of two states, Austria and Hungary. The lake itself is in an advanced state of sedimentation, with extensive reed stands. It has existed for 500 years within an active water management regime. In the 19th century, canalization of Hans&amp;aacute;g shut the lake off from its freshwater marshland. Since 1912 completion of a circular dam ending at Hegyk&amp;ouml; to the south has prevented flooding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two broad periods may be discerned: from around 6000 BC until the establishment of the Hungarian state in the 11th century AD and from the 11th century until the present. The World Heritage site lies in a region that was Hungarian territory from the 10th century until the First World War. From the 7th century BC the lake shore was densely populated, initially by people of the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture and on through late prehistoric and Roman times. In the fields of almost every village around the Lake there are remains of Roman villas. The basis of the current network of towns and villages was formed in the 12th and 13th centuries, their markets flourishing from 1277 onwards, when they were relieved of many fiscal duties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mid-13th century Tatar invasion left this area unharmed, and it enjoyed uninterrupted development throughout medieval times until the Turkish conquest in the late 16th century. The economic basis throughout was the export of animals and wine. Rust in particular prospered on the wine trade. Its refortification in the early 16th century as a response to the then emerging Ottoman threat marked the beginning of a phase of construction in the area, first with fortifications and then, during the 17th-19th centuries, with the erection and adaptation of domestic buildings. The remarkable rural architecture of the villages surrounding the lake and several 18th-and 19th-century palaces add to the area's considerable cultural interest. The palace of the township of Nagycenk and the Fert&amp;ouml;d Palace are included in detached areas of the core zone outside the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sz&amp;eacute;chenyi Palace, at the southern end of the lake, is a detached ensemble of buildings in the centre of a large park, initially built in the mid-18th century on the site of a former manor house. It acquired some of its present form and appearance around 1800. The Baroque palace garden was originated in the 17th century. In the late 18th century an English-style landscape garden was laid out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1769 and 1790 Josef Haydn's compositions were first heard in the Fert&amp;ouml;d Esterh&amp;aacute;zy Palace. It was the most important 18th-century palace of Hungary, built on the model of Versailles. The plan of the palace, garden and park was on geometrical lines which extended to the new village of Esterh&amp;aacute;za. There, outside the palace settlement, were public buildings, industrial premises and residential quarters. The palace itself is laid out around a square with rounded internal corners. To the south is an enormous French Baroque garden that has been changed several times, the present layout being essentially that of 1762.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Fert&amp;ouml;/Neusiedler Lake area has been the meeting place of different cultures for eight millennia. This is graphically demonstrated by its varied landscape, the result of an evolutionary symbiosis between human activity and the physical environment. The remarkable rural architecture of the villages surrounding the lake and several 18th- and 19th-century palaces adds to the area&amp;rsquo;s considerable cultural interest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fertö / Neusiedlersee Cultural Landscape</site><states>Austria,Hungary</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>913</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1187</http_url><id_number>1187</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1187.jpg</image_url><iso_code>by,ee,fi,lv,lt,no,md,ru,se,ua</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The first accurate measuring of a long segment of a meridian, helping in the establishment of the exact size and shape of the world exhibits an important step in the development of earth sciences. It is also an extraordinary example for interchange of human values in the form of scientific collaboration among scientists from different countries. It is at the same time an example for collaboration between monarchs of different powers, for a scientific cause.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The Struve Geodetic Arc is undoubtedly an outstanding example of technological ensemble – presenting the triangulation points of the measuring of the meridian, being the non movable and non tangible part of the measuring technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt;The measuring of the arc and its results are directly associated with men wondering about his world, its shape and size. It is linked with Sir Isaac Newton's theory that the world is not an exact sphere.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>59.0577777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>26.3377777777</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The first accurate measuring of a long segment of a meridian, helping to establish the exact size and shape of the world, exhibits an important step in the development of earth sciences. Since around 500 BC it had been known that the Earth was not flat, but of some spherical shape. In the 3rd century BC, the surveying technique and theory for determining the size of the Earth was developed by Eratosthenes. This theory remained in use until the era of satellite geodesy. Eratosthenes's theory, using length measurement and angles determined by star observations, made it possible to determine the size of the Earth, while the measurements themselves were still not accurate, mainly owing to inadequate methods and equipment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 17th century better measuring equipment was developed, together with a new method using triangulations. According to this method, a much shorter line could be measured accurately, while the long distances were covered by a chain of triangles. These triangles each spanned several hundred kilometres, with each of their sides (base lines) as long as 100 km and each triangle in the chain having one common base line with at least one other triangle and two common corners (station points) with another triangle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The triangulation method helped to establish in the 1730s and 1740s the true shape of the Earth, by means of long arcs in Peru and Lapland. The problem of the size of the Earth remained unsolved and had become even more complex, as it was known that it was not a perfect sphere. The different early arcs in France, Peru, Lapland, Italy, South Africa and Austria had various shortcomings that did not allow for an accurate solution of this issue. The defeat of Napoleon, followed by the Congress of Vienna and the decision in 1815 to establish agreed international boundaries in Europe, required accurate mapping. These needs were strongly felt in Russia, where Tsar Alexander I provided the astronomer Wilhelm Struve with all the resources for his project for a new long geodetic arc. This can be seen as the first step for the development of modern geodetic framework and topographic mapping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A very long arc, completed in 1840, had been measured in India by Lambton and Everest, and a shorter arc in Lithuania by Carl Tenner. Struve, who was working at the Dorpat University in modern Estonia, decided that the arc he would establish would follow a line of longitude (meridian) passing through the observatory of the university. The new long arc, later to be known as the Struve Arc, was finally createded by connecting earlier, shorter arcs to the southern one measured by Tenner, and their extension to the north and south. The arc covered thus a line connecting Fuglenæs near Hammerfest in the far north, along 2,800 km, with Staro-Nekrasowka, near Ismail, on the Black Sea shores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site consists of 34 of the original station points established by Struve and his colleagues between 1816 and 1851 - four points in Norway, four in Sweden, six in Finland, one in Russia, three in Estonia, two in Latvia, three in Lithuania, five in Belarus, one in Moldova and four in Ukraine. These marks take different forms: small holes drilled in rock surfaces, and sometimes filled with lead; cross-shaped engraved marks on rock surfaces; solid stone or brick with a marker inset; rock structures (cairns), with a central stone or brick, marked by a drilled hole; single bricks; and specially constructed 'monuments' to commemorate the point and the arc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Struve Geodetic Arc is an extraordinary example of interchange of human values in the form of scientific collaboration among scientists from different countries, as well as an outstanding example of a technological ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Struve Arc is a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through 10 countries and over 2,820 km. These are points of a survey, carried out between 1816 and 1855 by the astronomer Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve, which represented the first accurate measuring of a long segment of a meridian. This helped to establish the exact size and shape of the planet and marked an important step in the development of earth sciences and topographic mapping. It is an extraordinary example of scientific collaboration among scientists from different countries, and of collaboration between monarchs for a scientific cause. The original arc consisted of 258 main triangles with 265 main station points. The listed site includes 34 of the original station points, with different markings, i.e. a drilled hole in rock, iron cross, cairns, or built obelisks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Struve Geodetic Arc</site><states>Belarus,Estonia,Finland,Latvia,Lithuania,Norway,Republic of Moldova,Russian Federation,Sweden,Ukraine</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1364</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/33</http_url><id_number>33</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_33.jpg</image_url><iso_code>by,pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.7275000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>23.9811111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1992,2014</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Białowieża Forest World Heritage site, on the border between Poland and Belarus, is an immense range of primary forest including both conifers and broadleaved trees covering a total area of 141,885 hectares. Situated on the watershed of the Baltic Sea and Black Sea, this transboundary property is exceptional for the opportunities it offers for biodiversity conservation. It is home to the largest population of the property’s iconic species, the European bison.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Białowieża Forest</site><states>Belarus,Poland</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2005</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The definition of the term "belfry" was somewhat vague at the outset. Referring originally to the mobile wooden towers used in siege warfare, the term is later applied by Viollet-le-Duc in the Dictionnaire raisonn&amp;eacute; de l'architecture fran&amp;ccedil;aise to the wooden watchtowers mounted on the palisades surrounding the portus or preurban centres. It was to be applied occasionally to towers of all sorts, but particularly to those housing bells or standing next to the bell-tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palisades, bells, and the right to possess bells are all closely associated with the development of urban life which took place in these regions following the Viking raids of the 9th century. A favourable geographic situation at the heart of Europe, the re-establishment of major trade routes such as Bruges/Brugge-Cologne, and the improvement of navigable waterways at regional and national level made this region the ideal site for contact, trade, and the meeting of cultures. Travelling merchants re-appeared and perhaps began to organize and establish permanent warehouses near the castra of the feudal lords. These pre-urban groupings, which often grew up along river valleys, are the origin of towns like Tournai and Gent, along the Escaut. Locations where roads met navigable waterways were particularly propitious for the organization of markets, first temporary but later becoming permanent fairs, encouraging merchants to settle in one spot. In addition, the cloth-weaving industry seems to have developed from the 11th century onwards, in small centres such as Lille, Ypres (Ieper), Bruges (Brugge), Ghent (Gent), etc. Trade and cloth-weaving became key factors for the development of the pre-urban centre, which began to make its presence felt as an organized body through the influence of the professional bodies (guilds, corporations) and to mark out its physical bounds by building ramparts or palisades with belfries to provide safety against marauders. From the 12th century onwards, such ramparts were often rebuilt in stone and subsequently extended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Such centres expanded under the protection provided - for a fee - by the castra, whose importance and role gradually diminished to such an extent that in some cases, such as Ghent and Antwerp (Antwerpen), the abandoned castles were taken over by the local burghers. This development illustrates the insoluble conflicts between ch&amp;acirc;telain and burghers keen to organize as a "commune" with their own administration. Again from the 12th century onwards, successive Counts of Flanders favoured the burghers which led to the flowering, from Arras to Bruges, of thriving towns demanding written proof of their rights and privileges in the form of charters. These charters, issued from the 12th century onwards, are extremely diverse and fragmentary, and extremely practical in nature, often in the form of a step by step approach setting a legal seal on gradually acquired rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The commune was in fact made up of all the burghers living in the city who had given their oath of allegiance. At their head were the elected magistrates, the aldermen or scabini responsible for carrying out administrative functions, and the mayeur, who had no specific powers. The chief alderman held an important position, since he presided over the court and council meetings, kept the seals of the town and the keys to its gates, and commanded the town militia which owed the ban (feudal service) to the overlord. As feudal lord, the commune had other obligations to the seigneur, such as the payment of aid in the four following cases: departure on crusade; knighting of the eldest son; dowry of the eldest daughter; ransom of the overlord if taken prisoner. In return, the seigneur swore to protect the commune and respect its rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many of the belfries now in existence are successors to wooden constructions, often destroyed by fire and known only through archives, which give no descriptions. The multi-purpose belfry soon came to be built of stone to prevent the risk of future fires. Its imposing volume formed either an isolated feature or a central or lateral element of the market halls, themselves often rebuilt in stone at an early date.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/943</http_url><id_number>943</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_943.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be,fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.1744400000</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.2313900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Belfries are outstanding representatives of civic and public architecture in Europe. Through the variety of their 'functional' forms and the changes they have undergone they have been a vital aspect of civic architecture in Europe since the 13th century. They are unique constructions reflecting the development of civil authority that marked the history of Flanders (in its historical sense) from the Middle Ages onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Referring originally to mobile wooden towers used in siege warfare, the term was later applied to the wooden watchtowers mounted on the palisades surrounding the portus or pre-urban centres. It was to be applied in particular to those housing bells or standing next to the bell tower. Palisades, bells and the right to possess bells are all closely associated with the development of urban life. The 31 belfries in Flanders and Wallonia and the 23 in north-eastern France, invariably found in an urban setting, are imposing bell towers of medieval origin, generally attached to the town hall and occasionally to a church. In addition to their outstanding artistic value, the belfries are potent symbols of the transition from feudalism to the mercantile urban society that played a vital role in the development of late medieval Europe. The belfries are both civic buildings and symbols, and highly significant tokens of the achievement of civil liberties acquired through the dissolution the abbeys that had remained sovereign since the high Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The early belfries of the 13th and early 14th centuries are strongly reminiscent of the seignieurial keep, from which they take their massive square form, elevations showing sparing use of openings, and rising storeys built on or designed for vaulting. The main shaft is topped by a wall walk and parapet running between bartizans: the central spire features a slate campanile roof and variations on a number of forms. The finials of the corner and central turrets are decorated with animals or symbolic characters protecting the commune. The 13th-century belfry of Ieper (Ypres) is a fine example of this type, although it forms part of the market hall complex later to include the town hall, construction of which continued down to the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the examples concerned cover the periods of the 14th-15th and 16th-17th centuries, thereby offering an illustration of the transition in style from Norman Gothic to later Gothic, which then mingles with Renaissance and Baroque forms. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the belfries abandoned the model of the keep in favour of finer, taller towers, such as those of Dendermonde, Lier and Aalst. The subsequent addition to the top of the shaft of a narrower, different shape to serve as the base for the campanile would give the desired monumental effect, and the roof itself would take on more bulbous, sometimes extended lines, as in the case of Veurne (17th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the market halls and belfries grew too small to function as a meeting-place for the aldermen, a new type of building was required, the H&amp;ocirc;tel de Ville (town hall), clearly designed in accordance with the administrative organization and, from the 15th and 16th centuries onwards, assuming an obvious representative role achieved by incorporating the symbolic belfry, as in the examples of Brussels and Oudenaarde.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Their construction often took place in several stages, but they have always been maintained in good overall order. Some, damaged by war, have been rebuilt, generally in identical form. All are listed as historic monuments, either in isolation or as part of an edifice, a square, or an urban site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Twenty-three belfries in the north of France and the belfry of Gembloux in Belgium were inscribed in 2005, as an extension to the 32 Belgian belfries inscribed in 1999 as Belfries of Flanders and Wallonia. Built between the 11th and 17th centuries, they showcase the Roman, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque styles of architecture. They are highly significant tokens of the winning of civil liberties. While Italian, German and English towns mainly opted to build town halls, in part of north-western Europe, greater emphasis was placed on building belfries. Compared with the keep (symbol of the seigneurs) and the bell-tower (symbol of the Church), the belfry, the third tower in the urban landscape, symbolizes the power of the aldermen. Over the centuries, they came to represent the influence and wealth of the towns.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Belfries of Belgium and France</site><states>Belgium,France</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1100</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321</http_url><id_number>1321</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1321.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be,fr,de,ch,in,jp,ar</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.4684138889</latitude><location></location><longitude>6.8293361111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Chosen from the work of Le Corbusier, the 17 sites comprising this transnational serial property are spread over seven countries and are a testimonial to the invention of a new architectural language that made a break with the past. They were built over a period of a half-century, in the course of what Le Corbusier described as “patient research”. The Complexe du Capitole in Chandigarh (India), the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo (Japan), the House of Dr Curutchet in La Plata (Argentina) and the Unité d’habitation in Marseille (France) reflect the solutions that the Modern Movement sought to apply during the 20th century to the challenges of inventing new architectural techniques to respond to the needs of society. These masterpieces of creative genius also attest to the internationalization of architectural practice across the planet.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement</site><states>Belgium,France,Germany,Switzerland,India,Japan,Argentina</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2085</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/749</http_url><id_number>749</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_749.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bj,bf,ne</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>11.8841666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>2.4877777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2017</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This transnational extension (Benin, Burkina Faso) to the W National Park of Niger, inscribed in 1996 on the World Heritage List, cover a major expanse of intact Sudano-Sahelian savannah, with vegetation types including grasslands, shrub lands, wooded savannah and extensive gallery forests. It includes the largest and most important continuum of terrestrial, semi-aquatic and aquatic ecosystems in the West African savannah belt. The property is a refuge for wildlife species that have disappeared elsewhere in West Africa or are highly threatened. It is home to the largest population of elephants in West Africa and most of the large mammals typical of the region, such as the African Manatee, cheetah, lion and leopard. It also harbours the only viable population of lions in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>W-Arly-Pendjari Complex</site><states>Benin,Burkina Faso,Niger</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2129</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1504</http_url><id_number>1504</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1504.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ba,hr,rs,me</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.0922138889</latitude><location></location><longitude>17.9240527778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This serial property combines 28 sites, located in Bosnia and Herzegovina, western Serbia, western Montenegro and central and southern Croatia, representing these cemeteries and regionally distinctive medieval tombstones, or stećci. The cemeteries, which date from the 12th to 16th centuries CE, are laid out in rows, as was the common custom in Europe from the Middle Ages. The stećci are mostly carved from limestone. They feature a wide range of decorative motifs and inscriptions that represent iconographic continuities within medieval Europe as well as locally distinctive traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stećci Medieval Tombstone Graveyards</site><states>Bosnia and Herzegovina,Croatia,Serbia,Montenegro</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2094</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1380</http_url><id_number>1380</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1380.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cm,cf,cg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>2.6094444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>16.5541666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the north-western Congo Basin, where Cameroon, Central African Republic and Congo meet, the site encompasses three contiguous national parks totalling around 750,000 ha. Much of the site is unaffected by human activity and features a wide range of humid tropical forest ecosystems with rich flora and fauna, including Nile crocodiles and goliath tigerfish, a large predator. Forest clearings support herbaceous species and Sangha is home to considerable populations of forest elephants, critically endangered western lowland gorilla, and endangered chimpanzee. The site’s environment has preserved the continuation of ecological and evolutionary processes on a huge scale and great biodiversity, including many endangered animal species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sangha Trinational</site><states>Cameroon,Central African Republic,Congo</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1920</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established September 1993, under the provisions of the Park Act.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/72</http_url><id_number>72</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_72.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca,us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>61.1975833300</latitude><location>Kluane: Yukon Territory (Canada) and Alaska (USA)&#xd;
&#xd;
Glacier Bay:  Alaska (USA)&#xd;
&#xd;
Tatshenshini:  Province of British Columbia (Canada)</location><longitude>-140.9919722000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;A unique area with high mountain peaks, foothills, glacial systems, lakes, streams, valleys and coastal landscapes. The Wrangell-St Elias region represents the most extensive array of glaciers and ice fields outside the polar region. These features and the high mountains of the Wrangell-St Elias, Chugach and Kluane ranges have resulted in the region becoming known as the 'Mountain Kingdom' of North America. Geologically the mountains are included in the Pacific mountain system and include the 130 km long Bagley ice field, the second-highest peak in the USA (Mount St Elias) and the largest piedmont glacier on the North American continent (Malaspina Glacier). Extensive lowlands are found only in the centre and along north-western fringes of the region. Elsewhere lowlands are sandwiched between mountains and sea or occur as narrow valleys and plateaux grading into upland and serrated peaks. Principal drainages include the Copper, Chitina, White, Alsek and Donjek rivers and tributaries. The Malaspina foreland coastal area comprises mainly long, straight piedmont glacial beaches cut through by numerous often sizeable glacial-melt drainage-ways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wide ranges of climatic zones and elevations in the region have resulted in a great variety of ecosystems representing three major biomes or broad vegetational subdivisions: the coastal coniferous biome; the northern coniferous biome; and the alpine tundra biome. The coastal coniferous biome includes coastal spruce-hemlock forests, tall shrub thickets and bogs and marshes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The northern coniferous biome includes closed tall spruce and deciduous forests, open, low mixed evergreen and deciduous forests, tall shrub thickets and low shrub thickets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The alpine tundra biome includes moist sedge and grass alpine tundra and dry alpine tundra: moist sedge and grass alpine tundra at 900-1,500 m on gradual slopes, meadow-like tundra composed of sedges and grasses interspersed with low shrubs such as blueberry and Labrador tea; and dry alpine tundra, on steeper mountain slopes and exposed ridges from 900 m to the elevation of perpetual ice and snow comprising low, matted alpine plants dominated by mountain avens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a great variety of fauna reflecting the habitat diversity. Carnivores include coyote, grey wolf, red fox, short-tailed weasel, mink, wolverine, river otter, lynx and the more easily visible brown bear and black bear. A rare bluish colour phase of the black bear, known locally as the glacier bear, is centred in the vicinity of Yakutat. Other mammals include pica and snowshoe hare, arctic ground squirrel, beaver Castor, muskrat and porcupine. Rodents include the hoary marmot. Moose and caribou range in lower elevations and mountain goat and Dally sheep occupy high mountainous areas. Bison were introduced in 1950 and again in 1962. Black-tailed deer may occur along coastal fringes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The avifauna includes spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan, white-tailed ptarmigan, trumpeter swan and many song birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All five species of Alaskan Pacific salmon including red salmon, chum, silver salmon, pink salmon and king salmon spawn in park or preserve waters. Freshwater fish species include Dolly Virden, lake trout, steelhead, cutthroat trout, arctic grayling, turbot, round whitefish and humpback whitefish.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1992, 1994</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These parks comprise an impressive complex of glaciers and high peaks on both sides of the border between Canada (Yukon Territory and British Columbia) and the United States (Alaska). The spectacular natural landscapes are home to many grizzly bears, caribou and Dall's sheep. The site contains the largest non-polar icefield in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kluane / Wrangell-St. Elias / Glacier Bay / Tatshenshini-Alsek</site><states>Canada,United States of America</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>78</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/354</http_url><id_number>354</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_354.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca,us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.9960555600</latitude><location>Province of Alberta, Canada; State of Montana, USA</location><longitude>-113.9041667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park is situated in the extreme south-west of the Province of Alberta, along the eastern slopes of the Continental Divide and at the western margin of the Canadian Great Plains region; it includes prairie, lakes and mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Local relief is dominated by the 2,500&amp;nbsp;m peaks of the Border and Clark Ranges, which are generally less rugged than their Glacier National Park counterparts. The park is centred on a long, narrow 'glacier trough' lake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most immediately obvious feature of the park is the sudden transition from prairie to mountain landscape; a contrast which is emphasized by the virtual absence of intervening foothills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dominant landforms of the park are of glacial origin; typical of both mountain and continental glaciations. The mountain valleys and rock basins were shaped by glacial erosion, whereas the rolling grasslands are a result of glacial deposition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The joint Waterton-Glacier properties contain a stratigraphic record spanning more than 1,250&amp;nbsp;million years of sedimentary and tectonic evolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Waterton-Glacier area is at the centre of what has been described as a major floristic discontinuity which occurs at about 50&amp;deg; N latitude and which divides the southern ranges of the Rocky Mountains from the more northerly ranges. The prevalence of a maritime climate results in many species occurring which are closely related to the flora of the far west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Five large ecoregions are found within Waterton-Glacier National Parks; these are alpine tundra, subalpine forest, montane forest, aspen parkland and fescue grassland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The alpine tundra ecoregion is found above 2,100&amp;nbsp;m on the west slope and 1,800&amp;nbsp;m on the east. Arctic-alpine tundra vegetation covers much of the terrain, typical species including drays tundra and dwarf alpine poppy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The subalpine forest ecoregion is the single-most vegetation cover in the park. A strong boreal element is typical of this ecoregion, characterized by such species as dwarf birch and fireweed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The montane ecoregion (Canadian zone) occurs at low to mid elevations, but is largely restricted to the dry foothills and major river valleys of the eastern slopes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The aspen parkland ecoregion serves as a transition belt between the prairie grasslands and the coniferous forest zone, with dominant tree species being trembling aspen and balsam poplar. Commonly known as 'bunchgrass prairie', the fescue grasslands ecoregion is typified by the festuca/danthonia grass association. The park is noted for an abundance of wildlife and a wide diversity of habitats. Investigations have listed 61 species of mammals, 241 species of bird, and 20 species of fish; reptiles and amphibians have not been extensively studied. Carnivores include grey wolf, coyote, cougar, American black bear and mink. There is also a self-sustaining population of more than 200 grizzly bear in the Waterton-Glacier complex. Other ungulates include mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, bison, mountain goat and bighorn sheep, the last two being indigenous to the region. Rodents include beaver and muskrat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Waterton is located on the margin of two major avian migratory routes; the Central and Pacific flyways overlap here, and the marsh and lake areas of the park are used extensively as staging areas. Both the bald eagle and peregrine falcon pass through the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fish fauna includes lake whitefish, cut-throat trout, rainbow trout, lake trout, bull trout &lt;em&gt;Salvelinus&lt;/em&gt; and Arctic grayling.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1932 Waterton Lakes National Park (Alberta, Canada) was combined with the Glacier National Park (Montana, United States) to form the world's first International Peace Park. Situated on the border between the two countries and offering outstanding scenery, the park is exceptionally rich in plant and mammal species as well as prairie, forest, and alpine and glacial features.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Waterton Glacier International Peace Park</site><states>Canada,United States of America</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>407</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1442</http_url><id_number>1442</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1442.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn,kz,kg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.3044444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>108.8572222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property is a 5,000 km section of the extensive Silk Roads network, stretching from Chang’an/Luoyang, the central capital of China in the Han and Tang dynasties, to the Zhetysu region of Central Asia. It took shape between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century, linking multiple civilizations and facilitating far-reaching exchanges of activities in trade, religious beliefs, scientific knowledge, technological innovation, cultural practices and the arts. The thirty-three components included in the routes network include capital cities and palace complexes of various empires and Khan kingdoms, trading settlements, Buddhist cave temples, ancient paths, posthouses, passes, beacon towers, sections of The Great Wall, fortifications, tombs and religious buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor</site><states>China,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1985</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Costa Rica&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Presidents of Costa Rica and Panama jointly declared intent to establish an international park on 3 March 1979, and this was reconfirmed in Costa Rica by Presidential Decree of 4 February 1982. The Costa Rican portion was accepted as a biosphere reserve in 1982. Declared a World Heritage site in 1983. The Reserva Forestal de Rio Macho extension to the reserve was approved by the MAB Bureau on 27 January 1988. La Amistad International Park was inscribed on the World Heritage List in December 1990.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Panama&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Presidents of Costa Rica and Panama jointly declared intent to establish an international park, La Amistad, on 3 March 1979, and this was finally reconfirmed in Panama by the directive of 6 September 1988 (Resolucion Directive No. 021-88). This resolution has the power of the executive decree based on Law No. 21 of 16 December 1986. The sector called Pila was initially protected in 1983 by the executive decree No. 25 of 28 September 1983. Palo Seco Protected Forest was established following pUblication in the official gazette on the 24 November 1983. Volcan Baru National Park was established by Executive Decree No. 40 of 24 June 1976 and published in the official gazette on 13 July 1978. The Costa Rican sector was declared a World Heritage Site (criteria: i, ii, iii) in 1983. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1990.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/205</http_url><id_number>205</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_205.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cr,pa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>9.4070833330</latitude><location>Provincias de Bocas del Toro y Chiriqui, Panama; San Jose, Cartago, Limon and Puntarenas Provinces, Costa Rica</location><longitude>-82.9388055600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park lies in the foothills and mountains of Cordillera de Talamanca between the mountain ranges of Las Vueltas, Cartago and Echandi on the Panamanian/Costa Rican border.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cordillera de Talamanca is the highest and wildest non-volcanic mountain range in Central America. It was formed by the folding of the Earth's crust and uplifting activity that created the land dividing the Pacific from the Caribbean. A long period of marine deposition in the shallow surrounding seas up until the Middle Miocene was followed by a period of marine volcanism, which included the uplifting of the whole area to some 4,000&amp;nbsp;m above sea level. Subsequent erosion due to heavy rainfall has created a rugged topography. During the Quaternary period, glaciers carved cirque lakes and steep valleys on the slopes of Chirripo National Park, the only area in Central America to show signs of glaciation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tropical rainforests have covered most of the area since at least the last glaciations, about 25,000 years ago. The park includes lowland tropical rainforest and cloudforest, as well as four communities not found elsewhere in Central America: subalpine paramo forests, pure oak stands, lakes of glacial origin and high-altitude bogs. The area also contains all five altitudinal zones found in the tropics. Most of the main crest lies within montane rainforest, characterized by mixed oak forest. Below 2,500&amp;nbsp;m lower montane rainforest occurs and the forest is generally more mixed. The Talamanca Mountains contain the largest tracts of virgin forest in Costa Rica. On high points along the ridge, at elevations above 2,900-3,100&amp;nbsp;m, frequent stands of paramo, swamps, cold marshes occur. The paramo located on Mount Kamuk contains the richest and most varied vegetation (after Chirripo) in the entire Talamanca Range and is the only one in Costa Rica that shows no signs of human intervention. Species diversity is perhaps unequalled in any other reserve of equivalent size in the world, due to the convergence of the floras of North and South America and varied climatic and edaphic (soil-related) factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna is extremely diverse, with intermigrations from both North and South America. Signs of tapir, a species as yet unrecorded in Costa Rica, are abundant at Cerros Utyum, Kamuk and Fabrega near the Panamanian border. All Central American felines are found including puma, ocelot, jaguarundi, tiger cat and jaguar, as well as the Central American squirrel monkey and Geoffroy's spider monkey. A green and black high-altitude viper, that has rarely been seen or collected, is present. Resplendent quetzal is present in the park as are many other bird species, such as bare-necked umbrella bird, three-wattled bellbird, harpy eagle, crested eagle, solitary eagle and orange-breasted falcon. It has been suggested that no other park is the world possesses as many species and such a wealth of fauna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological sites are reported along all major watercourses, yet an almost total lack of archaeological investigation within the area makes objective analysis of the human history difficult. Less than 50&amp;nbsp;km away, near Baru Volcano in Chiriquo Panama, pre-ceramic sites have been discovered dating back more than 12,000 years. Such sites are extremely rare in Central America, but this discovery just a short distance away indicates the possibility of more finds of Central America's earliest human inhabitants in the area. Studies on the Pacific Slope of Costa Rica just a few kilometres from La Amistad-Talamanca International Park have revealed much about the area's pre-Columbian inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1990</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The location of this unique site in Central America, where Quaternary glaciers have left their mark, has allowed the fauna and flora of North and South America to interbreed. Tropical rainforests cover most of the area. Four different Indian tribes inhabit this property, which benefits from close co-operation between Costa Rica and Panama.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves / La Amistad National Park</site><states>Costa Rica,Panama</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>226</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1992</danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Strict nature reserve established by Order No. 4190 SE/F, 1943, in Cote d'Ivoire and by decree in 1944 in Guinea. Cote d'Ivoire nature reserve is a 'for&amp;ecirc;t class&amp;eacute;e' under national ownership. Contiguous nature reserve proposed in Liberian section. Guinean sector accepted as a biosphere reserve in 1980. Both reserves form a World Heritage site, gazetted in 1981 (Guinea) and 1982 (Cote d'Ivoire).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/155</http_url><id_number>155</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_155.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ci,gn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.6031800000</latitude><location>Région de Lola</location><longitude>-8.3909700000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1982</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the borders of Guinea, Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire, Mount Nimba rises above the surrounding savannah. Its slopes are covered by dense forest at the foot of grassy mountain pastures. They harbour an especially rich flora and fauna, with endemic species such as the viviparous toad and chimpanzees that use stones as tools.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve</site><states>Côte d'Ivoire,Guinea</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>173</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1533</http_url><id_number>1533</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1533.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr,it,me</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.7033333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.6636111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property consists of 6 components of defence works in Italy, Croatia and Montenegro, spanning more than 1,000 km between the Lombard region of Italy and the eastern Adriatic Coast. The fortifications throughout the &lt;em&gt;Stato da Terra &lt;/em&gt;protected the Republic of Venice from other European powers to the northwest and those of the &lt;em&gt;Stato da Mar &lt;/em&gt;protected the sea routes and ports in the Adriatic Sea to the Levant. They were necessary to support the expansion and authority of the &lt;em&gt;Serenissima&lt;/em&gt;. The introduction of gunpowder led to significant shifts in military techniques and architecture that are reflected in the design of so-called &lt;em&gt;alla moderna /&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt; &lt;/em&gt;bastioned, fortifications, which were to spread throughout Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries: &lt;em&gt;Stato da Terra&lt;/em&gt; – Western &lt;em&gt;Stato da Mar&lt;/em&gt;</site><states>Croatia,Italy,Montenegro</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2162</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1314</http_url><id_number>1314</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1314.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk,de,nl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>53.5286111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>8.5561111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2014</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Wadden Sea is the largest unbroken system of intertidal sand and mud flats in the world. The site covers the Dutch Wadden Sea Conservation Area, the German Wadden Sea National Parks of Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein, and most of the Danish Wadden Sea maritime conservation area. It is a large, temperate, relatively flat coastal wetland environment, formed by the intricate interactions between physical and biological factors that have given rise to a multitude of transitional habitats with tidal channels, sandy shoals, sea-grass meadows, mussel beds, sandbars, mudflats, salt marshes, estuaries, beaches and dunes. The area is home to numerous plant and animal species, including marine mammals such as the harbour seal, grey seal and harbour porpoise. Wadden Sea is one of the last remaining large-scale, intertidal ecosystems where natural processes continue to function largely undisturbed.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wadden Sea</site><states>Denmark,Germany,Netherlands</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1967</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/898</http_url><id_number>898</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_898.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fi,se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>63.3000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>21.3000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site lies within the specific area known as the 'High Coast' of Sweden, and is located on the west shore of the southern Gulf of Bothnia, a northern extension of the Baltic Sea. The High Coast is a mosaic of human and natural landscapes with agriculture, fishing and tourism as the main economic activities. It has a long history of human use dating from late Stone Age dwellings and remains of an Iron Age village.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Physically, the archipelago has irregular topography with a series of lakes, inlets and flat hills rising to 350&amp;nbsp;m. Vegetation is typical of the west Eurasian taiga with a mix of alpine, boreal forest and wetland communities. It displays marked altitudinal zonation and great spatial variability, with high floristic diversity, due to the complex pattern of soils and substrate on an uplifted, high-relief land surface. The offshore islets support small seabird populations. The main natural values of the High Coast are geological and relate to the glacial history of the area. Since the retreat of the last ice cap, 18,000-9600 BP, the land began to uplift. The geomorphology of the region is largely shaped by the combined processes of glaciation, glacial retreat and the emergence of new land from the sea which continues today at a rate of 0.9&amp;nbsp;m per century. In conclusion, the High Coast is one of many places in the world that is experiencing uplift as a result of deglaciation. Isostatic rebound is well illustrated and the distinctiveness of the site is the extent of the total isostatic uplift which, at 294&amp;nbsp;m, exceeds others. The geological, topographical and climatic conditions also combine to make the High Coast a distinctive vegetation boundary zone, with a rare blend of southern plants with northern boreal, western oceanic and eastern continental species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The High Coast contains large mammal species, such as bear, lynx and moose, which are widespread in Scandinavia. Whereas the coastal birdlife is typical of the region, the terrestrial birdlife is rich and varied due to the altitudinal range and topographic diversity which also provide habitats attractive to some rare birds of southern origin. Invertebrate fauna is not well known, although insects may be richer than elsewhere because of the floristic diversity. The biological character of the marine environment is a consequence of several major controlling influences such as: brackish waters of very low salinity; the most sharply contoured submarine topography in the Baltic, extending to depths in excess of 200&amp;nbsp;m close inshore; little tidal influence, with shifting water levels determined mainly by changing weather conditions of air pressure and wind; and seasonal ice cover. The resultant mosaic of shallow, sheltered embayment and deep, open waters provides a range of habitats for a mix of marine, brackish and freshwater species, low in species diversity but high in population numbers for some macrofauna species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The special feature of the marine realm, imparting the greatest scientific significance, represents the submarine extension of the topographical continuum of landscapes undergoing isostatic uplift.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Continual elevation of the land results in inlets becoming progressively cut off from the sea, transforming them into estuaries and ultimately lakes. The terrestrial influence progressively extends seawards into the Bothnian Sea. This process has major effects for the associated plants and animals that must constantly adapt to the changing environments. The whole creates a landscape of great scenic value and aesthetic appeal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological sites, some remarkably well preserved, reveal 7,000 years of human agrarian and maritime settlement in the High Coast, all confined by the steep topography into a narrow coastal strip of 2-3&amp;nbsp;km. Displacement of coastal settlements by isostatic land uplift has created a relict cultural landscape with evidence of different peoples at successive levels above the sea. The oldest remains, from the Stone Age of 5000 BC, now stand at 150&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, and corresponding Bronze Age and Iron Age are found, respectively, at 30&amp;nbsp;m and 15&amp;nbsp;m above the present shoreline. Adaptation of peoples to conditions created by land uplift means the geological history and cultural history are, thus, closely entwined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remarkable imprint of 7,000 years of human occupancy on a landscape experiencing the world's highest isostatic uplift is a significant cultural heritage asset, and one that is important to preserve for future generations. However, cultural landscapes and prehistoric remains are widespread throughout Scandinavia.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2006</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kvarken Archipelago (Finland) and the High Coast (Sweden) are situated in the Gulf of Bothnia, a northern extension of the Baltic Sea. The 5,600 islands of the Kvarken Archipelago feature unusual ridged washboard moraines, &amp;lsquo;De Geer moraines&amp;rsquo;, formed by the melting of the continental ice sheet, 10,000 to 24,000 years ago. The Archipelago is continuously rising from the sea in a process of rapid glacio-isostatic uplift, whereby the land, previously weighed down under the weight of a glacier, lifts at rates that are among the highest in the world. As a consequence islands appear and unite, peninsulas expand, and lakes evolve from bays and develop into marshes and peat fens. The High Coast has also been largely shaped by the combined processes of glaciation, glacial retreat and the emergence of new land from the sea. Since the last retreat of the ice from the High Coast 9,600 years ago, the uplift has been in the order of 285 m which is the highest known ''rebound''. The site affords outstanding opportunities for the understanding of the important processes that formed the glaciated and land uplift areas of the Earth''s surface.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>High Coast / Kvarken Archipelago</site><states>Finland,Sweden</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1050</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Humankind has contributed to the moulding of these landscapes and its traces are to be seen everywhere, thanks both to the material remains and to memory. Despite the difficult living conditions imposed by altitude, human beings are established here and provide what is above all a natural property with a meaning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mont-Perdu forms the pivot of a geographical space crowned by the Tres Serols, which is the centre of the world that unifies, according to traditional mythologies, the Heavens and the Earth. It results from the coming together of two ancient comments and continues to serve as a frontier which acts both to define and to link all together in a symbolical sense that is in itself impressive It is, moreover, clearly defined in physical terms, providing its soils with specific characteristics in terms of geology, relief. hydrology, and climate which have had direct effects on the relationship of humankind with this environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nature favoured the early appearance of humans in these regions, first as nomads and then as permanent settlers. Their settlements were organized so as to be able to make use of the resources of not only the valleys and their slopes but also of the high pastures, the woodland, the rock walls, the passes, the waters, and the mineral resources. There has been human settlement here since the Upper Palaeolithic period (40.000-10.000 BC), as shown by sites such as the A&amp;ntilde;iscio and Escuain caves, the Gavamie stone circles; and the Tella dolmen. The permanent settlements entered history in documents of the Middle Ages; they were situated on the slopes of the mad and in the valleys around it, formed by the hydrographic network of the rivers Ara, Yesa, Aso and Vellos, Yaga, Barrosa and Cinca, Neste d'Aure, Gaves de Gavamie, and H&amp;eacute;as.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Here are to be seen tracks and roads, bridges, houses, and hospices (such as the espitau/hospitales of Gavamie, Bujarelo, Aragnouet, Parzan, H&amp;eacute;as, and Pineta Humans and their flocks influenced the flora of pastures and woodland in many ways. The use of high pastures such as those of Gaulis or Ossoue is remarkable testimony to this system of transhumance&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The valleys of Mont Perdu and their passes have saved as the means of contact between communities on either side, who have more in common with one another than with the communities on the plains below them. As a result there is a long-established juridical and political system to regulate them that has long been independent of central governments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/773</http_url><id_number>773</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_773.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr,es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the site under natural &lt;em&gt;criteria (vii) and (viii)&lt;/em&gt;. The calcareous massif of the Mount Perdu displays classic geological land forms, including deep canyons and spectacular cirque walls. It is also an outstanding scenic landscape with meadows, lakes, caves and forests on mountain slopes. In addition, the area is of high interest to science and conservation. Concerning cultural values, the Committee inscribed the property on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (iii), (iv) and (v)&lt;/em&gt;: The Pyr&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;es-Mont Perdu area between France and Spain is an outstanding cultural landscape which combines scenic beauty with a socio-economic structure that has its roots in the past and illustrates a mountain way of life that has become rare in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.6854200000</latitude><location>France: Midi-Pyrénées Region, Hautes-Pyrénées Déparetment; 1999 Extension: Commune of Gèdre&lt;br&gt;&#xd;
Spain:Autonomous Community of Aragón, Province of Huesca, Communes of Torla, Fanlo, Tella-Sin, Puértolas, Bielsa, and Broto</location><longitude>-0.0005000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The transboundary site is centred on the peak of Mont Perdu that rises to 3,352&amp;nbsp;m in the Pyrenees mountains. The Pyrenees represent the tectonic collision point of the lberian and West European plates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most geologically outstanding portion of the Pyrenees is the calcareous massif centred on Mont Perdu. On the north (France) side the landscape is much more abrupt with three major cirques, while on the southern slopes (Spain) Mont Perdu (or Peridido) has three radiating spurs with deep canyons that gradually slope to the lberian Piedmont.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are also climatic differences between the northern and southern slopes. The French side is humid whereas the Spanish slopes are dryer. Climate also varies also from the west (maritime influence) to the east (coastal Mediterranean climate).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The location of the Pyrenees between two seas, their geological structure and the climatic asymmetries result in a rich mosaic of vegetation types. Five vegetation types have been described: sub-Mediterranean, collinean, montane, subalpine and alpine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a rich plant diversity (3,500 species and subspecies) and endemism (5%). The site supports many wildlife species typical of the Pyrenees. Mammals include the marmot and ungulates such as the Spanish ibex, of which there are only three female individuals. The insectivorous Pyrenean desman occurs in lowland elevation. The avifauna, reptiles, amphibious species and coleoptera are very rich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are human settlements in the area since the Palaeolithic (40,000-10,000 BC), as shown by sites such as the Anisclo and Escuain caves, the Gavarnie stone circles and the Tella dolmen. The permanent settlements entered history in documents of the Middle Ages. The massif has played a major role in the communication between Spanish and French communities bordering the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several thousand years of human settlement has caused many changes to the natural environment of the site. Many large predators and carnivore species have been extirpated or severely reduced in number. In recent time some species have been reintroduced such as the marmot. The original forest has been removed by cutting or burning although it is now recovering. There has been extensive livestock grazing over much of the area although this is no longer permitted in the Ordessa National Park. The centuries-old transhumant system of grazing continues within the area, with frequent movement of herds across the French-Spanish border. One historic route accessible on foot connects the two sides and was a branch of the original route of Santiago de Compostela.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1999</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This outstanding mountain landscape, which spans the contemporary national borders of France and Spain, is centred around the peak of Mount Perdu, a calcareous massif that rises to 3,352 m. The site, with a total area of 30,639 ha, includes two of Europe's largest and deepest canyons on the Spanish side and three major cirque walls on the more abrupt northern slopes with France, classic presentations of these geological landforms. The site is also a pastoral landscape reflecting an agricultural way of life that was once widespread in the upland regions of Europe but now survives only in this part of the Pyr&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;es. Thus it provides exceptional insights into past European society through its landscape of villages, farms, fields, upland pastures and mountain roads.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pyrénées - Mont Perdu</site><states>France,Spain</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>915</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Although the stone circles have been the subject of research over the past 100 years, and several parts of the nominated site have been excavated, more could be elucidated about the megalithic zone as a whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Material from excavations suggests that the burials took place mainly during the first and early second millennia AD. However the relationship between the burial mounds and the stone circles has yet to be fully ascertained. It is not clear whether the burials pre-date the circles, whether they are contemporary or whether perhaps the circles pre-date the burials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The excavations by Tholmans et al were published in 1980 and those by Galley et al in 1982. Excavations were restarted by Lawson in the Gambia in 2002 and by Hall and Bocoum in 2001-2004 in Senegal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the quarry sites have been identified, although none are in the nominated area. However only a very small proportion of the megaliths can be traced to a source.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The burials that have been excavated appear to reveal a less ordered regime. They show mass burials with bodies thrown haphazardly into graves, suggesting either an epidemic or some sort of sacrifice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Manding people who currently live in much of the megalithic zone seemed to have moved into the area in the 16th century, after the construction of the megaliths, and so do not appear to be related to the megalith builders.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1226</http_url><id_number>1226</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1226.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gm,sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.6911111111</latitude><location>Central  River Division - Gambia, Kaolack Region - Senegal</location><longitude>-15.5225000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site consists of four large groups of stone circles that represent an extraordinary concentration of over 1,000 monuments in a band 100 km wide along some 350 km of the River Gambia. The four groups, Sine Ngay&amp;egrave;ne, Wanar, Wassu and Kerbatch, cover 93 stone circles and numerous tumuli, burial mounds, some of which have been excavated to reveal material that suggest dates between 3rd century BC and 16th century AD. Together the stone circles of laterite pillars and their associated burial mounds present a vast sacred landscape created over more than 1,500 years. It reflects a prosperous, highly organized and lasting society.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stone Circles of Senegambia</site><states>Gambia (the),Senegal</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1403</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Price Puckler inherited his family seat in 1811. Inspired by travels to England, he quickly began transforming the ancient estate into an expansive landscape park. The symbolic beginning of his creation was the publication of a letter to the inhabitants of Muskau in 1815 informing them of his intentions and inviting them to sell their land to him. By 1817, he had acquired about 5000 morgs, some 10ha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Puckler's first interventions were to raze the Castle's fortifications and moats. He then began constructing an artificial watercourse through the Castle Park, which was expanded into the Castle Lake and completed in 1819. Over the next five years he remodelled the Castle, turned the malt-house and Orangey into a greenhouse, built two bridges, a Gothic chapel and an English-style cottage. The construction of the Spa Park followed in 1823, and was completed by 1840. The smaller bridges across the river were built in 1826. After 1829, Puckler begun the transformation of Upper Mountain Park landscape and created a greenhouse at Castle Farm. Finally in 1844 the Orangery was created out of the former brewery - just a year before Puckler was forced to sell the estate for financial reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The estate was purchased by Wilhelm Friedrich Carl Prince of the Netherlands and he took on Puckler's student Eduard Petzold to manage the park. Petzold continued Puckler's vision and in particular realised the concept of embracing the town by the park. He constructed many paths, further bridges, the Arboretum and the Lower Mountain Park, (in the proposed Buffer Zone).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1878 Petzold resigned and the 1883 the park was sold to Traugott Hermann Count von Armin. Until World War II various modernising works were carried out, but the structure of the park was hardly changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;World War II was a radical turning point for the park. It was the site of the last decisive battle of the war. Two thirds of the town buildings were destroyed as well as the two Castles and all the bridges. After the war the River Neisse became the border between Germany and Poland. The subsequent conservation history of the park is detailed below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1127</http_url><id_number>1127</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1127.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de,pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; Muskauer Park is an exceptional example of a European landscape park that broke new ground in terms of development towards an ideal made-made landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Muskauer Park was the forerunner for new approaches to landscape design in cities, and influenced the development of &amp;lsquo;landscape architecture&amp;rsquo; as a discipline.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.5793055600</latitude><location></location><longitude>14.7264444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Muskauer Park was the forerunner for new approaches to landscape design in cities, and influenced the development of landscape architecture as a discipline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is the core zone of an extensive landscape park laid out by a leading European personality of the mid-19th century, Prince Hermann von P&amp;uuml;ckler-Muskau, around the New Castle of Muskauer on either side of the River Neisse, the border between Poland and Germany. The entire park extended around the town of Muskau and out into the surrounding farmed landscape. The area covers a total of 559.90&amp;nbsp;ha. Of this, 348&amp;nbsp;ha are within Poland and 211.90&amp;nbsp;ha within Germany. The park forms the starting point for an entirely different approach to the relationship between man and landscape. The design does not evoke classical landscapes or paradise, or provide enlightenment to some lost perfection, instead it is 'painting with plants', enhancing the inherent qualities of the existing landscape through embellishing its structures with trees, meadow and watercourses, to allow the landscape to merge with nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;P&amp;uuml;ckler created an integrated landscape framework, extending into the town of Muskau. Green passages formed urban parks framing the areas for development, and the town becoming a design component in a utopian landscape. The structure of the Muskauer Park is focused on the New Castle, reconstructed by P&amp;uuml;ckler in the 1860s, according to the designs of the Prussian architect, Schinkel. A network of paths radiates out from the castle. Along them are 'culminating points' in the topography which create ideal viewpoints, each part of an intricately constructed network of wider interrelated views. The elements P&amp;uuml;ckler used were a combination of built and natural: bridges, watercourses, paths, ornamental buildings, woods, arboreta, scattered trees and the inherent geology of terraces, crags and the valley of the River Neisse. He wove all these into a visual picture of the highest aesthetic quality and one characterised by extraordinary simplicity and expansiveness. The landscape thus has a structure that can be appreciated for its aesthetic qualities. It also has strong intangible values - for the place it holds in the evolution of landscape design, and for its influence on what followed. The nominated site consists of a landscape conceived as a whole but which nevertheless can be perceived in several parts:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prince P&amp;uuml;ckler inherited his family seat in 1811. Inspired by travels to England, he quickly began transforming the ancient estate into an expansive landscape park. P&amp;uuml;ckler 's first interventions were to raze the castle's fortifications and moats. He then began constructing an artificial watercourse through the Castle Park, which was expanded into the Castle Lake and completed in 1819. Over the next five years he remodelled the castle, turned the malt-house and orangery into a greenhouse, built two bridges, a Gothic chapel and an English-style cottage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the Spa Park followed in 1823, and was completed by 1840. The smaller bridges across the river were built in 1826. After 1829, P&amp;uuml;ckler begun the transformation of Upper Mountain Park landscape and created a greenhouse at Castle Farm. Finally in 1844 the orangery was created out of the former brewery - just a year before P&amp;uuml;ckler was forced to sell the estate for financial reasons. Petzold continued P&amp;uuml;ckler's vision and in particular realized the concept of embracing the town by the park. He constructed many paths, further bridges, the Arboretum and the Lower Mountain Park, the Second World War was a radical turning point for the park. It was the site of the last decisive battle of the war. Two-thirds of the town buildings were destroyed as well as the two castles and all the bridges. After the war the Neisse became the border between Germany and Poland.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A landscaped park of 559.9 ha astride the Neisse River and the border between Poland and Germany, it was created by Prince Hermann von Puckler-Muskau from 1815 to 1844. Blending seamlessly with the surrounding farmed landscape, the park pioneered new approaches to landscape design and influenced the development of landscape architecture in Europe and America. Designed as a &amp;lsquo;painting with plants&amp;rsquo;, it did not seek to evoke classical landscapes, paradise, or some lost perfection, instead using local plants to enhance the inherent qualities of the existing landscape. This integrated landscape extends into the town of Muskau with green passages that formed urban parks framing areas for development. The town thus became a design component in a utopian landscape. The site also features a reconstructed castle, bridges and an arboretum.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Muskauer Park / Park Mużakowski</site><states>Germany,Poland</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1307</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Germany &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At its height the Roman Empire extended into three continents. Its borders reflected the waxing and waning of power over more than a millennia. In what is now Germany there were several military campaigns into the area north of the Alps and east of the River Rhine from 55/53 BC to 15-16 AD, but the area was not brought under direct control until around 85 AD when the oldest part of the Limes was created between the River Rhine and the high Taunus Mountains. This frontier followed the contours of the landscape. Later the courses defined were much straighter and the first forts established. Similarly in the area of the Raetian Limes the border was secured first under Emperor Claudius (41-54 AD), probably moved north across the river under the Emperor Domitian, and then under Emperor Trajan forts were established.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The early Limes barrier seems to have been a cleared stretch of forest monitored by wooden towers. Under the Emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD) the Limes was additionally secured with a palisade fence. In the 2nd century AD the Limes was in part straightened, and also strengthened with embankments or stone walls and numerous forts, and fortlets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nomination acknowledges that the chronology of the creation and expansion of the Limes is under researched and more work needs to be done to establish firm dates and sequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Upper German-Raetian Limes was given up during the second half of the 3rd century AD, probably abut 260AD. After the end of Roman rule, many Romanised Celtic- German peoples moved away from territory within the Limes and other new Germanic settlers moved in. Although the walls survived for many centuries as an impressive landmark, gradually facts about its rationale and use were replaced by myths and legends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;re-discovery&amp;quot; of the Upper German Raetian Limes was linked to 19th interest in humanistic research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A central institution for the research of the Upper German- Raetian Limes, called &amp;quot;Reichs Limeskomision&amp;quot;, was founded in 1892 and chaired by the Noble Prize winner for literature, Theodor Mommsen. The work of this commission relied heavily on previous research by the Kingdom of Wurttemberg, the Grand Duchess of Baden and Hessen and the Kingdom of Bavaria. Other earlier research was carried out by different associations concerned with the study of Roman remains, such as the Commission for the research of the Imperial Roman Limes, active in the first half of the 19th century, or by individuals like Wilhelm Conrady from Hanau, Friedrich Kofler from Hesse, and Friedrich Ohlenschlager and Karl Popp from Bavaria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last of the 14 volumes of the research of the Limes, carried out by the Imperial Commission, was published in 1937. More than 90 forts and some 1000 watchtowers, as well as all line segments, were identified and recorded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only after World War II and the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany, was new impetus given to the research of the Limes. Open questions and new issues were addressed from 1959 on, by the Roman Germanic Commission, providing continuous publication of results, with the series &amp;quot;Limesforschungen&amp;quot;. Increasingly not just military issues were addressed, but also other topics such as the civilian settlements and relationships with border provinces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 1950s and 1960s development boom caused the loss of many of the sites and elements of the Limes, while at the same time contributed considerably to the knowledge and research. New research techniques as well as air photography helped in the completion of the picture of the extent and characteristics of the Roman Limes in Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;United Kingdom &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 2nd century BC, Rome began its territorial expansion beyond the Alps, towards Gaul and Germania. Caesar was the first Roman general to cross the English Channel and to stay temporarily in the south-east of present-day England (55-54 BC). Several of his successors planned to settle the lands across the English Channel, but did not succeed in their aims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was Claudius who succeeded in conquering Britannia. The process started in 43 AD, but it took a few decades until Roman power was stabilised. Though Agricola fought successfully against the Caledonians in Scotland, in 85 AD the offensive was halted and one legion together with some auxiliary forces were ordered to the Danube. After withdrawing the troops the boundary was fixed in the line of the road called Stanegate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite repeated offensives, Rome did not succeed in occupying the northern part of Britain. Hadrian had the first massive wall built as the limes, the most impressive Roman defence line ever built. The stone wall was built slightly north of the Tyne-Solway line in the 3rd and 4th decades of the 2nd century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The next emperor, Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD) decided to move the frontiers to the line of the Firth of Forth and Firth of Clyde. The new wall was built in the years after 142 AD. It was occupied for a generation but abandoned in the 160s AD. The withdrawal decision may have been made as early as 158 AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new limes similar to the Antonine Wall was later ordered to be built by Antoninus in Germania. Both can be interpreted as occupying new territories and as a shortening of the length of the defence line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During its existence of less than two decades a high, stone-based turf wall, a row of fortifications and fortlets were built. The Antonine Wall created a frontier line of the Roman Empire. Its primary tasks were to prevent any infiltration or invasion of the northern tribes into the province Britannia and, like other sections of the Roman frontiers, to enhance economic and social connections with people outside of the empire. It may be assumed that at certain places there was controlled traffic in and out of the province.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Antonine Wall was the last built linear barrier of the Roman Empire. After its abandonment Roman troops only continued to occupy certain posts north of Hadrian's Wall, but none on the Antonine Wall. The last effort to reoccupy the region was made by Septimius Severus (193-211 AD), but as he died during the campaign this aim was given up forever. The empire lost its strength in the middle of the third century, but then became stronger again, and survived until the second half of the 5th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over its history, after its abandonment by the Roman troops in the 160s AD, the wall quickly fell victim to natural deterioration, beginning with the many wooden parts. The forts built of masonry were used as sources of stone by local populations, while the wall and its ditch were undermined and destroyed as needs dictated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Middle Ages much of the stone material of the forts was used to construct farm houses and other buildings, and the agricultural revolution seriously affected the earthen remains by intensive ploughing. In the 19th century, intensified coal mining left its marks on the nominated site and its buffer zone. Industrial activity considerably increased the population in the region, and more settlements extended their territory towards or over the Wall, except where the Wall ran through estates such as Callendar House and Bantaskine House. Building continued and housing from the 1960s occupies most of the area between the forts of Bearsden and Castlehill. Due to the increasing activity in quarries some remains of the Wall have been damaged and an entire fort (Cadder) vanished as a result of excavation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Antonine Wall was mentioned first by the Venerable Bede (c. 730), but it is not sure whether he actually saw it. The first representation of the Antonine Wall was drawn in the 13th century on Matthew Paris' map of Britain. In 1755 William Roy drew the wall with its Military Way from one end to the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are references to the Wall at various historical periods, and its old name of Grymisdyke and Grahamsdyke has survived up to the 21st century. The first inscription of Lollius Urbicus, Antoninus Pius's governor at the time of the construction of the Wall, was found in 1699, which provided a key to the explanation of the origin of the earthwork. The first detailed descriptions of the Wall go back to the 18th century, and archaeological investigations to the 19th century. The most comprehensive publication on the Antonine Wall was the monograph of Sir George Macdonald in the first half of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the Second World War intensive investigations have been carried out using aerial archaeology. New papers and monographs have given an account of these investigations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/430</http_url><id_number>430</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_430.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de,gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.9926111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>-2.6010000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005,2008</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ‘Roman Limes’ represents the border line of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in the 2nd century AD. It stretched over 5,000 km from the Atlantic coast of northern Britain, through Europe to the Black Sea, and from there to the Red Sea and across North Africa to the Atlantic coast. The remains of the Limes today consist of vestiges of built walls, ditches, forts, fortresses, watchtowers and civilian settlements. Certain elements of the line have been excavated, some reconstructed and a few destroyed. The two sections of the Limes in Germany cover a length of 550 km from the north-west of the country to the Danube in the south-east. The 118-km-long Hadrian’s Wall (UK) was built on the orders of the Emperor Hadrian c. AD 122 at the northernmost limits of the Roman province of Britannia. It is a striking example of the organization of a military zone and illustrates the defensive techniques and geopolitical strategies of ancient Rome. The Antonine Wall, a 60-km long fortification in Scotland was started by Emperor Antonius Pius in 142 AD as a defense against the “barbarians” of the north. It constitutes the northwestern-most portion of the Roman Limes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Frontiers of the Roman Empire</site><states>Germany,United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1539</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/91</http_url><id_number>91</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_91.jpg</image_url><iso_code>va,it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.8902222200</latitude><location>Province of Roma, Lazio region (IT) / Vatican City State (VA)&#xd;
</location><longitude>12.4923055600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The extraterritorial properties of the Holy See that make up this World Heritage site comprise a series of unique artistic achievements - Santa Maria Maggiore, St John Lateran and St Paul Outside the Walls. These properties exerted considerable influence on the development of architecture and monumental arts throughout the centuries in a large part of the Christian world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lateran Treaty concluded in 1929 between Italy and the Holy See established that a number of properties termed 'extraterritorial' and situated on Italian soil remained the exclusive property of the Holy See. In addition to the three great churches, there are several remarkable palaces: the Cancelleria (1483-1517), the Palazzo Maffei, the Palazzo di San Callisto and lastly, the Palazzo di Propaganda Fide, renovated by Bernini and Borromini.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore is one of the four greater basilicas of Rome, of greatest artistic importance, religious and urban planning. In papal Rome it became one of the fulcrums of the urban plan of Sixtus V. The basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, with its typical bell tower and the cupolas, is a characteristic element of the Roman scene. Characteristic of the basilica is the quality and the abundance of the mosaics: those of the nave (36 panels) and those of the arch dated back to the 5th century, while those of the apse have been finished in 1295. The beautiful rear facade, the work of Carl Rainaldi (1673), is one of the most solemn realizations of the Baroque architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Giovanni in Laterano was the first cathedral of Rome, where Emperor Constantine allowed the pope to set up the episcopal chair after 312. Popes lived in the Lateran Palace until Clement V (1305-14) transferred the papal seat to Avignon. The present name is a result of the importance of the baptistry in the church, and of the presence of a Benedictine monastery dedicated to saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist. It had five naves; the exterior was simple, but the interior was lavishly decorated. The first major restoration was ordered by Pope Saint Sergius (687-701). Pope Sergius III (904-11) had the basilica completely rebuilt because of the earthquake damage. The old foundations were used, and it was built within the old perimeter. It was after this rebuilding that it was formally dedicated to St John the Baptist. The additional dedication to St John the Evangelist was made by Pope Lucius II (1144-45). In 1646, the basilica was in danger of collapsing. Pope Innocent X gave the task of restoring it to Borromini, in preparation for the Holy Year of 1650. It was during Borromini's restoration that the church was given its Baroque appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Paolo fuori le Mura is one of the four patriarchal basilicas of Rome built at the request of Constantine in 314 and later enlarged. In 1823, after being almost completely destroyed by fire, it was rebuilt by the architect Poletti and finished in 1854. The interior of the current basilica has 80 monolithic columns of Montorfano granite divided into five naves. On the upper part of the walls closed by slabs of Egyptian alabaster between big windows there are 36 frescoes with the scenes from the life of St Paul. Underneath the wall the frieze extends to the entire medium aisle. Against the internal wall of the facade there are six large alabaster columns presented by the Viceroy of Egypt to Gregory XVI.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1990</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded, according to legend, by Romulus and Remus in 753 BC, Rome was first the centre of the Roman Republic, then of the Roman Empire, and it became the capital of the Christian world in the 4th century. The World Heritage site, extended in 1990 to the walls of Urban VIII, includes some of the major monuments of antiquity such as the Forums, the Mausoleum of Augustus, the Mausoleum of Hadrian, the Pantheon, Trajan’s Column and the Column of Marcus Aurelius, as well as the religious and public buildings of papal Rome.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura</site><states>Holy See,Italy</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2114</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/725</http_url><id_number>725</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_725.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu,sk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.4757300000</latitude><location>Districts of Rožnava and Spišská  Nová Ves, Region of Košice (SK)</location><longitude>20.4868700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst lie over a total area of 55,800&amp;nbsp;ha and topographically comprise limestone plateaus dissected by deep river valleys. The territory is characterized by a fully developed karst landscape, of which dolines are the most typical surface landform. These have developed through solution and are, on average, 100&amp;nbsp;m wide and 20&amp;nbsp;m deep. Other surface phenomena include sinkholes and karren fields. This is the most extensively explored karst area in Europe, and a total of 712 caves have so far been identified. Many of the younger caves which have formed at the plateau edges, such as Krasnchorska and Gombasecka, occur on several levels and contain dripstone decorations. The most notable of these is the Baradla-Domica cave system which is 21&amp;nbsp;km long and connects Hungary with Slovakia. These caves are also noted for having the world's highest stalagmite, aragonite and sinter formations and an ice filled abyss, which considering the territory's height above sea level, is a unique phenomenon for central Europe. All these karst landforms are the result of long-term geomorphologic processes typical of this temperate climatic zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hydrological conditions are characterized by a lack of surface streams, except between mountain basins, and the complex circulation of underground water. The flora is representative of both Pannonian and Carpathian elements. A unique biotope arises where two floral sectors overlap, and consequently many rare endemics can be found throughout the territory. Approximately 70% of the territory consists of deciduous woodland dominated by hornbeam and oak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna includes wolf, lynx, red deer, roe deer, wild boar, wild cat and badger. Nesting bird species include: rock bunting, black stork, corncrake, imperial eagle, dipper, Ural owl, saker falcon, short-toed eagle, honey buzzard. Of particular scientific interest are the cave and subterranean water fauna. Beetles and other insects are abundant. Cave worms are often found in sand and clay deposits whereas molluscs are associated with underground streams, and crustaceans occur including an endemic species of primitive carb. A total of 21 bat species have been identified in the Slovak Karst.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The caves themselves are of moderate extent and are not as long, deep or decorated as are other world caves. A significant aspect of the area is that it has undergone a great deal of fossilization and later exhumation of landscape features and subsurface groundwater routes. In other words, many karst features, after having formed, were buried by later sediment and then later reactivated or exhumed by erosional removal of the sediment. The resulting karst features contain a great deal of evidence pertaining to the geological history of the last several millions of years. The present karst landscape has been developing intermittently since the late Cretaceous period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is one sizeable settlement (Silica) and two hamlets within the Slovak protected area and two villages (Aggtelek and Josvaf with approximately 1,100 inhabitants) inside the Aggtelek National Park's boundaries. There is a serious pollution problem which is contaminating cave waters and threatening the park's ecosystem. This arises from the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers in the surrounding areas and from tourist's vehicles and nearby industry.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2000</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The variety of formations and the fact that they are concentrated in a restricted area means that the 712 caves currently identified make up a typical temperate-zone karstic system. Because they display an extremely rare combination of tropical and glacial climatic effects, they make it possible to study geological history over tens of millions of years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst</site><states>Hungary,Slovakia</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1624</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Human settlement in this region of the Alps certainly dates back to the Neolithic period. The Bronze Age was an important settlement stage, and was linked to the presence of mines. Communities were then present in the Upper Engadin. Transalpine routes existed for commercial exchanges, which continued in the Iron Age, between the Etruscans and the Celts, and then after the Roman conquest (15 BCE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Middle Ages, the transalpine route was an important element of identity for mountain-dwelling communities, who participated in transport across the passes and who were in charge of maintenance, in return for toll charges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 15th and early 16th centuries, the control of the future Canton Graub&amp;uuml;nden (Dre&amp;iuml; Buden) extended over the two passes of Albula and Bernina, particularly from the Veltin valley to the south-east of the Bernina pass. However, the Albula/Bernina route was not one of the main Roman roads, and it is first mentioned in the High Middle Ages, in connection with the mines. Other transalpine routes then existed to link the Upper Engadin to the lower valleys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Albula/Bernina road did not really exist until the 16th century, in connection with the French post, to maintain a safe route between Paris and Venice. The construction of roads across the Alps, in the modern sense of carriageway with even slopes and crossings made safe by engineering works, appeared at the start of the 19th century, subsequent to the Italian campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte, including in particular the Saint- Bernard pass in Switzerland (completed in 1820). The Bernina pass road was completed in 1842 and the Albula pass road in 1866. A veritable staging post was built in 1871 (Ospizia Bernina).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first hotel was built at Saint-Moritz in 1857 and in the same year another at Lake Poschiavo, directly linked to the road. Summer tourism then developed, providing new leisure activities for the aristocracy and the upper middle class, particularly under the influence of the British elites. There were four "Grand Hotels" at Saint- Moritz in 1900. The necessity of increased and more regular transport services, particularly in winter, became a prerequisite for the economic future of the mountaindwellers and the development of a promising tourism activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The creation of a steam traction branch line to connect the metre-gauge network already existing in the Canton Graub&amp;uuml;nden in the Upper Engadin was considered during the 1890s, departing from Thusis via a tunnel under the Albula pass. Significant economic and cultural stakes were involved, for the future of this mountainous region and for the cultural and linguistic cohesion of the Canton Graub&amp;uuml;nden. The construction of the railway began in 1898, and it was opened in 1904, under the responsibility of the Rhaetian Railway, under the control of the canton. The upper valleys were then linked to each other by a veritable regional metre-gauge network, of which the nominated property forms the most spectacular part. It joins up with the canton capital Chur, where it is connected to the general standard-gauge Swiss railway network.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rapidly growing levels of traffic were initially handled by steam traction, particular thanks to the excellent mountain steam engines of the world-renowned Swiss manufacturer Anatole Mallet. The efficiency of electric traction had however demonstrated its value in the mountains by 1900-1910, in both Switzerland and elsewhere. A single-phase AC electrification programme was drawn up for the Albula line in 1913, and was implemented in 1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bernina pass railway was planned slightly later than the Albula pass line, but it is based on different technical conceptions (see Description of Property) and it was built by another company. They use the same gauge, but the power cars and the trains were not compatible at the time: DC for one and steam followed by AC for the other, while radii of curvature and vehicle gauge are smaller on the Bernina line.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a result of the economic difficulties resulting from World War Two, the Bernina line came under the control of Rhaetian Railway in 1944. The DC power supply was then raised from 750V to 1000V; the gauge was widened; then, recently, power cars and trains capable of operating on both electrical systems were introduced, belatedly bestowing a genuinely transalpine function on the two historic lines. Further gauge widening is under way, resulting in changes to engineering structures (See Section 3 - Authenticity).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The opening of the railway lines accompanied and supported a remarkable increase in tourist activity, particularly in the development of winter sports, of which Saint-Moritz may be considered one of the great founding sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A second hotel boom took place in the period preceding World War One.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remarkable role played by the region of Saint-Moritz in the creation and development of winter sports was recognised when the first Winter Olympic games were held there in 1928, and subsequently in 1948.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1276</http_url><id_number>1276</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1276.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it,ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.4983333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.8463888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes, brings together two historic railway lines that cross the Swiss Alps through two passes. Opened in 1904, the Albula line in the north western part of the property is 67 km long. It features an impressive set of structures including 42 tunnels and covered galleries and 144 viaducts and bridges. The 61 km Bernina pass line features 13 tunnels and galleries and 52 viaducts and bridges. The property is exemplary of the use of the railway to overcome the isolation of settlements in the Central Alps early in the 20th century, with a major and lasting socio-economic impact on life in the mountains. It constitutes an outstanding technical, architectural and environmental ensemble and embodies architectural and civil engineering achievements, in harmony with the landscapes through which they pass.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes</site><states>Italy,Switzerland</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1503</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1090</http_url><id_number>1090</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1090.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it,ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.8888888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>8.9138888889</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Monte San Giorgio is a pyramid-shaped, wooded mountain, which lies south of Lake Lugano in Ticino Canton. The site contains internationally important fossil remains from the Middle Triassic period. San Giorgio lies within an area identified as a Landscape Protection Zone under Swiss law.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mid Triassic rock succession rests on older, Permian volcanic rocks exposed on the north face of Monte San Giorgio. The Mid Triassic sequence consists of approximately 1,000 m of reef limestones, dolomites and bituminous shales which formed in marine conditions on the margins of the Triassic 'Tethys' Ocean. The exceptional fossil interest within the sequence arises because of the presence of five distinct, fossiliferous formations, the 'Grenzbitumenzone', the Cava Inferiore, Cava Superiore, Cassina Beds and the 'Kalkschieferzone'. The sequence records life in a tropical lagoon environment, sheltered and partially separated from the open sea by an offshore reef. A diversity of marine life flourished within this lagoon, including reptiles, fish, bivalves, ammonites, echinoderms and crustaceans. A stagnant and undisturbed seabed provided ideal conditions for the preservation of these animals, when they died and fell to the sea floor. Today, fossils are abundant and exceptionally detailed. Because the lagoon was near to land, the fossil remains also include some land-based fossils including reptiles, insects and plants. The fossiliferous rock succession is exposed in Switzerland on Monte San Giorgio as well as in the immediately adjacent area of Italy, in the area around Besano. Fossils from the mountain have been known to science for over 150 years. The vertebrate material includes particularly spectacular specimens, including large, articulated skeletons up to 6 m in length. Complete skeletons include ichthyosaurs, nothosaurs, placodonts, and the remarkable 'giraffe-necked' saurian, &lt;em&gt;Tanystropheus&lt;/em&gt;. The land-based fauna is more restricted, but includes a significant and unique complete skeleton of the archosaur, &lt;em&gt;Ticinosuchus&lt;/em&gt;, the first complete skeleton from this group to be discovered in the northern hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although it is primarily of geological significance, Monte San Giorgio also displays other natural values, as well as cultural links between the geology and the life of the local community. Noteworthy features include dry meadows on limestone subsoils that are home to plant populations not found elsewhere in Switzerland or in the entire southern Alpine zone of Italy. The site is rich in fungi and has 37 of the modern vertebrate species on the national Red List, 21 of which are protected under the Berne Convention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Monte San Giorgio is unique in the world as the best single fossil record of Triassic marine life. The strict, systematic and continuous scientific research that has been carried out for over 75 years in Switzerland and Italy, almost exclusively by the universities of Zurich and Milan, have resulted in a remarkably complete and coordinated record of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is in the ownership of three different local communes. Around 10% is cultivated, privately owned land, mostly near Meride and Riva San Vitale. The presence of five distinct fossiliferous levels provides the opportunity for comparative and evolutionary studies through time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other significant Triassic fossil sites of equivalent international importance provide evidence of terrestrial, rather than marine life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The quantity and quality of fossil biota enables interpretation of species evolution, palaeo-environments and land-forming processes that existed 200 million years ago. The site provides a record of marine life during a critical period in vertebrate evolution on Earth, and has an importance that extends beyond representation of life in the Triassic 'Tethys' Ocean, to provide a global reference point for comparative studies of evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The pyramid-shaped, wooded mountain of Monte San Giorgio beside Lake Lugano is regarded as the best fossil record of marine life from the Triassic Period (245–230 million years ago). The sequence records life in a tropical lagoon environment, sheltered and partially separated from the open sea by an offshore reef. Diverse marine life flourished within this lagoon, including reptiles, fish, bivalves, ammonites, echinoderms and crustaceans. Because the lagoon was near land, the remains also include land-based fossils of reptiles, insects and plants, resulting in an extremely rich source of fossils.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monte San Giorgio</site><states>Italy,Switzerland</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1643</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1490</http_url><id_number>1490</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1490.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kz,kg,uz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>0E-10</latitude><location></location><longitude>0E-10</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The transnational property is located in the Tien-Shan mountain system, one of the largest mountain ranges in the world. Western Tien-Shan ranges in altitude from 700 to 4,503 m. It features diverse landscapes, which are home to exceptionally rich biodiversity. It is of global importance as a centre of origin for a number of cultivated fruit crops and is home to a great diversity of forest types and unique plant community associations. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Western Tien-Shan</site><states>Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Uzbekistan</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2079</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/985</http_url><id_number>985</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_985.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ls,za</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-29.7652777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>29.1230555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2013</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Maloti-Drakensberg Park is a transboundary site composed of the uKhahlamba Drakensberg National Park in South Africa and the Sehlathebe National Park in Lesotho. The site has exceptional natural beauty in its soaring basaltic buttresses, incisive dramatic cutbacks, and golden sandstone ramparts as well as visually spectacular sculptured arches, caves, cliffs, pillars and rock pools. The site's diversity of habitats protects a high level of endemic and globally important plants. The site harbors endangered species such as the Cape vulture (Gyps coprotheres) and the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus). Lesotho’s Sehlabathebe National Park also harbors the Maloti minnow (Pseudobarbus quathlambae), a critically endangered fish species only found in this park. This spectacular natural site contains many caves and rock-shelters with the largest and most concentrated group of paintings in Africa south of the Sahara. They represent the spiritual life of the San people, who lived in this area over a period of 4,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Maloti-Drakensberg Park</site><states>Lesotho,South Africa</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1885</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Formation of the Curonian Spit began some 5000 years ago. Despite the continual shifting of its sand dunes, Mesolithic people whose main source of food was from the sea settled there in the 4th millennium BCE, working bone and stone brought from the mainland. In the 1st millennium CE West Baltic tribes (Curonians and Prussians) established seasonal settlements there, to collect stores of fish, and perhaps also for ritual purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The temperature increase in Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries resulted in a rise of sea level and the creation of the Brockist strait at the base of the Spit. This provided the basis for the establishment of the pagan trading centre of Kaup, which flourished between c 800 and 1016. This is unique in being the last unexcavated large proto-urban settlement of the Viking period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The invasion of Prussia by the Teutonic Knights in the 13th century marked a major change in the historical development of the Spit. They were gradually driven out, but armed conflict continued in the region up to the 15th century. The Spit had great strategic importance, and in consequence the Knights built castles at Memel (1252), Noihauz (1283), and Rossitten (1372). They also settled German farmers around the castles, building roads and clearing woodland for agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The influence of the Knights ended with the peace treaty signed with Lithuania in 1422. Groups of Baltic peoples set up settlements on the Spit and the population increased. However, since their main activities were fishing and beekeeping, this had little impact on the natural environment of the Spit. The early 16th century witnessed the economic and political rise of Prussia, accompanied by intensive industrialization. Industries such as glassmaking, shipbuilding, and salt and metal production required large amounts of wood, charcoal, and potash, all of which could be obtained easily and cheaply on the Spit. Most of the woodland was felled to meet this demand. Loss of tree cover resulted in degradation of the vegetation and exposed the underlying sand to wind erosion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century a new process of dune formation began and settlements became buried in sand. By the early 19th century woodland only survived in a few places on the Spit, which took on the topography that has survived to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Large sums were made available by the Prussian State Land Management from the beginning of the 19th century to prevent further destabilization of the Spit. The works took the form of the construction of a protective bank of sand to prevent further ingress of dunes (a process that took most of the century) and the stabilization of dunes by means of brushwood hurdles, accompanied by reforestation. By the end of the 19th century nearly half of the Spit had been converted to woodland thanks to these works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The battles of January 1945 saw considerable destruction of the woodland cover from fire, bombing, and the movement of heavy vehicles. Restoration work began after World War II and has continued with success, despite some serious incursions from the sea; nowadays woodland covers more than 71% of the surface area of the Spit.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/994</http_url><id_number>994</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_994.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lt,ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Curonian Spit is an outstanding example of a landscape of sand dunes that is under constant threat from natural forces (wind and tide). After disastrous human interventions that menaced its survival the Spit was reclaimed by massive protection and stabilization works begun in the 19th century and still continuing to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>55.2745800000</latitude><location>Klaipeda Region, Neringa and Klaipeda (Lithuania);&#xd;
&#xd;
 Kaliningrad Region, Zelenogradsk District (Russian&#xd;
&#xd;
Federation)</location><longitude>20.9623900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Curonian Spit is an outstanding example of a landscape of sand dunes that is under constant threat from natural forces (wind and tide). After disastrous human interventions that menaced its survival, the Spit was reclaimed by massive protection and stabilization works begun in the 19th century and still continuing to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Spit is a peninsula that separates the Baltic Sea and the Curonian Lagoon in a slightly concave arc for 98&amp;nbsp;km from the Kaliningrad Peninsula to the town of Klaipeda. The largest settlements in the Lithuanian part are Smiltyne, Pervalka, Juodkrante, Preila and Nida. Dune valleys divide the ridge into separate dune massifs, and capes are generally formed in front of these valleys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Formation of the Spit began some 5,000 years ago. Mesolithic people whose main source of food was from the sea settled there, working bone and stone brought from the mainland. In the 1st millennium CE West Baltic tribes (Curonians and Prussians) established seasonal settlements there, to collect fish, and perhaps also for ritual purposes. The centre of Kaup is the last unexcavated large proto-urban settlement of the Viking period. The invasion of Prussia by Teutonic Knights in the 13th century was gradually driven out, but armed conflict continued in the region until the 15th century. The Spit had great strategic importance, and in consequence the knights built castles at Memel (1252), Noihauz (1283) and Rossitten (1372). They also settled German farmers around the castles, building roads and clearing woodland for agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Baltic peoples set up settlements on the Spit and the population increased, however, as their main activities were fishing and beekeeping. In the 16th century a new process of dune formation began and settlements became buried in sand. The works took the form of the construction of a protective bank of sand to prevent further ingress of dunes (a process that took most of the century) and the stabilization of dunes by means of brushwood hurdles, accompanied by reforestation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most significant element of the Spit's cultural heritage is represented by the old fishing settlements. The earliest of these were buried in sand when the woodland cover was removed. Those that have survived are all along the coast of the lagoon. At the end of the 19th century more elaborate buildings - lighthouses, churches, schools and villas - began to be erected alongside the simpler vernacular houses. This was partly due to the fact that the Spit became a recreational centre: Juodkrante became famous as a health resort as early as 1840 and Nida, Preila and Pervalka were given official recognition in this category in 1933. In the centre, Nida, the largest settlement on the Spit, has a linear plan based on a single main street that runs parallel to the lagoon and which developed spontaneously in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most northerly part of the Spit, Smiltyne, was not settled until the mid-19th century, when a health resort was created. It is the point where ferries from Klaipeda on the mainland arrive on the Spit. The surviving buildings of cultural significance are the houses of fishermen built during the 19th century. In their original form they were built from wood and thatched with reeds. A homestead consisted of two or three buildings: a dwelling house, a cattle shed, and a smokehouse for curing fish. These were located to one side of the long narrow plot, leaving space for a kitchen garden and for drying nets. The houses were constructed at right angles to the street. In the 20th century the fishermen's houses were enlarged and new ones built with their long sides to the street. As a result, the appearance of the settlements was radically altered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other buildings are the sturdy lighthouse at Pervalka and the neo-Gothic Evangelical Lutheran churches at Juodkrante and Nida, both built in the 1880s. The cemeteries of Nida, Preila, Pervalka and Juodkrante are of interest.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Human habitation of this elongated sand dune peninsula, 98 km long and 0.4-4 km wide, dates back to prehistoric times. Throughout this period it has been threatened by the natural forces of wind and waves. Its survival to the present day has been made possible only as a result of ceaseless human efforts to combat the erosion of the Spit, dramatically illustrated by continuing stabilisation and reforestation projects.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Curonian Spit</site><states>Lithuania,Russian Federation</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1158</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1424</http_url><id_number>1424</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1424.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl,ua</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.5338888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>21.0322222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the eastern fringe of Central Europe, the transnational property numbers a selection of sixteen&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;tserkvas&amp;nbsp;&lt;/em&gt;(churches). They were built of horizontal wooden logs between the 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;and 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;centuries by communities of Orthodox and Greek Catholic faiths. The&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;tserkvas&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;bear testimony to a distinct building tradition rooted in Orthodox ecclesiastic design interwoven with elements of local tradition, and symbolic references to their communities&amp;rsquo; cosmogony.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;tserkva&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;s&amp;nbsp;&lt;/em&gt;are built on a tri-partite plan surmounted by open quadrilateral or octagonal domes and cupolas. Integral to &lt;em&gt;tserkvas&lt;/em&gt; are iconostasis screens, interior polychrome decorations, and other historic furnishings. Important elements of some &lt;em&gt;tserkvas&lt;/em&gt; include&amp;nbsp;wooden bell towers, churchyards, gatehouses and graveyards.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wooden &lt;em&gt;Tserkvas&lt;/em&gt; of the Carpathian Region in Poland and Ukraine</site><states>Poland,Ukraine</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1894</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest evidence for human occupation in the Alto Douro region is from the Lower Palaeolithic period (90,000 years ago). There has as yet been no Middle Palaeolithic site found, but the region was clearly favoured in the Upper Palaeolithic. There is a concentration of rock-art and settlement sites along the main rivers, the Douro and its tributaries, the C&amp;ocirc;a and the Aguiar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the C&amp;ocirc;a valley the known settlements are located in the short section between Quinta da Barca and Salto do Boi, but this does not reflect the situation in early prehistory, owing to the differences in lithology between this area and that further downstream. More intensive cultivation in recent years has also destroyed many settlement sites without record.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Analysis of the archaeological evidence suggests that the valley was occupied recurrently, possibly on a seasonal basis, by small human groups during the Upper Palaeolithic. Their settlements are characterized by pavements of river pebbles and large schist slabs, on which were found thick deposits of the waste from making and trimming stone tools; the acid soil conditions militate against the survival of organic materials such as wood or bone. The activities carried out on these sites were the processing of animal carcasses and the working of hide, bone, wood, and stone. The sources of the stones used indicate that these groups would have moved over a large territory more than 200km in extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This form of hunter-gatherer economy lasted from around 22,000 BC for 10,000-12,000 years, at the end of the Magdalenian phase of the Upper Palaeolithic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region appears to have been devoid of human occupation until the 6th millennium BC, when incoming groups brought a sedentary Neolithic farming culture to the north-west of the Iberian peninsula. From then on there was continuous occupation through to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/866</http_url><id_number>866</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_866.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt,es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.6975000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-6.6611111111</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Upper Palaeolithic rock art of the C&amp;ocirc;a valley is an outstanding example of the sudden flowering of creative genius at the dawn of human cultural throws light on the social, economic, and spiritual life on the life of the early ancestor of humankind in a wholly exceptional manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest evidence for recurrent human occupation by a small group, possibly on a seasonal basis, in the Alto Douro region is from the Lower Palaeolithic period. There is a concentration of rock-art and settlement sites along the main rivers, the Douro and its tributaries, the C&amp;ocirc;a and the Aguiar. In the C&amp;ocirc;a valley the known settlements are located in the short section between Quinta da Barca and Salto do Boi, but this does not reflect the situation in early prehistory, owing to the differences in lithology between this area and that further downstream. More intensive cultivation in recent years has also destroyed many settlement sites without record.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlements are characterized by pavements of river pebbles and large schist slabs, on which were found thick deposits of the waste from making and trimming stone tools; the acid soil conditions militate against the survival of organic materials such as wood or bone. The activities carried out on these sites were the processing of animal carcasses and the working of hide, bone, wood, and stone. The sources of the stones used indicate that these groups would have moved over a large territory more than 200&amp;nbsp;km in extent. This form of hunter-gatherer economy ended in the Magdalenian phase of the Upper Palaeolithic period. The region appears to have been devoid of human occupation until the 6th millennium BC, when incoming groups brought a sedentary Neolithic farming culture to the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. From then on there was continuous occupation through to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rock art began with the Upper Palaeolithic in the Iberian Peninsula, but the C&amp;ocirc;a material is not all Upper Palaeolithic; certain groups or panels are of later date, from the Neolithic to the early modern period, while many are palimpsests. The rock art of the C&amp;ocirc;a valley occurs in three clearly defined clusters, separated by empty stretches. Furthest south is the small group of granite rock-shelter sites at Faia. Some 8&amp;nbsp;km further downstream is the cluster on either side of the river at Quinta da Barca and Penascosa, where the rock is schist. Finally, there is a cluster consisting of a series of occurrences starting at Ribeira de Piscos and continuing down the C&amp;ocirc;a to its confluence with the Douro. It is postulated, however, that the gap between Faia and Quinta da Barca/Penascosa may be artificial, the Palaeolithic rock art on the soft stone in this stretch not having been capable of resisting natural weathering. In all 214 decorated panels have been found in 22 separate groups. The species represented are aurochs, horses, red deer, ibex and fish (with one apparent human caricature at Ribeira de Piscos). The proportions of each species represented vary from panel to panel and site to site. There is no example of any unequivocally domestic animals such as sheep or chickens, which were absent from the Pleistocene fauna of the Iberian Peninsula. The conventions used are also identical - size, invariable lateral views, twisted rendering of horns, distended bellies, absence of ground lines, etc. One convention unique to this group is the frequent use of single bodies with two or three heads, in an attempt to convey a sensation of movement. This is usually associated with horse figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palaeolithic artists used several different engraving techniques: fine-line incision using a hard resistant tool, pecking, with direct or indirect percussion, abrasion of the surface, and scraping, a technique for producing colour differentiation by the selective removal of surface layers. In cases where only outlines of figures can be discerned, it is suggested that these may originally have been painted with mineral and vegetable pigments. The number of engravings outlined by pecking and incision is almost identical. The C&amp;ocirc;a engravings represent a fully outdoor art (with the exception of those in the Faia rock shelters). This is usually the case in later prehistory, but it is almost unknown in the Palaeolithic. The engraved panels are always on vertical rock faces, but the possibility of their having disappeared from horizontal or inclined surfaces cannot be ruled out. Following the Palaeolithic tradition, surface variations of the rock itself is used effectively in order to impart relief to the figures.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The two Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley (Portugal) and Siega Verde (Spain) are located on the banks of the rivers Agueda and Côa, tributaries of the river Douro, documenting continuous human occupation from the end of the Paleolithic Age. Hundreds of panels with thousands of animal figures (5,000 in Foz Côa and around 440 in Siega Verde) were carved over several millennia, representing the most remarkable open-air ensemble of Paleolithic art on the Iberian Peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Côa Valley and Siega Verde provide the best illustration of the iconographic themes and organization of Paleolithic rock art, using the same modes of expression in caves and in the open air, thus contributing to a greater understanding of this artistic phenomenon. Together they form a unique site of the prehistoric era, rich in material evidence of Upper Paleolithic occupation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley and Siega Verde</site><states>Portugal,Spain</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1642</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/769</http_url><id_number>769</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_769.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru,mn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix)&lt;/em&gt;: The closed salt lake system of Uvs Nuur is of international scientific importance because of its climatic and hydrological regimes. Because of the unchanging nature of the nomadic pastoral use of the grasslands within the basin over thousands of years, current research programmes should be able to unravel the rate at which Uvs Nuur (and other smaller lakes within the basin) have become saline (and eutrophic). These processes are on-going and because of its unique geophysical and biological characteristics, the basin has been chosen as an IGBP site for monitoring global warming.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x)&lt;/em&gt;: The Uvs Nuur site has a large range of ecosystems, representing the major biomes of eastern Eurasia, with a number of endemic plants. Although the basin is inhabited and has been used for nomadic pastoralism for thousands of years, the mountains, forests, steppes and deserts are extremely important habitats for a wide range of wild animals, many of them threatened or endangered. The steppe ecosystem supports a rich diversity of birds and the deserts a number of rare gerbil, jerboas and the marbled polecat. The mountains at the western end of the basin are important refuges for the globally threatened snow leopard, mountain sheep (argali) and the Asiatic ibex. Uvs Nuur itself is an important habitat for waterfowl as well as for birds migrating south from Siberia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.2750000000</latitude><location>Uvs Aimag, Zavhan Aimag, Huvsgul Aimag (Mongolia); Mongun-Taiga Kojuun, Ovur Kojuun, Tes-Khem Kojuun, Ersin Kojuun (Tuva)</location><longitude>92.7197222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Uvs Nuur is the northernmost of the enclosed basins of Central Asia. It is enclosed on the north (Tuva) by the Tannu Ola Range and the Sangilen Mountains in the north-east. The main feeder to Uvs Nuur is the Tes-Khem River, which has its source in a fresh-water lake, Sangyn Dalai Nuur, in the alpine meadows and larch forests of the Sangilen uplands at the eastern extremity of the basin (in Mongolia). The Tes-Khem then flows 500&amp;nbsp;km westwards, through steppe and desert, into southern Tuva, and then back into Mongolia, before emptying into Uvs Nuur. For its last 100&amp;nbsp;km, the river meanders through an extensive wetland complex, a green swathe in an otherwise semi-desert landscape; its delta is some 40&amp;nbsp;km wide and is an important wildlife habitat. Uvs is relatively shallow (10-20&amp;nbsp;m depth) and very saline and alkaline. In all, the lakes display a range of hydrological characteristics, water quality and biomass productivity. Uvs is the 'sea' of western Mongolia; it is frequented by a range of seabirds, even though the nearest ocean is 3,000&amp;nbsp;km away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Uvs Nuur basin has an extraordinary temperature range; the lowest winter temperature in western Mongolia (-58&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) has been recorded here but summer temperatures can rise to 40&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C. Within the site there are nine strictly protected areas, representing the main ecosystems. Two of the Mongolian protected areas, Turgen Uul and Tsagaan Shuvuut, also lie in the western mountains, which have shown the presence of 173 bird and 41 mammal species within their boundaries. Both are important habitats for the endangered snow leopard and there is active research into the conservation of this species. Other important mammals are large herbivores such as the Asiatic ibex, argali mountain sheep, wild boar, red deer and musk deer and the Mongolian and black-tailed gazelle; predators include wolf, red fox, lynx, polecat and weasel, and many different kites, falcons, eagles and vultures. Within the ecologically-diverse Uvs Nuur site, some 359 bird species have been recorded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation also reflects the conjunction of the Siberian and Central Asian floras, with 19 species endemic to Tuva and Mongolia, 51 relict species and 94 plant species classified as rare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Uvs Nuur basin has a rich historical and cultural heritage. The site has also important for cultural heritage status; largely on the basis of 2,900 sites containing burial mounds (kurgans) and stone tablets (steles), many of late Palaeolithic age. Historically, a large proportion of the Eurasian steppe would have undergone a vegetation succession to forest as the post-glacial climate became warmer - had wild herbivores and humans not worked to maintain the grassland environment. There is a close relationship between the domesticated grazing animals (traditionally sheep, cattle, goats and horses) and the grassland plants of the steppes, a relationship which has moulded this landscape over thousands of years. The increasing domestication of livestock supplemented (and supplanted) the wild grazing animals of the steppe - such as Przewalski's horse, the Saiga antelope and the wild Bactrian camel. Over the millennia, the nomadic seasonal herding patterns transferred plants and nutrients spatially within the steppe ecosystems. Some grasses and herbs will have been eliminated; others will have thrived. Soil organic matter gradually accumulated as plant leaf litter, dead roots and animal excreta were decomposed and their constituent nutrients recycled back into new plant growth.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Uvs Nuur Basin (1,068,853 ha), is the northernmost of the enclosed basins of Central Asia. It takes its name from Uvs Nuur Lake, a large, shallow and very saline lake, important for migrating birds, waterfowl and seabirds. The site is made up of twelve protected areas representing the major biomes of eastern Eurasia. The steppe ecosystem supports a rich diversity of birds and the desert is home to a number of rare gerbil, jerboas and the marbled polecat. The mountains are an important refuge for the globally endangered snow leopard, mountain sheep (argali) and the Asiatic ibex.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Uvs Nuur Basin</site><states>Russian Federation,Mongolia</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>909</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1448</http_url><id_number>1448</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1448.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru,mn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.9302222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>115.4254444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Shared between Mongolia and the Russian Federation, this site is an outstanding example of the Daurian Steppe eco-region, which extends from eastern Mongolia into Russian Siberia and northeastern China. Cyclical climate changes, with distinct dry and wet periods lead to a wide diversity of species and ecosystems of global significance. The different types of steppe ecosystems represented, such as grassland and forest, as well as lakes and wetlands serve as habitats for rare species of fauna, such as the White-naped crane, Great Bustard, Relict Gull and Swan goose, as well as millions of vulnerable, endangered or threatened migratory birds. It is also a critical site on the transboundary migration path for the Mongolian gazelle.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Landscapes of Dauria</site><states>Russian Federation,Mongolia</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>2150</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1313</http_url><id_number>1313</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1313.jpg</image_url><iso_code>si,es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.7752777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>-4.8388888889</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The sites forming part of the proposed series constitute the most noteworthy examples of mercury mines in the world and because of this they have had an important role in the history of humanity, from ancient times up to the present day. Their moment of greatest historical significance was at the point when they complemented each other to achieve the production that was sent to America along Intercontinental Camino Real of the Spanish Empire, from Europe to Spanish America.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It dates from the second half of the 16&amp;nbsp;th Century, when the mercury amalgamation process made possible the large-scale exploitation of the silver of New Spain. Europe and America were closely tied together in a structure linking ports and cities, peoples and communication nodes in order to ensure the stability of the economic model of trading monopolies and other cultural and spiritual values developed by the Spanish Monarchy to serve as the basis or the goal of the Empire.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align="left"&gt;The transcendence of this phenomenon was such that while it marked the territorial structure of America, among other aspects, it also influenced the subsequent development of the mercury culture on both sides of the Atlantic and has continued to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align="left"&gt;A relative rare metal, liquid at room temperature, mercury is produced only by a few mines across the world, of which the largest is at Almad&amp;eacute;n in Spain and the second largest at Idrija in Slovenia. In addition to the aforementioned historical link, there are many similarities between the two mining complexes in terms of other historical periods, the way in which the population responded to the difficult living conditions of mercury production, and especially the amazing technical and scientific response to all kinds of challenges. They jointly form a set of assets constituting a serial property representing a complex and inter complementary mercury mining engineering methods and related industrial and technical development from the Roman Empire time to the fi rst years of the 21th century.It &amp;nbsp;also offers a complete panorama of the different uses and utilities of mercury throughout history.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property includes the mining sites of Almad&amp;eacute;n (Spain), where mercury (quicksilver) has been extracted since antiquity, and Idrija (Slovenia), where mercury was first found in AD1490. The Spanish property includes buildings relating to its mining history, including Retamar Castle, religious buildings and traditional dwellings. The site in Idrija notably features mercury stores and infrastructure, as well as miners&amp;rsquo; living quarters, and a miners&amp;rsquo; theatre. The sites bear testimony to the intercontinental trade in mercury which generated important exchanges between Europe and America over the centuries. Together they represent the two largest mercury mines in the world, operational until recent times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Heritage of Mercury. Almadén and Idrija</site><states>Slovenia,Spain</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>1841</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Victoria Falls Reserve Preservation Ordinance of 1934 established the Victoria Falls Executive Committee to be responsible for the preservation of the falls area. In 1948 the National Monuments Commission established a Victoria Falls Conservancy Committee, and extended the protected area downstream to Songwe Gorge (confirmed in legislation in 1949). In 1953 the colonial Governor formed the Victoria Falls Trust, which had responsibility for the area until the national park was declared on 25 February 1972 by Statutory Instrument No. 44 (when the area came under the jurisdiction of the National Parks and Wildlife Service). There are six national monuments within the park, including the falls. Designated as a World Heritage site in 1989.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/509</http_url><id_number>509</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_509.jpg</image_url><iso_code>zm,zw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-17.9245300000</latitude><location>Livingstone District of Southern Province of the Republic of Zambia and Hwange District of Matabeleland North Province of Zimbabwe</location><longitude>25.8553900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mosi-oa-Tunya / Victoria Falls National Park contains one of the world's most spectacular waterfalls. The falls and associated gorges are an outstanding example of river capture and the erosive forces of the water still continues to sculpture the hard basalts. The complex of conservation areas in Zimbabwe covers over 1,846,700&amp;nbsp;ha excluding forest reserves. The park abuts Dambwa Forest Reserve in Zambia. The falls are the most significant feature of the park, and when the Zambezi is in full flood (usually February or March) they form the largest curtain of falling water in the world. During these months, over 500&amp;nbsp;million litres of water per minute go over the falls, which are 1,708&amp;nbsp;m wide, and drop 99&amp;nbsp;m at Rainbow Falls in Zambia. At low water in November flow can be reduced to around 10&amp;nbsp;million litres per minute, and the river is divided into a series of braided channels that descend in many separate falls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Below the falls the river enters a narrow series of gorges which represent locations successively occupied by the falls earlier in their history. Since the uplifting of the Makgadikgadi Pan area some 2&amp;nbsp;million years ago, the Zambezi River has been cutting through the basalt, exploiting weak fissures and forming a series of retreating gorges. Seven previous waterfalls occupied the seven gorges below the present falls, and Devil's Cataract in Zimbabwe is the starting point for cutting back to a new waterfall that will eventually leave the present lip high above the river in the gorge below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The predominant vegetation is mopane forest, with small areas of teak and miombo woodland and a narrow band of riverine forest along the Zambezi. The riverine 'rainforest' within the waterfall splash zone is of particular interest, a fragile ecosystem of discontinuous forest on sandy alluvium, dependent upon maintenance of abundant water and high humidity resulting from the spray plume. There are a lot of tree species within this forest and also some herbaceous species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Concerning the fauna, several herds of elephant occur in Zambezi National Park, occasionally crossing to the islands and Zambian mainland during the dry season when water levels are low. There are small herds of buffalo and wildebeest, as well as zebra, warthog, giraffe, bushpig and hippopotamus are frequent above the falls. Vervet monkey and chacma baboon are common. Lion and leopard are occasionally seen. Taita falcon breeds in the gorges, as do black stork, black eagle, peregrine falcon and augur buzzard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Victoria Falls forms a geographical barrier between the distinct fish faunas of the upper and middle Zambezi River. 39 species of fish have been recorded from the waters below the falls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ethnic composition of the people living in the falls area outside the parks is a mixture of recent immigrants and long-term occupants, witnessed by stone artefacts of &lt;em&gt;Homo habilis&lt;/em&gt; from 3&amp;nbsp;million years ago which have been found near the falls, indicating prolonged occupation of the area in the middle Stone Age. Weapons, adornments and digging tools indicate the presence of hunter-gathering communities in the late Stone Age, displaced about 2,000 years ago by farmers using iron tools, which kept livestock and lived in villages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These are among the most spectacular waterfalls in the world. The Zambezi river, which is more than 2&amp;nbsp;km wide at this point, plunges noisily down a series of basalt gorges and raises an iridescent mist that can be seen more than 20&amp;nbsp;km away.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These are among the most spectacular waterfalls in the world. The Zambezi River, which is more than 2 km wide at this point, plunges noisily down a series of basalt gorges and raises an iridescent mist that can be seen more than 20 km away.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mosi-oa-Tunya / Victoria Falls</site><states>Zambia,Zimbabwe</states><transboundary>1</transboundary><unique_number>593</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2003</danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Afghanistan was the ancient Bactria, one of the provinces of the Persian Empire under the Achaemenids. The region was then ruled by Alexander the Great, the Seleucid dynasty, and the Maurya dynasty of northern India. The Kushans, a group of nomadic tribes, ruled from the 2nd century BCE, reaching the climax in the 2nd cent. CE. The Sasanians controlled Afghanistan from the mid-3rd century, Central Asian nomads ruled in the 5th century; a coalition of Sasanians and Western Turks took the power in mid-6th century. The Silk Roads passed through Afghanistan, and contributed to the diffusion of Buddhism from India in this region in the 1st century CE. The Kushans were patrons of the arts and religion, and were responsible for the introduction of Buddhist art in the Bactrian style, which was influenced by Hellenistic art, and the Sasanians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Islamic art and architecture were introduced to Bamiyan in the 11th century CE, when the central part of Afghanistan was under the rule of Sultan Mahmud of Chazna (998- 1030). The town of Bamiyan was designed on the model of the Khorassan region of Iran. Under the rule of the Ghurids (1155-1212) the development included the fortified settlements of Shahr-i Bamiyan (later Ghulghulah), Shahr-i Zuhak and Shahr-i Khoshak. The army of Genghis Khan ruined the town of Bamiyan and looted the Buddhist monasteries in the early 13th century. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (1618-1707) ordered his army to shoot off the legs of the large Buddha. The valley was abandoned for a long period, but at the end of the 19th century, the caves were inhabited and used as shelters for domestic animals. In 1979, there were over 7,000 inhabitants in the Bamiyan town. From the 1970s, the area was used by the military. In the 1990s, it was exposed to armed conflicts. In 2001, the large Buddha statues were destroyed by the Taliban.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/208</http_url><id_number>208</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_208.jpg</image_url><iso_code>af</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Buddha statues and the cave art in Bamiyan Valley are an outstanding representation of the Gandharan school in Buddhist art in the Central Asian region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii)&lt;/em&gt; : The artistic and architectural remains of Bamiyan Valley, and an important Buddhist centre on the Silk Road, are an exceptional testimony to the interchange of Indian, Hellenistic, Roman, Sasanian influences as the basis for the development of a particular artistic expression in the Gandharan school. To this can be added the Islamic influence in a later period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Bamiyan Valley bears an exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition in the Central Asian region, which has disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Bamiyan Valley is an outstanding example of a cultural landscape which illustrates a significant period in Buddhism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Bamiyan Valley is the most monumental expression of the western Buddhism. It was an important centre of pilgrimage over many centuries. Due to their symbolic values, the monuments have suffered at different times of their existence, including the deliberate destruction in 2001, which shook the whole world.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.8469400000</latitude><location>Bamiyan Province, Bamiyan District</location><longitude>67.8252500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Bamiyan Valley lies some 264 km by road west of Kabul, enclosed within the high mountains of the Hindu Kush, in the central highlands of Afghanistan. The valley, at an altitude of 2,500 m, follows the Bamiyan River. It formed one of the branches of the Silk Road and its beautiful landscape is associated with legendary figures. It was these aspects that contributed to its development as a major religious and cultural centre. It was inhabited and partly urbanized from the 3rd century BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated site consists of eight separate core zones, each with its buffer zone:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Bamiyan Cliffs on the north side of the valley include the two colossal niches that contained the large standing Buddha figures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Kakrak Valley caves, some 3 km south-east of the Bamiyan cliffs, date from the 6th to 13th centuries. &amp;bull; The two main important groups of the Fuladi Valley caves are the Qoul-i Akram and Kalai Ghamai caves, which have important decorative features.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Shahr-i Zuhak and Qallai Kaphari consist of fortification walls, towers, and citadels of earthen structures dating from the 6th to 8th centuries.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Shahr-i Ghulghulah is a fortified citadel situated on a hill in the centre of the valley and dates from the 6th to 10th centuries AD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape and archaeological remains of the Bamiyan Valley represent the artistic and religious developments which from the 1st to the 13th centuries characterized ancient Bactria, integrating various cultural influences into the Gandhara school of Buddhist art. The area contains numerous Buddhist monastic ensembles and sanctuaries, as well as fortified structures from the Islamic period. The site is also testimony to the tragic destruction by the Taliban of the two standing Buddha statues, which shook the world in March 2001.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape and archaeological remains of the Bamiyan Valley represent the artistic and religious developments which from the 1st to the 13th centuries characterized ancient Bakhtria, integrating various cultural influences into the Gandhara school of Buddhist art. The area contains numerous Buddhist monastic ensembles and sanctuaries, as well as fortified edifices from the Islamic period. The site is also testimony to the tragic destruction by the Taliban of the two standing Buddha statues, which shook the world in March 2001.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley</site><states>Afghanistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>230</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2002</danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Minaret of Jam probably marks the site of the ancient city of Firuzkuh, the capital of the Ghurid dynasty that ruled Afghanistan and parts of northern India, from Kashgar to the Persian Gulf, in the 12th and 13th centuries. An inscription gives the date of construction as 1194, and another gives the name of the powerful reigning Ghurid emperor, Sultan Ghiyas ud-Din (1157-1202). It is likely that the Minaret was constructed to commemorate his victory at Delhi in 1192 over the Ghaznavid Empire, hence the name sometimes given to it, the Victory Tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Jam is believed to have been the summer residence of the Ghurid Emperors. There are indications that the mosque to which the minaret was attached was of modest size, and disproportionate to the dimensions of the minaret, contrary to the basic principles of Islamic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the death of Ghiyas ud-Din his brother Muiz ud-Din succeeded him. The Ghurid Empire came under intense pressure from its neighbours, the Kharizm, from south of the Aral Sea, and gradually yielded up its territories. Only at the mountainous retreat of Bamiyan did the dynasty survive, until its last ruler was captured and put to death in 1215. The town of Firuzkuh was destroyed by the Mongol Ogodaï in 1222.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/211</http_url><id_number>211</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_211.jpg</image_url><iso_code>af</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The innovative architecture and decoration of the Minaret of Jam played a significant role in the development of the arts and architecture of the Indian sub-continent and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt;The Minaret of Jam and its associated archaeological remains constitute exceptional testimony to the power and quality of the Ghurid civilization that dominated its region in the 12th and 13th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The Minaret of Jam is an outstanding example of Islamic architecture and ornamentation in this region and played a significant role in their further dissemination.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.3964166667</latitude><location>Shahrak District, Ghur Province</location><longitude>64.5158888889</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The architecture and ornamentation of the minaret are outstanding from the point of view of art history, fusing together elements from earlier developments in the region in an exceptional way and exerting a strong influence on later architecture in the region. It is an outstanding example of Islamic architecture and ornamentation in this region and played a significant role in their further dissemination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At 1,900 m above sea level and far from any town, the minaret rises within a rugged valley in the heart of Ghur Province. It is a graceful, soaring structure, dating back to the 12th century, believed to have been built to commemorate a major victory of the sultans of the Ghurid dynasty. Jam is believed to have been the summer residence of the Ghurid emperors and probably marks the site of the ancient city of Firuzkuh, the capital of the Ghurid dynasty. An inscription gives the date of construction as 1194.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The minaret is one of the few well-preserved monuments representing the exceptional artistic creativity and mastery of structural engineering of the time. It was built on the south bank of the Hari River at the intersection of two canyon-like river valleys. Rising to 65 m from a 9 m diameter octagonal base, its four tapering cylindrical shafts are constructed of fired brick bonded with lime mortar. The exterior of the minaret is completely covered with geometric decoration in relief laid over the plain structural bricks. The first cylinder is the most decorated: it is divided into eight vertical segments, matching those of the base. Each vertical zone has a narrow band of inscriptions running in an unbroken line around each panel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A group of stones with Hebrew inscriptions on the Kushkak hill between the minaret and the village of Jam, believed to date from the 11th to 12th centuries, probably came from a nearby Jewish cemetery. The remains of castles and towers of the Ghurid settlement are to be found on the opposite bank of the Hari River, north of the minaret and high on the cliff. There are also the remains of fortifications visible to the east of the minaret, giving the impression that the minaret was surrounded not by a settlement but by a military camp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the minaret was built no major reconstruction or restoration work has taken place, apart from consolidation around its base. The archaeological remains have been surveyed and recorded in the 20th century but without any attempt at restoration or reconstruction, while the only excavation has been clandestine and uncontrolled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 65m-tall Minaret of Jam is a graceful, soaring structure, dating back to the 12th century. Covered in elaborate brickwork with a blue tile inscription at the top, it is noteworthy for the quality of its architecture and decoration, which represent the culmination of an architectural and artistic tradition in this region. Its impact is heightened by its dramatic setting, a deep river valley between towering mountains in the heart of the Ghur province.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Minaret and Archaeological Remains of Jam</site><states>Afghanistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>234</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site. on a hill next to a lake connected to the sea by a canal. has been inhabited since prehistoric times. A Greek colony was founded there in the late 7th century BC. when the city (called Buthros) was surrounded by fortifications. Roman occupation prompted the development of the city and. during the Christian era. it became the seat of a bishopric. Many religious structures were built by the Christians. From the time the Slavs came to the Balkans (7th century) until the founding of the Epirus despotate (after the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204). the city underwent great trials. Its last era of prosperity was under Byzantine administration (Epirus). After a short period of occupation by the Venetians (late 14th century). the city under Ottoman administration was threatened by the marshes that formed around the lake. and was abandoned by the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This archaeological site is a veritable conservatory of major monuments in ruins from each period of the city's development. Thus. the fortifications bear testimony to the different stages of their construction from the time of the Greek colony until the Middle Ages. The most interesting ancient Greek monument is the theatre. which is fairly well preserved. The major ruin from the paleo-Christian era is the baptistery. built inside the Roman public baths. The floor has a beautiful mosaic decoration. The paleo-Christian basilica was rebuilt in the 9th century and the ruins are sufficiently well preserved to permit analysis of the structure (three naves with a transept. and an exterior polygonal apse).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/570</http_url><id_number>570</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_570.jpg</image_url><iso_code>al</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.7511111100</latitude><location>District of Sarandë, County of Vlorë</location><longitude>20.0261111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Butrint is one of the fragments which form the fabric of Albania's ancient cultural landscape. Nestling in the highlands in the far south of the country and surrounded by dense vegetation, Butrint was linked to the Mediterranean by the Vivari canal, which runs from the Butrint Lake to the Ionian Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement became an important stop along the merchant trade routes and reached the height of its glory in the 4th century BC as one of the major maritime and commercial centres of the ancient world. The sight of the fortifications alone, which date from the 6th century BC, evokes the military and economic potential of the city at the time. The hill on which the acropolis stands is encircled by a wall built from huge stone blocks. The amphitheatre, dating from the 3rd century BC, bears witness to the cultural riches of the city: the stone banks of seating, of which 23 rows have been preserved, would have held an audience of 1,500. The theatre is situated at the foot of the acropolis, close by two temples, one of which is dedicated to Asclepios, the Greek god of medicine, who was worshipped by the city's inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have brought the light to many objects - plates, vases, ceramic candlesticks - as well as sculptures including a remarkable 'Goddess of Butrint' which seems to completely embody, in the perfection of its features, the Greek ideal of physical beauty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the rule of the Romans the city was to fall slowly into decay. In spite of this, three monumental fountains, three public baths, a gymnasium decorated with mosaics, and especially the aqueduct constructed during the reign of Augustus, prove that the site was not completely abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the palaeo-Christian period, two basilicas and a baptistry were built; its later medieval history was turbulent as the town was involved, first, in the power struggles between Byzantium and successive Norman, Angevin and Venetian states and then in the conflict between Venice and the Ottoman Turks. Subterranean infiltration of water forced the inhabitants to flee, and the abandoned city was covered by mud and vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that systematic excavations were carried out by Italian archaeologists; following the liberation of Albania in 1944, Albanian archaeologists undertook more ambitious excavations. The mud and vegetation that covered Butrint had protected it from the natural and human ravages of time, and the entire city was revealed almost intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Key areas of excavation include a late antique palatial dwelling known as the Triconch Palace, the spectacular late antiquity baptistry, and a Roman villa and associated late antiquity church at Diaporit.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1999</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inhabited since prehistoric times, Butrint has been the site of a Greek colony, a Roman city and a bishopric. Following a period of prosperity under Byzantine administration, then a brief occupation by the Venetians, the city was abandoned in the late Middle Ages after marshes formed in the area. The present archaeological site is a repository of ruins representing each period in the city&amp;rsquo;s development.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Butrint</site><states>Albania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1563</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Berat is one of the oldest in Albania, with the earliest traces of settlement dating from 2600-1800 BC. There are also ceramics from the 7th or 6th century BC. The Berat people were first called Illyrians, then Arb&amp;euml;r, and finally Albanians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle area had stone fortifications by the middle of the 4th century. An Illyrian town developed under its protection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In antiquity, Berat was known as Antipatreia, a fortified centre which succeeded in resisting the Roman legions for a time. The town is mentioned by Polybius and Livy, and in the list of fortifications of Emperor Justinian. During the Byzantine period, in 533, Berat is called Pulcheriopolis, after the 5th century Byzantine Empress Pulcheria. It developed at the summit of the hill. The castle and its fortifications were rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the middle ages, the town was under Bulgarian occupation (860-1018), and grew in importance. The name Berat is first mentioned in 1018. From the Crusader period onward (13th century), Berat had various occupants, including the Angevins, the Serbs, and the Muzakaj Princedom. Much of the fortification system was rebuilt, in the 13th century, assuming its present-day general form, and many features of this period have been conserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 13th and 14th centuries three important churches were built: St. Mary Vllaherna, Holy Trinity, and St. Michael. At this time the town had a remarkable cistern system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the start of the 15th century Berat was occupied by the Ottomans. Substantial alterations were made at this time; the fortifications were repaired and new towers were built to strengthen them. The town remained part of the Ottoman Empire for a long period, characterised by peace and prosperity. Situated as it was on a major communication route between the capital and the Adriatic, it spread beyond its fortifications. Its quarters took on their present-day form: Kala (the castle), and Mangalem and Gorica on the opposite bank. The communities of inhabitants built many mosques, several of which have outstanding architectural qualities (Leaden Mosque, Teqeja Helvetive mosque).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This period was notable for its remarkable religious tolerance, and the conservation of the Orthodox Christian heritage within a sizeable Muslim population. Christian arts such as illumination and iconography developed (School of Onufri, 16th century) and the Orthodox Cathedral was restored (18th century). &amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the uprising against the Turks in 1834, the Castle of Berat was damaged, and lost its defensive function. Nevertheless, it has retained much of the historic fabric. Until 1961, the condition of Berat remained practically the same. The historic town was then recognised as an important heritage property by the Albanian government.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first protective order by the Albanian government dates from 16 October 1948 (Academy of Sciences, decree no. 93), and consisted of a list of monuments of national value. For Berat, it included: the castle, the bridge over the river Osum, four churches and a mosque. In 1961, the order of 2 June (no. 172) declared that Berat was a national historic centre and museum-town. The list of category 1 monuments in the town was increased to 50 properties, including many private residential properties. Monuments and houses were later added to this list: two in 1963, and one each in 1973, 1977 and 1983.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1965, the creation of the Albanian Institute of Cultural Monuments led to the setting up of an annual programme for the maintenance and restoration of category 1 monuments. It is supervised by architects and based on compliance with the Venice Charter directives. Under this scheme, any monuments at Berat have been consolidated and restored, including the castle and the religious monuments, and frescoes have been conserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The preservation and conservation of the monuments in Berat was however greatly neglected during the 1990s, as a result of the political transition. A true heritage project for the town was not resumed until two or three years ago. A five-year plan has been set up for 2007-2011 by the Institute of Cultural Monuments.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/569</http_url><id_number>569</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_569.jpg</image_url><iso_code>al</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.0694444400</latitude><location></location><longitude>20.1333333300</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2008</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Berat and Gjirokastra are inscribed as rare examples of an architectural character typical of the Ottoman period. Located in central Albania, Berat bears witness to the coexistence of various religious and cultural communities down the centuries. It features a castle, locally known as the Kala, most of which was built in the 13th century, although its origins date back to the 4th century BC. The citadel area numbers many Byzantine churches, mainly from the 13th century, as well as several mosques built under the Ottoman era which&amp;nbsp;began&amp;nbsp;in 1417. Gjirokastra, in the Drinos river valley in southern Albania, features a series of outstanding two-story&amp;nbsp;houses which were developed in the 17th century. The town also retains a bazaar, an 18th-century mosque and two churches of the same period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastra </site><states>Albania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1590</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/102</http_url><id_number>102</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_102.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.8184400000</latitude><location>Commune of Maadid "Bechara", Wilaya (province) of M'Sila</location><longitude>4.7868400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of preserved ruins known as the Al Qal'ah of Beni Hammad is situated on the southern flank of the Jebel Ma&amp;acirc;did in a mountainous setting of striking beauty. It bears exceptional witness to a cultural tradition: it is one of the most interesting and most precisely dated monumental complexes of the Islamic civilization and provides an authentic picture of a fortified Muslim city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a mountainous site at 1,000&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, on the southern flank of the Jebel Ma&amp;acirc;did, are to be found the ruins of the first capital of the Hammadid emirs, founded in 1007 by Hammad, son of Bologhine, the founder of Algiers. The city was abandoned in 1090 when it was menaced by a Hilalian invasion, and finally destroyed in 1152 by the Almohads. It enjoyed great splendour during the 11th century. The Al Qal'a encompasses a large number of monumental remains, among which are the Great Mosque and its minaret, as well as a series of palaces including the Kanar, Greeting and Lake Palaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mosque, with its prayer room of 13 aisles with eight bays, is one of the largest in Algeria after that of Mansura. The minaret, 25&amp;nbsp;m high, is the prototype of the three-tiered minaret composition which may be seen most notably at the Giralda of Seville. The palatial ruins bear witness to the great refinement of the Hammadid civilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Castle of the Beacon Light, set on a sheer rocky peak from which its keep dominated the surrounding area, was inspired by the layout of eastern palaces. The palace of the Hammadid emirs is a complex made up of three residences separated by gardens, pavilions and cisterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have brought to light the locations of other palaces, as well as an abundance of other material which is exhibited in the museums of S&amp;eacute;tif, Constantine and Algiers.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In a mountainous site of extraordinary beauty, the ruins of the first capital of the Hammadid emirs, founded in 1007 and demolished in 1152, provide an authentic picture of a fortified Muslim city. The mosque, whose prayer room has 13 aisles with eight bays, is one of the largest in Algeria.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>111</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/179</http_url><id_number>179</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_179.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.5000000000</latitude><location>Wilayas (provinces) of Illizi and Tamanghasset</location><longitude>9.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tassili, a mountainous region in the centre of the Sahara, situated to the south-east of the Algerian Sahara and bordered by the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Niger and Mali, is a strange lunar landscape of deep gorges, dry river beds and 'stone forests'. During the prehistoric period Tassili benefited from climatic conditions which were more favourable to human occupation. The abundance of game, the possibilities of animal husbandry and of pastoral life which lay within immediate proximity of impregnable defensive sites constituted the basic factors which favoured population development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The unique rock formations and networks of steep-sided valleys of the plateau are a result of the alternation of wet and dry periods. At the end of the Upper Pleistocene, for example, there were huge lakes in the region, in what are today the great Ergs. The lakes were fed by rivers flowing down the Tassili, and dry river beds remain from this period. The action of the rivers on the surface of the plateau formed deep gorges and separate plateaux. Over the last 10,000 years the area has become steadily drier, although this process was reversed by a more humid period from 4000 BC to 2000 BC. Wind erosion during dryer periods has formed rock formations which resemble ruins, known as 'stone forests'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plants and animals found on the plateau bear witness to former wetter periods. Relict species surviving in wet microclimates include fish and shrimp and, until the 1940s, a dwarf Saharan crocodile, many thousands of kilometres from the nearest population in Egypt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From about 6000 BC to the early centuries of the Christian era, the various peoples who inhabited this plateau left numerous traces in the archaeological record: settlements, tumuli and enclosures that have yielded abundant ceramic material. However, Tassili owes its world renown to the paintings and the rock engravings of all kinds found since 1933. This art covers several periods, each of which corresponds to a particular fauna, yet each can equally be characterized by stylistic differences, without reference to an ecosystem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Five different periods can be identified: the naturalistic period, in which the fauna of the savannah is depicted; the archaic period, when small schematic figures or colossal forms assume the aspects of pictograms charged with an evident magical significance; the Bovidian period (4000-1500 BC), the dominant period in terms of the number of paintings, during which the representation of bovine herds and the scenes of daily life, incorporating a renewed naturalistic aesthetic, are among the best known examples of prehistoric mural art; the Equidian period, covering the end of the Neolithic and protohistoric periods, which corresponds to the disappearance of numerous species from the effects of progressive desiccation and to the appearance of the horse; and the Cameline period, during the first centuries of the Christian era, coinciding with the onset of the hyper-arid desert climate and with the appearance of the dromedary. This site has one of the most important groups of prehistoric cave art in the world. The most important group of paintings is situated to the east of Djanet in the National Park; other remarkable works of rock art are located to the north, in the region of the Wadi Djerat near Illizi.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in a strange lunar landscape of great geological interest, this site has one of the most important groupings of prehistoric cave art in the world. More than 15,000 drawings and engravings record the climatic changes, the animal migrations and the evolution of human life on the edge of the Sahara from 6000 BC to the first centuries of the present era. The geological formations are of outstanding scenic interest, with eroded sandstones forming ‘forests of rock’.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tassili n'Ajjer</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>198</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/188</http_url><id_number>188</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_188.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.4833300000</latitude><location>Wilaya (province) of Ghardaïa</location><longitude>3.6833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The M'Zab Valley, located within the Sahara, 600&amp;nbsp;km south of Algiers, is the site of a unique group in a restricted area. Traces of very early settlement are to be found on the plateau and rocky slopes bordering this valley, which has been ravaged by rare and devastating flooding of the &lt;em&gt;wadi&lt;/em&gt;. However, systematic occupation of the land and the adaptation of a strikingly original architecture to a semi-desert site date from the beginning of the 11th century and are the achievement of a group of human beings defined by clearly defined religious, social and moral ideals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ibadis, whose doctrine in many ways achieved the intransigent purism of Khridjism, dominated part of the Maghreb during the 10th century. They founded a state whose capital, Tahert, was destroyed by fire in 909; they then sought other territorial bases, first at Sedrata and finally in the M'Zab. The site bears witness, in a most exceptional manner, to the Ibadi culture at its height.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The primary reason for choosing this valley, which until then had been inhabited only sporadically by nomadic groups, was the defensive possibilities that it offered a community that was concerned with its own protection and fiercely dedicated to the preservation of its identity, even at the expense of isolation. The occupation of the land and the organization of space were based on very strict principles and, in their precision and their detail, were exemplary in character. A group of five &lt;em&gt;ksour&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;ksar&lt;/em&gt;: fortified village) - El Atteuf, Bou Noura, Beni Isguen, Melika and Ghardia - located on rocky outcrops housed a sedentary and essentially urban population. Each of these miniature citadels, encircled by walls, is dominated by a mosque, whose minaret functioned as a watchtower. The three unchanging elements - &lt;em&gt;ksar&lt;/em&gt;, cemetery, palm grove with its summer citadel - are found in all five villages. They serve to illustrate an example of a traditional human settlement, which is representative of a culture that has continued into the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mosque, with its arsenal and grain stores, was conceived as a fortress, the last bastion of resistance in the event of a siege. Around this building, which is essential to communal life, are houses built in concentric circles right up to the fortress walls. Each house, a cubic cell of standard type, illustrates an egalitarian ideal, whereas in the cemetery only the tombs of sages and the small mosques are distinguished in any way. The pattern of the life in the M'Zab Valley included a seasonal migration. Each summer the population moved to palm groves, where the 'summer cities' were marked by a looser organization, the highly defensive nature of the houses, the presence of watchtowers, and a mosque without a minaret, comparable with those in the cemeteries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement of the M'Zab Valley has exerted considerable influence on architects and city planners of the 20th century, from Le Corbusier to Pouillon.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A traditional human habitat, created in the 10th century by the Ibadites around their five &lt;em&gt;ksour&lt;/em&gt; (fortified cities), has been preserved intact in the M’Zab valley. Simple, functional and perfectly adapted to the environment, the architecture of M’Zab was designed for community living, while respecting the structure of the family. It is a source of inspiration for today’s urban planners.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>M'Zab Valley</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>209</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/191</http_url><id_number>191</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_191.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.3205600000</latitude><location>Wilaya  (province) of Setif</location><longitude>5.7366700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Dj&amp;eacute;mila bears eloquent exceptional testimony to the Roman civilization and constitutes an outstanding example, with its forum, temples, basilicas, triumphal arches and houses, of an architectural ensemble representative of Roman culture. It is also is an interesting example of Roman town planning adapted to a mountain location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman colony of Cuicul was probably founded on the present site of Dj&amp;eacute;mila, during the brief reign of Nerva (AD 96-98). The early city, whose name is of Berber origin, occupies a remarkable defensive position on a rocky spur which spreads at an altitude of 900&amp;nbsp;m, between two mountain streams, Wadi Guergour and Wadi Betame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The classic formula of Roman urban planning was adapted to the physical constraints of the site: at both ends of the &lt;em&gt;cardo maximus&lt;/em&gt;, the backbone of the city, are two gates. In the centre is the forum, an enclosed square surrounded by buildings essential to the functioning of civil life: the &lt;em&gt;capitolium&lt;/em&gt; to the north, the &lt;em&gt;curia&lt;/em&gt; to the east, a civil basilica (Basilica Julia) to the west. Aristocratic dwellings set with rich mosaics from which they take their contemporary names (the House of Amphitrite, the House of Europa, etc.) multiplied during the course of the 2nd century in this central quarter, where the Temple of Venus Genetrix and the &lt;em&gt;macellum&lt;/em&gt; (covered market) are also located. However, this cramped defensive situation, hemmed in by walls, hindered the development of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-2nd century the city therefore expanded to the south, where a new quarter, rich in both public buildings and private dwellings, was established. Here were built the Arch of Caracalla, the temple of the family of Severus, a new forum, a theatre (already completed under Antoninus Pius), and, further along, baths constructed in the reign of Commodus. Among the buildings of the classical period the Basilica Vestiaria (cloth market) and a fountain that is a small-scale replica of the Meta Sudans in Rome are noteworthy. Christianity was implanted in the southern quarter at an early date. The remains of a group of episcopal buildings have been located there: two basilicas, a baptistry, a chapel and several houses, the residence of the bishop and the priest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vandals were in Dj&amp;eacute;mila for only a short time; the city was retaken by the Byzantines in 553. Excavations did not begin on the abandoned site, which is one of the world's most beautiful Roman ruins, until 1909.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated 900 m above sea-level, Dj&amp;eacute;mila, or Cuicul, with its forum, temples, basilicas, triumphal arches and houses, is an interesting example of Roman town planning adapted to a mountain location.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Djémila</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>212</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2002-2006</danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/193</http_url><id_number>193</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_193.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.5500000000</latitude><location>Commune and Wilaya (province) of Tipasa</location><longitude>2.3833333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tipasa comprises a unique group of Phoenician, Roman, palaeo-Christian and Byzantine ruins alongside indigenous monuments such as the Kbor er Roumia, the great royal mausoleum of Mauritania.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Tipasa, on the Mediterranean coast 70&amp;nbsp;km west of Algiers, brings together one of the most extraordinary archaeological complexes of the Maghreb; it is perhaps the one that is most significant to the study of the contacts between the indigenous civilizations and various waves of colonization from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD. This coastal city was first a Carthaginian trading centre, whose cemetery is one of the most extensive of the Phoenician world (6th-2nd centuries BC). It was then conquered by the Romans who used it as a base from which to conquer the Mauritanian kingdoms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest Roman settlement is located in the centre of the city on a steep slope protected by cliffs and by a rudimentary defensive wall. In AD 147, at the time of the war undertaken by Antoninus Pius against the Mauritanians, this modest settlement was enclosed by a wall, 2,300&amp;nbsp;m in length. This rampart, which is flanked by square and circular towers, includes three main entrances, two of which are protected by semi-circular fortified defensive works comparable with those found in Gaul and Germany. Within this enclosure there are important buildings situated both in the original core of the city and in its new quarters: the forum, the &lt;em&gt;curia&lt;/em&gt;, the &lt;em&gt;capitolium&lt;/em&gt;, two temples, an amphitheatre, a &lt;em&gt;nymphaeum&lt;/em&gt;, a theatre and baths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The impressive ruins of the civic buildings are set in the heart of a dense network of private houses (many decorated with paintings and mosaics), commercial warehouses, and industrial establishments of the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Christianity was established in the city in the second half of the 3rd century(Tipasa later became a bishopric) and there are numerous Christian religious buildings. The immense 4th-century seven-aisled basilica, the central aisle of which was later subdivided, and a baptistry based on a circular plan, were located &lt;em&gt;intra muros&lt;/em&gt; to the west on the hill of Ras Knissia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beyond the enceinte, a vast Christian cemetery spreads out around a funerary chapel which Bishop Alexander constructed as a resting place for his predecessor. Across to the east are the Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, and on the hill of St Salsa are to be found the tomb and the church dedicated to this martyr, which became the object of a pilgrimage around which another cemetery developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vandal invasion of the 430s did not mark the definitive end of Tipasa's prosperity, but although the city was reconquered by the Byzantines in 534, it fell into a decline in the 6th century from which it never recovered.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the shores of the Mediterranean, Tipasa was an ancient Punic trading-post conquered by Rome and turned into a strategic base for the conquest of the kingdoms of Mauritania. It comprises a unique group of Phoenician, Roman, palaeochristian and Byzantine ruins alongside indigenous monuments such as the Kbor er Roumia, the great royal mausoleum of Mauretania.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tipasa</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>214</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/194</http_url><id_number>194</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_194.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.4841666667</latitude><location>Commune of Timgad, Wilaya (province) of Batna</location><longitude>6.4688611111</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Timgad, which lies on the northern slopes of the Aur&amp;egrave;s mountains in a site of great natural beauty, is a consummate example of a Roman military colony created ex nihilo by the Emperor Trajan in AD 100 under the name of Thamugadi. With its square enclosure and orthogonal design based on the cardo and decumanus, the two perpendicular routes running through the city, it is an excellent example of Roman town planning at its height, while it would have served as a compelling image of the grandeur of Rome on Numidian soil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inscribed in a square enceinte measuring 355&amp;nbsp;m on each side, the layout of Timgad is based on a precise orthogonal grid, originating from the decumanus, which follow the axis of the military road from Theveste to Lambesis, and the north-south axis of the cardo. The result is a network of insulae of regular proportions, which is interrupted only to the south in order to provide space for large public buildings: the forum and its annexes (&lt;em&gt;basilica&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;curia&lt;/em&gt;), temples, a theatre with a seating capacity of 3,500, a market and baths. In the north-east sector, there are other baths and a public library, conforming with the network of insulae, open into the cardo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the mid-2nd century, the rapid growth of the city could no longer be constricted by the narrow confines of its original foundation. Timgad spread beyond the perimeters of the ramparts, and several major public buildings were constructed in the new quarters to the west and to the south, such as the &lt;em&gt;capitolium&lt;/em&gt;, temples, markets and baths. Most of these buildings date from the Severan period when the city enjoyed its 'golden age', which is further attested to by immense private residential buildings such as the House of Sertius or the House of Hermaphrodite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Early Empire, the buildings were frequently restored, the streets were paved with large rectangular slabs of limestone, and particular attention was paid to the disposition of public conveniences. The houses sparkled under their decor of sumptuous mosaics, which were intended to offset the absence of precious marbles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Christian period, Timgad was a bishopric which became renowned at the end of the 4th century when Bishop Optat became the spokesman for the Donatist heresy. After the Vandal invasion of 430, Timgad was destroyed by tribesmen from the Aur&amp;egrave;s mountains at the end of the 5th century. The city saw a revival of activity after the Byzantine reconquest in the 6th century, but the Arab invasion brought about the destruction of Thamugadi, where occupation ceased definitively after the 8th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Timgad lies on the northern slopes of the Aurès mountains and was created &lt;em&gt;ex nihilo&lt;/em&gt; as a military colony by the Emperor Trajan in AD 100. With its square enclosure and orthogonal design based on the &lt;em&gt;cardo&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;decumanus&lt;/em&gt;, the two perpendicular routes running through the city, it is an excellent example of Roman town planning.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Timgad</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>215</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/565</http_url><id_number>565</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_565.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.7833300000</latitude><location>City and Wilaya (province) of Algiers</location><longitude>3.0602800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kasbah of Algiers is a unique form of medina, or Islamic city. As such it is an outstanding example of a historic Maghreb city with specificities related to the natural site and history of the city, despite the destruction due to poor preservation of the ancient urban fabric. The Kasbah preserves very interesting traditional Arab Mediterranean houses in which the ancestral Arab lifestyle and Muslim customs have blended with other architectural traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It stands in one of the finest coastal sites on the Mediterranean, overlooking the islands where a Carthaginian trading-post was established in the 4th century BC. The Kasbah contains the remains of the citadel, old mosques and Ottoman-style palaces as well as the vestiges of a traditional urban structure associated with a deep-rooted sense of community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Algiers is even more complex and turbulent than that of the entire country. Located on the seashore, the site was inhabited from at least the 6th century BC, when a Phoenician trading post was established. Carthaginians, various Berber tribes, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs (beginning in the 7th century) took turns coveting and ultimately taking the city. Spain's expansionist policy also embraced Algeria and took advantage of weakness among local powers due to rivalries between the smaller Maghreb states that emerged from the Berber invasions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A Turk corsair, Khair-al-Din founded his capital in Algiers (1516) and made a large part of the modern Algerian coast dependent on the Ottoman Sultan. The central power at Istanbul intervened relatively little in administration of the region, and the Bey ruled as master in his city where military might and trade joined forces to produce great economic prosperity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the city began in 1516 and continued until the 17th century. Although the administrative and military organization implied the presence of many Turks, Algiers was not an Ottoman city. The city combined the science of Turkish military architecture with Arab-Mediterranean architectural tradition. The flourishing state of trade is expressed in the extreme richness of the interior decoration of houses in Algiers. The unique natural site is the reason for the winding streets, veritable meanders that are characteristic of the ancient city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;European misunderstanding of the Arab lifestyle on the one hand, and, on the other hand, settlers' desire for their own customs and architectural and urban aesthetics combined to produce severe destruction. Fortunately, part of the city was saved. In the 1920s, real interest was expressed in safeguarding the ancient city. However, the Algerian authorities ordered the first studies for safeguarding the Algiers Kasbah only in the early 1970s. At that time it was classified as a historic site and a vast restoration and upgrading plan was adopted for the ancient city. A very intelligent redevelopment plan is under way for the Kasbah, to introduce modern comfort without upsetting the traditional urbanism and architecture and to restore the Kasbah's original functions: residential, commercial and cultural quarters.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kasbah is a unique kind of medina, or Islamic city. It stands in one of the finest coastal sites on the Mediterranean, overlooking the islands where a Carthaginian trading-post was established in the 4th century BC. There are the remains of the citadel, old mosques and Ottoman-style palaces as well as the remains of a traditional urban structure associated with a deep-rooted sense of community.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kasbah of Algiers</site><states>Algeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>667</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;According to tradition, in recognition of the support its people gave him against the Saracens, Charlemagne founded Andorra in 805 when he made the bishop of Urgell its overlord. The French counts of Foix contested this overlordship, and finally in 1278 an agreement was reached providing joint suzerainty and the establishment of the principality of Andorra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Andorra was governed from 1419 by a Council, &lt;em&gt;Consell de la Terra&lt;/em&gt; , with representatives from all the Communes. In 1981 the &lt;em&gt;Consell Executiu&lt;/em&gt; , the Andorran Government, was established, and in 1993 Andorra joined the United Nations. The President of France and the Bishop of Urgell remain titular co-princes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For 715 years, from 1278 to 1993, the Andorrans thus lived under a unique, stable co-principality. This long period of stability (fortified houses were apparently demolished in the 13th century as part of the &amp;lsquo;arbitration&amp;rsquo; awards) and the relative remoteness of its mountain terrain, meant that Andorra remained a rural state with the economy based largely on livestock farming. These factors also encouraged the persistence of strong cultural traditions related to mountain living.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Change came swiftly from the mid-20th century with the development of low-tax shopping in the main town of Andorra la Vella. Between 1960 and 2000 the population grew from 8000 to 70,000, with today around 33% being Andorrans. In the last twenty years, large ski resorts have been developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Madriu-Perafita-Claror valley is the last remaining vestige of the Andorran rural way of life. It appears to have survived more by chance than planning through the absence of any access road. The Government is now committed to retaining this distinctiveness, through not allowing the development of a road, while at the same time putting measures in place to allow the valley to be part of the Andorran agricultural economy, through encouraging high quality livestock based on sustainable regimes.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1160</http_url><id_number>1160</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1160.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ad</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley is a microcosm of the way its inhabitants have harvested the scarce resources of the high Pyrenees over the past millennia to create a sustainable living environment in harmony with the mountain landscape. The Valley is a reflection of an ancient communal system of land management that has survived for over 700 years.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.4947222200</latitude><location>Part of Communes of Encamp, Andorra la Vella, Saint Julia de Loria and Escaldes-Engordany</location><longitude>1.5955555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley offers a microcosmic perspective of the way people have harvested the resources of the high Pyrenees over millennia. Its dramatic glacial landscapes of craggy cliffs and glaciers, with high open pastures and steep wooded valleys, covers an area of 4,247&amp;nbsp;ha, 9% of the total area of Andorra. It reflects past changes in climate, economic fortune and social systems, as well as the persistence of pastoralism and a strong mountain culture. The site features houses, notably summer settlements, terraced fields, stone tracks, and evidence of iron smelting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It has maintained intact its structures of organization and management of space since medieval times. Since then there has been no substantial alteration of the geopolitical and territorial model, which is why it has come down as a living witness to the history of Andorra and the coexistence between the men of the mountains and an extraordinary natural environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most striking natural heritage elements are the glacial geomorphology (U-shaped valley, glacial circuses, the lake system of Gargantillar-Els Estanys, Estany de la Nou, rock glaciers, the hanging valley of Estany Blau, etc.), the post-alpine plateaux of Calm de Claror, the dynamics of avalanches, the vegetation associated with water (wet moorlands and peat bogs, riparian woodland, etc.), and various threatened vertebrate species (bearded vulture, capercaillie, ptarmigan, Tengmalm's owl, dotterel, Pyrenean desman, etc.). The lichens of the circus of Estanyons have served to obtain the first dating of the Little Ice Age in the Eastern Pyrenees, showing the relevance of this cold period to European history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like most of the territory of Europe, the valley is not virgin land. Man has used it, crossed it, and enjoyed it for centuries, moulding a landscape in which his imprint is everywhere present. The main historical uses of this zone were farming (tillage, animal husbandry, forestry), iron working and hydroelectric power. As a result, numerous human elements have survived to make up the cultural landscape of the valley. The structure of the vegetation has also been modified by all these activities, the imprint of which can be read indirectly from meadows sited on forest land, terraces made on steep slopes, or birch woodland replacing old-growth pine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural heritage elements linked to traditional farming are the best represented: barns (R&amp;agrave;mio, Entremesaig&amp;uuml;es), terraces, shepherds' huts, sheep pens, drystone walls, milking stalls, etc., and a network of irrigation ditches in tillage zones. The remains of the Forge of Andorra (at an altitude of 1,900&amp;nbsp;m), the mines at La Maiana and Claror and the numerous charcoal-making sites in the woods bear witness to iron working. The use of hydroelectric resources began in the 1930s, generating its own infrastructure with two dams (L'Illa and R&amp;agrave;mio) and an underground conduit linking R&amp;agrave;mio to the lake at Engolasters. The stone path of the Madriu links all these activities, at the same time a symbol of and unique witness to the presence of man in the valley and forms one of the most characteristic and outstanding values of this cultural landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley offers a microcosmic perspective of the way people have harvested the resources of the high Pyrenees over millennia. Its dramatic glacial landscapes of craggy cliffs and glaciers, with high open pastures and steep wooded valleys, covers an area of 4,247 ha, 9% of the total area of the principality. It reflects past changes in climate, economic fortune and social systems, as well as the persistence of pastoralism and a strong mountain culture, notably the survival of a communal land-ownership system dating back to the 13th century. The site features houses, notably summer settlements, terraced fields, stone tracks and evidence of iron smelting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley</site><states>Andorra</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1487</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1511</http_url><id_number>1511</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1511.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ao</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-6.2688888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>14.2497222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Mbanza Kongo, located on a plateau at an altitude of 570 m, was the political and spiritual capital of the Kingdom of Kongo, one of the largest constituted states in Southern Africa from the 14th to 19th centuries. The historical area grew around the royal residence, the customary court and the holy tree, as well as the royal funeral places. When the Portuguese arrived in the 15th century they added stone buildings constructed in accordance with European methods to the existing urban conurbation built in local materials. Mbanza Kongo illustrates, more than anywhere in sub-Saharan Africa, the profound changes caused by the introduction of Christianity and the arrival of the Portuguese into Central Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mbanza Kongo, Vestiges of the Capital of the former Kingdom of Kongo</site><states>Angola</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2128</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1499</http_url><id_number>1499</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1499.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ag</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.0069444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>-61.7616666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site consists of a group of Georgian-style naval buildings and structures, set within a walled enclosure. The natural environment of this side of the island of Antigua, with its deep, narrow bays surrounded by highlands, offered shelter from hurricanes and was ideal for repairing ships. The construction of the Dockyard by the British navy would not have been possible without the labour of generations of enslaved Africans since the end of the 18th century. Its aim was to protect the interests of sugar cane planters at a time when European powers were competing for control of the Eastern Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Antigua Naval Dockyard and Related Archaeological Sites</site><states>Antigua and Barbuda</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2086</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/145</http_url><id_number>145</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_145.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-50.0000000000</latitude><location>Santa Cruz</location><longitude>-73.2494400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Los Glaciers National Park is an area of exceptional natural beauty, with rugged, towering mountains and numerous glacial lakes, including the great Lago Argentino. This vast alpine area includes the Patagonian ice field which occupies about half of the park. Extending over 14,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, the ice field is the largest ice mantle outside Antarctica. It has a total of 47 glaciers and a further 200 smaller glaciers are independent of the main ice field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is the best place in South America to see glaciers in action. Glacial activity is concentrated around two main lakes, Argentino and Viedma. Lake Argentino is particularly spectacular with three glaciers dumping their effluvia into its milky glacial waters. Massive blue icebergs are launched into the lake with a thunderous splash.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Los Glaciers contains some of the few glaciers in the world that are actually advancing. The effects of retreating and advancing glaciers can be clearly seen. The advancing Mereno glacier in the park often advances so far that its snout cuts off the normal escape stream of Lake Rico, forming a natural dam which inundates vast areas. When the glacier retreats in the heat of summer a wall of water roars down the valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains two distinct vegetation types: subantarctic Patagonian forest and Patagonian steppe. The most impressive wildlife in the park is the birds. The many lakes offer an ideal habitat to black-necked swans and a variety of ducks and geese, and Chilean flamingos wade along the shore. Overhead glides the Andean condor, the largest bird in the world in terms of wing area, and the high grasslands are dotted with Darwin's rhea, South America's version of the ostrich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mammals include an isolated population of southern Andean huemul, and mountain viscacha probably lives in some sectors of the park, but its presence remains to be confirmed. Other species of interest are the guanaco, Argentine grey fox and Austral hog-nosed skunk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site suffers from introduced species, notably the European hare, whose voracious appetite is having a major impact on the natural ecosystem, and two species of trout, which have taken up residence in the rushing streams of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mammals include an isolated population of southern Andean &lt;em&gt;huemul&lt;/em&gt;, and mountain viscacha probably lives in some sectors of the park, but its presence remains to be confirmed. Other species of interest are the guanaco, Argentine grey fox and Austral hog-nosed skunk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prehistoric inhabitants of the area were hunter-gatherers who relied on guanaco for their subsistence. These were followed by the Tehuelchian culture. The park includes at least 14 sites of archaeological interest which are related to these cultures. Tehuelches Indians were almost exterminated during the process of European colonization.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Los Glaciares National Park is an area of exceptional natural beauty, with rugged, towering mountains and numerous glacial lakes, including Lake Argentino, which is 160 km long. At its farthest end, three glaciers meet to dump their effluvia into the milky grey glacial water, launching massive igloo icebergs into the lake with thunderous splashes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Los Glaciares National Park</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>160</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/303</http_url><id_number>303</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_303.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.5180555600</latitude><location>Province: Misiones - Region: Nord-Est</location><longitude>-54.1333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site consists of the national park and national reserves in Misiones Province, north-eastern Argentina. The Iguaz&amp;uacute; River forms the northern boundary of both the reserves and park, and also the southern boundary of Igua&amp;ccedil;u National Park World Heritage site in Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Iguaz&amp;uacute; Falls span the border between Argentina and Brazil. Some 80&amp;nbsp;m high and 3&amp;nbsp;km wide, the falls are made up of many cascades that generate vast sprays of water and produce one of the most spectacular waterfalls in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation is mostly subtropical wet forest rich in lianas and epithytes, although the forests have less species diversity when compared with others in Brazil and parts of Paraguay. Nonethless, over 2,000 species of vascular plant have been identified. Vegitation around falls is particularly luxuriant due to the constant spray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna are typical of the region and include tapir, coati, tamandua, raccon. The site is particularly rich in bird speices with almost half of Argentina's bird species found there. Threatened mammals such as the jaguar, ocelot and tiger-cat number among the carnivores, and the giant anteater and Brazilian otter are also found. Primates include the black-capped capuchin and black howler monkey. There are also small populations of the endangered broad-nosed caiman and the threatened Brazilian merganser (sawbill duck).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first inhabitants in the area were the Caingangues Indians. This tribe was dislodged by the Tupi-Guaranies who coined the name Iguaz&amp;uacute; (Big Water). The first European to reach the falls was the Spaniard Don Alvar Nu&amp;ntilde;es Cabeza de Vaca in 1541 and some 10 years later Spanish and Portuguese colonization commenced. There are at least two sites of particular archaeological interest within the park.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The semicircular waterfall at the heart of this site is some 80 m high and 2,700 m in diameter and is situated on a basaltic line spanning the border between Argentina and Brazil. Made up of many cascades producing vast sprays of water, it is one of the most spectacular waterfalls in the world. The surrounding subtropical rainforest has over 2,000 species of vascular plants and is home to the typical wildlife of the region: tapirs, giant anteaters, howler monkeys, ocelots, jaguars and caymans.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Iguazu National Park</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>340</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The progress of human penetration into South America is the subject of intensive scientific debate at the present time. Some early radiocarbon dates from the north-eastern region of Brazil have challenged the hitherto generally accepted view that this began around 12,000 BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, this does not affect the dating of the occupation of the R&amp;iacute;o Pinturas rock shelter, which has been established by excavation and radiocarbon analysis to c 9300 BP. The first human group (whose art is classified as Stylistic Group A) were long-distance hunters whose main prey was the guanaco.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around 7000 BP a second cultural level can be identified, distinguished by Stylistic Group B. Hunting scenes are no longer found, and the rock art is dominated by hand stencils. There are also some examples of stencils of the feet of the American ostrich (&amp;ntilde;and&amp;uacute;). This culture lasted until c 3300 BP, when the art became more schematic and included highly stylized zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The final cultural phase at R&amp;iacute;o Pinturas began around 1300 BP. Its art (Stylistic Group C), executed in bright red pigments, concentrated on abstract geometric figures and highly schematic representations of animals and humans. It is believed to have been the work of the historic Tehuelche hunter-gatherers who were inhabiting the vast area of Patagonia when the first Spanish traders and settlers arrived. It was the creation of vast cattle ranches (estancias) that brought their way of life to an end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Area Arqueol&amp;oacute;gica y Natural R&amp;iacute;o Pinturas-Santa Cruz is located in the pampas section of the Pinturas River region. Low plateaux at an altitude of 800-1000m are cut by deep canyons bordered by steep cliffs, the main one being that of the Pinturas itself. There are many natural rock shelters in these cliffs. The soil is rocky and poor, but the region supports a diverse natural fauna, in which the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) figures prominently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The climate of the canyons is temperate, since they are protected from the winds that sweep the pampas. The mild winter temperatures and the high humidity as compared with the pampas make this region appropriate for seasonal grazing of the cattle from the estancias. Palaeoclimatic studies based on the sediments of the Cueva de los Manos suggest that the present conditions had been established by 11,000 BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entrance to the Cueva de los Manos is screened by a rock wall that is covered by many hand stencils. Within the rock shelter itself there are five concentrations of rock art. Later figures and motifs are frequently superimposed upon those from earlier periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The paintings were executed with natural mineral pigments that were ground and mixed with some form of binder, the nature of which is unknown. Traces of the pigments were found in the archaeological excavations carried out in the entrance to the cave, thus establishing a contextual link between the paintings and the stratified cultural material. Xray diffraction analysis has shown that the most common minerals used were iron oxides (hematite and maghemite) for red and purple, kaolin for white, natrojarosite for yellow, and manganese oxide for black; gypsum was sometimes added to the mixture.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/936</http_url><id_number>936</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_936.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Cueva de las Manos contains an outstanding collection of prehistoric rock art which bears witness to the culture of the earliest human societies in South America.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-47.1500000000</latitude><location>Patagonia Region, Santa Cruz Province</location><longitude>-70.6666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cueva de las Manos (Cave of the Hands) contains an exceptional assemblage of cave art, executed between 13,000 and 9,500 years ago, which bears witness to the culture of the earliest human societies in South America. It takes its name from the stencilled outlines of human hands in the cave, but there are also many depictions of animals, such as guanacos, still commonly found in the region, as well as hunting scenes. The people responsible for the paintings may have been the ancestors of the historic hunter-gatherer communities of Patagonia found by European settlers in the 19th century. The artistic sequence, which includes three main stylistic groups, began as early as the 10th millennium BP [Before Present]. The sequence is a long one: archaeological investigations have shown that the site was last inhabited around AD 700 by the possible ancestors of the first Tehuelche people of Patagonia. The Cueva is considered by the international scientific community to be one of the most important sites of the earliest hunter-gatherer groups in South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The paintings on the rock shelters and caves are located in an outstanding landscape, with the river running through a deep canyon. The hunting scenes depict animals and human figures interacting in a dynamic and naturalistic manner. Different hunting strategies are shown, with animals being surrounded, trapped in ambushes, or attacked by hunters using their throwing weapons, round stones known as bolas. Some scenes show individual hunters and others groups of ten or more men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entrance to the Cueva is screened by a rock wall covered by many hand stencils. Within the rock shelter itself there are five concentrations of rock art, later figures and motifs often superimposed upon those from earlier periods. The paintings were executed with natural mineral pigments - iron oxides (red and purple), kaolin (white), natrojarosite (yellow), manganese oxide (black) - ground and mixed with some form of binder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Travellers have been visiting the Cueva de los Manos since the mid-19th century and recording their impressions of the paintings. They were first mentioned in the scientific literature during the 20th century, but it was not until the 1960s that they became the subject of serious study. The work of Carlos J. Gradin and his co-workers established the importance of the Cueva de los Manos as a prehistoric rock-art site of international scientific importance. The favourable conditions (very low humidity, no water infiltration, stable rock strata) at the rock shelter have ensured that the state of conservation of all but the most exposed paintings is excellent.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cueva de las Manos, R&amp;iacute;o Pinturas, contains an exceptional assemblage of cave art, executed between 13,000 and 9,500 years ago. It takes its name (Cave of the Hands) from the stencilled outlines of human hands in the cave, but there are also many depictions of animals, such as guanacos (&lt;em&gt;Lama guanicoe&lt;/em&gt; ), still commonly found in the region, as well as hunting scenes. The people responsible for the paintings may have been the ancestors of the historic hunter-gatherer communities of Patagonia found by European settlers in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cueva de las Manos, Río Pinturas</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1091</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/937</http_url><id_number>937</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_937.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; Peninsula Valdés contains very important and significant natural habitats for the in-situ conservation of several threatened species of outstanding universal value, and specifically its globally important concentration of breeding southern right whales, which is an endangered species. It is also important because of the breeding populations of southern elephant seals and southern sea lions. The area exhibits an exceptional example of adaptation of hunting techniques by the orca to the local coastal conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-42.5000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-64.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Pen&amp;iacute;nsula Vald&amp;eacute;s in the Argentinean province of Chubut is a 4,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; promontory, protruding 100&amp;nbsp;km eastwards into the South Atlantic. The 400&amp;nbsp;km shoreline includes a series of gulfs, rocky cliffs, shallow bays and lagoons with extensive mudflats, sandy and pebble beaches, coastal sand dunes and small islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The shores and waters around the Peninsula is a special place for marine mammals. A population of southern right whales uses the protected waters of for mating and calving. The southern elephant seal has its most northern colony here. It reaches peak numbers of over 1,000 individuals and is the only colony in the world reported to be on the increase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The southern sea lion also breeds here in large numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The local population of orcas has used the beaches of Vald&amp;eacute;sto to develop a unique and spectacular approach to hunting. The orcas race into the shallow surf to snatch sea lions or young elephant seals, often throwing themselves onto the beach in the process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has a high diversity of birds. The peninsula's intertidal mudflats and coastal lagoons are important staging sites for migratory shorebirds The Magellanic penguin is the most numerous with almost 40,000 active nests distributed among five different colonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Terrestrial mammals are also abundant. Large herds of guanaco can be seen throughout the peninsula and the mara, an Argentinean endemic, which is endangered in other parts of the country, is found here.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Península Valdés in Patagonia is a site of global significance for the conservation of marine mammals. It is home to an important breeding population of the endangered southern right whale as well as important breeding populations of southern elephant seals and southern sea lions. The orcas in this area have developed a unique hunting strategy to adapt to local coastal conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Península Valdés</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1092</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/966</http_url><id_number>966</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_966.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; The site contains a complete sequence of fossiliferous continental sediments representing the entire Triassic Period (45 million years) of geological history. No other place in the world has a fossil record comparable to that of Ischigualasto-Talampaya which reveals the evolution of vertebrate life and the nature of palaeoenvironments in the Triassic Period.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-30.0000000000</latitude><location>Provinces of San Juan and La Rioja</location><longitude>-68.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Talampaya National Park and the contiguous Ischigualasto Provincial Park straddle the border between the provinces of San Juan and La Rioja in north-western Argentina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ischigualasto-Talampaya region is a desert area forming the western border of the Sierras Pampeanas of central Argentina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated site constitutes almost the entire sedimentary basin known as the Ischigualasto-Villa Union Triassic basin. It was formed by layers of continental sediments deposited by rivers, lakes and swamps over the entire Triassic period (245-208&amp;nbsp;million years ago). The sediments contain fossils of a wide range of plants and animals including the ancestors of mammals and dinosaurs. They constitute the world's most complete continental fossil record known from the Triassic, revealing the evolution of vertebrates as well as the environments they lived in during this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 56 genera of fossil vertebrates have been recorded from the area, including fish, amphibians, and a great variety of reptiles including the direct ancestors of mammals. Most of the fossils are found in the uppermost levels of the geological formations and consist almost entirely of archosaurs, including large herbivorous and carnivorous species, primitive crocodiles and primitive mammals about the size of a rat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The river deposits include large areas of flood plains which indicate rapid flooding, probably after monsoon type storms. Lake and swamp deposits contain large amount of fossil plants, some of them forming coal seams and others preserved as mummification of actual species, an extremely rare form of preservation known from very few localities. Six geologic formations make up the Triassic basin, the earliest of which are the Talampaya and Tarjados formations, red sandstone that forms the impressive cliffs of the Talampaya National Park. The remaining formations are composed of lake beds, swamps, river channels and flood plain deposits. These formations contain the abundant vertebrate and flora fossils.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today Ischigualasto-Talampaya has sparse desert vegetation characterized by xeric shrubs and cactus. The fauna is typical of the arid regions of western Argentina including several species regarded as being of special value because they are either endemic, nationally threatened or culturally valuable, including Andean condor, chestnut canastero, sandy gallito, puma, guanaco, mara and viscacha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Before the Spanish conquest, the area was inhabited by several groups of aborigines, usually semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers. The cultural value of Ischigualasto-Talampaya is of great significance, even though a detailed study of rock art, artefacts and archaeological sites has only recently begun. The site lies on the southernmost area of late Inca influence. At Talampaya, many sites have been unearthed and are easily accessible. At Ischigualasto, six sites of rock art have been discovered. In addition, cave and rock overhang habitation sites, as well as burial sites, campgrounds and tool-making areas have also been found. It is possible to classify much of the rock art in terms of geometric figures, human figures and combined scenes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These two contiguous parks, extending over 275,300 ha in the desert region on the western border of the Sierra Pampeanas of central Argentina, contain the most complete continental fossil record known from the Triassic Period (245-208 million years ago). Six geological formations in the parks contain fossils of a wide range of ancestors of mammals, dinosaurs and plants revealing the evolution of vertebrates and the nature of palaeo-environments in the Triassic Period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ischigualasto / Talampaya Natural Parks</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1130</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540 by St Ignatius Loyola, as part of the Counter-Reformation. The missions established by this hierarchical organization in non-Christian countries had as its principal activities spiritual guidance by means of retreats and teaching. It was governed by its own code of laws.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jesuits were late in arriving in the Spanish American colonies, having been preceded by other orders such as the Franciscans and Dominicans. However, the southern part of the continent was still being explored at the end of the 16th century, providing opportunities for the Jesuits. The Spanish monk Diego de Torres was sent by the order to organize the new Province of Paraguay in 1607. Itinerant missions had already been operating in the region since 1588. Missions were sent from C&amp;oacute;rdoba, the centre of the new Province, to set up colleges and preach the Jesuit message.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of C&amp;oacute;rdoba had been established by Jer&amp;oacute;nimo Luis de Cabrera in 1573 and laid out on the standard Spanish colonial checkerboard pattern. In common with the other orders, the Jesuits were allocated one of the seventy blocks of the original city, but they did not take possession of it until 1599.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One of the first acts of the Jesuits was to build on this block in 1610 the Col&amp;eacute;gio M&amp;aacute;ximo (which was to become the Royal and Pontifical University in the following decade), where teaching was in accordance with the teaching plan &lt;em&gt;Ratio atque Instituto Studiorum Societatis Jesu&lt;/em&gt; (Method and System of Studies of the Society of Jesus), created in 1599 and applied throughout the world by the order. Other monastic buildings followed, including the university and the church and residence of the order. These underwent a number of transformations and reconstructions, both before and after the expulsion of the order in 1767.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The estancias, which concentrated on agriculture, textile production, and mule breeding in addition to their spiritual functions, were highly successful economically. They came into the possession of the Society in various ways, including by purchase and as bequests. Alta Gracia was a cattle ranch owned by Alonso Nieto de Herrera who entered the Society, to which he bequeathed it when he died, whilst La Candelaria was created on lands donated by Francisco de Vera y Mujica in 1678. Caroya was purchased in 1616, Jes&amp;uacute;s Mar&amp;iacute;a in 1618, and Santa Catalina in 1616. All were sold to private individuals when the property of the Society was auctioned off by the Boards of Temporalities after the expulsion.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/995</http_url><id_number>995</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_995.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Jesuit buildings and ensembles of C&amp;oacute;rdoba and the estancias are exceptional examples of the fusion of European and indigenous values and cultures during a seminal period in South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The religious, social, and economic experiment carried out in South America for over 150 years by the Society of Jesus produced a unique form of material expression, which is illustrated by the Jesuit buildings and ensembles of C&amp;oacute;rdoba and the estancias.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-31.4205600000</latitude><location>Province of Cordoba</location><longitude>-64.1911100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jesuit buildings and ensembles of C&amp;oacute;rdoba and the estancias are exceptional examples of the fusion of European and indigenous values and cultures during a seminal period in South America. The Jesuits were late in arriving in the Spanish American colonies, having been preceded by other orders such as the Franciscans and Dominicans. However, the southern part of the continent was still being explored in the late 16th century, providing opportunities for the Jesuits. The Spanish monk Diego de Torres was sent by the order to organize the new Province of Paraguay in 1607 (itinerant missions had already been operating in the region since 1588). Missions were sent from C&amp;oacute;rdoba, the centre of the new province, to set up colleges and preach the Jesuit message. C&amp;oacute;rdoba itself, established by Jer&amp;oacute;nimo Luis de Cabrera in 1573, was laid out on the standard Spanish colonial chequerboard pattern. In common with the other orders, the Jesuits were allocated one of the 70 blocks of the original city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jesuit Block in C&amp;oacute;rdoba contains the core buildings of the Jesuit system: the university, the church and residence of the Society of Jesus, and the college. The National University of C&amp;oacute;rdoba (formerly the Colegio M&amp;aacute;ximo of the Society of Jesus) is arranged round a central open space (originally a botanical garden), and constructed in stone and brick, with spacious colonnades around the courtyard. The Society of Jesus Church is a massive domed structure with two squat towers at the west end, built principally in stone, with brick in the upper levels. It is a single-nave building, the interior is richly decorated, the retablo of the main altar and the pulpit being outstanding examples of Baroque. As in the university, the buildings of the Colegio Nacional de Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de Montserrat are disposed round two open spaces. It is built in the same style as the other structures in the Jesuit Block.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The five estancias illustrate the unique religious, social and economic experiment carried out in the world for a period of over 150 years in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Alta Gracia estancia originally comprised a church, the priests' residence, quarters for the slaves and workers (demolished), cattle pens, vegetable gardens (missing), a textile mill, a reservoir and other mills. The estancia is in the heart of the town, with two spacious patios. The two buildings of the residence and the church form three sides of a square patio, the fourth being closed by a high wall pierced by the main entrance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Santa Catalina estancia is a rural establishment in the beautiful landscape of the C&amp;oacute;rdoba sierras, made up of a church, the priests' residence, workers' quarters, the novices' house (now ruined), a mill and a reservoir. The ground plan, the largest of all the &lt;em&gt;estancias&lt;/em&gt; , is in the form of three patios, the central of which is the main one. The church, a Latin cross in plan, has an imposing Baroque facade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The components of the rural Jes&amp;uacute;s Mar&amp;iacute;a estancia are identical with those of Santa Catalina. Cloisters enclose two sides of the central patio, the others being formed by a storage building and a high stone wall. Furthest from C&amp;oacute;rdoba is the rural estancia of Candelaria. Unlike the others, it is located in a sheltered part of the region. It is smaller than the others, consisting of a chapel, priests' residence, workers' quarters (now demolished) and cattle pens. By contrast, the Caroya estancia is an imposing ensemble, in a more luxuriant landscape. Its mill and reservoir are now ruined, but the patio, surrounded by cloisters and quarters for the boarders of the Colegio Nacional de Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de Montserrat, is striking in its proportions and dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jesuit Block in C&amp;oacute;rdoba, heart of the former Jesuit Province of Paraguay, contains the core buildings of the Jesuit system: the university, the church and residence of the Society of Jesus, and the college. Along with the five estancias, or farming estates, they contain religious and secular buildings, which illustrate the unique religious, social, and economic experiment carried out in the world for a period of over 150 years in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jesuit Block and Estancias of Córdoba</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1159</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of the valley begins with evidence of hunter-gatherer societies living in caves and cave shelters around 10,000 BCE. There probably took part in seasonal migrations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Deteriorating climate between the 6th and 3rd millennium BCE, which heralded drought conditions, seems to have deterred further settlement until an increase in rainfall after 2500 BC, encouraged new groups of people to re-colonise some of the earlier caves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These new settlers combined hunting with agriculture and this restricted their mobility. After about 100 AD villages emerged, and linked to these, traffic between them and with different ecological areas. Caravans of llamas began to transport goods such as obsidian, turquoise, ceramics and the hallucinogenic drug &lt;em&gt;cebil&lt;/em&gt; from the eastern forests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After around 700 AD an increase in population, linked to the improvement agricultural techniques, led to the development of large settlements near the river. Surpluses were traded with neighbouring areas and perhaps much further afield. These settlements certainly reflected the rising power of the Tiwanaku State around Lake Titicaca and there is evidence of trade between the two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After 1000 AD, and perhaps prompted by the collapse of the Tiwanaku state, there was yet another period of social change that heralded the final flowering of the local Quebrada culture. The low settlements were abandoned and towns built on higher rocky outcrops. Known as &lt;em&gt;pucaras&lt;/em&gt; (fortresses), they were characterised by densely grouped housing for growing populations. The separate &lt;em&gt;pucaras&lt;/em&gt; may have been the seats of the heads of different ethnic groups within the valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An increase in population, and a huge increase in trade, led to the cultivation of vast areas along the valley and on the lower slopes of the mountains. Caravan traffic grew in volume and also in extent with the valley becoming linked to the forests, to the Jujuy valley, to the south of Bolivia and to the neighbouring parts of Chile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1430 and 1480, the expansion of the Incan Empire curtailed any further local development. Almost certainly the Incan conquerors arrived along the very trade routes they sought to control. The Incans were interested in exploiting minerals and in setting up large agricultural enterprises to export the products of both to their heartlands. New settlements were established to facilitate this trade and the transport system improved through the construction of a complex system of new engineered roads that linked Quebrada with the formidable transport system that crossed the Incan Empire from Ecuador down to Chile and Argentina &amp;ndash; along a space of some 5,000 miles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the valley gradually succumbed to new conquerors, the Spanish. As with the Incas, the Spanish wished to control the strategic trade routes and harvest the resources of the valley. Trade increased along the existing road network with silver, cattle and cotton being exported and European goods imported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A huge demographic change took place as many of the inhabitants fell victim to new diseases and immigrants from Spain begun to settle in the valley in new settlements. Trade increased and by the 18th century a line of staging posts was established along the main route through the valley and further afield, as part of the link between Buenos Aires and the High Peruvian area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For 14 years from 1810, Quebrada played a crucial role in transferring troops and armaments to and from High Peru in the fight for Independence which was achieved in 1816, and subsequently in the &amp;lsquo;civil wars&amp;rsquo; and border clashes between the new states. In peaceful times in the 19th century, trade increased, particularly after the opening of the salt-peter mines in the trans-Andean desert. The character of that trade changing markedly with the arrival of the railway along the valley in 1900.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Finally, in the 20th century, the main valley route became part of the Pan-American north-south road and thus the valley continues to play an important role in linking the Atlantic with the Pacific.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1116</http_url><id_number>1116</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1116.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Quebrada de Humahuaca valley has been used over the past 10,000 years as a crucial passage for the transport of people and ideas from the high Andean lands to the plains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (iv) and (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Quebrada de Humahuaca valley reflects the way its strategic position has engendered settlement, agriculture and trade. Its distinctive pre-Hispanic and pre-Incan settlements, as a group with their associated field systems, form a dramatic addition to the landscape and one that can certainly be called outstanding.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-23.1998611100</latitude><location>Province of Juyuy</location><longitude>-65.3488611100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Quebrada de Humahuaca follows the line of a major cultural route, the Camino Inca, along the spectacular valley of the Rio Grande, from its source in the cold High Andean desert plateau to its confluence with the Rio Leone some 150&amp;nbsp;km to the south. The valley shows substantial evidence of its use as a major trade route over the past 10,000 years. Scattered along the valley are extensive remains of successive settlements whose inhabitants created and used these linear routes. They include prehistoric hunter/gatherer and early farming communities (9000 BC to AD 400), large structured agricultural societies (AD 400-900), flourishing pre-Hispanic towns and villages (900-1430/80), the Incan empire (1430/80-1535), Spanish towns, villages and churches (153/93-1810), and Republican struggles for independence (1810-20th century). Of particular note are the extensive remains of stone-walled agricultural terrace fields at Coctaca, thought to have originated around 1,500 years ago and still in use today; these are associated with a string of fortified towns known as &lt;em&gt;pucaras&lt;/em&gt; . The field system and the &lt;em&gt;pucaras&lt;/em&gt; together make a dramatic impact on the landscape and one that is unrivalled in South America. The valley also displays several churches and chapels and a vibrant vernacular architectural tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Quebrada de Humahuaca is a long narrow valley carved out by the Rio Grande. It is flanked by high mountain ranges and stretches from the cold high desert plateau of the High Andean lands, to the wide warm humid Jujuy valley to the south-east. The valley has provided a crucial natural route for the transfer of people and ideas from the time of hunters and gatherers to the present day. Through its subvalleys it linked the numerous tracks from the forest areas with the main arterial route, funnelling the resources of the uplands towards the plains. The key aspects of the site are the network of routes through the valley. These encompass remains of ancient tracks, revetted roads, a railway, and finally tarmac-surfaced roads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 26 rock-art sites in the valley so far known show evidence of the use of caves and shelters from the time of the hunter-gatherers right down to the arrival of the Spanish. In some caves, early petroglyphs and pictographs of geometric and zoomorphic shapes, people and animals, are found alongside representations of the Spanish on horseback confronting warriors on foot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a whole, the valley reflects the way its strategic position has engendered settlement and agriculture and trade. The pre-Hispanic and pre-Incan settlements display a complex territorial organizational strategy designed to locate settlements advantageously along the valley and allow the development of intensive agriculture through sophisticated irrigation technologies.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Quebrada de Humahuaca follows the line of a major cultural route, the Camino Inca, along the spectacular valley of the Rio Grande, from its source in the cold high desert plateau of the High Andean lands to its confluence with the Rio Leone some 150 km to the south. The valley shows substantial evidence of its use as a major trade route over the past 10,000 years. It features visible traces of prehistoric hunter-gatherer communities, of the Inca Empire (15th to 16th centuries) and of the fight for independence in the 19th and 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Quebrada de Humahuaca</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1295</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1526</http_url><id_number>1526</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1526.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ar</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-42.8528000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-71.8728000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Los Alerces National Park is located in the Andes of northern Patagonia and its western boundary  coincides with the Chilean border. Successive glaciations have moulded the landscape in the region creating spectacular features such as moraines, glacial cirques and clear-water lakes. The vegetation is dominated by dense temperate forests, which give way to alpine meadows higher up under the rocky Andean peaks. A highly distinctive and emblematic feature is its alerce forest; the globally threatened Alerce tree is the second longest living tree species in the world (&amp;gt;3,600 years). The Alerce forest in the property is in an excellent state of conservation. The property is vital for the protection of some of the last portions of continuous Patagonian Forest in an almost pristine state and is the habitat for a number of endemic and threatened species of flora and fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Los Alerces National Park</site><states>Argentina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2172</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Christianity played a crucial role in the development of Armenian art and architecture. The &amp;ldquo;classic&amp;rdquo; style developed in the 5th-7th centuries, but its further evolution came to an abrupt halt with the Arab occupation that began at the end of the 7th century. Armenia became independent again at the end of the 9th century and Armenian art was revived when the kingdom was consolidated and national identity re-established. The two monasteries of Haghpat and Sanahin date from this period, during the prosperity of the Kiurikian dynasty and the Zakarian Princes. They were important centres of learning, housing some 500 monks, and bear eloquent testimony to the highest achievement of Armenian architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Haghpat, built by the royal Bagratouni dynasty in the Lori district of northern Armenia in the 970s, was known from early times as Sourb Nshan (the Holy Cross) of Haghpat. Construction to the designs of the architect Traat was completed in 991. It suffered from earthquake damage on several occasions, and in 1105 it was taken and burned by the Selcuk prince Amir-Ghzil. Such was the spiritual importance of Haghpat and its neighbour, Sanahin, that the fortress of Kaian was built in 1233 to protect them from the marauding MongoIs, but this was taken by storm in 1241. Nonetheless, monastic life continued and new buildings were added later in the 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. There was a period of extensive restoration in the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/777</http_url><id_number>777</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_777.jpg</image_url><iso_code>am</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the Monastery of Haghpat on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt; considering that it is of outstanding universal value and an exceptional example of ecclesiastical architecture that developed in Armenia in the 10th to 13th centuries which is unique by virtue of its blending of elements of both Byzantine church architecture and the traditional vernacular building style of this region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.0950000000</latitude><location>Villages of Haghpat and Sanahin, Lorri Region</location><longitude>44.7102800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;These two Byzantine monasteries in the Tumanian region from the period of prosperity during the Kiurikian dynasty (10th-13th centuries) were important centres of learning. Sanahin in particular was renowned for its school of illuminators and calligraphers. They are exceptional examples of the 'domed hall' ecclesiastical architecture that developed in Armenia from the 10th to the 13th centuries, which blended elements of both Byzantine church architecture and the traditional vernacular building style of this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of the main church of the large fortified monastic complex of Haghpat, dedicated to the Holy Cross, began in 966-67 and was completed in 991. The central dome rests on the four massive pillars in the side walls. The external walls are almost entirely covered by triangular niches. The apse contains a fresco of Christ Pantocrator. The building is complete and in its original form, apart from some 11th- and 12th-century restorations, including the large gavit through which access is gained to the church. The plan of the gavit, built in the second decade of the 13th century, differs markedly in style from the main church. A large narthex-type building used for meetings, teaching and funerary rituals is based on vernacular architecture in wood, with the roof supported on four pillars in the centre of the structure. Vaulting divides the interior of the roof into nine sections, the central one of which (&lt;em&gt;yerdik&lt;/em&gt; ) is the highest and dominates the interior space, as well as illuminating it. The church is joined by a vaulted passage to a large &lt;em&gt;jamatoun&lt;/em&gt; (chapter house), in the same style as the gavit, built in the 13th century. Also connected to the church is the library, a compact square building dating back to the 12th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sanahin Monastery consists of a large group of buildings on the plateau above the Debet gorge and skilfully integrated into the impressive mountain landscape. The buildings are laid out on two rectangular axes, with their facades facing west. The main church, built in the 10th century, is the Cathedral of the Redeemer. The emphasis of the cross-shaped interior is on the central nucleus and the harmony between the square base and the circular dome. The central dome in this case is surrounded by four two-storey sacristies or chapels. To the west there is a four-columned gavit built in 1181. Its plan is that of a cross inscribed in a square. Lighting is by means of an aperture in the centre of the dome. This is the earliest known example of this type of structure, which owes its origins to Armenian peasant dwellings consisting of square rooms with four free-standing pillars supporting the roof and a central hole to allow smoke to be dispersed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Mother of God (Astvatzatzin), located to the north of the cathedral and connected with it by means of a open-ended vaulted passage, is the oldest building in the complex, built in 934 by monks fleeing from Byzantium. The large library (scriptorium), built in 1063, is square in plan and vaulted, with ten niches of varying sizes in which codices and books were stored. At the south-eastern corner of the library is to be found the small church dedicated to St Gregory the Illuminator. The 11th-century Academy of Gregory Magistros is located between the two main churches. The deep niches along the walls and the abundance of light give this building an exceptional spatial quality. The cemetery, located to the south-east of the main buildings, contains the late 12th-century mausoleum of the Zakarian princes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2000</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These two Byzantine monasteries in the Tumanian region from the period of prosperity during the Kiurikian dynasty (10th to 13th century) were important centres of learning. Sanahin was renown for its school of illuminators and calligraphers. The two monastic complexes represent the highest flowering of Armenian religious architecture, whose unique style developed from a blending of elements of Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture and the traditional vernacular architecture of the Caucasian region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monasteries of Haghpat and Sanahin</site><states>Armenia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>920</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The monastery is situated at the head of the Azat valley, surrounded by towering cliffs. It was founded in the 4th century, according to tradition by St Gregory the Illuminator. The site is that of a spring arising in a cave which had been sacred in pre-Christian times, hence one of the names by which it was known, &lt;em&gt;Ayvirank&lt;/em&gt; (the Monastery of the Cave).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first monastery was destroyed by Arabs in the 9th century, but it was re-established and was flourishing again by the 13th century under the patronage of the Proshyan princes, who are buried there. They provided it with an irrigation system in 1200, as well as paying for the erection and reconstruction of most of the churches in the complex. At this time it was also known as the Monastery of the Seven Churches and the Monastery of the Forty Altars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery was more famous because of the relics that it housed. The most celebrated of these was the spear which had wounded Christ on the Cross, allegedly brought there by the Apostle Thaddeus, from which comes its present name, Geghardavank (the Monastery of the Spear), first recorded in a document of 1250. This made it a popular place of pilgrimage for Armenian Christians over many centuries. Relics of the Apostles Andrew and John were donated in the 12th century, and pious visitors made numerous grants of land, money, manuscripts, etc over the succeeding centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/960</http_url><id_number>960</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_960.jpg</image_url><iso_code>am</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The monastery of Geghard, with its remarkable rock-cut churches and tombs, is an exceptionally well preserved and complete example of medieval Armenian monastic architecture and decorative art, with many innovatory features which had a profound influence on subsequent developments in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.1588900000</latitude><location>Kotayk' Region, near the village of Goght</location><longitude>44.7966700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Geghard complex is an exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a medieval Armenian monastic foundation in a remote area of great natural beauty at the head of the Azat valley, surrounded by towering cliffs. It contains a number of churches and tombs, most of them cut into the rock, which illustrate the very peak of Armenian medieval architecture and decorative art, with many innovatory features that had a profound influence on subsequent developments in the region. It was founded in the 4th century, according to tradition by St Gregory the Illuminator. The first monastery was destroyed by Arabs in the 9th century, but it was flourishing again by the 13th century. The monastery was famous because of the relics that it housed, the most celebrated the spear that wounded Christ on the Cross. Relics of the Apostles Andrew and John were donated in the 12th century and pious visitors made numerous grants of land, money, manuscripts and so on over the succeeding centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most ancient part of the monastery complex of Haghpat is the small Chapel of St Gregory, lying to the east of and outside the main group. It is excavated directly into the rock of the mountainside and is uncompleted. The earliest of the inscriptions on the external wall is from 1177. The ornate decoration of crosses on the facade extends from the built wall on to the rock-face below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built according to an inscription in 1215, the Kathoghik&amp;egrave; (main church) is in the classic Armenian form, an equal-armed cross inscribed in a square in plan and covered with a dome on a square base. It is linked with the base by vaulting. The east arm of the cross terminates in an apse, the remainder being square. In the corners there are small barrel-vaulted two-storey chapels. On the internal walls there are many inscriptions recording donations. The masonry of the external walls is particularly finely finished and fitted. A gavit (entrance hall) links it with the first rock-cut church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As is customary in medieval Armenian architecture, the structure of this building reproduces that of the peasant hut, in which four massive free-standing columns in the centre support a roof of wooden beams with a hole in the centre to admit light. The ecclesiastical version, in stone, is an imposing structure. The peripheral spaces resulting from the location of the columns are variously roofed, while the central space is crowned by a dome with stalactites, the most perfect example of this technique anywhere in Armenia. The gavit was used for teaching and meetings, and for receiving pilgrims and visitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first rock-cut church was built before 1250, entirely dug into the rock and on an equal-armed cruciform plan. To the east a roughly square chamber cut into the rock was one of the princely tombs (&lt;em&gt;zamatoun&lt;/em&gt; ) of the Proshyan dynasty. This gives access to the second rock-cut church built in 1283. The second &lt;em&gt;zamatoun&lt;/em&gt; , reached by an external staircase, contains the tombs of the princes Merik and Grigor. The monastery complex was encircled by a defensive wall in the 12th to 13th centuries. Most of the monks lived in cells excavated into the rock-face outside the main enceinte, which have been preserved, along with some simple oratories.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The monastery of Geghard contains a number of churches and tombs, most of them cut into the rock, which illustrate the very peak of Armenian medieval architecture. The complex of medieval buildings is set into a landscape of great natural beauty, surrounded by towering cliffs at the entrance to the Azat Valley.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastery of Geghard and the Upper Azat Valley</site><states>Armenia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1124</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The religious buildings and archaeological remains in Echmiatsin and Zvartnots bear witness to the implantation of Christianity in Armenia and to the evolution of a unique Armenian ecclesiastical architecture, the Armenian central-domed cross-hall type, which exerted a profound influence on architectural and artistic development in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of Holy Echmiatzin is the most ancient Christian place of worship in Armenia, built in 301-3 by Gregor Lousavorich, the founder of the Armenian Apostolic Church, in Vagharshapat, the capital and religious centre of Armenia at that time. It was originally a vaulted basilica but, following serious damage as a result of political upheavals it was given its present cruciform plan during restoration work in 480. In 618 the wooden cupola was replaced with an identical one in stone which survives almost unchanged. Its mass is supported on four massive independent pillars connected by slender arcades within the exterior walls; those on the northern side belonged to the 4th and 5th centuries. A three-tier belfry was built in front of the western entrance in the 17th century. The six-column rotundas on four-pillar bases, built at the beginning of the 18th century over the northern, eastern and southern apses, give the cathedral a five-domed outline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Hripsimeh represents the perfect example of cruciform plan and central cupola. Its dominant feature is the basic harmony of layout and proportions, as well as the simplicity and classical purity of its facades, the outstanding qualities of the Armenian architecture of the high Middle Ages. Apart from the addition of a bell tower in the 17th century, the monument has undergone no fundamental transformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The distinctive features of the Church of St Gayaneh are its slender and delicate proportions. A dome and ceilings were rebuilt in the 17th century, when a spacious arched portico was built along the western facade as the burial place for the most senior Armenian clergy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Zvartnots Archaeological Site is a unique example of Armenian architecture of the early Christian period. Building of the temple was begun by Catholicos Nerses III in the mid-7th century. After relinquishing the Catholicossal throne for a time in 652, but after his return to office in 658 he completed the construction of the temple with its secular annexes and its ramparts in 662. Zvartnots exerted a major influence on the architecture not only of its own time but also on that of later centuries. Circular in plan and three-tiered, its only borrowing from earlier cruciform and central cupola churches was the interior cruciform plan, which was set inside walls that were circular on the inside but polyhedral on the outside. The remains of Zvartnots and its related buildings, which had been destroyed by an earthquake in the 10th century, were revealed at the beginning of the 20th century by the architect Thoros Thoramanian, who carried out the first reconstruction project.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1011</http_url><id_number>1011</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1011.jpg</image_url><iso_code>am</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The developments in ecclesiastical architecture represented in an outstanding manner by the churches at Echmiatsin and the archaeological site of Zvartnots had a profound influence on church design over a wide region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The churches at Echmiatsin and the archaeological site of Zvartnots vividly depict both the spirituality and the innovatory artistic achievement of the Armenian Church from its foundation.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.1593100000</latitude><location>Armavir Region</location><longitude>44.2951400000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cathedral and churches of Echmiatsin and the archaeological remains at Zvartnots graphically illustrate the evolution and development of the Armenian central-domed cross-hall type of church, which exerted a profound influence on architectural and artistic development in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cathedral and Churches of Echmiatsin and the Archaeological Site of Zvartnots</site><states>Armenia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1181</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/154</http_url><id_number>154</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_154.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-18.2861111100</latitude><location>Off the east coast of the Queensland mainland</location><longitude>147.7000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Great Barrier Reef is a site of remarkable variety and beauty on the north-east coast of Australia. It the world's most extensive stretch of coral reef and is probably the richest area in terms of faunal diversity in the world. Its great diversity reflects the maturity of an ecosystem which has evolved over millions of years on the north-east continental shelf of Australia. The site contains a huge diversity of species including over 1,500 species of fish, about 360 species of hard coral, 5,000 species of mollusc, and more than 175 species of bird, plus a great diversity of sponges, anemones, marine worms and crustaceans, among others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reef system, extending to Papua New Guinea, the reef comprises some 2900 individual reefs of all sizes and shapes covering more than 20,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, including 760 fringing reefs, which range in size from under 1ha to over 10,000&amp;nbsp;ha and vary in shape to provide the most spectacular marine scenery on Earth. There are approximately 600 continental islands including many with towering forests and freshwater streams, and some 300 coral cays and unvegetated sand cays. A rich variety of landscapes and seascapes, including rugged mountains with dense and diverse vegetation and adjacent fringing reefs, provide spectacular scenery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The form and structure of the individual reefs show great variety. Two main classes may be defined: platform or patch reefs, resulting from radial growth; and wall reefs, resulting from elongated growth, often in areas of strong water currents. There are also many fringing reefs where the reef growth is established on subtidal rock of the mainland coast or continental islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site includes major feeding grounds for the endangered dugong and nesting grounds of world significance for two endangered species of marine turtle, the green and the loggerhead, as well as habitat for four other species of marine turtle; given the severe pressures being placed on these species elsewhere, the Great Barrier Reef may be their last secure stronghold. It is also an important breeding area for humpback and other whale species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A wide range of fleshy algae occurs, many of which are small and inconspicuous but which are highly productive and are heavily grazed by turtles, fish, molluscs and sea urchins. In addition, algae are an important component of reef building processes. 15 species of seagrass grow throughout the reef area forming over 3,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of seagrass meadows and providing an important food source for grazing animals, such as dugongs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Great Barrier Reef, and in particular the northern sector, is important in the historic and contemporary culture of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups of the coastal areas of north-east Australia. This contemporary use of and association with the Marine Park plays an important role in the maintenance of their cultures and there is a strong spiritual connection with the ocean and its inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Great Barrier Reef is a site of remarkable variety and beauty on the north-east coast of Australia. It contains the world’s largest collection of coral reefs, with 400 types of coral, 1,500 species of fish and 4,000 types of mollusc. It also holds great scientific interest as the habitat of species such as the dugong (‘sea cow’) and the large green turtle, which are threatened with extinction.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Barrier Reef</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>172</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/167</http_url><id_number>167</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_167.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-34.0000000000</latitude><location>Balranald and Wentworth shires, New South Wales</location><longitude>143.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The fossil remains of a series of lakes and sand formations that date from the Pleistocene can be found in this region, together with archaeological evidence of human occupation dating from 45-60,000 years ago. It is a unique landmark in the study of human evolution on the Australian continent. Several well-preserved fossils of giant marsupials have also been found here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Willandra Lakes Region is primarily a geological site, with fauna and flora of significant interest in an archaeological sense: the Willandra  Lakes may be the best locality for establishing a link between the extinction of the giant marsupial fauna and predation by humans. The Australian geological environment, with its low topographic relief and low energy systems, is unique in the longevity of the landscapes it preserves. The site includes the entire lake and river system from Lake Mulurulu, the latest to hold water, to the Prungle  Lakes, dry for more than 15,000 years, and the region is unique in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Willandra Lakes provide excellent conditions for recording the events of the Pleistocene epoch (when man evolved into his present form), demonstrating how non-glaciated zones responded to the major climatic fluctuations between glacial periods. When Willandra Billabong Creek ceased to flow and so to replenish the lakes, this dried in series from the Prungle Lakes in the south to Lake Mulurulu in the north over several thousand years; as each lake evaporated, it became an independent system undergoing a basic transformation from fresh water to saline water to dry lake bed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As long as water remained in a lake, dunes were accumulated along the eastern margins. It is this system of transverse crescent-shaped dunes, called 'lunettes', which contain evidence of past hydrological and geochemical environments. The freshwater lakes concentrated clean quartz sands on eastern beaches, but the lakes became more saline as they dried out, and clay pellets were chipped from the exposed lake floor by high winds to form distinctive clay lunettes. Such clay dunes are rare in world terms, and the well-preserved fossil examples in the Willandra Lakes region are an important geological resource; the 30&amp;nbsp;m high Lake Chibnalwood clay lunette is one of the largest in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Willandra Lakes Region is a remarkable example of a site where the economic life of Homo sapiens can be reconstructed, showing a remarkable adaptation to local resources and a fascinating interaction between human culture and the changing natural environment. The fossil landscape remains largely unmodified since the end of the last Pleistocene ice age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological discoveries made here are of outstanding value. They include a 26,000-year-old cremation site (the oldest known in the world), a 30,000-year-old ochre burial, the remains of giant marsupials in an excellent state of conservation, and grindstones from 18,000 years ago used to crush wild grass for flour whose age is comparable with that claimed for the earliest seed-grind economies. The region also contains the remains of hearths, some dated to 30,000 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region also provides evidence of the most distant point of dispersal reached during the course of the last glaciation by &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt; and the earliest economic data in the world for human dependence on freshwater resources, in a pattern paralleled by Aborigines as recently as 100 years ago on the Darling  River.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The fossil remains of a series of lakes and sand formations that date from the Pleistocene can be found in this region, together with archaeological evidence of human occupation dating from 45–60,000 years ago. It is a unique landmark in the study of human evolution on the Australian continent. Several well-preserved fossils of giant marsupials have also been found here.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Willandra Lakes Region</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>185</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/186</http_url><id_number>186</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_186.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-31.5655555600</latitude><location>New South Wales</location><longitude>159.0883333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the South Pacific, 700 km north-east of Sydney, the property is included administratively in New South Wales. The preserve includes some 75% of the land area of Lord Howe Island and all of the offshore islands and rocks of significant size in the region. These are the Admiralty Group; Mutton Bird and Sail Rock; Blackburn (Rabbit) Island; Gower Island; and Ball's Pyramid, together with a number of small islands and rocks. The seaward boundary follows the mean high water mark and consequently excludes all littoral and marine areas. The entire island group has remarkable volcanic exposures not known elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main island of Lord Howe measures 10 km from north and south and is little more than 2 km in width. It roughly describes a crescent, enclosing a coral reef lagoon on its south-western side. The island's topography is dominated by the southerly Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird. Only a narrow isthmus of lowland country in the north-central part of the island is habitable. The northern tip consists of steep hillsides culminating in extensive sea cliffs against the northern coastline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lord Howe Island is the eroded remnant of a large shield volcano which erupted from the sea floor intermittently for about 500,000 years in the late Miocene (6.5-7 million years ago). The island group represents the exposed peaks of a large volcanic seamount which is about 65 km long and 24 km wide and which rises from ocean depths of over 1,800 m. Four separate series of volcanic rocks are recognized on the main island group: tuffs, breccia and basalts, with widespread intrusion of basaltic dykes. The dominant landforming process on Lord Howe since the last of the volcanic eruptions has been marine erosion, which has cut and maintained major cliffs. Slope failure and accumulation of talus at the foot of some cliffs, especially in the south, have modified their original shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island supports the southern truest coral reef in the world, which is of Pleistocene to Recent Age and differs considerably from more northerly warm water reefs. It is unique in being a transition between the algal and coral reef, due to fluctuations of hot and cold water around the island. A wide variety of vegetation types has been described for the islands, with the diversity corresponding with the range of habitats. Variable exposure to wind and penetration of salt spray appear to be the main determinants of vegetation occurrence, structure and floristic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; A population of the large forest bat occurs on the Island. No other indigenous native mammals are known. Introduced species, however, include mice, rats and goats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are at least 129 native and introduced bird species. Lord Howe is now the only known breeding ground for providence petrel. Fleshy-footed shearwater breeds in large numbers, with possibly half the world's population present seasonally. Other important species breeding within the preserve include kermadec petrel, black-winged petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, little shearwater, white-bellied storm petrel, masked booby, and red-tailed tropic bird in greater concentrations than probably anywhere else in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest European discovery of Lord Howe appears to have been in 1788 by the British. A small permanent settlement was established in the 19th century, subsisting on trade with passing ships. There is no recognized evidence of prior Polynesian or Melanesian discovery or settlement.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A remarkable example of isolated oceanic islands, born of volcanic activity more than 2,000 m under the sea, these islands boast a spectacular topography and are home to numerous endemic species, especially birds.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lord Howe Island Group</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>206</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;With the opening of the Gwydir Highway in December 1960, the Gibraltar Range became accessible and moves were initiated to establish a national park. Approximately 14,000ha was reserved for public recreation by notification in the Government Gazette of 8 March 1963 and further 1,425ha was added by notification in the Government Gazette of 17 September 1965. The area was formally created a national park under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1967. Further land was incorporated with the park by proclamation in the Government Gazette of 24 December 1970 (c. 105ha) and 1 July 1977 (c. 1,790ha). Washpool National Park was reserved under the Forestry Revocation and National Parks Reservation Act, 1983. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/368</http_url><id_number>368</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_368.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-28.2500000000</latitude><location>States of New South Wales and Queensland</location><longitude>150.0500000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1994</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site, comprising several protected areas, is situated predominantly along the Great Escarpment on Australia&amp;rsquo;s east coast. The outstanding geological features displayed around shield volcanic craters and the high number of rare and threatened rainforest species are of international significance for science and conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gondwana Rainforests of Australia</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>422</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vi)(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological evidence indicates that parts of central Australia have been continuously occupied for at least 30,000 years (although probably only on a temporary basis during the most arid phases). A period of "intensification" and social and cultural adaptive evolution by Anangu began some 5000 years ago, during which new tool types were introduced, new forms of rock art created, and new camping patterns established. A broader diet was established, including the exploitation of the seeds of several grass species as additional sources of food. More complex patterns of social organization are manifested during this period with the appearance of larger base camps and the emergence of contemporary forms of rock art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The evolution of the Anangu hunting and gathering culture took place in parallel with the evolution of farming but in a contrasting ecosystem: both are human cultural responses to the changing post-glacial global climate. A key feature of the Anangu adaptation was the mapping of social groups on the landscape in such a way that each local group held pre-eminent rights over a particular base camp adjacent to a semi-permanent water supply. The group was responsible for the management of food resources in the country (&lt;em&gt;ngura&lt;/em&gt; ) surrounding that camp, but did not assert exclusive rights to those resources: reciprocal rights were allowed to neighbouring groups. Both Uluru and Kata Tjuta are traditional base camps of this kind; around 20% of Anangu living at any rime today in the Mutitjulu community are visitors from other communities in the region. The effectiveness of this system is demonstrated by the archaeological evidence of a substantial rise in population density in the region over the past 5000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first European to see Uluru was the explorer Gosse, who named it Ayers Rock after the then Chief Secretary of New South Wales. The year before Ernest Giles had named Kata Tjuta after Queen Olga of W&amp;uuml;rttemberg. A short period of competitive exploration began to investigate the possibilities of the area for pastoral expansion once the overland telegraph, constructed in the 1870s, had made it more accessible for colonization, but in less than twenty years the sponsors of these explorations withdrew, concluding that this country was too arid for occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the first decades of the 20th century the Commonwealth, South Australian, and Western Australian Governments declared extensive reserves in central Australia as sanctuaries for the Anangu speakers of several related dialects, designed to protect them from unfavourable contact with white Australians while they were being re-educated into European culture. Anangu resisted assimilation, frequently leaving missions and government settlements to return to a traditional life-style and to transmit the &lt;em&gt;tjukurpa&lt;/em&gt; to their children. A din road was pushed through in the 1940s and so Anangu were able to exploit tourists as a source of independence from government rations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Uluru-Kata-Tjuta area was excised from the South West Reserve in 1958 and reserved as Ayers Rock-Mount Olga National Park, under the care, control, and management of the then Northem Territory Reserves Board. A number of tourist motels were built in the vicinity of Uluru early in the life of the Park. Although the Reserves Board was hostile to any encouragement of an Anangu presence at Uluru, the Welfare Branch secured a lease within the Park on which the Ininti store was constructed as an Anangu-owned enterprise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1973 a Parliamentary inquiry examined the management of the Park and recommended that tourist accommodation should be relocated outside the Park boundaries for environmental reasons. It also recommended protection of Anangu sacred sites at Uluru and training for Anangu rangers. The Uluru (Ayers Rock-Mount Olga) National Park, covering 1325 km2, was declared on 24 May 1977 under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975. Day-to-day management was carried out by the Conservation Commission of the Northern Terri tory, with funding and overall policy direction provided by the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service. Some Anangu were employed as rangers but bad no place in the formal management of the Park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In November 1983 the Prime Minister announced the intention of the Commonwealth Government to grant title of Uluru National Park to the Aboriginal traditional owners with a lease-back of the area to the Director of National Parks and Wildlife, in accord with the wishes of the traditional owners. Freehold title was handed over to the Uluru-Kata Tjuta Aboriginal Land Trust on 26 October 1985, and in April1986 a Board of Management was established to manage the Park in conjunction with the Director of National Parks and Wildlife. It was at Anangu request that the official name was changed in 1993 to Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, in order to reflect the Aboriginality of the Park and of its cultural landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/447</http_url><id_number>447</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_447.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.3333333300</latitude><location>Northern territory</location><longitude>131.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the southern margin of the major Amadeus sedimentary basin, the park comprises extensive sand plains, dunes and alluvial desert, punctuated by the Uluru monolith and Kata Tjuta.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Uluru is composed of hard sandstone which has been exposed as a result of folding, faulting and the erosion of surrounding rock. The monolith has a base circumference of 9.4&amp;nbsp;km, smooth sloping sides of up to 80&amp;deg; gradient and a relatively flat top. Major surface features of the rock include sheet erosion with layers 1-3&amp;nbsp;m thick, parallel to the existing surface, breaking away; deep parallel fissures which extend from the top and down the sides of the monolith; and a number of caves, inlets and overhangs at the base formed by chemical degradation and sand blast erosion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kata Tjuta comprises 36 steep-sided rock domes of gently dipping Mount Currie conglomerate consisting of phenocrysts of fine-grained acid and basic rocks, granite and gneiss in an epidote-rich matrix. Kata Tjuta tends to have hemispherical summits, near-vertical sides, steep-sided intervening valleys and has been exposed by the same process as Uluru.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation, modified by substrate stability, climate and fire, can be grouped into five major categories, arranged concentrically around the monolith formations. First, Uluru supports hardy perennial grass in soil pockets, and sedge on very shallow soil; second, the Kata Tjuta foothills support annual grasses; third, the fans and outwash alluviums around the monoliths support a complex of open grassland, low trees and shrubs. During rainy periods this vegetation can be luxuriant. Fourth, the plains area supports dense groves of mulga, acacia and native fuschia. Fifth, the sand dunes, rises and plains are dominated by spinifex grass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 22 native mammals found in the park, including dingo, red kangaroo, common marsupial mole, hopping mouse, several bat species including Australian false vampire, bilgy, occasional short-nosed echidna, and several small marsupials and native rodents. Introduced red fox, cat, house mouse and European rabbit, in addition to feral dogs and camels, compete with indigenous species. More than 150 bird species have been recorded in the park, and all five Australian reptile families are represented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park, and in particular the Uluru monolith, is one of several equally important and interconnected centers of local and religious significance scattered throughout the extensive area of western central Australia occupied by Aborigines. Cave paintings on Uluru, some of which are considered to be ancient, indicate the length of time Aborigines have been present in the area. Traditional religious philosophy, Tjukurpa, provides an interpretation of the present landscape, flora, fauna and natural phenomena in terms of the journeys and activities of ancestral beings and consequently binds the people socially, spiritually and historically to the land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement representative of Aboriginal culture, directly associated with religious and cultural traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1994</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This park, formerly called Uluru (Ayers Rock – Mount Olga) National Park, features spectacular geological formations that dominate the vast red sandy plain of central Australia. Uluru, an immense monolith, and Kata Tjuta, the rock domes located west of Uluru, form part of the traditional belief system of one of the oldest human societies in the world. The traditional owners of Uluru-Kata Tjuta are the Anangu Aboriginal people.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ulu&lt;U&gt;r&lt;/U&gt;u-Kata Tju&lt;U&gt;t&lt;/U&gt;a National Park</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>519</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;About 185,OOOha is reserved in 41 national parks designated by the Queensland State Government over the last 50 years. They have been managed by the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service since its inception in 1975. Previously, they were managed by the Queensland Forestry Department. State forests, timber reserves and reserves were established over a similar period. Yarrabah Aboriginal and Islander Reserve was created in 1892. Details for individual protected areas are appended. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1988.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/486</http_url><id_number>486</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_486.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-15.6500000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>144.9666667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This area, which stretches along the north-east coast of Australia for some 450&amp;nbsp;km, from just south of Cooktown to just north of Townsville, is made up largely of tropical rainforests. This biotope offers a particularly extensive and varied array of plants, as well as marsupials and singing birds, along with other rare and endangered animals and plant species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site provides an unparalleled living record of the ecological and evolutionary processes that shaped the flora and fauna of Australia over the past 415&amp;nbsp;million years when first it was part of the Pangaean landmass, then the ancient continent Gondwana, and for the past 50&amp;nbsp;million years an island continent. During these 415&amp;nbsp;million years of evolution, the processes of speciation, extinction and adaptation have been determined by history, particularly continental drift and cycles of climatic change. The rainforests which constitute about 80% of the property have more taxa with primitive characteristics than any other area on Earth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area contains a unique record of a mixing of two continental floras and faunas. This mixing occurred following the collision of the Australian and Asian continental plates about 15&amp;nbsp;million years ago. This collision was a unique event in that it mixed two evolutionary streams of both flora and fauna, in some cases of common origin, which had been largely separated for at least 80&amp;nbsp;million years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancestry of all Australia's unique marsupials and most of its other animals originated in rainforest ecosystems of which the Wet Tropics of Queensland still contains many of the closest surviving members. The site contains one of the most important living records of the history of marsupials and songbirds. The Riversleigh fossil deposits (Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh / Naracoorte) World Heritage site) are rich in marsupial fossil taxa closely related to those still living in the rainforests of the Wet Tropics of Queensland, which represent the best surviving equivalent of the Oligo-Miocene rainforests of Riversleigh. Today the main vegetation type is wet tropical rainforest but this is fringed and to some extent dissected by sclerophyll forests, woodlands, swamps and mangrove forests. The rainforests of the site have been classified into 13 main structural types, including two that have sclerophyll components and have the richest fauna in Australia. The mammal fauna includes monotremes, marsupials, rodents and bats. Nine species are endemic: these include four species of ringtail possum, Australia's only two tree kangaroo species, and the musky rat-kangaroo, which is the smallest and in many respects the most primitive of the macropods. The last two of the endemics, the Thornton Peak rat and &lt;em&gt;Atherton antechinus&lt;/em&gt; , have very restricted distributions which have been used as the basis for defining two centres of endemism for flightless mammals. A notable presence is the flightless Australian cassowary, one of the largest birds in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aboriginal occupation in the area between Cooktown and Cardwell is thought to date back at least 40,000 years. The northern tribes (Barrineans) are considered to represent the first wave of the Aboriginal occupation of Australia, making theirs the oldest rainforest culture in the world. Rainforest culture differed markedly from that of most other Australian Aboriginal tribes, with its heavy dependence on arboreal skills, everyday use of toxic plants and unique weapons. Major centres of survival of this culture are at the Bloomfield River and Murray Upper.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This area, which stretches along the north-east coast of Australia for some 450 km, is made up largely of tropical rainforests. This biotope offers a particularly extensive and varied array of plants, as well as marsupials and singing birds, along with other rare and endangered animals and plant species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wet Tropics of Queensland</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>565</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/577</http_url><id_number>577</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_577.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed this property under &lt;em&gt;criteria (viii) &lt;/em&gt;and &lt;em&gt;(ix)&lt;/em&gt;. It noted that this site is the only volcanically active sub-Antarctic island and illustrates ongoing geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics in the coastal and submarine environment and sub-Antarctic flora and fauna, with no record of alien species. The Committee repeated its request by the sixteenth session for further documentation on the marine resources of the site.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-53.1000000000</latitude><location>Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands</location><longitude>73.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Australian external territory of Heard and McDonald Islands lies in a remote and stormy part of the globe, near the meeting-point of Antarctic and temperate ocean waters in the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean about 1,500&amp;nbsp;km north of Antarctica and over 4,000&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Australia. The islands were unknown to humanity until the 19th century. As the only volcanically active subantarctic islands they 'open a window into the Earth', thus providing the opportunity to observe ongoing geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics. The distinctive conservation value of Heard and McDonald - one of the world's rare pristine island ecosystems - lies in the complete absence of alien plants and animals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Heard Island is the principal island of the property. Mawson Peak, at 2,745&amp;nbsp;m, is the summit of Big Ben, an active, towering volcano that dominates the group, with a thick mantle of snow and glacial ice contrasting black volcanic rocks in a startling array of forms and shapes. The last recorded major eruption on Big Ben was in 1992, but continuous activity is clearly evident from other observations of minor steam and smoke emissions. The driving westerly winds above the Southern Ocean in these latitudes create unique weather patterns when they come up against the enormous bulk of Big Ben, including spectacular cloud formations around the summit and unbelievably rapid changes in winds, cloud cover and precipitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;McDonald Island, 43.5&amp;nbsp;km due west of Heard Island, is the major island in the McDonald Islands group, which also includes Flat Island and Meyer Rock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Island, also volcanic in origin and, like Heard Island, is an undisturbed habitat for subantarctic plants and animals and consists of two distinct parts joined by a narrow central isthmus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Through the years the islands are home to a wide array of animals; seals, flying birds and penguins, including 2&amp;nbsp;million pairs of macaroni penguin representing 16% of the world population. The other extraordinary landforms on the islands include: the flutes of Cape Pillar on McDonald Island and the lonely pinnacle of Meyer Rock; the caves and other lava formations of the northern Heard Island peninsulas; the smoking caldera of Mawson Peak above the palaeocaldera of Big Ben; the western sea cliffs of McDonald Island; the shifting sands of the Nullarbor Plain; and the extensive, dynamically changing Spit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is the only subantarctic island group to contain no known species introduced directly by man, which makes it invaluable for having, within one site, an intact set of interrelated ecosystems; terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine, in which the ongoing evolution of plants and animals occur in a natural state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remains of sealing gangs which occupied Heard following the first landing in 1855 until 1929 can be found on the island.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Heard Island and McDonald Islands are located in the Southern Ocean, approximately 1,700 km from the Antarctic continent and 4,100 km south-west of Perth. As the only volcanically active subantarctic islands they &amp;lsquo;open a window into the earth&amp;rsquo;, thus providing the opportunity to observe ongoing geomorphic processes and glacial dynamics. The distinctive conservation value of Heard and McDonald &amp;ndash; one of the world&amp;rsquo;s rare pristine island ecosystems &amp;ndash; lies in the complete absence of alien plants and animals, as well as human impact.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Heard and McDonald Islands</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>683</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/578</http_url><id_number>578</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_578.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.4861111100</latitude><location>State of Western Australia</location><longitude>113.4361111000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;At the most westerly point of the Australian continent, Shark Bay, with its remarkable coastal scenery and islands, has three exceptional natural features: its vast seagrass beds, which are the largest (4,800&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and most species-rich in the world; its dugong population (estimated at 11,000); and its stromatolites (colonies of algae that form hard, dome-shaped deposits and are among the oldest forms of life on Earth).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The inland terrestrial landscape of Shark Bay is predominantly one of low rolling hills interspersed with &lt;em&gt;birridas&lt;/em&gt; inland saltpans. Shark Bay itself is a large shallow embayment, approximately 13,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in area with an average depth of 9m, enclosed by a series of islands. Influx of oceanic water is through channels: Naturaliste Channel in the north and South Passage in the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The outstanding feature of the bay is the steep gradient in salinities. It ranges from oceanic in the northern and western parts of the bay through metahaline to hypersaline. The salinity gradient has created three biotic zones that have a marked influence on the distribution of marine organisms within the bay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For almost 3,000&amp;nbsp;million years (i.e. 85% of the history of life) only microbes populated the Earth. The only macroscopic evidence of their activities is preserved by stromatolites, which reached their greatest diversity 850&amp;nbsp;million years ago. The stromatolites encrypt evidence of the biology of the microbial communities that created them and the nature of the environments in which they grew. They dominated the shallow seas and formed extensive reef tracts rivaling those of modern coral reefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although microbes have not declined in importance, their activity in building organo-sedimentary structures has, it being more efficient to occupy niches in reefs constructed by faster growing organisms, or indeed to occupy positions within the organisms themselves. Consequently stromatolites and other microbialites have declined in importance over this period, although they have remained locally significant in environments such as Hamelin Pool in Shark bay , where biotic diversity has been limited for one reason or another. The stromatolites and microbial mats of Hamelin Pool were the first modern, living examples to be recognized as comparable to those that inhabited the early seas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Modern day analogues such as occur in great diversity and abundance in Hamelin Pool&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;greatly assist in the understanding of the nature and evolution of the Earth's biosphere until the early Cambrian. The Hamelin Pool stromatolites are considered to be a 'classic site' for the study and classification of stromatolitic microbiolites, as the morphology and biology of diverse living types can be studied through a range of environments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shark Bay region is an area of major zoological importance, primarily due to the isolation habitats on peninsulas and islands being isolated from the disturbance that has occurred elsewhere. Of the 26 species of endangered Australian mammals, five are found on Bernier and Dorre Islands. These are the boodie (burrowing bettong), rufous hare-wallaby, banded hare-wallaby, the Shark Bay mouse and the western barred bandicoot. The Shark Bay region has a rich avifauna with over 230 species, or 35%, of Australia's bird species having been recorded. The site is renowned for its marine fauna, the population of about 11,000 dugong, for example, is one of the largest in the world. Humpback and southern right whales use the bay as a migratory staging post. Bottlenose dolphin occur in the bay, and green turtle and loggerhead turtle nest on the beaches. Large numbers of sharks including bay whaler, tiger shark and hammerhead are readily observed. There is also an abundant population of rays, including the manta ray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The record of aboriginal occupation of Shark Bay extends to 22,000 years BP. At that time most of the area was dry land, rising sea levels flooding Shark Bay between 8000 BP and 6000 BP. A considerable number of aboriginal midden sites have been found, especially on Peron Peninsula and Dirk Hartog Island which provide evidence of some of the foods gathered from the waters and nearby land areas. Shark Bay was named by the English buccaneer William Dampier in the late 17th century. It is the site of the first recorded European landing in Western Australia, with the visit of Dirk Hartog in 1616, followed by William Dampier in 1699.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;At the most westerly point of the Australian continent, Shark Bay, with its islands and the land surrounding it, has three exceptional natural features: its vast sea-grass beds, which are the largest (4,800 km2) and richest in the world; its dugong (&amp;lsquo;sea cow&amp;rsquo;) population; and its stromatolites (colonies of algae which form hard, dome-shaped deposits and are among the oldest forms of life on earth). Shark Bay is also home to five species of endangered mammals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Shark Bay, Western Australia</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>684</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/629</http_url><id_number>629</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_629.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided that the site provides an unique example of exposure of the ocean crust above the sea level and of geological evidence for sea-floor spreading, and is an exposure of the oceanic plate boundary between the Pacific and Australian/Indian plates, exposed with active faults and ongoing tectonic movements.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-54.5947222200</latitude><location>State of Tasmania</location><longitude>158.8955556000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Macquarie Island is an oceanic island in the Southern Ocean, lying 1,500&amp;nbsp;km south-east of Tasmania and approximately halfway between Australia and the Antarctic continent. The island is the exposed crest of the undersea Macquarie Ridge, raised to its present position where the Indo-Australian tectonic plate meets the Pacific plate. It is a site of major geo-conservation significance, being the only place where rocks from the Earth's mantle (6&amp;nbsp;km below the ocean floor) are being actively exposed above sea level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is the only island in the world composed entirely of oceanic crust and rocks from the Earth's mantle deep below the surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Macquarie Island probably began as a spreading ridge under the sea with the formation of new oceanic crust somewhere between 11&amp;nbsp;million and 30&amp;nbsp;million years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At some stage the spreading halted and the crust began to compress, squeezing rocks upward from deep within the mantle. As the ridge grew it eventually became exposed above the ocean surface about 600,000 years ago. Thus, rocks normally only occurring deep within the Earth's mantle have become exposed on the surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since Macquarie Island emerged, it has mainly been carved by marine processes such as wave action, unlike other subantarctic islands, which have been shaped by glaciers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These unique exposures include excellent examples of pillow basalts and other extrusive rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main landscape feature is a central rolling plateau 250-300&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, bounded on all sides by steep cliffs, from the foot of which extends a coastal platform up to 800&amp;nbsp;m wide. Glacial drift up to 20&amp;nbsp;m thick covers much of the plateau and there are several lakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most aesthetically appealing sights of the island are the vast congregations of wildlife, particularly penguins, on suitable parts of the coastal terrace, especially during breeding seasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the breeding season on suitable beaches elephant seals also form impressive colonies. Four species of albatross nest on steep and rugged cliffs, both on the main island and on nearby Bishop and Clerk Islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terrestrial area of Macquarie Island is a State Reserve with protection extending to low water mark. The marine values are protected by the Macquarie Island Marine Park declared by the Commonwealth on 28 October 1999. The primary purpose of the marine park is to protect the conservation values of the region from human disturbance. The marine park contains the world's largest marine highly protected zone, covering more than 16&amp;nbsp;million hectares.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sealers discovered the island in 1810 and inhabited it periodically throughout the 19th century, exterminating the fur seals and greatly reducing the elephant seal population. In 1870, gangs came to exploit the king and royal penguin populations for oil, eliminating the former. The original elephant seal population of about 100,000 animals was reduced by 70% as a result of these operations. The visitors also brought exotic mammals and caused the extermination of two endemic subspecies of land birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are no permanent human inhabitants on Macquarie Island although the Australian Antarctic Division station is occupied all year round. The only access to the island is by sea and there are no harbors or landing facilities, so ship-traffic in the area is minimal.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Macquarie Island (34 km long x 5 km wide) is an oceanic island in the Southern Ocean, lying 1,500 km south-east of Tasmania and approximately halfway between Australia and the Antarctic continent. The island is the exposed crest of the undersea Macquarie Ridge, raised to its present position where the Indo-Australian tectonic plate meets the Pacific plate. It is a site of major geoconservation significance, being the only place on earth where rocks from the earth’s mantle (6 km below the ocean floor) are being actively exposed above sea-level. These unique exposures include excellent examples of pillow basalts and other extrusive rocks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Macquarie Island</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>747</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1860 Fraser Island was gazetted as an Aboriginal reserve. The reserve was largely revoked two years later following the discovery of valuable stands of timber. The remnant Aboriginal reserve was revoked in 1906, after the Aborigines were removed from Fraser Island. In 1908 the central part of Fraser Island was declared a forestry reserve, and by 1925 most of the island had been set aside as state forest. Fraser Island (Great Sandy National Park) (74,900ha), was gazetted in 1971.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remainder of Fraser Island consists predominantly of vacant Crown land of 78,404ha in public ownership, which has been proposed as a National Park extension subject to resolution of Aboriginal Land interests. Parts of this have been effectively managed for conservation purposes, and prior to the Commission of Inquiry had been proposed for "preservation zoning" (DASET, 1991; A.Turner, pers.comm., 1992).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fraser Island (Great Sandy Region) was accepted as a natural World Heritage Site in 1992, on the basis of criteria (ii) and ( iii ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Legislation is proposed to cover the whole area nominated, as a regional park (DASET, 1991).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/630</http_url><id_number>630</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_630.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.2166666700</latitude><location>State of Queensland</location><longitude>153.1333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Fraser Island lies just off the east coast of Australia. Stretching over 120&amp;nbsp;km along the southern coast of Queensland, Fraser Island is the largest sand island in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is a place of exceptional beauty, with long uninterrupted white beaches flanked by strikingly coloured sand cliffs, majestic tall rainforests and numerous freshwater lakes of crystal-clear waters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The massive sand deposits that make up the island are a continuous record of climatic and sea level changes over the past 700,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fraser Island features complex dune systems that are still evolving, and an array of dune lakes that is exceptional in its number, diversity and age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The highest dunes on the island reach up to 260&amp;nbsp;m above sea level. 40 perched dune lakes can be found on the island. These lakes are formed when organic matter, such as leaves, bark and dead plants, gradually build up and harden in depressions created by the wind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island also has several barrage lakes, formed when moving sand dunes block a watercourse, and 'window' lakes, formed when a depression exposes part of the regional water table.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A surprising variety of vegetation types grow on the island, ranging from coastal heath to subtropical rainforests. It is the only place in the world where tall rainforests, up to 50&amp;nbsp;m high, are found growing on sand dunes at elevations of over 200&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Birds are the most abundant form of animal life on the island with over 230 species being recorded. It is a particularly important site for migratory wading birds which use the area as a resting place during their long flights between southern Australia and their breeding grounds in Siberia. A species of particular interest is the endangered ground parrot, which is found in the wallum heath lands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Few mammal species are present on the island. The most common are bats, particularly flying foxes. The dingo population on the island is regarded as the most pure strain of dingoes remaining in eastern Australia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lakes on Fraser Island are poor habitats for fish and other aquatic species because of the purity, acidity and low nutrient levels of the water. Some frog species are adapted to survive in this difficult environment. Appropriately called 'acid frogs', they tolerate the acidic condition characteristic of the Fraser Island lakes and swamps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest date for the occupation of Fraser Island is currently 1,500-2,000 years. Visible remains of Aboriginal settlement include middens, canoe and gunyah trees, and a few other markings such as scars where bees' nests have been removed. The Badtjala and Kabi Kabi groups of Aboriginal people have cultural and other traditional affiliations with the area. European contact, initiated by Matthew Flinders in 1802, was sporadic and limited to explorers, escaped convicts and shipwreck survivors.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Fraser Island lies just off the east coast of Australia. At 122 km long, it is the largest sand island in the world. Majestic remnants of tall rainforest growing on sand and half the world’s perched freshwater dune lakes are found inland from the beach. The combination of shifting sand-dunes, tropical rainforests and lakes makes it an exceptional site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fraser Island</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>748</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Riversleigh was gazetted as part of the Lawn Hill National Park under the Queensland National Park and Wildlife Act 1975 in 1984, and will be declared a national park under the Nature Conservation Act 1992 in due course. Naracoorte was gazetted as Naracoorte Caves in 1917, and is currently protected under the provisions of the South Australia National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/698</http_url><id_number>698</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_698.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-19.0833333300</latitude><location>States of Queensland and South Australia</location><longitude>138.7166667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Riversleigh and Naracoorte are among the world's 10 greatest fossil sites: Riversleigh comprises the southern section of Lawn Hill National Park in north-west Queensland; and Naracoorte lies in the south-east of South Australia. The two sites are representative of the development of Australia's mammal fauna during the Cenozic era (65&amp;nbsp;million years ago to the present).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The faunal assemblages of Riversleigh's fossil fields have profoundly altered understanding about Australia's Middle Cenozoic vertebrate diversity. They span a record of mammalian evolution over 20&amp;nbsp;million years, providing the first records for many distinctive groups of living mammals, such as marsupial moles and feather-tailed possums, as well as many other unique and now extinct Australian mammals such as 'marsupial lions'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A combination of factors have given rise to a site where an exceptional diversity of superb fossils providing an unparalleled window into Oligo-Miocene (15-25&amp;nbsp;million years ago) rainforest faunas that evolved in isolation during Australia's separation from Antarctica. These faunas present the pinnacle of marsupial evolution, predating the late Tertiary placental influx from Asia to Australia and the consequent wholesale re-ordering of faunas in the Plio-Pleistocene epoch (7-2.5&amp;nbsp;million years ago) as the environment changed from rainforest to semi-arid grassland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A 15&amp;nbsp;million-year-old complete skull and almost complete dentition of the monotreme from Riversleigh has already provided a great deal of new information about this highly distinctive group of mammals. Before Riversleigh's fossil record began to unfold, there was only one Tertiary species known of the recently extinct marsupial thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), but different thylacines have been identified from Riversleigh's Oligo-Miocene faunas. Other ancestral marsupial forms found at Riversleigh include mole, bandicoot, marsupial 'lion', koala, wombat, kangaroo and possum. Placental mammals are represented by more than 35 bat species, and the Riversleigh fossil bat record is considered one of the richest in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Naracoorte too, opens a window into a significant period of the Earth's history on a continent dominated by marsupials. The last 170,000 years have been characterized by great climatic changes and the Naracoorte fauna provide a key clue to understanding marsupial responses to these. The Naracoorte assemblage also spans the probable time of arrival of humans in Australia and thus is of additional value in helping to unravel the complex relationships between humans and their environment. Naracoorte caves are also a source of specimens of potential values in DNA analysis of extinct species not always available from studies of swamp/lake/dune recovered fossils.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pleistocene fossil vertebrate deposits of Victoria Fossil Cave at Naracoorte are considered to be, in terms of both volume and diversity, Australia's largest and best preserved and one of the richest deposits in the world. Tens of thousands of specimens representing 99 vertebrate species have been recovered, ranging in size from very small frogs to buffalo-sized marsupials. These include superbly preserved examples of the Australian Ice-Age megafauna as well as a host of essentially modern species such as the Tasmanian devil and thylacine, wallabies, possums, bettongs, mice, bats, snakes, parrots, turtles, lizards and frogs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape at Riversleigh, particularly near the rivers, has a large number of visible archaeological traces of Aboriginal occupation and sites of cultural significance.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Riversleigh and Naracoorte, situated in the north and south respectively of eastern Australia, are among the world’s 10 greatest fossil sites. They are a superb illustration of the key stages of evolution of Australia’s unique fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh / Naracoorte)</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>826</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/917</http_url><id_number>917</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_917.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (ix) and (x):&lt;/em&gt; Australia&amp;rsquo;s eucalypt vegetation is worthy of recognition as of outstanding universal value, because of its adaptability and evolution in post-Gondwana isolation. The site contains a wide and balanced representation of eucalypt habitats from wet and dry sclerophyll, mallee heathlands, as well as localised swamps, wetlands, and grassland. 90 eucalypt taxa (13% of the global total) and representation of all four groups of eucalypts occur. There is also a high level of endemism with 114 endemic taxa found in the area as well as 120 nationally rare and threatened plant taxa. The site hosts several evolutionary relic species (Wollemia, Microstrobos, Acrophyllum) which have persisted in highly restricted microsites.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-33.7000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>150.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Greater Blue Mountains Area consists of 1.03&amp;nbsp;million hectares of sandstone plateaux, escarpments and gorges dominated by temperate eucalypt forest. The site, comprising eight protected areas, is noted for its representation of the evolutionary adaptation and diversification of the eucalypts in post-Gondwana isolation on the Australian continent. There are 91 eucalypt taxa within the Greater Blue Mountains Area, which is also outstanding for its exceptional expression of the structural and ecological diversity of the eucalypts associated with its wide range of habitats. The site provides significant representation of Australia's biodiversity with 10% of the vascular flora as well as significant numbers of rare or threatened species, including endemic and evolutionary relict species, such as the Wollemi pine, which have persisted in highly-restricted microsites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Greater Blue Mountains Area consists of mostly forested landscape on a sandstone plateau inland from central Sydney, New South Wales. The property, which includes eight protected areas in two blocks separated by a transportation and urban development corridor, is made up of seven national parks as well as the Jenolan Caves Karst Conservation Reserve. These are the Blue Mountains, Wollemi, Yengo, Nattai, Kanangra-Boyd, Gardens of Stone and Thirlmere Lakes National Parks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area does not contain mountains in the conventional sense but is described as a deeply incised sandstone plateau rising from less than 100&amp;nbsp;m above sea level to 1,300&amp;nbsp;m at the highest point. There are basalt outcrops on the higher ridges. This plateau is thought to have enabled the survival of a rich diversity of plant and animal life by providing a refuge from climatic changes during recent geological history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;It is particularly noted for its wide and balanced representation of eucalypt habitats from wet and dry sclerophyll, mallee heathlands, as well as localized swamps, wetlands and grassland. There are 91 species of eucalypt (13% of the global total) in the Greater Blue Mountains Area, 12 of which are believed to occur only in the Sydney sandstone region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to its rich diversity of eucalypts, the Area also contains ancient, relict species of global significance. The most famous of these is the recently discovered Wollemi pine, a 'living fossil' dating back to the age of the dinosaurs. Thought to have been extinct for millions of years, the few surviving trees of this ancient species are known only from three small populations located in remote, inaccessible gorges within the nominated property. The Wollemi pine is one of the World's rarest species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than 400 different kinds of animals live within the rugged gorges and tablelands of the Greater Blue Mountains Area. These include threatened or rare species of conservation significance, such as the spotted-tailed quoll, the koala, the yellow-bellied glider and the long-nosed potoroo, as well as rare reptiles including the green and golden bell frog and the Blue Mountains water skink.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Greater Blue Mountains Area consists of 1.03 million ha of sandstone plateaux, escarpments and gorges dominated by temperate eucalypt forest. The site, comprised of eight protected areas, is noted for its representation of the evolutionary adaptation and diversification of the eucalypts in post-Gondwana isolation on the Australian continent. Ninety-one eucalypt taxa occur within the Greater Blue Mountains Area which is also outstanding for its exceptional expression of the structural and ecological diversity of the eucalypts associated with its wide range of habitats. The site provides significant representation of Australia's biodiversity with ten percent of the vascular flora as well as significant numbers of rare or threatened species, including endemic and evolutionary relict species, such as the Wollemi pine, which have persisted in highly-restricted microsites.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Greater Blue Mountains Area</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1071</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Human activity in the area has occurred over some 40,000 years. Radiocarbon dating places the earliest known occupation of the Ord valley, downstream of the Park, some 20,000 years ago. Long-term use of the area is suggested by a plentiful archaeology, as yet incompletely discovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first survey of the area was in July 1879. The first colonists arrived in the Middle Ord region in the mid- 1880s. Gold was discovered 1885 but stock raising became the main activity. &amp;lsquo;By June 1884 the first mob of 4,000 cattle were brought into the Ord River grasslands&amp;hellip;&amp;rsquo; 6,000 followed the following year. By 1902 there were some 47,000 cattle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Overstocking of cattle, which led to over-grazing &amp;lsquo;set in train the destructive process of massive landscape erosion&amp;rsquo;, a process which saw the Aboriginal population involved in unpaid seasonal labour on pastoral stations, while their natural food resources were diminished. The indigenous population decreased by perhaps as much as 50%.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Form 1967 procedures to reverse this process were started. Control of stock and re-vegetation programmes were put in place and the 1968 Pastoral Award stopped the abuse of Aboriginal labour. However, in moving people out of the cattle stations, the measures helped create new living sites &amp;ndash; &amp;lsquo;humpies&amp;rsquo; &amp;ndash; which came to be characterised by social deprivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;lsquo;From around 1985 onwards large numbers of cattle and donkeys (25,000 and 4,000 respectively)&amp;rsquo; were removed to reduce overgrazing still further. The National Park was created in 1987, when the area became uninhabited. The same year saw the start of a programme of protective burning to reduce wildfire and create mosaics of vegetation. By the mid-nineties, tourism had become a local feature, despite the difficulties of access, with ground-based visitors numbering ca 20,000 p.a. and perhaps the same number overflying the Park each year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In spite of more than a 100 years of outside intervention, and the resulting severe changes in the landscape and in social structures, it is claimed in the nomination that Aboriginal people who live near Purnululu still retain communal memories of traditional land management practices, and of Ngarrangkarni associations, and still use the landscape for harvesting wild food and for social gatherings.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1094</http_url><id_number>1094</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1094.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; Earth&amp;rsquo;s history and geological features The claim to outstanding universal geological value is made for the Bungle Bungle Range. The Bungle Bungles are, by far, the most outstanding example of cone karst in sandstones anywhere in the world and owe their existence and uniqueness to several interacting geological, biological, erosional and climatic phenomena. The sandstone karst of PNP is of great scientific importance in demonstrating so clearly the process of cone karst formation on sandstone - a phenomenon recognised by geomorphologists only over the past 25 years and still incompletely understood, despite recently renewed interest and research. The Bungle Bungle Ranges of PNP also display to an exceptional degree evidence of geomorphic processes of dissolution, weathering and erosion in the evolution of landforms under a savannah climatic regime within an ancient, stable sedimentary landscape. IUCN considers that the nominated site meets this criterion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii):&lt;/em&gt; Superlative natural phenomena or natural beauty and aesthetic importance Although PNP has been widely known in Australia only during the past 20 years and it remains relatively inaccessible, it has become recognised internationally for its exceptional natural beauty. The prime scenic attraction is the extraordinary array of banded, beehive-shaped cone towers comprising the Bungle Bungle Range. These have become emblematic of the park and are internationally renowned among Australia&amp;rsquo;s natural attractions. The dramatically sculptured structures, unrivalled in their scale, extent, grandeur and diversity of forms anywhere in the world, undergo remarkable seasonal variation in appearance, including striking colour transition following rain. The intricate maze of towers is accentuated by sinuous, narrow, sheer-sided gorges lined with majestic Livistona fan palms. These and the soaring cliffs up to 250 m high are cut by seasonal waterfalls and pools, creating the major tourist attractions in the park, with evocative names such as Echidna Chasm, and Frog Hole, Piccaninny and Cathedral Gorges. The diversity of landforms and ecosystems elsewhere in the park are representative of the larger region, and lack a unique aesthetic quality, but provide a sympathetic visual buffer for the massif. The powerful aesthetic experience of the Bungle Bungles has aroused huge interest among the public, and the ranges figure prominently in national and international advertising of Australia&amp;rsquo;s tourist attractions, matching the prominence of the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park. Photographers and travel writers include the Bungle Bungles among the world&amp;rsquo;s natural wonders, some describing them as Australia&amp;rsquo;s equivalent of the Grand Canyon.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-17.5000000000</latitude><location>Western Australia</location><longitude>128.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Purnululu National Park is located in the East Kimberley Region of Western Australia located 300&amp;nbsp;km by road south of Kununurra in Western Australia's Ord Region; the listed area is almost 240,000&amp;nbsp;ha. There is an adjacent buffer zone to the north and west (the Purnululu Conservation Zone) of approximately 79,600&amp;nbsp;ha, which is not part of the nominated area. The park comprises four major ecosystems: the Bungle Bungle Mountain Range, a deeply dissected plateau that dominates the centre of the park; wide sand plains surrounding the Bungle Bungles; the Ord River valley to the east and south of the park; and limestone ridges and ranges to the west and north of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bungle Bungle Mountains are an unusual and very dramatic plateau of Devonian quartz sandstone, created through a complex process of sedimentation, compaction, uplift (caused by the collision of Gondwanaland and Laurasia approximately 300&amp;nbsp;million years ago and the convergence of the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate 20&amp;nbsp;million years ago), as well as long periods of erosion. The Bungle Bungle landscape comprises a mass of beehive-shaped towers with regularly alternating, dark grey bands of cynobacterial crust (single-cell photosynthetic organisms). The plateau is dissected by 100-200&amp;nbsp;m deep, sheer-sided gorges. The cone-towers are steep-sided, with an abrupt break of slope at the base and have domed summits. Their surface is fragile but stabilized by crusts of iron oxide and bacteria. They provide an outstanding example of land formation by dissolutional weathering of sandstone, with removal of sand grains by wind, rain and sheet wash on slopes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bungle Bungle Range is one of the most extensive and impressive occurrences of sandstone tower karst in the world&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grassy Ord River valley on the east and south of the park is deeply incised as a result of crustal uplifting during relatively recent geological times. The wide sand plains between the uplands and the river are composed of infertile black soil covered with grassland and scattered trees. The limestone ridges to the west and Osmand Range to the north are better wooded, especially in the forested Osmand Creek valley. These rocks are believed to be of Cambrian age (550-500&amp;nbsp;million years old). There are stromatolites in the Osmand range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Purnululu also has a rich Aboriginal cultural heritage spanning over some 20,000 years. The park provides exceptional testimony to this hunter-gatherer cultural tradition, which has survived to the present day despite the impact of colonization.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 239,723 ha Purnululu National Park is located in the State of Western Australia. It contains the deeply dissected Bungle Bungle Range composed of Devonian-age quartz sandstone eroded over a period of 20 million years into a series of beehive-shaped towers or cones, whose steeply sloping surfaces are distinctly marked by regular horizontal bands of dark-grey cyanobacterial crust (single-celled photosynthetic organisms). These outstanding examples of cone karst owe their existence and uniqueness to several interacting geological, biological, erosional and climatic phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Purnululu National Park</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1272</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)</criteria_txt><danger>0</danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;A major cultural centre for Sydney and its siting at Bennelong Point had been discussed since the 1940s. In 1956 the New South Wales Government called an open-ended international design competition and appointed an independent jury, rather than commissioning a local firm. The competition brief provided broad specifications to attract the best design talent in the world; it did not specify design parameters or set a cost limit. The main requirement of the competition brief was a design for a dual function building with two performance halls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The competition generated enormous interest in Australia and overseas. The New South Wales Government&amp;rsquo;s decision to commission J&amp;oslash;rn Utzon as the sole architect was unexpected, bold and visionary. There was scepticism as to whether the structure could be built given Utzon&amp;rsquo;s limited experience, the rudimentary and unique design concept and the absence of any engineering advice. The competition drawings were largely diagrammatic, the design had not been fully costed and neither Utzon nor the jury had consulted a structural engineer. Utzon&amp;rsquo;s design concept included unprecedented architectural forms and demanded solutions that required new technologies and materials. The New South Wales Government also faced public pressure to select an Australian architect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sydney Opera House is often thought of as being constructed in three stages and this is useful in understanding the history of the three key elements of its architectural composition: the podium (stage 1: 1958&amp;ndash;1961), the vaulted shells (stage 2: 1962&amp;ndash;1967) and the glass walls and interiors (stage 3: 1967&amp;ndash;1973). Architect J&amp;oslash;rn Utzon conceived the overall design and supervised the construction of the podium and the vaulted shells. The glass walls and interiors were designed and their construction supervised by architect Peter Hall supported by Lionel Todd and David Littlemore in conjunction with the then New South Wales Government Architect, Ted Farmer. Peter Hall was in conversation with Utzon on various aspects of the design for at least eighteen months following his departure. Ove Arup &amp;amp; Partners provided the engineering expertise for all three stages of construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Design and construction were closely intertwined. Utzon&amp;rsquo;s unique design together with his radical approach to the construction of the building fostered an exceptional collaborative and innovative environment. His collaborative model marked a break from conventional architectural practice at the time. The design solution and construction of the shell structure took eight years to complete and the development of the special ceramic tiles for the shells took over three years. The Sydney Opera House became a testing laboratory and a vast, open-air pre-casting factory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sydney Opera House took sixteen years to build; this was six years longer than scheduled and ten times more than its original estimated cost. On 20 October 1973 the Sydney Opera House was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II. After inauguration, new works were undertaken over time. Between 1986 and 1988 the land approach and forecourt were reconstructed and the lower concourse developed under the supervision of the then New South Wales Government Architect, Andrew Andersons, with contributions by Peter Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1998 and 1999 the recording and rehearsal room was converted into two areas: an assembly area for the orchestra and the Studio, a revitalised performance space for the presentation of innovative music and performing arts. In 1998, in accordance with the celebration of the 25th anniversary of inauguration, the Sydney Opera House Trust appointed Sydney architect Richard Johnson to advise on future development of the site and to establish planning principles. Through Johnson, the Sydney Opera House Trust began negotiations to reconcile with Utzon and to re-engage him with the building in an advisory capacity. In 1999 Utzon formally accepted Premier Carr&amp;rsquo;s invitation to re-engage with the project by setting down design principles that outline his vision for the building and explain the principles behind his design. Over three years he worked with his architect son and business partner, Jan Utzon, and Richard Johnson to draw up his design principles for the Sydney Opera House, including the refurbishment of the reception hall, construction of the western loggia, exploration of options for improving the Concert Hall acoustics, improving services to the forecourt to support performances, modification of the orchestra pit and interior of the Opera Theatre. In 2002 The Sydney Opera House Trust released the Utzon Design Principles. In 2004 refurbishment of the Utzon Room (formerly known as the reception hall) was completed.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/166</http_url><id_number>166</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_166.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-33.8566666667</latitude><location>New South Wales</location><longitude>151.2152777777</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inaugurated in 1973, the Sydney Opera House is a great architectural work of the 20th century that brings together multiple strands of creativity and innovation in both architectural form and structural design. A great urban sculpture set in a remarkable waterscape, at the tip of a peninsula projecting into Sydney Harbour, the building has had an enduring influence on architecture. The Sydney Opera House comprises three groups of interlocking vaulted &amp;lsquo;shells&amp;rsquo; which roof two main performance halls and a restaurant. These shell-structures are set upon a vast platform and are surrounded by terrace areas that function as pedestrian concourses. In 1957, when the project of the Sydney Opera House was awarded by an international jury to Danish architect J&amp;oslash;rn Utzon, it marked a radically new approach to construction.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sydney Opera House</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1457</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The transportation of people for forced labour is a system shared by many human societies, at various periods of history and in many civilizations. Most often, it involved slavery or the deportation of people following war. However, in the modern and contemporary eras, convict colonies were used as a place for prisoners to serve their sentences in a distant land, where they were generally used for forced labour. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Penal colonies were initially for the imprisonment of criminals, coupled with forced labour. In Europe they were concentrated in military ports, for example, to provide labour to work on galleys or for hard labour in arsenals, building infrastructure, etc. In times of war, forced-labour prison camps are similar in terms of their organization and objectives. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new form of penitentiary combined with a colonial project appeared in the early 17th century in European countries, involving the permanent transportation of prisoners to new territories. Under the Transportation Act of 1718, England organized just such a system for its criminals in its North American colonies. France did the same after closing its galleys in 1748. Being condemned to a convict colony is in theory a severe prison sentence, for a serious crime. In reality, however, because of the colonies&amp;rsquo; need for labour, all sorts of crimes, often relatively minor, led to transportation for more or less lengthy terms. The expression of certain opinions or membership of a banned political group were also punishable in this way. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1775 England stopped transporting its criminals to America, because of the upheaval that eventually led to these colonies gaining their independence. Australia became the replacement destination starting in 1778 with the gradual organization of many convict colonies. Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) was the first place where convicts were landed. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Transportation to Australia reached its maximum between 1787 and 1868, with 166,000 prisoners sent to its many convict stations. Australia was at the time a vast area, inhabited only by Aboriginal peoples, who were rapidly forced away from the most sheltered and most fertile coastal areas. From the point of view of the colonists, everything had to be built, starting with ports, houses, roads, colonial farms, etc. The convicts were often from the lower classes; women accounted for 16% of the total, and there were also quite a few children, who could be punished with transportation from the age of nine. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Australian convict system took different forms in order to meet its many objectives. It evolved out of a great debate in Europe at the turn of the 19th century about how to punish crime and the social role to be given to the transportation of prisoners. The discussion included on the one hand the notion of punishment and on the other the desire to discourage crime through the idea of rehabilitation of personal behaviour by means of work and discipline. Transportation of a labour force to serve colonial development, especially in the more distant lands, was seen as a useful and effective response to these various social issues in England, as well in other European countries such as France and Russia. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Australian case, the convict system was in practice also designed to make the prisoners fully fledged colonists once they had served out their sentences. The considerable distance between Europe and Australia meant that that the convicts almost always remained after their release. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Australian convict system included a variety of prison systems, ranging from outdoor to indoor work, from probationary transportation to simple imprisonment; it included convict stations for women or children (Cascades Female Factory and Point Puer). In some convict stations, the prisoners lived alongside free settlers (Brickendon and Woolmers Estates). Living conditions were naturally very strict, but they were variable in terms of their harshness, depending on the site and function. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Overseeing and transporting the convicts also required the presence of a sizeable prison administration, the organization of a specialized fleet, the presence of numerous guards, etc. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most harsh stations, for those prisoners considered to be the most dangerous, included a prison, hard and often dangerous labour, corporal punishment, such as lashes or deprivation, and solitary confinement. Most sites had a prison and a solitary confinement area; but others were punishment stations, such as Norfolk Island, Port Arthur, and the Tasman Peninsula Coal Mines. These stations were renowned throughout the entire British Empire for their harshness, in order to maintain the fear of transportation among the population and so reduce crime in Great Britain and its colonies. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The convict gang system was used for public works, especially for roads and port facilities. They were generally very strict and the work was hard. Examples include Old Great North Road, Hyde Park Barracks, Port Arthur, Coal Mines, Kingston and Arthur&amp;rsquo;s Vale Historic Area, and Fremantle Prison. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There were also labour convict stations for those prisoners considered to pose less of a threat, where the convicts were made available for private projects, often farming. The entrepreneurs used them at their own risk. Examples include Brickendon and Woolmers Estates and Old Government House. Female labour was more of a manufacturing nature, such as Cascades Female Factory, a textile mill. These were, of course, still prisons with a system of punishment and rewards. Some convict stations used women as servants - for example, on farms and Old Government House. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Those convicts who behaved themselves could earn a lighter sentence, gradually leading to their early release. In the very vivid minds of the social reformists of prisoners, the aim was to establish a probationary path that would gradually lead to social rehabilitation through labour and, finally, to the status of fully fledged colonial settler. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The creation of convict stations in Australia, at the heart of the programme of creating colonies, had particularly negative effects on the Aboriginal peoples. This led to social unrest, forced migration, and the loss of fertile land, as well as devastating epidemics because of their lack of immunity. Conflict and resistance were frequent occurrences as settlers and convicts arrived, often resulting in death. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The penal settlements continued for quite a long time after the transportation system was abolished, up until the eve of World War II, driven by their own dynamic of prisoner management and similar practices, though applied on a far lesser scale, such as exile. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last of the sites to remain in active use was Fremantle Prison, which closed in the early 1990s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today, most of these sites are entirely or in part places of remembrance, museums, or parks.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1306</http_url><id_number>1306</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1306.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-33.3783333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>150.9944444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property includes a selection of eleven penal sites, among the thousands established by the British Empire on Australian soil in the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries. The sites are spread across Australia, from Fremantle in Western Australia to Kingston and Arthur's Vale on Norfolk Island in the east; and from areas around Sydney in New South Wales in the north, to sites located in Tasmania in the south. Around 166,000 men, women and children were sent to Australia over 80 years between 1787 and 1868, condemned by British justice to transportation to the convict colonies. Each of the sites had a specific purpose, in terms both of punitive imprisonment and of rehabilitation through forced labour to help build the colony. The Australian Convict Sites presents the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Australian Convict Sites</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1648</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of the buildings and gardens is closely linked to the history and development of the international exhibition movement &amp;ndash; a phenomena that spread across all continents. Although the first great exhibition took place in 1851, in the Crystal Palace in London, the idea of celebrating manufactured goods had been in being for almost a century, with national exhibitions in England then France and elsewhere in Europe. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The difference between these small celebrations and promotions and the great exhibitions that followed was of scale and classification. The great exhibition movement, as it came to be known, espoused the 19th century passion for discovery and creation, but above all for classification. Classification &amp;ndash; as exemplified in museums and botanical collections &amp;ndash; demonstrated man&amp;rsquo;s control over his surroundings. Great exhibitions were a way of both celebrating the industry that emerged from the Industrial Revolution, and showing man&amp;rsquo;s domination over it in an international context. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 50 exhibitions were held between 1851 and 1915, each different yet sharing common theme and aims &amp;ndash; to chart material and moral progress within a world context, through displaying the industry of all nations. Venues included Paris, New York, Vienna, Calcutta, Kingston, Jamaica and Santiago, Chile. Most had display &amp;lsquo;palaces&amp;rsquo; specially constructed, often from manufactured iron components stretching technology to the limit. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 1870s a form for the overall layout had come to be established which consisted of clusters of history-domes, national pavilions and viewing platforms surrounding a &amp;lsquo;Palace of Industry&amp;rsquo; all set within landscape grounds. And a network of contacts has been set up with &amp;lsquo;commissioners&amp;rsquo; observing and suggesting improvements for the next event. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By around 1900 the slowing of national economies, combined with peoples&amp;rsquo; realisation that manufacturing did not always improve the quality of life, led, outside the United States, to exhibitions begun to lose their appeal. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne is thus an example from the mid-point of the movement. It did not appear out of nowhere: a first small exhibition building had been built in 1854, and others followed larger in scale, usually precursors to international exhibitions elsewhere. The two international exhibitions of 1880 and 1888 took place at a time when Melbourne was booming. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unlike many other exhibition buildings, Melbourne&amp;rsquo;s has survived still on its original plot and surrounded by gardens. However there have been significant changes to the extended complex of buildings and gardens. The east and west annexes of the exhibition building were removed in the 1960s and 1970s (one of the halls being reconstructed off-site as a tram museum). The major recent change has been the building of the new Melbourne Museum in the north garden. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The uses of the building have been diverse since it was built. Until 1901 it was used for exhibitions. It then became part of the parliament until 1919 when it was used a fever hospital during the First World War. Between then and 1975 it served as stores and offices, and as troop accommodation and as a ballroom. The new direction for the building started in 1975 when was officially listed on the Register of the National Estate. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The adjective Royal was added to the building in 1980.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1131</http_url><id_number>1131</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1131.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Royal Exhibition Building and the surrounding Carlton Gardens, as the main extant survivors of a Palace of Industry and its setting, together reflect the global influence of the international exhibition movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement showcased technological innovation and change, which helped promote a rapid increase in industrialisation and international trade through the exchange of knowledge and ideas.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-37.8061111100</latitude><location>Melbourne, Victoria</location><longitude>144.9702778000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Exhibition Building and the surrounding Carlton Gardens, as the main extant survivors of a Palace of Industry and its setting, together reflect the global influence of the international exhibition movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement showcased technological innovation and change, which helped promote a rapid increase in industrialization and international trade through the exchange of knowledge and ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex was designed for the great international exhibitions of 1880 and 1888 in Melbourne. The building, designed by Joseph Reed, is constructed of brick and timber, steel and slate; it combines elements from the Byzantine, Romanesque, Lombardic and Italian Renaissance styles. The property is typical of the international exhibition movement which saw over 50 expositions staged between 1851 and 1915 in venues including Paris, New York, Vienna, Calcutta, Kingston (Jamaica) and Santiago (Chile). All shared a common theme and aims: to chart material and moral progress through displays of industry from all nations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The scale and grandeur of the building reflects the values and aspirations attached to industrialization and its international face. The Building boasts many of the important features that made the expositions so dramatic and effective, including a dome, a great hall, giant entry portals, versatile display areas, axial planning, and complementary gardens and viewing areas. Unlike many international exhibitions, the Building was conceived as a permanent structure that would have a future role in the cultural activities of the growing city of Melbourne.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the great impact of the international exhibition movement worldwide and the impressive nature of the many buildings designed and built to hold these displays, few remain. Even fewer retain their authenticity in terms of original location and condition. The Royal Exhibition Building, in its original setting of the Carlton Gardens, is one of the rare survivors. It has added rarity as the only substantially intact example in the world of a Great Hall from a major international exhibition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Carlton Gardens are in two parts: an axial garden layout in the southern part of the site and a northern garden that was landscaped after the close of the two great 19th century exhibitions. Bounded by Victoria, Rathdowne, Carlton and Nicholson Streets at the edge of Melbourne's city centre, the entire block remains intact as originally designated by the Victorian Parliament in 1878. During the 1880 and 1888 international exhibitions the southern portion of the garden became a pleasure garden, with many attractions. The South  Carlton Gardens, as it is now known, continues to be used for parkland and exhibition purposes. The southern entrance to the building, on the city side, is the apex of the design. A level promenade was created along the front of the building, and a semi-circular space has as its centrepiece an ornate fountain. A ceremonial approach is provided by a 24&amp;nbsp;m wide avenue, and two other paths form a radiating axis from the fountain. In 1888 another fountain, the Westgarth Fountain, was added.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The aesthetic significance of the Carlton Gardens lies in its representation of the 19th-century Gardenesque style. This includes parterre garden beds, significant avenues including the southern carriage drive and Grande All&amp;eacute;e, the path system, specimens and clusters of trees, two small lakes and three fountains. The formal ornamental palace garden, which was the context for the Great Hall of the Palace  of Industry, is substantially intact.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Exhibition Building and its surrounding Carlton Gardens were designed for the great international exhibitions of 1880 and 1888 in Melbourne. The building and grounds were designed by Joseph Reed. The building is constructed of brick and timber, steel and slate. It combines elements from the Byzantine, Romanesque, Lombardic and Italian Renaissance styles. The property is typical of the international exhibition movement which saw over 50 exhibitions staged between 1851 and 1915 in venues including Paris, New York, Vienna, Calcutta, Kingston (Jamaica) and Santiago (Chile). All shared a common theme and aims: to chart material and moral progress through displays of industry from all nations.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Exhibition Building and Carlton Gardens</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1730</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1369</http_url><id_number>1369</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1369.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-22.5625000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>113.8102777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 604,500 hectare marine and terrestrial property of Ningaloo Coast, on the remote western coast of Australia, includes one of the longest near-shore reefs in the world. On land the site features an extensive karst system and network of underground caves and water courses. Annual gatherings of whale sharks occur at Ningaloo Coast, which is home to numerous marine species, among them a wealth of sea turtles. The terrestrial part of the site features subterranean water bodies with a substantial network of caves, conduits, and groundwater streams. They support a variety of rare species that contribute to the exceptional biodiversity of the marine and terrestrial site&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ningaloo Coast</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1763</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(vi)(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kakadu National Park is of the highest interest as an extensive archaeological and ethnological reservation. The first remains of human occupation in Australia, dating from nearly 40.000 years ago, have been identified there. On various sites, excavations have brought to light groups of stone tools, which, because of the axes of polished stone they include, are counted among the oldest in the world; further, in conjunction with the sites of rock paintings, workshops for preparing pigments have been studied which date back at least 18,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is, of course, the aboriginal rock paintings of Kakadu which constituted the decisive argument for the inscription of this cultural property on the World Heritage List in 1981. based on cultural Criteria I, iii, and iv.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These paintings, executed in the open on rock walls, cover a long chronological span, since the oldest date back nearly 20,000 years and the most recent are from contemporary times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For the historian, they constitute a fund of documentary evidence of primordial importance and a source which is unique. In fact, they serve as a source of information on the primal resources, the hunting and fishing activities, the social structure, and the ritual ceremonies of the aboriginal population which have succeeded one another on the site of Kakadu. They bear witness to vanished species. such as the Tasmanian wolf, and allow one to follow, in the details of equipment and of costume, the modifications brought to bear on traditional life by the contacts which were established with Macanese fishermen from the 16th century, and then with Europeans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For the art historian, the ensemble of paintings and pictograms of Kakadu is unique to the extent that it combines multiple figurative and nonfigurative styles, which vary in their apparent chronology with those ensembles, recently inventoried, in southern Africa and in the Sahara. An aesthetic, peculiar to representations of animals and humans in Arnhem Land, may have, moreover, had an influence on graphic forms which appeared after 1930.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For the ethnologist, Kakadu offers a privileged field of exploration and observation, as the Aborigines who continue to inhabit this site contribute to the maintenance of the balance of the ecosystem and. through traditional techniques, ensure the necessary preservation of the most recent rock paintings. The social - if not the ritual - function of these is preserved to a certain extent.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/147</http_url><id_number>147</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_147.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-12.8333333300</latitude><location>Northern territory</location><longitude>132.8333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This unique archaeological and ethnological reserve has been inhabited continuously for more than 40,000 years. The cave paintings, rock carvings and archaeological sites record the skills and way of life of the region's inhabitants, from the hunter-gatherers of prehistoric times to the Aboriginal people still living there. It is a unique example of a complex of ecosystems, including tidal flats, floodplains, lowlands and plateaux, and provides a habitat for a wide range of rare or endemic plant and animal species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park comprises four major landforms: Arnhem land plateau and escarpment complex; southern hills and basins; Koolpinyah surface; and coastal riverine plains. The western rim of the Arnhem land plateau comprises escarpments ranging in height from about 30-330&amp;nbsp;m over a distance of some 500&amp;nbsp;km. In addition to the four major landforms, almost 500&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of intertidal and estuarine areas and two islands lie within the park. The tropical monsoonal climate, with its marked wet and dry seasons, is the major factor determining the surface water hydrology, vegetation and, over time, the landforms of the park region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation can be classified into 13 broad categories, seven of which are dominated by a distinct species of &lt;em&gt;Eucalyptus&lt;/em&gt; . Other categories comprise mangrove; samphire; lowland rainforest; paper bark swamp; seasonal flood plain and sandstone rainforest. Floristically it is the most diverse and most natural area of northern Australia with 46 species of plant considered rare or threatened, and nine restricted to the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of its diversity of land systems from marine and coastal habitats (which support substantial turtle and dugong populations) through to the arid sandstone escarpment, Kakadu is one of the world's richest wildlife parks. One-third of Australia's bird species and one quarter of its freshwater and estuarine fish species species are found in Kakadu. Huge concentrations of waterbirds (2.5&amp;nbsp;million) make seasonal use of the floodplains of the park and there are a diversity of invertebrates including 55 species of termite and 200 species of ant (10% of the total world number) as well as a wide diversity of small mammals. It also contains the most important breeding habitat in the world for the saltwater crocodile and the pig-nosed turtle - both threatened reptiles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All the major landforms are incorporated in the park, which therefore provides an outstanding example of both ancient and recent geological changes to the continent. The park also contains many examples of relict species and species that represent the various periods of the biological evolution of the Australian fauna. The coastal rivers and flood plains illustrate the ecological effects of sea-level change in this part of Australia, as such; the park provides a special opportunity to investigate large-scale evolutionary processes in an intact landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region has been little affected by European settlement, in comparison with the remainder of the continent, hence the natural vegetation remains extensive in area and relatively unmodified, and its faunal composition is largely intact. Approximately 300 Aboriginal people reside in the park, including traditional owners and Aboriginals with recognized social and traditional attachments to the area. The park contains many Aboriginal archaeological, sacred and art sites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1987,1992</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This unique archaeological and ethnological reserve, located in the Northern Territory, has been inhabited continuously for more than 40,000 years. The cave paintings, rock carvings and archaeological sites record the skills and way of life of the region&amp;rsquo;s inhabitants, from the hunter-gatherers of prehistoric times to the Aboriginal people still living there. It is a unique example of a complex of ecosystems, including tidal flats, floodplains, lowlands and plateaux, and provides a habitat for a wide range of rare or endemic species of plants and animals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kakadu National Park</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1872</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Cradle Mountain-Lake st Clair was re-proclaimed as a national park (124,848ha) on 18 July 1971 under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970, subsequent to which various extensions and boundary adjustments have been made. Cradle Mountain was originally established as a scenic reserve (63,943ha) on 16 May 1922 under the Scenery Preservation Act 1915 and extended by 60,705ha to include Lake st Clair and Oakleigh Creek Conservation Area on 1 December 1936. These areas have also received sanctuary status at various times (31 May 1927 in the case of Cradle Mountain) under the Animal and Birds Protection Act 1919. (Oakleigh Creek conservation Area was not upgraded to national park status along with the rest of the scenic reserve in 1971). &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Franklin-Lower Gordon wild Rivers was created a national park on 13 May 1981. Of its 195,200ha expanse, 14,125ha were revoked on 2 september 1982 and vested in the Hydro-Electric Commission. This land is leased to the Department of Lands, Parks and Wildlife from 1 December 1986 for 25 years; for purposes of the National Parks and wildlife Act it is regarded as a state reserve. Three conservation areas covering a total area of 23,135ha ceased to exist on their incorporation into the national park at the time of its establishment, namely Gordon River state Reserve (created on 3 May 1939 and extended on 19 June), Frenchmans Cap National Park (created on 14 June 1941 and extended on 29 August 1951) and Lyell Highway State Reserve (created on 3 May 1939). Southwest National Park was created on 16 October 1969 following the extension and renaming of Lake Pedder National Park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The latter was created on 23 March 1955, some of which was originally part of Port Davey state Reserve established on 24 October 1951. Southwest National Park was re-proclaimed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970 and extended to 372,300ha on 3 November 1976, since when additional extensions have been made on 17 November and 1 December 1976, and on 13 May 1981.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Effective dates of establishment of other conservation areas are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Walls of Jerusalem National Park&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  17 June 1981&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Exit Cave state Reserve&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  4 April 1979&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Central Plateau Conservation Area &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  10 February 1982&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Southwest Conservation Area &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  9 July 1980&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Southwest National Park was designated a biosphere reserve in October 1977. A conglomerate of national parks, comprising Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair, Franklin-Lower Gordon Wild Rivers and Southwest, was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1982 and named Western Tasmanian Wilderness National Parks. It was renamed Tasmanian Wilderness in 1989. Full details on the progress of reservation, except in the case of state forests and Sarah Island Historic Reserve, are given in the World Heritage nomination (Government of Australia, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/181</http_url><id_number>181</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_181.jpg</image_url><iso_code>au</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-41.5833333300</latitude><location>State of Tasmania</location><longitude>145.4166667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Covering an area of over 1&amp;nbsp;million hectares, the Tasmanian Wilderness constitutes one of the last expanses of temperate rainforest in the world. It comprises a contiguous network of reserved lands that extends over much of south-western Tasmania including several coastal islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In contrast to the mainland, the island  of Tasmania is a rugged region with fold structures in the western half and fault structures in the east, both of which are represented in the property. The fold structure province in the south-west is an extremely rugged and densely vegetated region with north-south oriented mountain ranges and valley systems. Changing climates have also influenced landscape development, highlighted most recently by late Cainozoic and Pleistocene glacial and periglacial events. Glacial erosion has contributed to spectacular landform features including horns, ar&amp;ecirc;tes, cirques, U-shaped valleys and rock basins (tarns). The coastline has been subjected to a number of sea-level changes during the glaciations and now provides a classic example of a drowned landscape, as shown by the discordant coastline in the south. Special landforms associated with the development of karst have formed through the solution of carbonate rocks such as (Precambrian) dolomite and (Ordovician) limestone. Features include cave systems, natural arches, clints and grikes, dolines, karren, pinnacles and blind valleys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation has as much in common with cool, temperate regions of South America and New Zealand as with the rest of Australia. In addition to climatic and edaphic factors, the vegetation has developed in response to fire. Aboriginal occupation over the last 30,000 years has constituted a major source of fire; more recently, much fire can be attributed to the interests of fishermen, logging concerns and prospectors. The fauna is of world importance because it includes an unusually high proportion of endemic species and relict groups of ancient lineage. Owing to the diverse topography, geology, soils and vegetation in association with harsh and variable climatic conditions combining to create a wide array of animal habitats, the fauna is correspondingly diverse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The insularity of Tasmania, and of the Tasmanian Wilderness in particular, has contributed to its uniqueness and has helped to protect it from the impact of exotic species which has seriously affected the mainland fauna. Tasmania was cut off from mainland Australia by the flooding of Bass Strait at least 8000 years ago, thereby isolating the aboriginal inhabitants. The Tasmanian Aborigines were, until the advent of the European explorer Abel Tasman, the longest isolated human group in world history, surviving some 500 generations without outside influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Surveys and excavations of inland river valleys have located 37 cave sites, all considered to have been occupied between 30,000 and 11,500 years ago on the basis of the finds. Recent discoveries of rock art at three cave sites have shown that this painting had a ceremonial significance; hand stencils predominated. Stone artefact scatters and quarries and rock shelters in the Tasmanian highlands indicate a distinctive adaptation to this subalpine environment in the later Holocene. The south coast contains a range of shell middens; evidence available so far suggests changing patterns of shellfish exploitation over several thousand years until the arrival of Europeans in the early 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1989</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In a region that has been subjected to severe glaciation, these parks and reserves, with their steep gorges, covering an area of over 1 million ha, constitute one of the last expanses of temperate rainforest in the world. Remains found in limestone caves attest to the human occupation of the area for more than 20,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tasmanian Wilderness</site><states>Australia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1950</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;No doubt because of its location at the narrowest point of the Salzach valley and sheltering between mountain ridges, Salzburg was the site of a substantial prehistoric settlement, and it became the natural choice for a Roman Settlement, &lt;em&gt;Municipium Claudium Juvavum&lt;/em&gt; , at the intersection of three major Roman roads. What remained after the barbarian incursions from the 5th century onwards was granted in 696 by the Bavarian Duke Theodo to the Frankish missionary bishop Hrodbett, at the same time endowing the Abbey of St Peter at the foot Of the Monchsberg and the Nonnberg nunnery that he had founded with large tracts of land. The abbot Of St Peter&amp;rsquo;s alS0 served as bishop. As a secular counterweight a ducaI palace was built between the ecclesiastical district and the river. The early medieval development of the town was in the area between the palace and the river. Churches proliferated and scholars were attracted to the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two significant events took place at the end of the 10th century. The abbacy and archbishopric were separated in 987, and in 996 the burgher town was awarded the right to levy tolls and hold markets. In 1077 Archbishop Gebhard built the fortress of Hohensalzburg, as a symbol of his power. The town continued to grow, spreading along a north-west street parallel with the river. Massive stone walls were built in the 1120s, to replace the earlier wooden Palisades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growing town was ravaged by fire in 1167 and a major rebuilding of the cathedral took Place. Later medieval fires led the burghers to replace their wooden houses with substantial stone buildings of the Inn-Salzach burgher type. With the advent of the Gothic period around 1300 ecclesiastical and lay Proprietors vied in embellishing their town. The Late Gothic art of Salzburg acquired a renown that went far beyond the town itself, and many famous artists lived and worked there in the 15th and 16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, who was appointed Archbishop in 1587, remodeled the entire City, directing his attentions in particular to the residence and the cathedral, with their associated structures. Salzburg escaped the ravages of the Thirty Years&amp;rsquo; war in the first half of the century, partly because of the new defences added by Archbishop Paris Lodron and partly because Of the Archbishop&amp;rsquo;s Clever policy Of neutrality. He was responsible for the foundation of the university in 1622. During this period of prosperity the burghers copied the Style of the Princely buildings in the drastically remodeling of their houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The townscape was enhanced in the closing years of the 17th century with the advent of the Baroque Style, used for a number of notable buildings and a series of monumental fountains that grace the squares Of Salzburg. This period also saw a flowering of the town as a cultural centre of the Enlightenment. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Salzburg in 1756 and lived there until driven away by the Archbishop of the time, Hieronvmus Count Colloredo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ecclesiastical rule ended with the Napoleonic Wars in 1803, and it became an Electorate, Covering Berchtesgaden, Passau, and Eichstatt as well; its first ruler was Ferdinand Ill of Tuscany, who had been driven out of his own Grand Duchy. The war was catastrophic for the economy of Salzburg, which took Several decades to recover. It was not until the railway was built between Salzburg and Linz, extending to Munich, that it began to improve, with the advent of investors from Bavaria as well as elsewhere in Austria. There was a renewed surge of building activity that continued into the Present Century, culminating in the buildings of the Festspielhaus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Salzburg suffered from aerial bombardment in World War II. Post-war reconstruction Went hand-in-hand with expansion, and a number of distinguished works of contemporary architecture were added to the town&amp;rsquo;s rich stock from many periods.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/784</http_url><id_number>784</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_784.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii), (iv) and (vi)&lt;/em&gt; and considered that the site is of outstanding universal value being an important example of a European ecclesiastical city- state which preserves to a remarkable degree its dramatic townscape, its historically significant urban fabric and a large number of outstanding ecclesiastical and secular buildings from several centuries. It is also noteworthy for its associations with the arts, and in particular with music in the person of its famous son, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.8005555600</latitude><location>Salzburg</location><longitude>13.0433333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Salzburg is of outstanding universal value as an important example of a European ecclesiastical city-state which preserves to a remarkable degree its dramatic townscape, its historically significant urban fabric, and a large number of outstanding ecclesiastical and secular buildings from several centuries. It has preserved an extraordinarily rich urban fabric, developed from the Middle Ages to the 19th century when it was a city-state ruled by a prince-archbishop. Its flamboyant Gothic art attracted many craftsmen and artists before the city became even better known through the work of the Italian architects Vincenzo Scamozzi and Santini Solari, to whom the centre of Salzburg owes much of its Baroque appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city skyline, against a backdrop of mountains, is characterized by its profusion of spires and domes, dominated by the fortress of Hohensalzburg. There is a clear separation, visible on the ground and on the map, between the lands of the Prince-Archbishops and those of the burghers - the former characterized by monumental buildings and open spaces, the latter on small plots fronting on narrow streets, with the only open spaces provided by the three historic markets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Salzburg is rich in buildings from the Gothic period onwards, which combine to create a townscape and urban fabric of great individuality and beauty. The cathedral (St Rupert and St Virgil) is the pre-eminent ecclesiastical building and the spiritual city centre. Archaeological excavations during the reconstruction following severe bomb damage in the Second World War have revealed much about the predecessors of the present building, back to its foundation in the 8th century as a three-aisled basilica. The second cathedral, in the same form but much enlarged, was built in 1181, but this was virtually destroyed by fire in 1598, to be replaced by the present structure. The original plan was the work of Vincenzo Scamozzi, a pupil of Andrea Palladio; the present building, the work of Santini Solari, the court master-builder, preserves many of Scamozzi's features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Benedictine Abbey of St Peter, founded in the closing years of the 7th century, contains in its church the only High Romanesque structure in Salzburg, mostly dating from the early 12th century. The main body of the church has undergone many modifications since the 12th century. Of special significance are the cemetery and catacombs of the abbey. The Nonnberg Benedictine Nunnery is the oldest convent north of the Alps, founded around the same time as the Abbey of St Peter. The present massive complex, on the eastern peak of the M&amp;ouml;nchberg, is a striking feature of the townscape, with its dominating church roof and Baroque dome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hohensalzburg Fortress, a Roman structure on this steep rock fan overlooking the city, was replaced in the Middle Ages by a wooden fort. The first stone building dates from the early 12th century and this was enlarged with towers, bastions and outer wards in the 15th century. Massive reconstruction and extension works were initiated at the beginning of the 16th century and continued to the late 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The creation of the Archbishop's Residence, begun in the early 12th century, lies in the heart of the old town. The present layout dates to the major rebuilding carried out by Archbishop Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau in the early years of the 17th century. The buildings are grouped round two courtyards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to its architectural heritage Salzburg is especially noteworthy for its associations with the arts, and in particular with music in the person of its famous son, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Salzburg has managed to preserve an extraordinarily rich urban fabric, developed over the period from the Middle Ages to the 19th century when it was a city-state ruled by a prince-archbishop. Its Flamboyant Gothic art attracted many craftsmen and artists before the city became even better known through the work of the Italian architects Vincenzo Scamozzi and Santini Solari, to whom the centre of Salzburg owes much of its Baroque appearance. This meeting-point of northern and southern Europe perhaps sparked the genius of Salzburg&amp;rsquo;s most famous son, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, whose name has been associated with the city ever since.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of the City of Salzburg</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>927</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The transport route from the valley of the Miirz to the Vienna Depression has been used since prehistoric times. In the Middle Ages it was considered to be one of the few secure Alpine crossings. Transport was possible using pack animals and wagons drawn by oxen. It had become one of the most important international land routes from Venice by the 12th century. However, the Semmering had lost much of its trade by the 15th century owing to the opening up of the Brenner and Radstatter Trauem routes further south. In 1728 the Emperor Karl VI ordered it to be improved as both a commercial and a military road, joining Austria with Trieste rather than Venice, hence its name, the "Trieste Route." In 1841 the steep northern approach was relaid, reducing the gradient by some 5%. The new accessibility of the region brought artists and poets there, to admire the wild scenery, as well as attracting considerable commercial traffic, as the Industrial Revolution developed in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The first railway line (horse-drawn) of any significance on the European continent was opened in 1824-32 between Linz and Budweis (Cesk6 Budejovice) and 1837 saw the installation of the locomotive-hauled line between Florisdorf and Deutsche Wagram. The southbound Vienna-Gloggnitz line opened in 1841 and the section from Miirzzuschlag to Graz was added in 1844, leaving a gap over the difficult Semmering stretch. The line was later extended southwards to Cilli in 1846, Laibach (Ljubljana) in 1849, and finally, over difficult karst terrain, to Trieste in 1857.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The first plan for crossing the Sernmering, involving a 1 :30 gradient, was drawn up in 1841 but not followed up for technical reasons. The project was taken up again in 1842, when Carlo Ghega was appointed Chief Inspector for the southern line, linking Vienna and Trieste. He began by visiting the USA, where he studied 39 railway lines covering 2413km. This showed him that the technical difficulties seen in the first plan were not insuperable, and he began to survey possible routes over the Semmering. Since no reliable maps were available, he had to carry out a complete survey of the area; the difficult terrain led him to develop new surveying instruments, notably the Stampfer'sche Nivellier-Hohen- und Liingenmessinstrument, used to measure height and distance, which was to become an important tool in geodetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; He worked out several routes before settling on one in 1846. It was 42km long, with 22 major bridges and viaducts and a tunnel 1200m long, situated just below the pass; although not the simplest route, it was the most feasible in the light of the technological limitations of the day, notably the lack of powerful explosives for tunnelling. His project plan was completed in 1847, but work did not start immediately, because Ghega was engaged in the construction of the line between Cilli and Laibach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; His project met with considerable opposition , but it was accepted in June 1848 by the new Minister for Public Works, Andreas Baumgartner, who wanted projects offering substantial long-term employment prospects. Despite a storm of protest, from both specialists and the press, work began in August 1848. The entire stretch of line was divided into fourteen sections, each of which was entrusted to a separate firm. At the start 1007 men and 414 women were employed, to increase to over 20,000 as the work progressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The maximum gradient of 1 :25 and the exceptionally small radius curves called for a new type of locomotive, and four firms entered a public competition in 1850. None of the entries was considered to be suitable for production in series, although they met the technical requirements, and so Wilhelm von Eggerth was commissioned to combine the best features of all of them in a new design. The result was triumphantly successful and• 26 engines were immediately commissioned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Construction work on the line and the manufacture of locomotives and rolling stock progressed well, with the result that the transport of passengers and goods over the line was able to start, on schedule, on 17 July 1854.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/785</http_url><id_number>785</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_785.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Semmering Railway represents an outstanding technological solution to a major physical problem in the construction of early railways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; With the construction of the Semmering Railway, areas of great natural beauty became more easily accessible and as a result these were developed for residential and recreational use, creating a new form of cultural landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.6487777800</latitude><location>Between Gloggnitz, State of Lower Austria and Simmering, State of Styria</location><longitude>15.8279722200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Semmering Railway represents an outstanding technological solution to a major physical problem in the construction of early railways. The railway, built over 41 km of high mountains between 1848 and 1854, is one of the greatest feats of civil engineering from this pioneering phase of railway building. The high standard of the tunnels, viaducts and other works has ensured the continuous use of the line to the present day. Furthermore, with its construction, areas of great natural beauty became more easily accessible and as a result these were developed for residential and recreational use, creating a new form of cultural landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The transport route from the valley of the Mürz to the Vienna Depression has been used since prehistoric times. In the Middle Ages it was considered to be one of the few secure Alpine crossings. Transport was possible using pack animals and wagons drawn by oxen, and it had become one of the most important international land routes from Venice by the 12th century. However, the Semmering had lost much of its trade by the 15th century owing to the opening up of the Brenner and Radstatter Trauem routes further south. In 1728 the Emperor Karl Vl ordered it to be improved as both a commercial and a military road, joining Austria with Trieste rather than Venice (hence its name, the Trieste Route).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first railway line (horse-drawn) of any significance on the European continent was opened in 1824-32 between Linz and Budweis (České Budejovice), and 1837 saw the installation of the locomotive-hauled line between Florisdorf and Deutsche Wagram. The southbound Vienna-Gloggnitz line opened in 1841 and the section from Mürzzuschlag to Graz was added in 1844, leaving a gap over the difficult Semmering stretch. The line was later extended southwards to Cilli in 1846, Laibach (Ljubljana) in 1849, and finally, over difficult karst terrain, to Trieste in 1857.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the portals of the tunnels are simple but monumental in design, and are variously ornamented. Support structures are largely in stone, but brick was used for the arches of the viaducts and tunnel facings. The 57 two-storey attendants' houses, sited at approximately 700 m intervals, that are a very characteristic feature of the Semmering line, were built from coursed rubble masonry with brick trimmings. Little remains of the original stations, which were planned originally as no more than relay stations and watering points, but later became converted into more impressive structures as tourist traffic increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The appearance of the whole line was significantly changed between 1957 and 1959, when masts were erected to carry the contact wires needed by the conversion to electrical locomotives. The Semmering pass itself is well known for the 'summer architecture' of the villas and hotels that were built for Viennese society between Gloggnitz and the small market town of Schottwien in picturesque locations. It became one of the first artificially laid out Alpine resorts in the decades following the opening of the railway line. This process had begun even before that project began, with the development of Reichenau an der Rax and Payerbach, to the north-west of Gloggnitz, as tourist areas in the early decades of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Romantic historicism influenced the appearance of the villas and hotels built in this area, a number of which have Gothic or Renaissance antecedents. The steep-gabled and fantastically ornate 'Swiss chalet' also found favour with many builders. The Semmering pass itself was not affected by tourist development for some time after the line opened in 1854. The Southern Railway Company, operators of the line at that time, began development in 1880, at the urging of the court sculptor, Franz Schönthaler, with the construction of the Semmering Hotel. It was, however, Schönthaler's own villa south of the hotel that had the strongest influence on architectural design along the Semmering line. The use of traditional Alpine wooden-frame construction by his architect, Franz von Neumann, was eagerly seized upon by other patrons, and the 'Semmering style' predominated in the buildings erected in the latter part of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Semmering Railway, built over 41 km of high mountains between 1848 and 1854, is one of the greatest feats of civil engineering from this pioneering phase of railway building. The high standard of the tunnels, viaducts and other works has ensured the continuous use of the line up to the present day. It runs through a spectacular mountain landscape and there are many fine buildings designed for leisure activities along the way, built when the area was opened up due to the advent of the railway.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Semmering Railway</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>928</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Katterburg estate, the site of the present Schonbrunn palace, was sold in the mid-16th century by the Klosterneuburg monastery to Emperor Maximilian II, who developed it as a hunting lodge and installed a menagerie. The buildings were badly damaged when Vienna was sacked by the Hungarians in 1605; it was not until 1622 that they were restored by Emperor Ferdinand II. After his death in 1637 the Katterburg became the dowager estate of his widow, Eleanora of Gonzaga. The name was changed to Sch6nbrunn (Beautiful Spring) in 1642, when a new three-storey ch&amp;acirc;teau de plaisance was erected alongside the older building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; In 1683 Vienna was besieged by the Turks, who were finally crushed, but not before they had wrought great destruction in the surroundings of the city, including Sch6nbrunn. During the great rebuilding that followed the siege, Emperor Leopold I commissioned the Italian-trained architect Johann Bernard Fischer von Erlach to design a new building there as a residence for his heir, Grand-Duke Joseph. His first design is now thought to have been prepared simply to demonstrate his capabilities. In this he was highly successful: his design was greatly admired and was to secure him many other commissions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The marriage of Leopold in 1699 caused the second design to be modified, so as to raise its status. Construction began in 1696 and Fischervon Erlach personally oversaw the work. The central section was complete and habitable by 1700, but further work was brought to an end by the outbreak of the war of the Spanish Succession in 1701, and then by the sudden death Of Emperor Joseph I in 1711. The uncompleted building became the residence of the Dowager Empress Amalia Wilhelmine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; When she acceded to the Imperial throne in 1740, Maria Theresia chose Schonbrunn as her permanent residence, and a new phase began in the life of the palace. Urgent repairs were carried out on the dilapidated buildings in 1742-43, followed by major structural changes, which were carried out in three phases: 1743-49, 1753- 63, and 1764-80. Most of the work in the first two phases was carried out to the designs and under the supervision of the architect Nicolaus Pacassi, who was to become, like Fischer von Erlach, the Imperial and Royal Court Architect. The major project of the third phase was the embellishment of the gardens (the Gloriette, the Neptune Fountain, the &amp;quot;Roman Ruins&amp;quot;, the Obelisk&amp;gt;, largely the work of Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorf von Hohenberg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Maria Theresia's immediate successors uoseph II and Leopold II) Showed little interest in Schonbrunn, but it was to become the summer residence of Franz I (1792-1835), and Franz Joseph (1848-1916) spent much of his life there. The latter was responsible for the restoration of the old ROCOCO decor and certain other modifications. The palace's architectural history came to an end in 1870 and there have been no significant changes since that time.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/786</http_url><id_number>786</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_786.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property as an ensemble on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (i) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the site is of outstanding universal value being an especially well preserved example of the Baroque princely residential ensemble, which constitutes an outstanding example of a Gesamtkunstwerk. The Palace and Gardens are exceptional by virtue of the evidence that they preserve of modifications over several centuries that vividly illustrate the tastes, interests and aspirations of successive Habsburg monarchs.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.1866666700</latitude><location>Vienna</location><longitude>16.3133333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn is of outstanding universal value as a particularly well-preserved example of the Baroque princely residential ensemble. Furthermore, the palace and gardens are exceptional by virtue of the evidence that they preserve of modifications over several centuries that vividly illustrate the tastes, interests and aspirations of successive Habsburg monarchs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century onwards, Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn was the site of a hunting lodge and summer residence of the Habsburg family. After total destruction during the last Turkish attack in 1683 the palace was rebuilt in 1695. The emperor, Leopold I, originally commissioned a &lt;em&gt;ch&amp;acirc;teau de plaisance&lt;/em&gt; for Grand-Duke Joseph, the heir to the throne, but dynastic developments during the course of construction required its function to become that of an imperial summer residence, and hence for its size to be increased. It continued in that role until the end of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from some minor 19th-century additions, the palace and its gardens received their appearance in the 18th century. The architectural ensemble contains precious 18th-century interiors. The former apartments of Emperor Franz Joseph in the west wing were adapted in the 19th century with furniture that is also of historical importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn was designed by the architects Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Nicolaus Pacassi and is full of outstanding examples of decorative art. Together with its gardens, the site of the world's first zoo in 1752, it is a remarkable Baroque ensemble and a perfect example of &lt;em&gt;Gesamtkunstwerk&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main part of the palace in its present form is largely the work of Pacassi, although preserving Fischer von Erlach's overall structure. Access to the &lt;em&gt;piano nobile&lt;/em&gt; from the courtyard is via a monumental staircase leading to the impressive Great Gallery, which is ornately decorated with stucco ornamentation and ceiling frescoes symbolizing the Habsburg Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Behind it lies the Small Gallery, which is flanked by two small rooms, the Chinese Round Room and the Chinese Oval Room, both decorated with black and golden painted lacquer panels and furnished with Japanese ceramics and furniture. The Carrousel Room leading off the Great Gallery is the anteroom to the Ceremonial Hall, notable for its series of monumental paintings depicting events in the long reign of Maria Theresa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most impressive of the rooms in the east wing is the sumptuous Vieux-Laque Room, with its priceless oriental lacquer panels set in walnut panelling surrounded by gilded plasterwork and extremely ornate furniture; the Napoleon Room is decorated with enormous Brussels tapestries; the Porcelain Room is a small chamber in which the ornately carved wainscoting is painted in blue and white, and decorated with 213 sketches by Franz Stephan and his children. The rooms in the West Wing are Iess elaborately decorated and were used for domestic purposes by members of the imperial family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vast Baroque gardens and their buildings testify to the imperial dimensions and functions of the palace; the courtyard provides access to the Palace Chapel and the Palace Theatre. The orangery on the east side of the main palace building is the longest in the world. Built in the mid-18th century, it was used not only for Maria Theresa's passion, that of cultivating exotic plants, but also for festive events and performances. The Great Palm House is an impressive iron-framed structure and divided into three sections, erected in 1880 using the technology developed in England. The Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn zoological garden, founded by Franz Stephan of Lorraine, husband of Empress Maria Theresa, in 1752 and hence the oldest in the world, is in the grounds.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 18th century to 1918, Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn was the residence of the Habsburg emperors. It was designed by the architects Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Nicolaus Pacassi and is full of outstanding examples of decorative art. Together with its gardens, the site of the world&amp;rsquo;s first zoo in 1752, it is a remarkable Baroque ensemble and a perfect example of &lt;em&gt;Gesamtkunstwerk&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palace and Gardens of Schönbrunn</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>929</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Recent research deep within the Salzberg has demonstrated that systematic salt production was being carried out in the region as early as the Middle Bronze Age (later 2nd millennium BC). Natural brine was captured in deep basins and evaporated in special ceramic vessels. Of great interest in itself in the history of salt extraction, this development is of considerable significance in illuminating the origins of the Iron Age Hallstatt Culture and in emphasizing the importance of the area as a "scientific reservoir" for further research and increased understanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Underground mining for salt began at the end of the Late Bronze Age, using a shaft technique adopted from copper mining. This production was halted for a relatively short time, possibly because political events caused an interruption in trade. It resumed in the 8th century BC, this time using a system of drift mining with horizontal galleries. Evidence of both techniques has been found in the Salzbergtal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The prehistoric cemetery associated with these industrial operations, discovered in the 1840s, is the type-site for the first phase of the Early Iron Age in Europe, known to archaeologists as the Hallstatt Culture. It was in use in two periods: the 8th and 7th centuries BC and again in the 6th century BC. The rich grave goods, both local products and imported luxury materials, testify to a stratified and highly organized society, trading widely into central Europe, the Baltic, and the Adriatic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Salt extraction continued in the region well into the Roman period, and a Roman industrial settlement has been identified in the Echterntal. Thereafter there is no evidence of the salt being exploited until the early 14th century. However, the name of the medieval town, derived from the West German hal (salt) and the Old High German stat (settlement), first recorded in a deed of 1305, testifies to its primary function. Title to the salt mines passed from the Trauenkirchen monastery to the Austrian Crown, and the town received the right to hold markets. A unique status was accorded to certain citizens of Hallstatt, known as Salzfertiger, who were responsible for drying, packing, and selling cart-loads of salt, which were assigned to them. Their high status is demonstrated by the quality and special nature of their houses, the Salzfertigerhiiuser, to be found in Hallstatt and Bad Ischl.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Salt production required large quantities of timber, for shoring the mines and fuel for evaporation, and so forestry operations were also regulated by the Crown officials. Until the early 16th century salt-mining licences were generally leased to independent burghers, but these were systematically eliminated and in 1524 mining and forestry operations came under direct Crown management. This resulted in the construction of a number of important engineering features, such as the wooden brine pipeline begun in 1595.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;During the Reformation, Protestantism acquired many adherents among the min ers and foresters of the Hallstatt region, but they were not permitted to exercise their faith publicly until the Edict of Toleration of 1781.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A disastrous tire in 1750 destroyed most of the medieval core of Hallstatt. This was followed by massive rebuilding in Late Baroque style, which distinguished the town centre up to the present day. There was a boom in salt production at the beginning of the 19th century, to finance the war against France, but the return of peace saw an abrupt slump. Despite technical innovations, such as the introduction of electric power and the construction of a rail link, which permitted the import of coal (1877), the salterns finally closed down in 1965. Salt production, however, remains as high as ever, though the brine is now piped down the valley to a modern treatment plant at Ebersee; only sorne sixty men are now employed in a very efficient mining operation which has become highly mechanized and computerized. Sorne parts of the mine are now accessible to visitors, including areas made safe for displays arising from the continuing programme of archaeological investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;However, the decline of this industrial base coincided with the rise of a new factor, the recognition of the aesthetic, culturaL and natural qualities of the region by writers such as Adalbert Stifter, novelist and fust Conservator for Upper Austria, and the dramatic poet Franz Grillparzer, and most of the leading painters of the Biedermeier school. The first hotel to serve the growing number of tourists was built in 1855, followed by the first public brine baths in the 1860s. Since that time the region has steadily increased its popularity as a major tourist resort.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/806</http_url><id_number>806</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_806.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (iii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that the Hallstatt-Dachstein/Salzkammergut alpine region is an outstanding example of a natural landscape of great beauty and scientific interest which also contains evidence of a fundamental human economic activity, the whole integrated in a harmonious and mutually beneficial manner.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.5594444400</latitude><location>States of Upper Austria, Styria and Salzburg</location><longitude>13.6463888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Hallstatt-Dachstein/Salzkammergut Alpine region is an outstanding example of a natural landscape of great beauty. It also has great scientific interest because it contains evidence of a fundamental human economic activity, the production of salt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Human activity in the magnificent natural landscape of the Salzkammergut began in prehistoric times, with the salt deposits being exploited as early as the 2nd millennium BC. The name of the medieval town, derived from the West German &lt;em&gt;hal&lt;/em&gt; (salt) and the Old High German &lt;em&gt;stat&lt;/em&gt; (settlement), first recorded in a deed of 1305, testifies to its primary function. This resource formed the basis of the area's prosperity until the mid-20th century, a prosperity that is reflected in the fine architecture of the town of Hallstatt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town grew up along the narrow strip between the steep mountainside of the Salzberg and the lake, and on the M&amp;uuml;hlbach, an artificial promontory out into the lake resulting from the dumping of mining debris over the centuries. Here in the inner market town the houses, largely late Gothic, are ranged round a triangular market square. The typical Hallstatt house is tall and narrow, making maximum use of the restricted space and the steep topography. The lower storeys are constructed in stone with barrel vaulting supporting timber-framed upper storeys, as is customary in the Alpine region. Only a few preserve the original flat saddleback roofs covered with wooden planks or shingles. The southern part of the town, known as In der Lahn, located at the mouth of the Echterntal, is largely of 18th-century date, much of it built after the 1750 fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the more notable buildings are the St Mary's Roman Catholic Parish Church built in the late 15th century to replace an earlier Romanesque structure, parts of which survive. Having suffered only slight damage during the 1750 fire its only Baroque features are the roof and the multi-tiered spire. It contains a number of outstanding works of art, including a late Gothic altarpiece from the Astl workshop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The small St Michael Chapel and Charnel House is a Gothic structure in the tiny graveyard immediately north of the parish church. Its basement, viewable at ground level, contains a neatly arranged assemblage of human skulls and long bones, the skulIs being marked with names and other details of the deceased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property also includes the Dachstein Mountains, rising to some 3,000&amp;nbsp;m, which form the highest of the karst massifs in the northern limestone Alps. They are notable for the large number of caves they contain, the longest being the Hillatzh&amp;ouml;hle (81&amp;nbsp;km). Each cave is speleologically different, but the fact that they enjoy single management allows a range of information and experience to be made available in a coherent programme of conservation, accessibility and interpretation. The Dachstein-Rieseneish&amp;ouml;hle is the most impressive ice cave in Austria. Some parts of the mine are now accessible to visitors, including areas made safe for displays arising from the continuing programme of archaeological investigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Dachstein massif is exceptional among Alpine karstic areas for retaining its glaciation. Its landscape takes eight distinct forms: each of these zones has its own distinct climate and hence a characteristic flora and fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Human activity in the magnificent natural landscape of the Salzkammergut began in prehistoric times, with the salt deposits being exploited as early as the 2nd millennium BC. This resource formed the basis of the area&amp;rsquo;s prosperity up to the middle of the 20th century, a prosperity that is reflected in the fine architecture of the town of Hallstatt.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hallstatt-Dachstein / Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>952</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Clearance of the natural forest cover of the Wachau by man began in the Neolithic period, although radical changes in the landscape did not take place until around 800, when the Bavarian and Salzburg monasteries began to cultivate the slopes of the Wachau, creating the presentday landscape pattern of vine terraces. In the centuries that followed, the acreage under cultivation fluctuated, under the influence of changes of climate and the wine market and acute labour shortages and the resultant wage increases in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a result, the forest recolonized the upper edges of the vine-growing land; viticulture in the valleys was replaced by other agricultural activities. The soils of the fallow areas, degraded by failed attempts at cultivation, have never recovered, which explains the distinctive types of special vegetation found in these habitats (dry grassland, shrubs, and woodland).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, hillside viticulture was actively promoted in ecologically optimal regions. The areas released in this way were given over to pasture, with the ensuing economic consequences: some enterprises had to close down while others were enlarged. It was at this time that viticulture was finally abandoned in the upper stretches of the Wachau.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Developments of the countryside in the 19th century had particularly far-reaching consequences for the Wachau. The appearance of Phylloxera, the ravages of war, and increasing competition from the Burgenland and Italy necessitated changes in business structures, the areas under cultivation, the methods of viticulture, and the acreages. Apricot growing, typical of the Wachau ever since, began to take over the valleys and lower slopes. The ratio of acreages devoted to viticulture and fruit growing respectively continues to be closely linked with recurrent fluctuations in markets for the products, giving the Wachau its characteristic appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been human occupation in the Wachau from Palaeolithic times, as shown by the figurines from Galgenberg (c 32,000 years old) and Willendorf (c 26,000 years old). The region of Krems and Melk was densely settled as early as the Neolithic period (4500-1800 BCE), and there have been many finds from the Bronze Age (1800-800 BCE). In the Iron Age the Illyrian Hallstatt Culture (800-400 BCE) was gradually replaced by the La T&amp;egrave;ne Culture coming from the west: at this time the Celtic kingdom of Noricum developed to the south of the Danube.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Romans annexed Noricum in 15 BCE, the Danube became the frontier (limes) with the Germanic peoples to the north. Mautern (Favianis) was an important frontier garrison town where one of the Roman Danube fleets was stationed. The limes collapsed at the end of the 4th century, and Noricum found itself on one of the main invasion routes from the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 453 St Severinus, the "apostle of Noricum," founded the first monastic community in the province outside the gates of Mautern. As a result of his activities Mautern developed into an important spiritual and religious centre, where pilgrims assembled and departed for Italy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The name "Wachau" is first mentioned in 853 as locus Wahowa. Krems first appears as Urbs Chremisa in 995, making it the oldest Austrian town to be mentioned in a document. The Wachau is the setting of the Nibelungenlied, the great German epic poem, which was written some time after 1200 and depicts the political situation at that time. It mentions the Wachau towns of P&amp;ouml;chlarn (Bechelaren), Melk (Medelike), and Mautern (Mutoren).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 976, the Wachau came under the rule of the Babenberg margraves, beginning with Leopold I. The Austrian march was elevated to a dukedom in 1156 and bestowed upon the Babenberg Henry II Jasomirgott, who renounced his claims to Bavaria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great knightly family of the Wachau, the Kuenrings, came to the Babenberg march in the 11th century. When the line died out, the major part of their lands passed to Duke Albrecht V (King Albrecht II) in 1430. Owing to the fragmentation of land holdings and the absence of large unified administrative structures, the burghers of the Wachau enjoyed considerable freedom as early as the Middle Ages, enhanced by the ius montanum de vinea. The four towns of St Michael, W&amp;ouml;sendorf, Joching, and Weissenkirchen formed an independent community from about 1150 to 1839, to be reunited in 1972 as Wachau or Tal Wachau.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Even after the power of the Habsburgs had been consolidated, the Wachau was repeatedly the arena for armed conflicts. During the Hungarian invasions of the late 15th century, Krems and Stein were besieged in 1477 by Matthias Corvinus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Counter-Reformation (1530-1620) had a strong impact in the Wachau, until Protestantism was finally repressed under the G&amp;ouml;ttweig abbot Georg II Falb (1612- 31). His support for eleven Austrian Benedictine abbeys was a major contributory factor to the importance attained by the Austrian abbeys (and G&amp;ouml;ttweig in particular) in the Baroque period. Victory over the Protestants also found expression in the construction of churches, chapels, and small monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1700 onwards, artistic and architectural monuments that are among the most important examples of Austrian Baroque were built in the Wachau. These include the rebuilding of Melk Abbey (begun in 1702), the conversion of the Canons' Abbey in D&amp;uuml;rnstein (1715-33), and the large-scale rebuilding of G&amp;ouml;ttweig Abbey from 1719 onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the Wachau began to lose its historic importance. The closures of monasteries in Austria and the secularization of Bavaria destroyed ageold ties. River transportation was increasingly superseded as a result of competition from road transport and from 1909 onwards by the railway. The late 19th century saw a new perception of the Wachau, as the "Golden Wachau," a blend of history and legend, art and folklore, wine and hospitality. An action committee was set up in 1904 for the economic promotion of the Wachau, with the participation of all the local communities between Krems and Melk. In more recent times, there has been a return to the historical roots of the region, resulting the intensive promotion of "sustainable" tourism, with the vineyards protected by law.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/970</http_url><id_number>970</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_970.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Wachau is an outstanding example of a riverine landscape bordered by mountains in which material evidence of its long historical evolution has survived to a remarkable degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The architecture, the human settlements, and the agricultural use of the land in the Wachau vividly illustrate a basically medieval landscape which has evolved organically and harmoniously over time.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.3644444400</latitude><location>Towns of Krems and Melk, Lower Austria</location><longitude>15.4341666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Wachau, a stretch of the Danube valley between Melk and Krems, is an outstanding example of a riverine landscape bordered by mountains in which material evidence of its long historical evolution has survived to a remarkable degree. The architecture, the human settlements, and the agricultural use of the land in the Wachau vividly illustrate a basically medieval landscape which has evolved organically and harmoniously over time. The Wachau is a landscape of high visual quality which preserves in an intact and visible form many traces - in the form of architecture (monasteries, castles, ruins) urban design (towns and villages) and agricultural use, principally for the cultivation of vines - of its evolution since prehistory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Clearance of the natural forest cover by man began in the Neolithic period, although radical changes in the landscape did not take place until around 800, when the Bavarian and Salzburg monasteries began to cultivate the slopes of the Wachau, creating the present-day landscape pattern of vine terraces. In the centuries that followed, the acreage under cultivation fluctuated, under the influence of changes of climate and the wine market and acute labour shortages and the resultant wage increases in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, hillside viticulture was actively promoted in ecologically optimal regions. The areas released in this way were given over to pasture, with the ensuing economic consequences: some enterprises had to close down whereas others were enlarged. It was at this time that viticulture was finally abandoned in the upper stretches of the Wachau. Development of the countryside in the 19th century had particularly far-reaching consequences for the Wachau. The ratio of acreages devoted to viticulture and fruit growing respectively continues to be closely linked with recurrent fluctuations in markets for the products, giving the Wachau its characteristic appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basic layouts of the Wachau towns date back to the 11th and 12th centuries. The development of the settlements with their homogeneous character becomes evident in the town structures, both in the fabric and arrangement of the houses on mostly irregular lots and in the street patterns, which have remained practically unchanged since the late Middle Ages. Some town centres have been extended to some extent on their outer fringes by the construction of small residential buildings, mostly from 1950 onwards. The buildings in the Wachau towns date from more recent periods than the street plans. In the 15th and 16th centuries, stone construction began to replace the wooden peasant and burgher houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The winegrowers' farmsteads, which are oblong, U-shaped, or L-shaped or consist of two parallel buildings, date back to the late Middle Ages and the 16th-17th centuries. Most of these, with lateral gate walls or integrated vaulted passages and service buildings, feature smooth facades, for the most part altered from the 18th and 19th centuries onwards. Street fronts are often accentuated by late-medieval/post-medieval oriels on sturdy brackets, statues in niches, wall paintings and sgraffito work, or remnants of paintwork or rich Baroque facades. The steeply pitched, towering hipped roof occurs so frequently that it can be regarded as an architectural characteristic of the Wachau house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 18th-century buildings, which still serve trade and craft purposes and are partly integrated in the town structure, such as taverns or inns, stations for changing draught horses, boat operators' and toll houses, mills, smithies, or salt storehouses, frequently go back to the 15th and 16th centuries. There is a number of castles dominating the towns and the Danube valley and many architecturally and artistically significant ecclesiastical buildings dominate both townscape and landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Wachau is a stretch of the Danube Valley between Melk and Krems, a landscape of high visual quality. It preserves in an intact and visible form many traces - in terms of architecture, (monasteries, castles, ruins), urban design, (towns and villages), and agricultural use, principally for the cultivation of vines - of its evolution since prehistoric times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wachau Cultural Landscape</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1134</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;First inhabited in the Neolithic period, the history of Vienna has the following main phases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Antiquity and early medieval (up to 11th century) &lt;br /&gt; Archaeological evidence has shown that the site of Vienna had a Celtic settlement when the Romans extended their control into the Danube region in the 1st century CE, building the castellum of Vindobona on the edge of the river and staying here until 488. The meandering Danube formed the limes of the Roman Empire, the border to Germania libera, influencing later urban development until modern times. The High German name Wenia was first mentioned in 881, during the conflicts of Germans and Magyars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- High and late medieval (12th to 15th centuries) &lt;br /&gt; Vienna started regaining significance in the late 12th and 13th centuries, becoming one of the largest towns of the German Empire, next to Cologne. Several monastic complexes were erected, including the Minoritenkirche, as well as starting the construction of the ducal residence, today's Hofburg, taken over by the Habsburgs in 1276. In the 14th and 15th centuries the town flourished from trade, and the first German university was founded in 1365. The church of St Stephen became reference for an independent bishopric in 1469 and an archbishopric in 1718. The Jewish community here since the 12th century was destroyed in 1420-21.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Schism and Turkish siege (16th century to 1683) &lt;br /&gt; In the 16th century Europe was in conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which occupied most of Hungary. Vienna became a frontier fortress, being first besieged in 1529, and trade started to decline. In 1533 Ferdinand I transferred to Vienna, making it the capital of the Holy Roman Empire; this lasted until 1806, with an interruption from 1583 to 1612. In 1683 Vienna successfully resisted the Ottoman army, a victory which brought Hungary under Habsburg rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Baroque metropolis (1683 to French Revolution) &lt;br /&gt; The change in the political situation after 1683 also brought important changes to the town of Vienna, starting an important development phase. An increase in population led to the construction of suburban areas, which were protected by their own fortifications, the Linienwall. Baroque palaces were designed for the centre of the town by the leading architects of the time, including J.B. Fischer von Erlach and L. von Hildebrandt, resulting in the construction of the palaces of Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn and Belvedere, the extension of the Hofburg, and a large number of ecclesiastical and civic ensembles. Vienna became the European capital of music owing to the genius of Haydn and Mozart. After the defeat of Napoleon it was the venue of the Congress of Vienna (1814- 15), which resulted in the political continuation of absolutism (Vorm&amp;auml;rz, ie before March 1848). At the same time, the petite bourgeoisie continued an interest in arts, furniture (Biedermeier), painting, and especially music (Beethoven, Schubert).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Era of Francis Joseph I (1848-1916) &lt;br /&gt; At the end of 1848, the young Emperor Francis Joseph I ascended the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The desire for democratic government remained a dream, although constitutional government was restored in 1860. The city walls were razed to ground in 1857 in order to create the Ringstrasse, an outstanding example of 19th century town planning. With the emerging ambitions of the haute bourgeoisie, the new Ringstrasse became a major construction site for an impressive number of major buildings, including theatres, museums, university, and large private constructions, characterized as the Gr&amp;uuml;nderzeit, the constructors' period. There was also an important development in the field of culture, including composers: Bruckner, Brahms, Wolf, Mahler, and Sch&amp;ouml;nberg, architects and painters such as O. Wagner, A. Loos, G. Klimt, and O. Kokoschka, as well as philosophers, including L. Wittgenstein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Period since World War I &lt;br /&gt; With the death of the Emperor in 1916 the Empire came to an end and Austria was proclaimed a democratic republic in 1918. Between the two World Wars, Vienna involved leading architects in social housing projects that came to dominate the character of some Viennese neighbourhoods. World War II caused major damage to the city, and the reconstruction phase lasted well into the 1960s. At the same time a new approach to preservation evolved, and the old town was legally protected in 1972. In 1945 Vienna regained its status as a federal province (Land) and capital of Austria.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1033</http_url><id_number>1033</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1033.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The urban and architectural qualities of the Historic Centre of Vienna bear outstanding witness to a continuing interchange of values throughout the second millennium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Three key periods of European cultural and political development – the Middle Ages, the Baroque period, and the Gründerzeit – are exceptionally well illustrated by the urban and architectural heritage of the Historic Centre of Vienna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Since the 16th century Vienna has been universally acknowledged to be the musical capital of Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.2166666700</latitude><location>Vienna</location><longitude>16.3833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The urban and architectural qualities of the Historic Centre of Vienna bear outstanding witness to a continuing interchange of values throughout the 2nd millennium AD. Three key periods of European cultural and political development - the Middle Ages, the Baroque period and the Gr&amp;uuml;nderzeit - are exceptionally well illustrated by the urban and architectural heritage of Vienna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property consists of the medieval core (based on the Roman settlement), the principal Baroque ensembles with their axes, and the Gr&amp;uuml;nderzeit constructions from the beginning of the modern period. The city of Vienna is situated on the Danube in the eastern part of Austria. The ancient Roman military camp, traces of which are still visible in the medieval urban fabric of present-day Vienna, was situated on a plain, west of an old branch of the Danube.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beginning in the 12th century, the settlement expanded beyond the Roman defences, which were demolished. The medieval town walls surrounded a much larger area; they were rebuilt during the Ottoman conflicts in the 16th and 17th centuries and provided with bastions. This remained the core of Vienna until the walls were demolished in the second half of the 19th century. This inner city contains a number of medieval historic buildings, including the Schottenkloster, the oldest monastery in Austria, the churches of Maria am Gestade (one of the main Gothic structures), Michaelerkirche, Minoritenkirche and Minoritenkloster, from the 13th century. St Stephen's Cathedral dates from the 14th and 15th centuries. The period also saw the construction of civic ensembles, such as initial parts of the Hofburg. Whereas the monastic complexes were generally built from stone, becoming part of the defences of the medieval city, the residential quarters were of timber and suffered frequent fires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1683, Vienna developed rapidly as the capital of the Habsburg Empire, becoming an impressive Baroque city. The Baroque character was expressed particularly in the large palace layouts built under Emperor Charles VI (1711-40) and Maria Theresa (1740-80), such as the Belvedere Palace and garden ensemble. A growing number of new palaces were built by noble families. Many existing medieval buildings, churches and convents were altered and given Baroque features, and additions were made to representative administrative buildings. Several historic buildings are now associated with the important Viennese residence of personalities such as Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert and others, when the city played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new phase in the history of Vienna took place when the 34 suburbs were incorporated with the city, and the emperor ordered the demolition of the fortifications around the inner city. This opportunity was taken in order to create one of the most significant 19th-century ensembles in the history of urban planning, which greatly influenced the rest of Europe in this crucial period of social and economic development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1874 the Hofburg complex was extended with the Neue Hofburg, an 'imperial forum', and joined with large museum complexes into a single ensemble. The burgtheater, the parliament, the town hall, and the university formed another ensemble linked with these. To this was added the opera house as well as a large number of public and private buildings along the Ringstrasse, on the line of the demolished walls. The late 19th and early 20th centuries testify to further creative contributions by Viennese designers, artists, and architects in the period of Jugendstil, Secession and the early Modern Movement of the 20th century in architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Vienna developed from early Celtic and Roman settlements into a Medieval and Baroque city, the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, as well as the late-19th-century Ringstrasse lined with grand buildings, monuments and parks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Vienna</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1206</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first traces of continuous human settlement of the site goes back to the Neolithic period. The site was not used as a Roman settlement, even though a few roads crossed it. After the fall of the Roman Empire, it was invaded, first by Alpine Slavs, the Avars, a horse-riding nomadic people subjugated by Charlemagne; then by the Hungarians, who were defeated at the battle of Lechfeld in 955; and finally by German settlers. Graz was thus included in the march of Carinthia. A small fortress (gradec in Slavic, hence the name of Graz) was erected on the Schlossberg hill, while a few houses and a church were constructed around it. Graz was mentioned for the first time in an official deed of 1128/29.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was around this time that an open market began to thrive, leading to the first urban development with the immigration of Bavarian settlers. Besides the local nobility, the population consisted of traders and artisans, as well as a Jewish community which remained there until the 15th century. Graz was governed by the Houses of Traungau and Babenberg, and was given the status of a city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Treaty of Neuberg in 1379 and the first division of the Habsburg heritage, the city came under the rule of the line established by Leopold III. Graz became the capital of Inner Austria, composed of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, and Trieste. Graz also became a favourite royal place of residence, particularly for Frederick III (1453-93), who granted it many privileges, had many buildings erected, and rebuilt the Church of St Aegidius, now the cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city and region then became involved in serious armed conflicts with Hungarian and Turkish invaders. In 1480, the Turks even arrived the gates of the city: this episode is portrayed in a fresco in the cathedral entitled "The Scourges of God," a Gothic masterpiece by Master Thomas von Villach. The 16th century was marked by constant threats from the Turks, as well as religious turmoil. To confront these threats, the medieval fortifications were completely reorganized and modernized according to the rules in force during the Renaissance. In 1559, the Clock Tower, the symbolic monument of Graz, was given its characteristic appearance, which has remained unchanged to these days.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1564, as a result of a new partition of the Habsburg lands, Graz became the capital of Inner Austria, despite the danger of Turkish invasions and the advances made by the Reformation. Three-quarters of the inhabitants were Protestants, active in the burgeoning Protestant Foundation where Kepler, the famous astronomer and mathematician, taught.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the city was soon to undergo the most important phase of its development with the arrival of the Jesuits in 1572. Archduke Charles II supported the Counter-Reformation, established the Jesuit University and went to great lengths to undermine the Protestant Foundation, which disappeared in 1600. His son Ferdinand had a monumental mausoleum built by the artist Pietro de Pomis. However, on his election as Emperor in 1618, he transferred his court to Vienna and Graz underwent a relative economic recession. During the 17th century, several mansions were built in the Renaissance or early Baroque styles: the Kollonitsch Palace, the Effans von Avernas Palace, and the Stubenberg palace, the last-named passing on to the Welserheim family. Facades were remodelled in these styles and courtyards enclosed by arches were added to existing buildings. In the western part of the city, the Governor of Inner Austria, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, built a ducal palace of great artistic interest; it is the most important Baroque palace in Styria. The great architect Johann Bernhard Fisher von Erlach, was born in Graz in 1656. When the danger from the Turks was finally averted thanks to two decisive victories, Saint Gothard in 1664 and Vienna in 1683, the economy boomed once again. Aristocrats and bourgeoisie competed with each other in their aspirations for honours and culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Graz subsequently expanded towards the south and south-west Factories and banks were set up and started to thrive. However, the movement to centralize Austrian power, ending in the abolition of Inner Austria, weakened the institutions of Graz. At the same time, pilgrimage centres, such as Maria Hilf and Maria Trost, became monumental sanctuaries. The suppression of convents undertaken by Joseph II led to the closing of nine out of sixteen monasteries, whilst the University Library as enriched with works from forty monasteries in Styria and Carinthia. In 1786, the Bishop of Seckau transferred his residence to Graz and turned the Church of St Aegidius into a cathedral. The Jesuit Order was dissolved in 1773 and their university turned into a State university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economic growth of the city was severely affected by the wars between the Coalition and France. French troops occupied Graz on several occasions, in 1797, 1805,and 1809, imposing heavy war levies. They besieged the Schlossberg, which put up a brave resistance; however, under the terms of the Treaty of Sch&amp;ouml;nbrunn, the fortifications had to be demolished. In 1839, a public park was laid out over the Schlossberg, giving it its present aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 1848 Revolution was a fairly moderate one. The pro- German middle class governed the city until 1918. It was a flourishing period for modern town planning. The city acquired military land to create green areas for the public and declared them as non aedificandi zones. Urban expansion was channelled outside this green belt and influenced by the Biedermeier style and then the Jugendstil, whilst the historic centre continued to be the social and commercial hub of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The assassination of the heir to the throne, Archduke Franz-Ferdinand, who was born in Graz in the Khuenburg Palace, triggered off the hostilities of World War I in 1914. When the new frontiers were drawn up in 1918-19, Graz lost its hinterland and to a certain extent was relegated to the fringe from the geographical and economic points of view. In 1938, the seventeen surrounding municipalities formed a town incorporated into Greater Graz. World War II was followed by a slow return to normal, and Graz once again became a modern garden city, a cultural and industrial centre, and a university town.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/931</http_url><id_number>931</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_931.jpg</image_url><iso_code>at</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.0741666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>15.3916666667</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of the city of Graz reflects artistic and architectural movements originating from the Germanic region, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean, for which it served as a crossroads for centuries. The greatest architects and artists of these different regions expressed themselves forcefully here and thus created brilliant syntheses. The urban complex forming the historic centre of the city is an exceptional example of a harmonious integration of architectural styles from successive periods. Each age is represented by typical buildings, which are often masterpieces. The urban physiognomy faithfully tells the story of its historic development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first traces of continuous human settlement go back to the Neolithic period. The site was not a Roman settlement, even though crossed by a few roads. After the fall of the Roman Empire, it was invaded, successively by Avars, Hungarians, and finally by German settlers. Graz was included in the March of Carinthia and mentioned for the first time in an official deed of 1128-29. Around this time an open market began to flourish, leading to urban development with the immigration of Bavarian settlers. After the Treaty of Neuberg (1379) and the first division of the Habsburg heritage, Graz came under the rule of the line established by Leopold III.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 16th century was marked by constant threats from the Turks, as well as religious turmoil. The medieval fortifications were modernized according to Renaissance principles. In 1564, Graz became the capital of Inner Austria, despite the danger of Turkish invasions and the advances made by the Reformation. When elected Emperor in 1618, Ferdinand, son of Archduke Charles II, transferred his court to Vienna, and Graz underwent a relative economic recession. When the danger from the Turks was finally averted the economy boomed once again. Aristocrats and bourgeoisie competed with each other in their aspirations for honours and culture, and several mansions were built in Renaissance or early Baroque style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the hundreds of buildings of great historic and architectural interest, a few particularly remarkable edifices are worthy of note. Of the original castle where Emperor Frederick III resided, all that remains is a Gothic hall, a late Gothic chapel, and a double spiral staircase going back to 1499. The wing constructed by Archduke Charles in 1570 has remained largely intact. Frederick III built the present cathedral in late Gothic style (1438-64) alongside a Romanesque church dedicated to St Aegidius. It contains admirable frescoes such as the 'Scourges of God', attributed to Thomas von Villach (1480). Following the transfer of the bishopric from Seckau to Graz, the church of St Aegidius, used for 200 years as a centre for the Counter-Reformation, became the cathedral of the new diocese in 1786.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Emperor Ferdinand II, started in 1614 by Giovanni de Ponis, was only consecrated in 1714 when the interior decoration, entrusted to Johann Bernhard Fischer von Ehrlach, was completed. The facade in particular reflects the transition from the Renaissance to the Baroque style and is an original synthesis between a powerful architecture topped by light domes. The Seminary (former Jesuit College): unlike other colleges, this impressive complex, started in 1572, was not remodelled in the Baroque style and is therefore an important illustration of the severe Renaissance architecture adopted by the order when it was first established in the German province.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the dissolution of the order in 1773, the Jesuit University came under public control. In order to safeguard its collection, the library was installed in the old magna aula and in the theatre, on the orders of Empress Maria Theresa. Its decoration and furnishings make it a significant manifestation of the transition from the Rococo to the classical style, and it now serves as a show case for the Styrian Archives.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The City of Graz &amp;ndash; Historic Centre and Schloss Eggenberg bear witness to an exemplary model of the living heritage of a central European urban complex influenced by the secular presence of the Habsburgs and the cultural and artistic role played by the main aristocratic families. They are a harmonious blend of the architectural styles and artistic movements that have succeeded each other from the Middle Ages until the 18th century, from the many neighbouring regions of Central and Mediterranean Europe. They embody a diversified and highly comprehensive ensemble of architectural, decorative and landscape examples of these interchanges of influence.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Graz – Historic Centre and Schloss Eggenberg</site><states>Austria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1724</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2003-2009</danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Baku is located in the state of Shirvan, which existed from the 9th century CE until 1538, when it was annexed by Safavid Iran. In 1585 the town was captured by the Ottoman Sultan Murat III, and in 1723 it was occupied by the Russian General Matushkin, when it was destroyed by fire. It became part of the Russian Empire in 1783.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Inner Walled City (Icheri Sheher) The Inner Walled City, which forms the property proposed for inscription on the World Heritage List, is one of the few surviving medieval towns in Azerbaijan. It retains the characteristic features of a medieval town, such as the labyrinth of narrow streets, congested buildings, and tiny courtyards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The walls of the old town, which still survive on the western and northern sides, were built by Menutsshochr Shah in the 12th century and were repaired in the 19th century. The narrow streets are lined with houses dating from the late 18th century onwards, but also contain earlier monuments, mostly concentrated in the lower, seaward, site of the town. These include the Mehmet Masjid of 1078-79, two single-cell medresses of the 12th century, the 15th century Haji Gaib Hammam, to the south of which lie two 17th century Zoroastrian fire temples, the larger with a courtyard truncated by the modern road. Next to these is the 16th-17th century two-storeyed Kasumbek Caravanserai for merchants coming by sea, and nearby is the 17th-century Kasumbek Mosque. Further to the east lie the 14th-15th century Multani Caravanserai, used by Indian merchants, and facing it the 15th-century Bukhara Caravanserai, built for merchants from central Asia, behind which there is a small derelict 17th century hammam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Maiden Tower (Giz Galasy) Located in the south-east part of Icheri Sheher, this unique monument of Azerbaijan architecture was built in two periods. It is an astonishing cylindrical structure, rising to eight storeys and 29.5m high, with a diameter of 16.5m. Each storey is roofed with a shallow vault with a central aperture. The walls are 5m thick at the base and 3.2-4m at the top. The bottom three storeys are thought to date to as early as the 7th or 6th century BCE and to have been an astronomical observatory or fire temple. Evidence for this comes from the existence of a shaft, visible at the back of niches in the second and third storeys, which it has been established extends 15m below ground level. This appears to have been designed to channel natural gas to provide fuel for an eternal flame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main part of the tower is circular in plan, but with a long solid projection to the east which points towards sunrise at the equinoxes. The floors are connected by staircases built in the walls, and are lit by means of narrow windows. The upper part of the tower dates from the 12th century and incorporates a Kufic inscription of Kubey Mesud ibn Da'ud, commemorating a reconstruction in the 12th century. The masonry is quite distinct from the original, as alternate courses of stone were recessed in order to take gypsum plaster, to give a black-and-white striped effect. Some of the original plaster survives on the more protected north-western, side. In addition, the masonry at the end of the beak-like projection is curved, whilst that of the earliest stonework on which it is built has square corners. In the upper, medieval, portion of the tower there is a staircase from the floor built in the thickness of the wall in the area next to the projection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Shirvanshahs' Palace The Palace was built in the 15th century, when Shamaha was finally abandoned as the capital in favour of Baku. Construction proceeded during the reigns of Shirvanshah Khalilulla I and his son, Faruk, until the latter was killed in battle in 1501. The palace was seriously damaged by a Russian naval bombardment in the 18th century and much of the upper parts were destroyed. Restoration work was carried out in the 18th-20th centuries. Treasures from the palace, initially taken to Tabriz, were subsequently transferred as booty to the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex comprises several discrete elements: the residential part, the Divankhane, the Shirvanshahs' mausoleum, the Palace Mosque with its minaret, the baths (hammam), the Mausoleum of the Court Astrologer Seyid Yahya Bakuvi, the slightly later Eastern Gate, and the mosque of Key-Gubad. The palace is built on the highest point of one of the hills within Icheri Sheher. Extending over three superimposed terraces, it is clearly visible from the sea from and the heights surrounding the city. Entry is into an open courtyard at the upper level, which provides access both to the Divankhane and the residential part of the palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Divankhane, the place of state meetings and receptions, consists of a square courtyard, arcaded on three sides, with the octagonal building of the Divankhane itself occupying the centre. The western facade of the rotunda is embellished by the magnificent portal. The ruler sat on an elevated level, below which there is a basement cell with a communicating grille in the floor. Some of the carving on the capitals of the arcade on the exterior of the building was never completed, possibly because of Faruk's death in 1501. The building is covered with a stone dome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two-storey residential section of the palace is entered through a high portal into an octagonal, domed, entrance hall, formerly faced with ceramic tiles. The small octagonal vestibule beyond it connects it with other parts of the palace: four entrances lead to different rooms and two to staircases. The slots of the niches of the octahedral hall were intended for communication with the ground floor. The southern and eastern halls are distinct in form and decoration from the ceremonial halls and rooms on the first floor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This section of the palace is much less complete, as a result of the Russian bombardment, which destroyed both the domes that formerly covered the rooms as well as the upper parts of the walls. The rooms provide different views of the Caspian Sea. Good-quality stone carving is being undertaken to replace missing elements, but it has not been possible to reproduce the fine drilled 15th century work. The inner faces of the walls of the dining room of the palace have been faced with new stone backed on reinforced concrete columns. (It has already been appreciated that the introduction of mild steel into a historic structure is unwise and these columns are to be removed.) The lower stores in the domestic part of the palace open on a garden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This garden contains the Mausoleum of Seyid Yahya Bakuvi, a court astrologer, which was originally entered through a rectangular mosque, only the foundations of which now survive. The tomb is a two-storey domed structure. Stored in the garden are sections of a tall inscription; these were recovered from the sea and originally formed part of the wall of the 12th century Sabail island fortress, destroyed by an earthquake in the 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The middle courtyard of the palace, at a lower level, contains the Shirvanshahs' mausoleum, built in 1434-35 by Shah Khalilulla I for his mother and sons. It is rectangular in plan and covered by a hexagonal dome ornamented with multiradial stars. When excavated in 1945-46, the mausoleum was found to contain seven burials, accompanied by rich grave goods, now in the Museum of History of Azerbaijan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At right-angles is the palace mosque of 1441, the dome of which has simple plaster work of the 19th century. There are two prayer halls, together with some subsidiary rooms. There are three entrances into the mosque, the main (northern) one having a portal, on both sides of which there are semicircular niches intended for shoes. As in a number of other places in the palace, water penetration through the stone roof of the mosque is causing concern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lowest part of the palace are the ruins of the Palace bath-house, discovered in 1939 during excavations in a vineyard. Its plan consists of two large rectangular structures divided into smaller ones by four columns, with a separate furnace building for producing the steam taken through underfloor channels to the bath. Sections of the original wall tiles survive in some of the rooms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Eastern Portal of the Shirvanshahs' Palace was erected later than the other parts of the complex, in the 16th century. Its upper part is decorated with the constructional inscription in Arabic referring to the date of building (1585-86) and the name of the Shah who ordered it to be built. The inscription has rosettes with plant ornaments on either side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Tsarist period city in the Buffer Zone This lies outside the Inner Walled City, nominated for World Heritage inscription, but constitutes a buffer zone protecting the setting of the latter. During the last two decades of the 19th century and the first two decades of the 20th century, Baku was one of the major centres of oil production in the world. This generated substantial wealth, as can be seen by the high quality of the buildings dating from this period. The main conservation problem with these concerns the balconies, which were formed of stone slabs supported by slender iron girders. Decay of the stone and rusting of the ironwork has led many of them to be replaced in concrete, usually with the concurrent loss of their supporting stones consoles.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/958</http_url><id_number>958</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_958.jpg</image_url><iso_code>az</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Walled City of Baku represents an outstanding and rare example of an historic urban ensemble and architecture with influence from Zoroastrian, Sassanian, Arabic, Persian, Shirvani, Ottoman, and Russian cultures.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.3666666700</latitude><location>Apsheron peninsula</location><longitude>49.8333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Built on a site inhabited since the Palaeolithic period, the Walled City of Baku reveals evidence of Zoroastrian, Sassanian, Arabic, Persian, Shirvani, Ottoman and Russian presence in cultural continuity. The Inner City (Icheri Sheher) has preserved much of its 12th-century defensive walls. The 12th-century Maiden Tower (Giz Galasy) is built over earlier structures dating from the 7th to 6th centuries BC, and the 15th-century Shirvanshah's Palace is one of the pearls of Azerbaijan architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Inner Walled City is one of the few surviving medieval towns in Azerbaijan. It retains the characteristic features of a medieval town, such as the labyrinth of narrow streets, congested buildings and tiny courtyards. The walls of the old town, which still survive on the western and northern sides, were built by Menutsshochr Shah in the 12th century and were repaired in the 19th century. The narrow streets are lined with houses dating from the late 18th century onwards, but also contain earlier monuments, mostly concentrated in the lower, seaward, side of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Maiden Tower is located in the south-east part of Icheri Sheher; this unique monument of Azerbaijan architecture was built in two periods. It is an astonishing cylindrical structure, rising to eight storeys. Each storey is roofed by a shallow vault with a central aperture. The bottom three storeys are thought to date to as early as the 7th or 6th centuries BC and to have been an astronomical observatory or fire temple. Evidence for this comes from the existence of a shaft, visible at the back of niches in the second and third storeys. This appears to have been designed to channel natural gas to provide fuel for an eternal flame. The main part of the tower is circular in plan, but with a long solid projection to the east which points towards sunrise at the equinoxes. The floors are connected by staircases built into the walls, and are lit by means of narrow windows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shirvanshah's Palace was built in the 15th century, when Shamaha was finally abandoned as the capital in favour of Baku. Construction proceeded during the reigns of Shirvanshah Khalilulla I and his son, Faruk, until the latter was killed in battle in 1501. The palace was seriously damaged by a Russian naval bombardment in the 18th century and much of the upper parts were destroyed. Restoration work was carried out in the 18th-20th centuries. Treasures from the palace, initially taken to Tabriz, were subsequently transferred as booty to the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. The complex comprises several discrete elements: the residential part, the Divankhane, the Shirvanshahs' Mausoleum, the palace mosque with its minaret, the baths (&lt;em&gt;hammam&lt;/em&gt; ), the Mausoleum of the Court Astrologer Seyid Yahya Bakuvi, the slightly later Eastern Gate and the mosque of Key-Gubad. The palace is built on the highest point of one of the hills within Icheri Sheher. Extending over three superimposed terraces, it is clearly visible from the sea from and the heights surrounding the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tsarist city lies outside the Inner Walled City but constitutes a buffer zone protecting the setting of the latter. During the last two decades of the 19th century and the first two decades of the 20th century, Baku was one of the major centres of oil production in the world. This generated substantial wealth, as can be seen by the high quality of the buildings dating from this period. The main conservation problem with these concerns the balconies, which were formed of stone slabs supported by slender iron girders. Decay of the stone and rusting of the ironwork has led many of them to be replaced in concrete, usually with the concurrent loss of their supporting stone consoles.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built on a site inhabited since the Palaeolithic period, the Walled City of Baku reveals evidence of Zoroastrian, Sasanian, Arabic, Persian, Shirvani, Ottoman, and Russian presence in cultural continuity. The Inner City (Icheri Sheher) has preserved much of its 12th-century defensive walls. The 12th-century Maiden Tower (Giz Galasy) is built over earlier structures dating from the 7th to 6th centuries BC, and the 15th-century Shirvanshahs' Palace is one of the pearls of Azerbaijan's architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Walled City of Baku with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower</site><states>Azerbaijan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1121</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Initial discoveries were made in 1939-40 and systematic explorations were conducted by I. M. Djafarsade from 1947 onwards. He recorded and analysed more than 3,500 images on 750 rocks. This early inventory was expanded by R. Djafarguly who made further discoveries and carried out excavations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since 1965, excavations have been carried out in more than 20 prehistoric sites and numerous Bronze Age structures have been discovered. Excavations carried out by D. Rustamov of one cave uncovered a 2 m stratigraphy covering 10,000 years. This material included a fallen engraved fragment that gave a terminus ante quem for this anthropomorphic figure - although no further details are given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1966 the property was protected as a state Historical-Artistic Reservation as part of the wider Gobustan rock art reservation.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1076</http_url><id_number>1076</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1076.jpg</image_url><iso_code>az</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.1250000000</latitude><location>Garadagh District and Apsheron District, Baku City Administrative Territory</location><longitude>49.3750000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Gobustan Rock Art Cultural Landscape covers three areas of a plateau of rocky boulders rising out of the semi-desert of central Azerbaijan, with an outstanding collection of more than 6,000 rock engravings bearing testimony to 40,000 years of rock art. The site also features the remains of inhabited caves, settlements and burials, all reflecting an intensive human use by the inhabitants of the area during the wet period that followed the last Ice Age, from the Upper Paleolithic to the Middle Ages. The site, which covers an area of 537 ha, is part of the larger protected Gobustan Reservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gobustan Rock Art Cultural Landscape</site><states>Azerbaijan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1474</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1364</http_url><id_number>1364</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1364.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>26.2412800000</latitude><location></location><longitude>50.6135100000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site consists of seventeen buildings in Muharraq City, three offshore oyster beds, part of the seashore and the Qal’at Bu Mahir fortress on the southern tip of Muharraq Island, from where boats used to set off for the oyster beds. The listed buildings include residences of wealthy merchants, shops, storehouses and a mosque. The site is the last remaining complete example of the cultural tradition of pearling and the wealth it generated at a time when the trade dominated the Gulf economy (2nd century to the 1930s, when Japan developed cultured pearls). It also constitutes an outstanding example of traditional utilization of the sea’s resources and human interaction with the environment, which shaped both the economy and the cultural identity of the island’s society.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pearling, Testimony of an Island Economy</site><states>Bahrain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1859</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1192</http_url><id_number>1192</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1192.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bh</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;Being an important port city, where people and traditions from different parts of the then known world met, lived and practiced their commercial activities, makes the place a real meeting point of cultures – all reflected in its architecture and development. Being in addition, invaded and occupied for long periods, by most of the great powers and empires, leaved their cultural traces in different strata of the tell.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt;The site was the capital of one of the most important ancient civilizations of the region – the Dilmun civilization. As such this site is the best representative of this culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The palaces of Dilmun are unique examples of public architecture of this culture, which had an impact on architecture in general in the region. The different fortifications are the best examples of defence works from the 3rd century B.C to the 16th century AD, all on one site. The protected palm groves surrounding the site are an illustration of the typical landscape and agriculture of the region, since the 3rd century BC.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>26.2330600000</latitude><location>Northern Region</location><longitude>50.5272222222</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Qal'at al-Bahrain is an archaeological site surrounded by palm groves. It has the shape and all the characteristics of a typical tel, created by successive occupation layers built one on top of the other. Archaeological excavations at the site started 50 years ago by a Danish expedition, working between 1954 and 1970, followed by a French expedition since 1978 and archaeologists from Bahrain since 1987.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest stratum on the site, dated to around 2300 BC, consists of what were probably residential structures, located near the sea. This was the period when a thick masonry wall was constructed, to surround and protect the settlement. A later wall, possibly reinforcement of the first one, was erected around 1450 BC. Different occupation layers were uncovered in the central excavation area. The main architecture uncovered consists of a street, measuring 12&amp;nbsp;m in width, with large, monumental structures on both sides. The earlier buildings were modified and enlarged, to serve as the palace of the Kassite governor (the Kassites were the Mesopotamian colonizers of the site). In the same excavation area, several luxurious residences, with private and public spaces and elaborate sanitation system, also belong to the same period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was the site of an important port city, where people and traditions from different parts of the then known world met, lived and practised their commercial activities. It was the capital of one of the most important ancient civilizations of the region - the Dilmun civilization. A coastal fortress was excavated on the northern part of the site. It was probably not built before the 3rd century AD. Its building materials were reused for the construction later of the large medieval fortress - the Fort of Bahrain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century until the abandonment of the site, it served mainly for military purposes. A large fortress which was built on top of the tel dominates the site and even gave it its name. The large fortress of Bahrain has several building phases. The first phase dates to the beginning of the 15th century. In 1529 the first significant enlargement of the fortress and its moat took place, as well as its adaptation to modern artillery. The third phase is the one that gave the fortress its present form. This phase dates to 1561, when the island came under Portuguese rule and several corner bastions in Genoese style were added and the moat enlarged. The strengthening and enlargement of the fortress reflects the growing importance of the sea trade route to India and China, as well as the rivalries between the Principality of Hormuz, the Portuguese, the Persian Safavids and the Ottoman Turks. The old access channel, cut into the coral reef, which made the site attractive for centuries, had become almost completely silted up by this time, and could only be reached by small vessels and at high tide. This was also the main reason for the final abandonment of the whole site of Qal'at al-Bahrain, and its gradual transformation from a 4,500-year-old settlement to an archaeological site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The palaces of Dilmun are unique examples of public architecture of this culture, which had an impact on architecture in general in the region. The different fortifications are the best examples of defensive works from the 3rd century BC to the 16th century AD, all on one site. The protected palm groves surrounding the site illustrate the typical landscape and agriculture of the region since the 3rd century BC.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Qal’at al-Bahrain is a typical tell – an artificial mound created by many successive layers of human occupation. The strata of the 300 × 600 m tell testify to continuous human presence from about 2300 BC to the 16th century AD. About 25% of the site has been excavated, revealing structures of different types: residential, public, commercial, religious and military. They testify to the importance of the site, a trading port, over the centuries. On the top of the 12 m mound there is the impressive Portuguese fort, which gave the whole site its name, qal’a (fort). The site was the capital of the Dilmun, one of the most important ancient civilizations of the region. It contains the richest remains inventoried of this civilization, which was hitherto only known from written Sumerian references.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Qal’at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun</site><states>Bahrain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2062</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/321</http_url><id_number>321</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_321.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.6666700000</latitude><location>Khulna District</location><longitude>89.8000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic city of Khalifatabad is an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble which illustrates a significant stage in human history. Situated in the suburbs of Bagerhat, at the meeting point of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, this ancient city was founded by the Turkish general Ulugh Khan Jahan in the 15th century. In this local capital of 50&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; along the Bhairab River, 360 mosques, public buildings, mausoleums, bridges, roads, water tanks and other public buildings were built from baked brick. Shait Gumbad Mosque and Khan Jahan's Mausoleum are just two examples of these historic buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today this old city, created within a few years and swallowed up by the jungle after the death of its founder in 1459, is striking because of certain uncommon features. The density of Islamic religious monuments is explained by the piety of Khan Jahan, which is evidenced by the engraved inscription on his tomb. The lack of fortifications is attributable to the possibilities of retreat into the impenetrable swamps of the Sunderbans. The quality of the infrastructures - the supply and evacuation of water, the cisterns and reservoirs, the roads and bridges - all reveal a perfect mastery of the techniques of planning and a will towards spatial organization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today, the monuments, which have been partially disengaged from the vegetation, may be divided in two principal zones: to the west around the Mosque of Shait Gumbad and to the east around the Mausoleum of Khan Jahan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than 50 monuments have been catalogued. These include the Mosque of Shait Gumbad renowned for its large prayer room, divided into seven longitudinal naves; the mosques of Singar, Bibi Begni and Chunakkola; the mosques of Reza Khoda, Zindavir and Ranvijoypur. All these monuments are threatened, owing to the extreme salinity of the soil and the atmosphere, made especially vulnerable because brick architecture predominates.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the suburbs of Bagerhat, at the meeting-point of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, this ancient city, formerly known as Khalifatabad, was founded by the Turkish general Ulugh Khan Jahan in the 15th century. The city&amp;rsquo;s infrastructure reveals considerable technical skill and an exceptional number of mosques and early Islamic monuments, many built of brick, can be seen there.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat</site><states>Bangladesh</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>365</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/322</http_url><id_number>322</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_322.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.0333333300</latitude><location>Naogaon Subdivision of Rajshahi District</location><longitude>88.9833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Paharpur is a small village 5&amp;nbsp;km west of Jamalganj in the Greater Rajshahi District where the remains of the most important and largest known monastery south of the Himalayas have been excavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Paharpur Vihara, known as Somapura Mahavira, was built by the Pala Emperor Dharmapala (AD 770-810). The monastery is quadrangular in form, with a colossal temple of a cross-shaped floor plan in the centre of the courtyard and with an elaborate gateway complex on the north. There are 45 cells on the north and 44 in each of the other three side, making a total number of 177 monastic cells along the enclosure walls on the four sides. This layout, and the decoration of carved stones and terracotta plaques, reflect the building's religious function, which is greatly influenced by Buddhist architecture from Cambodia and Java (Indonesia).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This 7th-century archaeological find covers an area of about 11&amp;nbsp;ha. The entire establishment, which occupies a quadrangular court measuring more than 275&amp;nbsp;m, externally on each side, has high enclosure-walls about 5&amp;nbsp;m thick and 3-5&amp;nbsp;m high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Evidence of the rise of Mahayana Buddhism in Bengal from the 7th century onwards, Somapura Mahavira (Great Monastery) was a renowned intellectual centre until the 12th century. Its layout perfectly adapted to its religious function, this monastery-city represents a unique artistic achievement. With its simple, harmonious lines and its profusion of carved decoration, it influenced Buddhist architecture as far away as Cambodia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A small site-museum built in 1956-57 houses the representative collection of objects recovered from the area. The excavated finds have also been preserved at the Varendra Research  Museum at Rajshahi. The antiquities of the Museum include terracotta plaques, images of different gods and goddesses, pottery, coins, inscriptions, ornamental bricks, and other minor clay objects.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Evidence of the rise of Mahayana Buddhism in Bengal from the 7th century onwards, Somapura Mahavira, or the Great Monastery, was a renowned intellectual centre until the 12th century. Its layout perfectly adapted to its religious function, this monastery-city represents a unique artistic achievement. With its simple, harmonious lines and its profusion of carved decoration, it influenced Buddhist architecture as far away as Cambodia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur</site><states>Bangladesh</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>366</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;All three wildlife sanctuaries were established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974, having first been gazetted as forest reserves in 1878. The total area of wildlife sanctuaries was extended in 1996. The entire Sundarbans is reserved forest, established under the Indian Forest Act, 1878.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798</http_url><id_number>798</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_798.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bd</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the site under &lt;em&gt;criteria (ix)&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;(x) &lt;/em&gt; as one of the largest remaining areas of mangroves in the world, which supports an exceptional biodiversity with a wide range of flora and fauna, including the Bengal Tiger and provides a significant example of on-going ecological processes (monsoon rains, flooding, delta formation, tidal influence and plant colonisation).&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>21.9500000000</latitude><location>South-Western Region (Khulna Division)</location><longitude>89.1833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sundarbans consist of three wildlife sanctuaries (Sundarbans West, East and South) lying on disjunct deltaic islands just west of the main outflow of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, close to the border with India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sanctuaries are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mud flats and small islands of salt tolerant mangrove forests. The area is flooded with brackish water during high tides which mix with freshwater from inland rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The larger channels are often a kilometre or two wide and generally run in a north-south direction. Rivers tend to be long and straight, a consequence of the strong tidal forces and the easily eroded clay and silt deposits. But apart from Baleswar River the waterways carry little freshwater as they are cut off from the Ganges, the outflow of which has shifted from the Hooghly-Bhagirathi channels in India progressively eastwards since the 17th century. They are kept open largely by the diurnal tidal flow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Alluvial deposits are geologically very recent and deep. The soil is a clay loam with alternate layers of clay, silt and sand. The surface is clay except on the seaward side of islands in the coastal limits, where sandy beaches occur. The monsoon rains, flooding, delta formation, and tidal influence combine in the Sundarbans to for a dynamic landscape that is constantly changing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sands collect at the river mouths and form banks and chars, which are blown into dunes by the strong south-west monsoon winds. Finer silts are washed out into the Bay of Bengal where they form mud flats in the lee of the dunes. These become overlain with sand from the dunes and develop into grassy middens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of the dominance of saline conditions, the forest flora in the western Sundarbans is not as diverse as in the east. Forest areas are dominated by a few species mostly Sundri and Gewu and patches of Nypa palm and several other of the 27 species of mangrove that are found in the Sundarbans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property is the only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for a variety of faunal species. The presence of 49 mammal species has been documented. Of these, no less than five spectacular species, Javan rhinoceros, water buffalo, swamp deer, gaur and probably hog deer have become locally extirpated since the beginning of the 21st century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India support one of the largest populations of Royal Bengal Tiger with an estimated 350 individuals. Other mammals include spotted deer and wild boar, three species of wild cat and Ganges River dolphin, which occurs in some of the larger waterways. Of the three species of otter, smooth-coated otter is domesticated by fishermen and used to drive fish into their nets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 53 reptile species and eight amphibian species have been recorded of these mugger crocodile is now extinct, probably as a result of past over-exploitation, although it still occurs in at least one location nearby. Estuarine crocodile still survives but its numbers have been greatly depleted through hunting and trapping for skins. Four species of marine turtle have been recorded from the area. The varied and colourful bird-life to be seen along its waterways is one of the Sundarbans' greatest attractions. There are some 315 species of waterfowl, raptors and forest birds including nine species of kingfisher and the magnificent white-bellied sea eagle.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sundarbans mangrove forest, one of the largest such forests in the world (140,000 ha), lies on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal. It is adjacent to the border of India&amp;rsquo;s Sundarbans World Heritage site inscribed in 1987. The site is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes. The area is known for its wide range of fauna, including 260 bird species, the Bengal tiger and other threatened species such as the estuarine crocodile and the Indian python.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Sundarbans</site><states>Bangladesh</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>943</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1376</http_url><id_number>1376</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1376.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.0966666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>-59.6138888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Historic Bridgetown and its Garrison, an outstanding example of British colonial architecture consisting of a well-preserved old town built in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, which testifies to the spread of Great Britain's Atlantic colonial empire. The property also includes a nearby military garrison which consists of numerous historic buildings. With its serpentine urban lay-out the property testifies to a different approach to colonial town-planning compared to the Spanish and Dutch colonial cities of the region which were built along a grid plan.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Bridgetown and its Garrison</site><states>Barbados</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1786</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The castle was built in the late 15th or early 16th century (the first reference to it dates from 1531) by the Ilyinichi family. The initial work consisted of building the walls and towers in Gothic style, but work came to an end for some unknown reason. Building had been completed by the beginning of the 17th century with the addition of palatial accommodation, with some Renaissance features (including an Italian-style garden and a system of ponds), after it had passed to the Radzivill family in 1569. This work was probably supervised by the Italian architect Gian Maria Bernardoni.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following sieges in 1655 and 1706 reconstruction work involved the addition of some Baroque features. It was badly damaged during the Napoleonic period, in 1794 and again in 1812, and it remained in a state of ruinous abandon until the late 19th century, when the complex was purchased by the Duke of Svyatopolk-Mirsky, who began laying out a landscape park with a lake. A new palace (destroyed in 1914) and other structures (chapel, watchman's house, etc) were erected within the grounds. The old castle survived as a romantic ruin. Some restoration work was carried out in the 1920s and 1930s, as a result of which some Secession and Romantic elements were added. During World War II it served as a prison camp and a ghetto. Restoration did not start in earnest again until 1982.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/625</http_url><id_number>625</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_625.jpg</image_url><iso_code>by</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion ii:&lt;/em&gt; Mir Castle is an exceptional example of a central European castle, reflecting in its design and layout successive cultural influences (Gothic, Baroque, and Renaissance) that blend harmoniously to create an impressive monument to the history of this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iv:&lt;/em&gt; The region in which Mir Castle stands has a long history of political and cultural confrontation and coalescence, which is graphically represented in the form and appearance of the ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.4510833300</latitude><location>Grodno Province (oblast), Korelichi District</location><longitude>26.4727222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The region in which Mir Castle stands has a long history of political and cultural confrontation and coalescence, which is graphically represented in the form and appearance of the ensemble. This is a fertile region in the geographical centre of Europe, at the crossroads of the most important trade routes, and at the same time at the epicentre of crucial European and global military conflicts between neighbouring powers with different religious and cultural traditions. The short period of history starting in the late 15th century was marked by a combination of unprecedented changes in the religious, humanitarian and economic spheres. The Mir Castle complex in its setting vividly symbolizes the history of Belarus and, as such, it is one of the major national symbols of the country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of the castle by the Ilyinichi family began at the end of the 15th century, in Gothic style; it was subsequently extended and reconstructed. The initial work consisted of building the walls and towers in Gothic style, but work came to an end for some unknown reason. Building had been completed by the beginning of the 17th century with the addition of palatial accommodation, with some Renaissance features, after it had passed to the Radzivill family. Following sieges in 1655 and 1706 reconstruction work involved the addition of some Baroque features. After being abandoned for almost a century and suffering severe damage during the Napoleonic period, the castle was restored at the end of the 19th century, with the addition of a number of other elements and the landscaping of the surrounding area as a park. Its present form is graphic testimony to an often turbulent history. The old castle survived as a romantic ruin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mir Castle complex is situated on the bank of a small lake at the confluence of the Miryanka river and a small tributary. The fortified walls of the castle form an irregular quadrilateral; there are four exterior corner towers with hipped roofs rising to five storeys and a six-storey external gate tower on the western side. The facades are in brick, with recessed painted plasterwork, and the window and door frames and the balconies are sandstone. The roofs are tiled, some of the tiling being glazed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Near the castle is the Chapel-Crypt of the Dukes of Svyatopolk-Mirsky. Its facade is decorated with a mosaic panel depicting the image of Christ, made from multicoloured tesserae. Other features are the watchman's house, close to the north of chapel crypt; the palace annex built in the late 19th century, which is located in the landscape park area with stuccoed and decorated facades. The ruins of the main palace building are situated at the eastern outskirts of the complex and are not currently in use. The 19th-century chapel is a tiny stone stuccoed building. The memorial on the site of the massacre of the Mir ghetto prisoners lies in the northern part of the complex, to the east of the former Italian garden.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The construction of this castle began at the end of the 15th century, in Gothic style. It was subsequently extended and reconstructed, first in the Renaissance and then in the Baroque style. After being abandoned for nearly a century and suffering severe damage during the Napoleonic period, the castle was restored at the end of the 19th century, with the addition of a number of other elements and the landscaping of the surrounding area as a park. Its present form is graphic testimony to its often turbulent history.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mir Castle Complex</site><states>Belarus</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>743</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Historically, Belarus is a trans-boundary place in the European context. Its territory was consecutively part of: the Kievan Russia and Russian Mediaeval Principalities (10th - 13th c.); the Great Duchy of Lithuania (14th c.); the united Polish-Lithuanian state, Republic of Rzeczpopolita (1569-1795); the Russian Empire (1772/1795 - 1917); Poland (for Western Byelorussia, 1921-1939); USSR as Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (from 1922); and the Republic of Belarus (from 1991). Due to these circumstances the territory of Belarus was at historical, cultural, artistic, political, military and religious (Calvinism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Uniat church, Judaism) crossroads between the East and West.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Radziwill dynasty, to whom the Nesvizh residence belonged from 1523 to 1939, represents some of the most notable personalities in the European history and culture since the 15th century. The Radziwill landlords governed the territory of the former Rzeczpopolita (now Belarus) and they were the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire since 1518.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first confirmed records of Nesvizh date from the 15th century. From 1513, it belonged to the Radziwills, who lived here until 1939. Before the castle, there was a manor house, inhabited by Duke Mikolaj Radziwill, the chancellor of Lithuania and voivoda of Vilnius. The duke was protestant, which made Nesvizh an important centre of the Reformation. The first catechism in Belarusian language was printed in the ducal press.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first phase of the Castle dates from 1582-1604, when Mikolaj Radziwill started the construction of a new seat. It is shown with bastioned fortifications in a drawing of 1604 by T. Makowski ("Nesvisium"). The Residence has survived practically in the original form until the present, while the other parts have been altered or added to later. The galleries were constructed in 1650.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1706, the Castle was occupied by the Swedes, who destroyed the fortifications. After their departure, the Castle was renovated by Michal Radziwill in 1732-58, who used architects from Germany, Italy, Poland and Belarus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, the castle remained uninhabited until the ownership passed to Antoni Radziwill and his French wife Maria de Castellane, who renovated the interiors in 1881-86. They also added a terrace with Neo-Gothic turrets against the palace. They also designed and built the romantic landscape park around the castle complex (1878- 1911). After 1939, it was first taken over by the Soviet army, and subsequently the Germans used it as military hospital. From 1945 to 2001, it was used as a sanatorium. Since then it has been subject to restoration and adaptation to use as museum and as a cultural and visitor centre. In 2002, a fire destroyed the upper part of the residence and a part of the gallery, which were rebuilt in 2003.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1196</http_url><id_number>1196</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1196.jpg</image_url><iso_code>by</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The architectural, residential and cultural complex of the Radziwill family at Nesvizh was the cradle for inoculation of new concepts based on the synthesis of the Western traditions, leading to the establishment of a new architectural school in Central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The Radziwill complex represents an important stage in the development of building typology in the history of architecture of the Central Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. This concerned particularly the Corpus Christi Church with its typology related to cross-cupola basilica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt;The Radziwill family was particularly significant for being associated with the interpretation of the influences from Southern and Western Europe and the transmission of the ideas in the Central and Eastern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.2227800000</latitude><location>Minsk Province (Minskaya Voblasts')</location><longitude>26.6913900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The architectural, residential and cultural complex of the Radziwill family at Nesvizh was the cradle for inoculation of new concepts based on the synthesis of Western traditions, leading to the establishment of a new architectural school in Central Europe. It represents an important stage in the development of building typology in the history of architecture of the Central Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular the Corpus Christij Church, typologically related to the cross-cupola basilica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built and occupied by the Radziwill family from the 16th to 20th centuries, the ensemble is located in the town of Nesvizh, in the Province of Minsk, in central Belarus. It consists of the castle-residence and the mausoleum church of Corpus Christij with their setting. The castle has ten interconnected buildings, including the palace, the galleries, the residence and the arsenal, which developed as one architectural whole around a six-sided courtyard. The buildings are set within the remains of the 16th-century fortifications that comprise four bastions and four curtain walls in a rectangular plan, surrounded by a ditch. Via a dam, the castle is connected to the Corpus Christij Church, which forms a block of the urban area of Nesvizh. The ensemble is in the middle of a cultural landscape that has various design components. The boundaries of the area cover an elongated territory with the main axe parallel to the Usha riverbed and waterfront.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle is oriented from west to east. The entrance is from the west through the gate building, the lower part of which is embedded in the rampart. It has an octagonal two-storey gate tower, topped with a helm. The original structure dates from the 16th century. The first floor and the tower were added in the 18th century. The principal building of the complex is the palace, which occupies the centre of the east side of the inner yard. It also dates from the 16th century, and was enlarged in the 18th century. This is a three-storey building on an almost square floor plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The corners are strengthened by four octagonal towers with alcoves. The facade is decorated by stucco work by Antoni Zaleski. The ground floor, originally used as a treasury, has preserved the 16th-century vaults. The main staircase is decorated by the 18th-century representation of 'Aurora' Francisezek Smuglewicz. On the first floor the interiors date from the 18th and 19th centuries. The south side of the court has the three-storey Residence building, built in the 16th century, with a tower. The north side has a corresponding Arsenal building, which also used to house a chapel. These are connected to the palace via gallery structures, which cut the corners of the court. The court is then closed by annexes that connect these buildings to the gate structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Corpus Christij Church lies in the eastern part of the town of Nesvizh, next to the street leading to the castle. The plan of the building is based on a Latin cross, with an elongated rectangular body from which project two lateral chapels with five sides and an apsidal chancel. At the crossing of the nave and the transept there is dome. The side chapels are roofed with domes without lanterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most valuable fittings are the tomb of Krzysztof Radziwill (1607) and the altar of Holy Cross (1583) by the Venetian sculptors Girolamo Campagna and Cesare Franco. The vaults of the church have frescoes by Ksawery D. Heski from 1852-53. The two-storey facade is divided by a prominent entablature, slightly offset on the axes of the pilasters and topped with a triangular gable. Under the church there is a crypt with the coffins of 72 members of the Radziwill family, dating from the 16th-20th centuries. The church is surrounded by an 18th-century boundary wall.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Architectural, Residential and Cultural Complex of the Radziwill Family at Nesvizh is located in central Belarus. The Radziwill dynasty, who built and kept the ensemble from the 16th century until 1939, gave birth to some of the most important personalities in European history and culture. Due to their efforts, the town of Nesvizh came to exercise great influence in the sciences, arts, crafts and architecture. The complex consists of the residential castle and the mausoleum Church of Corpus Christi with their setting. The castle has ten interconnected buildings, which developed as an architectural whole around a six-sided courtyard. The palaces and church became important prototypes marking the development of architecture throughout Central Europe and Russia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Architectural, Residential and Cultural Complex of the Radziwill Family at Nesvizh</site><states>Belarus</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1373</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The spontaneous emergence of the Beguine movement around 1200 reflects the current of religious renewal which swept western Europe at the beginning of the 13th century and in which women played an important role. In addition to the many women who entered the religious life by way of the convents, others developed an original "semi-religious" way of life in which they could dedicate themselves to God without withdrawing entirely from the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among these mulieres religios&amp;aelig;, neither nuns nor simple laity, of Northern Europe, the Beguines began to lead an individual or community life devoted to prayer, caring for the sick, and manual labour. Established for the most part in urban communities, they occupied houses near the hospitals and leper hospitals. Unmarried or widowed, they took no vows and were free to come and go in society and to withdraw from the community at will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although they enjoyed the protection of prelates such as Bishop Jacques of Vitry, and despite their close links to their confessors or spiritual directors (Cistercians, Franciscans, and Dominicans), they were never recognized as a conventual order or as a regular congregation. Their precise canonical status remained a matter of some debate throughout the 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In such a climate of suspicion, from 1230 onwards the Beguines began setting up their own institutions. The religious and secular authorities of the Flemish region favoured the establishment of enclosed b&amp;eacute;guinages, inside or outside cities, which were placed under surveillance. Each b&amp;eacute;guinage adopted its own rules in the matter of prayer, behaviour, work, housing, management of the infirmary, or the Table of the Holy Spirit (the Table of the Poor).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The b&amp;eacute;guinage was supervised by a Beguine, commonly known as the Grande Dame, who was elected for a limited term and was in many b&amp;eacute;guinages assisted by a council. Whilst the life of the b&amp;eacute;guinages was characterized by simplicity and humility, it by no means ruled out personal possessions: wealthier Beguines built or rented their own houses, others lived in community houses, and the poorest lived in the infirmary. In all cases, each had to provide for her own keep, and many worked in the textile industry. After a time, most of the b&amp;eacute;guinages were elevated to parish status and were assigned their own priest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In other regions, such as along the Rhine Valley, Beguines who lacked the support of lay or religious benefactors continued to live alone or in community houses in different parts of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mistrust aroused by the strength of the Beguine movement and the development of feminine spirituality, which was also expressed in literary texts (such as the Visions of Hadewijch van Antwerpen, c 1240) and which could be seen as a threat to the authority of the Church, was made manifest at the Council of Vienna (1312) in the condemnation of the Beguines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Rhine Valley regions, this and other subsequent condemnations were applied with vigour against the Beguines. In the Flemish region, however, the Beguines for the most part enjoyed the support of the religious authorities. The investigation into the orthodoxy of the b&amp;eacute;guinages carried out by the bishops at the request of Pope John XXII in 1320 was in their favour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The religious problems and political crisis suffered by the Lowlands in the 16th and 17th centuries also had their impact on the b&amp;eacute;guinages. The institution disappeared completely in the Calvinist provinces of the north (except for Amsterdam and Breda), but was maintained in the southern parts of the Lowlands which remained Catholic. From the middle of the 16th century, bishops won over to the ideas of the Counter-Reformation and supported by the conventual orders re-established the old discipline in the b&amp;eacute;guinages, which enjoyed something of a revival in the following century, despite the damage many suffered during the Dutch Revolt (1568-1648). Construction and restoration work intensified as the number of Beguines increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decline of the movement first became apparent in the 18th century and gathered pace after annexation by France in 1795. Although French legislation and anti-clerical policy was interpreted differently by the local powers, the b&amp;eacute;guinages were secularized and their possessions and management handed over to the municipal commissions of the civil hospices. Only a small number of b&amp;eacute;guinages survived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fate of the b&amp;eacute;guinages in the 19th century differed from one area to another and depended on the attitude of the urban authorities and the municipal commissions of the civil hospices. The Beguines retained possession of their houses on a personal basis, with the unoccupied houses taking in the poor. Occasionally, they managed to buy back some of their houses via intermediaries, and to rebuild limited communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Elsewhere, former b&amp;eacute;guinages were taken over by religious orders. In Gent, the Beguines enjoyed the support of the Church and of Duke Engelbert von Arenberg, who purchased the Petit B&amp;eacute;guinage and had the B&amp;eacute;guinage of Mont-Saint-Amand built (1873) to house the Beguines from the Grand B&amp;eacute;guinage, which the city authorities were threatening to dismantle. In many of the b&amp;eacute;guinages, community houses and infirmaries were gradually turned into hospices, orphanages, schools, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Repeated attempts by the Beguines to recover their property throughout the 19th and 20th centuries proved fruitless, and the movement withered away. Many b&amp;eacute;guinages suffered damage during World Wars I and II. Today, most b&amp;eacute;guinages are still clearly defined components of the urban fabric, and some still form an essential part of the architectural heritage of many cities. These havens of tranquillity still fulfil a function as living space and around a dozen Beguines still live there.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/855</http_url><id_number>855</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_855.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Flemish béguinages demonstrate outstanding physical characteristics of urban and rural planning and a combination of religious and traditional architecture in styles specific to the Flemish cultural region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The béguinages bear exceptional witness to the cultural tradition of independent religious women in north-western Europe in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv)&lt;/em&gt;: The béguinages constitute an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble associated with a religious movement characteristic of the Middle Ages associating both secular and conventual values.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.0309722200</latitude><location>Flanders Region, Provinces of Antwerp, Limburg, Eastern Flanders, Western Flanders, and Flemish Brabant</location><longitude>4.4737500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Flemish B&amp;eacute;guinages demonstrate outstanding physical characteristics of urban and rural planning and a combination of religious and traditional architecture in styles specific to the Flemish cultural region. They bear exceptional witness to the cultural tradition of independent religious women in north-western Europe in the Middle Ages. They also constitute an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble associated with a religious movement characteristic of the Middle Ages associating both secular and conventual values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The B&amp;eacute;guines were women who dedicated their lives to God without retiring from the world. In the 13th century they founded the B&amp;eacute;guinages, enclosed communities designed to meet their spiritual and material needs. The Flemish B&amp;eacute;guinages are architectural ensembles composed of houses, churches, ancillary buildings and green spaces, with a layout of either urban or rural origin and built in styles specific to the Flemish cultural region. They are a fascinating reminder of the tradition of the B&amp;eacute;guines that developed in north-western Europe in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The spontaneous emergence of the B&amp;eacute;guine movement around 1200 reflects the current of religious renewal which swept Western Europe at the beginning of the 13th century and in which women played an important role. In addition to the many women who entered the religious life by way of the convents, others developed an original 'semi-religious' way of life in which they could dedicate themselves to God without withdrawing entirely from the world. Among these mulieres religios&amp;aelig;, neither nuns nor simple la&amp;iuml;ty, of northern Europe, the B&amp;eacute;guines began to lead an individual or community life devoted to prayer, caring for the sick and manual labour. Established for the most part in urban communities, they occupied houses near the hospitals and leper hospitals. Unmarried or widowed, they took no vows and were free to come and go in society and to withdraw from the community at will.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The B&amp;eacute;guinage was supervised by a B&amp;eacute;guine, commonly known as the Grande Dame, who was elected for a limited term and was in many b&amp;eacute;guinages assisted by a council. Whereas the life of the b&amp;eacute;guinages was characterized by simplicity and humility, this by no means ruled out personal possessions: wealthier B&amp;eacute;guines built or rented their own houses, others lived in community houses, and the poorest lived in the infirmary. In all cases, each had to provide for her own keep, and many worked in the textile industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They are not all preserved in their entirety. Many have been partially dismantled (Antwerp, Hasselt, Petit B&amp;eacute;guinage of Leuven, Petit B&amp;eacute;guinage of Mecheln, Herentals, Aarschot) or largely incorporated into the urban fabric of the vicinity (Grand B&amp;eacute;guinage of Gent). Certain suffered damage during either the First or the Second World War (the B&amp;eacute;guinage of Dixmude was rebuilt during the 1920s; Aarschot, partially rebuilt after 1944, still has four of its original houses; and the church of Hasselt was destroyed in 1944).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The B&amp;eacute;guinages formed miniature towns, enclosed by walls or surrounded by ditches, with gates opening to the 'world' during the day. They were organized according to one of two models: one, the city type, reflecting on a smaller scale the model of a medieval city, with a plot set aside for the cemetery, or the square where the church is built; the other, the courtyard type, with a central area, varying in shape and often consisting of a lawn planted with trees, where the church is located, and around which the houses are aligned. A third or mixed type, the result of certain extensions in the 17th and 18th centuries, combines both layouts.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Béguines&lt;/em&gt; were women who dedicated their lives to God without retiring from the world. In the 13th century they founded the &lt;em&gt;béguinages&lt;/em&gt; , enclosed communities designed to meet their spiritual and material needs. The Flemish &lt;em&gt;béguinages&lt;/em&gt; are architectural ensembles composed of houses, churches, ancillary buildings and green spaces, with a layout of either urban or rural origin and built in styles specific to the Flemish cultural region. They are a fascinating reminder of the tradition of the &lt;em&gt;Béguines&lt;/em&gt; that developed in north-western Europe in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Flemish Béguinages</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1006</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Hainaut does not have a large natural navigable waterway. This led to difficulties in transporting the coal discovered in the region in the Borinage and around Charleroi at the end of the 12th century on the bad roads of the time. It was carried on the backs of men to the shore of the winding Haine river and loaded into small boats. Considerable works were carried out to improve the navigation of the Haine in the centuries that followed, so that larger boats could carry coal from Jemappes to the lower Scheldt, including the provision of sluice locks and gates. With the transfer of the Cond&amp;eacute; region to France in 1655, plans to link the Mons area to the Scheldt by canal were first discussed, but no progress was made until the early 19th century. The Charleroi-Brussels Canal was finished in 1832, and the Houdeng and Mariemont branches, which were to play an important role in the development of the Canal du Centre, in 1839.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;An Imperial decree of Napol&amp;eacute;on I in 1807 ordered the construction of a canal between Mons and Cond&amp;eacute;, and this was completed in 1818. With the Saint- Quentin Canal, completed in the same year, the Borinage coalfield was now connected directly with Paris. Only one element was missing in this canal network linking the Scheldt and the Meuse, a canal between Mons and Charleroi.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;This proposal to construct what was known as the Canal de Centre had originally been approved by Napol&amp;eacute;on I in 1810. There was to follow a long series of projects, by French, Dutch, and Belgian engineers, on different routes and using different techniques for solving the technical problems encountered between the two ends. These were all essentially commercial schemes, funded by the enterprises who would make use of the new link. Increased competition from British, German, and northern French coalfields led the Belgian Government to intervene in 1871 and undertake to finance the canal. Studies were carried out by its Civil Engineering Authority aimed at overcoming the two major technical problems - the small quantity of water available and the large difference in level (89.46m) between the Charleroi- Brussels and Mons-Cond&amp;eacute; canals.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The main problem lay in the upper part of the canal, in the Thiriau valley. It was decided that on this stretch the change in level was such that it might be better dealt with by means of lifts rather than locks: four lifts of the type developed by the English engineer Edwin Clark would be sufficient, one with a difference in level of 15.40m and the other three of 16.93m. These would accommodate both the difference in level on this stretch of the canal and the low supply of water, since Clark lifts had been shown to be very economical from this point of view. Belgian engineers were sent to England to study the only existing example of this type of lift, that built by Clark at Anderton on the Trent-Mersey Canal in 1872-75.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Despite some setbacks, as when there was an accident at the Anderton lift in 1881, leading to an increase in the safety coefficient to be adopted, the decision to go ahead was finally taken at the end of 1884. Clark himself was to be involved in the design and construction of the Belgian lifts. The work was put out to tender, and the construction work of Lift No 1 at Houdeng-Goegnies was completed in April 1888; it was inaugurated on 4 June that year by King Leopold II of the Belgians.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Work on the completion of the canal itself and of the other three lifts was, however, not to be completed so speedily, for a variety of reasons. The 14km stretch from Mons to Thieu was opened in 1892, but further work was delayed because it was discovered that other stretches of the canal ran through an area pitted with abandoned coal mines. It was not until 1909 that work began on the remaining three lifts, built, like No 1, by the Cockerill company in Seraing. The German occupation in World War I did not see the work suspended, because the occupying power saw the strategic value of this important link, and so the entire length of the Canal du Centre was finally opened for traffic in August 1917.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1957 it was decided to upgrade the entire Canal du Centre to accommodate vessels of up to 1350t, and a new section was dug from Mons to Havr&amp;eacute;. This meant that the stretch of 300t canal that is the subject of the present nomination became redundant. Consideration was first given to various solutions for the stretch that was going out of commercial use, ranging from complete obliteration by demolition and filling to various partial forms of conservation. Financial constraints favoured its retention in its entirety, and a major public relations campaign led to the stretch of canal now proposed for inclusion on the World Heritage List being maintained in operation for recreational purposes. The project received many awards and prizes in the 1980s and 1990s.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/856</http_url><id_number>856</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_856.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The boat-lifts of the Canal du Centre bear exceptional testimony to the remarkable hydraulic engineering developments of 19th-century Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; These boat-lifts represent the apogee of the application of engineering technology to the construction of canals.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.4811100000</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.1372200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The four hydraulic boat-lifts on this short stretch of the Canal du Centre, together with the canal itself and its associated structures, constitute a remarkably well-preserved and complete example of a late 19th-century industrial landscape. They represent the apogee of the application of engineering technology to the construction of canals and bear exceptional testimony to the remarkable hydraulic engineering developments of 19th-century Europe. Of the eight hydraulic boat lifts built at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the only ones still in existence in their original working condition are the four lifts on the Canal du Centre.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Hainaut does not have a large natural navigable waterway. This led to difficulties in transporting the coal discovered in the region in the Borinage and around Charleroi at the end of the 12th century on the poor roads of the time. It was carried on the backs of men to the shore of the winding Haine River and loaded into small boats. Considerable works were carried out to improve the navigation of the Haine in the centuries that followed, so that larger boats could carry coal from Jemappes to the lower Scheldt, including the provision of sluice locks and gates. With the transfer of the Cond&amp;eacute; region to France in 1655, plans to link the Mons area to the Scheldt by canal were first discussed, but no progress was made until the early 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Charleroi-Brussels Canal was finished in 1832, and the Houdeng and Mariemont branches, which were to play an important role in the development of the Canal du Centre, in 1839. An imperial decree of Napoleon I in 1807 ordered the construction of a canal between Mons and Cond&amp;eacute;, and this was completed in 1818. With the Saint-Quentin Canal, completed in the same year, the Borinage coalfield was now connected directly with Paris. Only one element was missing in this canal network linking the Scheldt and the Meuse, a canal between Mons and Charleroi. This proposal to construct what was known as the Canal de Centre had originally been approved by Napoleon I in 1810.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Studies were carried out by the Belgian Government aimed at overcoming the two major technical problems - the small quantity of water available and the large difference in level (89.46&amp;nbsp;m). The main problem lay in the upper part of the canal, in the Thiriau valley. It was decided that on this stretch the change in level was such that it might be better dealt with by means of lifts rather than locks: four lifts of the type developed by the English engineer Edwin Clark would be sufficient, one with a difference in level of 15.40&amp;nbsp;m and the other three of 16.93&amp;nbsp;m. The work was put out to tender, and the construction work of Lift No. 1 at Houdeng-G&amp;oelig;gnies was completed in April 1888; it was inaugurated on 4 June that year by King Leopold II of the Belgians.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lift No. 1 (Houdeng-G&amp;oelig;gnies) consists essentially of two mobile compartments, each supported by a single hydraulic press, the latter being joined by pipes in such a way that, when one compartment is at the level of the upper bay, the other is at the level of the lower bay. As the first descends as a result of the introduction of water from the upstream bay, the other rises; a sluice gate in the middle of the pipe between the two presses governs the movement of the compartments.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lifts No. 2 (Houdeng-Aimeries), No. 3 (Bracquegnies) and No. 4 (Thieu) were built 13 years after No. 1 came into operation, and they incorporate a number of modifications to the basic design resulting from operational experience. However, the operating principle remains the same; the modifications apply mainly to the guides, the hydraulic presses and their pistons, and the gates.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The four hydraulic boat-lifts on this short stretch of the historic Canal du Centre are industrial monuments of the highest quality. Together with the canal itself and its associated structures, they constitute a remarkably well-preserved and complete example of a late-19th-century industrial landscape. Of the eight hydraulic boat-lifts built at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the only ones in the world which still exist in their original working condition are these four lifts on the Canal du Centre.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Four Lifts on the Canal du Centre and their Environs, La Louvière and Le Roeulx (Hainaut)</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1007</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest written reference to the Nedermarckt (Lower Market), as it was originally known, dates from 1174. The present name came into use in the last quarter of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is located on what was marshland on the right bank of the river Senne, to the east of the castellum, a defensive outwork of the castle built around 977 by Charles of France, Duke of Lower Lotharingia. It was bounded to the north by the Spiegelbeek stream and on the south and east by a sandbank, and sloped down from east to west, as the names of some of the houses testify (No 6 La Montagne, Nos 10 and 18 La Colline). The marsh was drained in the 12th century (or perhaps slightly earlier).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present rectangular outline of the Grand-Place has developed over the centuries as a result of successive enlargements and other modifications, and did not take up its definitive form until after 1695. It has, however, always had seven streets running into it. In the 13th and 14th centuries the market-place was surrounded by haphazardly disposed steenen (the stone-built Cloth, Bread, and Meat Halls or Markets) and timber-framed houses, separated by yards, gardens, or ambiti (passages serving as fire-breaks).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the second half of the 14th century an enormous Cloth Hall was erected on the south side of the square. In 1396 the city authorities expropriated a large number of buildings on the north side in order to extend and straighten it. During the 15th century the houses on the south side were replaced by the east and west wings of the City Hall (1401-44) and its bell-tower (1449). A new Bread Hall was built on the north side in 1405. In 1441 the irregularly aligned houses on the east side were demolished and replaced by six contiguous buildings on the same alignment. From around this time the houses around the square were systematically taken over by the corporations and the guilds that had since the 1420s played a role in the city government and were committed to the improvement of the Grand-Place. The Bread Hall was demolished in 1512-13 and replaced by a large building that was given the name of the King's House (La Maison du Roi). During the course of the 16th century many of the houses were rebuilt with new facades in Renaissance or Baroque style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 14 August 1695 Louis XIV of France ordered Marshal Villeroy to bombard the City of Brussels as a reprisal following the destruction of French coastal towns and ports by Dutch and English warships. Since the Dutch and English troops were on campaign at Namur, a French army of 70,000 men was able to place its considerable artillery on the Scheut heights, from where 3000 bombs and 1200 incendiary shells rained down on the heart of the city. By the evening of 15 August only the City Hall, the King's House, and a few house walls were still standing in the Grand-Place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the severity of the bombardment, reconstruction was rapid, thanks to the action taken by the City authorities and the generous support of other towns and provinces. In a remarkable ordinance promulgated in 1697 by the City Magistrate, all proposals for the reconstruction of facades had to be submitted to the authorities for approval, so as to preserve the harmony of the square. In four years the Grand-Place had been completely restored to its original layout and appearance. The opportunity was taken at the same time to widen and straighten several of the streets leading into the square. The Cloth Hall, which had been reduced to ruins, was replaced shortly afterwards by the south wing of the City Hall.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/857</http_url><id_number>857</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_857.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Grand-Place is an outstanding example of the eclectic and highly successful blending of architectural and artistic styles that characterizes the culture and society of this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Through the nature and quality of its architecture and of its outstanding quality as a public open space, the Grand-Place illustrates in an exceptional way the evolution and achievements of a highly successful mercantile city of northern Europe at the height of its prosperity.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.8466800000</latitude><location>City of Brussels, Brussels-Capital Region</location><longitude>4.3524200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Grand-Place is an outstanding example of the eclectic and highly successful blending of architectural and artistic styles that characterizes the culture and society of this region. Through the nature and quality of its architecture and of its outstanding quality as a public open space, it illustrates in an exceptional way the evolution and achievements of a highly successful mercantile city of northern Europe at the height of its prosperity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest written reference to the Nedermarckt (Lower Market), as it was originally known, dates from 1174. The present name came into use in the last quarter of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is located on former marshland on the right bank of the River Senne, to the east of the castellum, a defensive outwork of the castle built around 977 by Charles of France, Duke of Lower Lotharingia. The marsh was drained in the 12th century. The present rectangular outline of the Grand'Place has developed over the centuries as a result of successive enlargements and other modifications, and did not take up its definitive form until after 1695. It has, however, always had seven streets running into it. In the 13th and 14th centuries the market-place was surrounded by haphazardly disposed steenen (the stone-built Cloth, Bread, and Meat Halls or Markets) and timber-framed houses, separated by yards, gardens, or ambiti (passages serving as fire-breaks). During the 15th century the houses on the south side were replaced by the east and west wings of the City Hall (1401-44) and its bell tower (1449). A new Bread Hall was built on the north side in 1405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bread Hall was demolished in 1512-13 and replaced by a large building that was given the name 'the King's House' (La Maison du Roi). During the course of the 16th century many of the houses were rebuilt with new facades in Renaissance or Baroque style. On 14 August 1695 Louis XIV of France ordered Marshal Villeroy to bombard the city as a reprisal following the destruction of French coastal towns and ports by Dutch and English warships. Despite the severity of the bombardment, reconstruction was rapid, thanks to the action taken by the City authorities and the generous support of other towns and provinces. In a remarkable ordinance promulgated in 1697 by the City Magistrate, all proposals for the reconstruction of facades had to be submitted to the authorities for approval, so as to preserve the harmony of the square. In four years the Grand-Place had been completely restored to its original layout and appearance..&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The H&amp;ocirc;tel de Ville (City Hall), which covers most of the south side of the Grand'Place, consists of a group of buildings around a rectangular internal courtyard. The part facing on to the square is from the 15th century, consisting of two L-shaped buildings. The entire facade is decorated with statues dating from the 19th century. The southern part of the complex is a restrained classical building that closes the U-shaped plan of the Gothic structures, built in the 18th century. Facing the City Hall across the square is its other main feature, the Maison du Roi (King's House), now used as the City Museum. In 1873 the City Council decided that its state of conservation was so bad that it should be demolished and rebuilt. The reconstruction was based on the original. The result is a three-storey brick building with an arcaded facade, saddleback roof and centrally placed tower with lantern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Each of the houses around the Grand'Place, which vary considerably in size, has its own name: Les Ducs de Brabant, Le Roi de l'Espagne, Le Cornet, Le Cygne, the Maison des Brasseurs, Le Cerf, La Maison des Tailleurs. The degree of conservation of original features inside the houses around the Grand'Place is somewhat variable. In some cases almost no changes have been made since the early 18th century, whereas in others there has been radical conversion and modernization. In a number of cases the ground floors have been converted for use as shops, restaurants, or cafes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;La Grand-Place in Brussels is a remarkably homogeneous body of public and private buildings, dating mainly from the late 17th century. The architecture provides a vivid illustration of the level of social and cultural life of the period in this important political and commercial centre.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>La Grand-Place, Brussels</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1008</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have shown evidence of human presence in the area of Brugge from the Iron Age and the Gallo-Roman period. In the 8th century, Brugge was described as Municipium Frandrense, the headquarters of the Pagus Frandrensis and the residence of the Merovingian counts. It was the military and administrative centre of the region, and commercial links with Scandinavia started at the same time. The name of Brugge is first mentioned in the 9th century and is documented in Carolingian coins bearing the name Bruggia. In this period, it was part of a defence system against the Normans, and the first fortification existed in 851 at the site of the present-day Bourg. The settlement developed gradually and it became a harbour and commercial centre with European connections. The first city walls were built in 1127: the traces of these can still be read in the inner canals of the city centre. A sea canal was dug up to Brugge to facilitate navigation, thus consolidating its maritime role, which lasted until the 15th century, with Damme, Hoeke, and Monnikenrede as transition sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1200 to 1400 Brugge was the economic capital of Europe north of the Alps. The Brugge fair was established in 1200 and contacts with Britain were the first to develop, particularly related to wool. This was followed by other regions - northern Europe, the German countries, and the Mediterranean. The growing prosperity of the city was reflected in the construction of public buildings, such as the imposing belfry in the Grand-Place, and Brugge was quickly established as an economic capital of Europe. The palace of the van der Buerse family became the monetary centre, giving its name to the concept of the Bourse (stock exchange). Following its growth the town developed a series of social institutions from the 14th century onwards, including the Saint-Jean Hospital and the typical small God's Houses (H&amp;ocirc;tels-Dieu) and hospices. The Gothic town hall of 1376 remains the oldest in the Low Countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1384 to 1500 Brugge enjoyed its Golden Age under the Dukes of Burgundy. Under Philippe le Bon (1419-67) in particular, Brugge became a centre of court life, as well as as that of Flemish art, involving Jan van Eyck, who contributed to the development of the Flemish Primitive school of painting as well as exercising an influence on European art in general. Other painters include Petrus Christus, Hans Memling, Gerard David, and many who have remained anonymous. At the same time Brugge became the centre for miniature painting, and also for printing soon after Gutenberg: it was responsible for the first books in French and English. Owing to the presence of Italians Brugge soon became a centre of Humanism and the Renaissance. Building activity continued and Brugge was provided by a series of noble palaces and religious ensembles of great prestige.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the late 15th century, Brugge gradually entered a period of stagnation. The Flemish regions were integrated into the Habsburg Empire, and the discovery of America displaced economic interests from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. Brugge continued dealing with the textile industry and retained its Spanish connections, but its role in maritime trade was soon replaced by that of Antwerp. Nevertheless, it remained active in the international monetary market and continued as a centre of Humanism; Erasmus called it &amp;quot;the new Athens&amp;quot; and Thomas More wrote his Utopia there. Architecturally the medieval Gothic remained the common reference and was merged into a characteristic Brugge style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1600 to 1800, as a result of the construction of canal systems, Brugge re-established its maritime connection, but only at a modest level. Building activities continued, however, and a ban of 1616 on the use of wood in building facades led to renovations in more substantial materials. The population of Brugge remained relatively small all through this period and the need to extend beyond the medieval city walls only arose much later. The influence of the Counter- Reformation was strong in Brugge, resulting in a series of religious ensembles. At the end of the 18th century the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II ordered the demolition of &amp;quot;useless&amp;quot; convents, and others were destroyed as a result of the French Revolution, including the cathedral of Saint- Donatien.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1815 to 1830 Brugge was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and since 1830 it has been part of Belgium. The railway reached to Brugge in 1834, causing some changes in the urban fabric. Starting in 1854, the municipal administration prepared plans for urban transformations in the spirit of Haussmann, but only one of these was implemented, in the area of the new theatre, where the medieval fabric was destroyed. During the 19th century, a colony of English aristocrats influenced the cultural life of the city and contributed to a renewed interest in the artistic heritage of Brugge and the restoration of historic buildings, including the founding of the Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d'Emulation pour l'histoire et les antiquit&amp;eacute;s de la Flandre Occidentale. Some of the restorations were fairly substantial, resulting in the building of copies of lost historic buildings. At the same time, tourism found a new interest in the old town. Some damage was incurred during the two World Wars, but as a whole, however, the historic town survived well. From 1968 policies focused on the conservation of the historic town, resulting in the establishment of the Service de la Conservation et de la R&amp;eacute;novation urbaine and the first urban structure plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/996</http_url><id_number>996</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_996.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Historic Town of Brugge is testimony, over a long period, of a considerable exchange of influences on the development of architecture, particularly in brick Gothic, as well as favouring innovative artistic influences in the development of medieval painting, being the birthplace of the school of the Flemish Primitives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Historic Town of Brugge is an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble, illustrating significant stages in the commercial and cultural fields in medieval Europe, of which the public, social, and religious institutions are a living testimony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt;The town of Brugge has been the birthplace of the Flemish Primitives and a centre of patronage and development of painting in the Middle Ages with artists such as Jan van Eyck and Hans Memling.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.2089100000</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.2252700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Town of Brugge is testimony, over a long period, of a considerable exchange of influences on the development of architecture, particularly in brick Gothic, as well as favouring innovative artistic influences. It is an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble, illustrating significant stages in the commercial and cultural fields in medieval Europe, of which the public, social and religious institutions are a living testimony. Brugge has conserved spatial and structural organizations that characterize its different phases of development, and the historic centre has continued covering exactly the same area as the perimeter of the old settlement. Still an active, living city, it has nevertheless preserved the architectural and urban structures that document the different phases of its development: as part of this continuity, the late 19th-century renovation of facades introduced a neo-Gothic style that is special for Brugge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have shown evidence of human presence in the area of Brugge from the Iron Age and the Gallo-Roman period. It was the military and administrative centre of the region, and commercial links with Scandinavia started at the same time. The name of Brugge is first mentioned in the 9th century and is documented in Carolingian coins bearing the name Bruggia. At this time it was part of a defence system against the Normans, and the first fortification existed in 851 at the site of the present-day Bourg. The settlement developed gradually and it became a harbour and commercial centre with European connections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Brugge fair was established in 1200 and contacts with Britain were the first to develop, particularly related to wool. The growing prosperity of the city was reflected in the construction of public buildings, such as the imposing belfry in the Grand'Place, and Brugge was quickly established as an economic capital of Europe. Under Philippe le Bon (1419-67) Brugge became a centre of court life, as well as that of Flemish art, involving Jan van Eyck, who contributed to the development of the Flemish Primitive school of painting as well as exercising an influence on European art in general. At the same time it became the centre for miniature painting, and also for printing. Owing to the presence of Italians it soon became a centre of humanism and the Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the late 15th century, Brugge gradually entered a period of stagnation. The Flemish regions were integrated into the Habsburg Empire, and the discovery of America displaced economic interests from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. However, from 1600 to 1800, as a result of the construction of canal systems, Brugge re-established its maritime connection, albeit only at a modest level. From 1815 to 1830 Brugge was part of the United  Kingdom of the Netherlands and since 1830 it has been part of Belgium. During the 19th century, a colony of English aristocrats influenced the cultural life of the city and contributed to a renewed interest in the artistic heritage of Brugge and the restoration of historic buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important of the squares are the Burg and the Grand'Place. For some 1,000 years the Burg square has remained the symbol of the alliance of religious and civic authorities, as well as the seat of several public institutions, including the dispensing of justice. The Grand'Place, on the other hand, is the site of the halls, the belfry and the Waterhalle, symbolizing municipal autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architecture of Brugge, from the Middle Ages until modern times, is principally characterized by brick Gothic, and particularly by a style of construction known as &lt;em&gt;trav&amp;eacute;e brugeoise&lt;/em&gt; . This type of construction was well established in the early 16th century and, with some later variations, it was maintained until the 17th century. It also became the main inspiration for 19th-century restorations.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Brugge is an outstanding example of a medieval historic settlement, which has maintained its historic fabric as this has evolved over the centuries, and where original Gothic constructions form part of the town's identity. As one of the commercial and cultural capitals of Europe, Brugge developed cultural links to different parts of the world. It is closely associated with the school of Flemish Primitive painting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Brugge</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1160</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The H&amp;ocirc;tel Tassel can be considered the founding work of Art Nouveau. Commissioned by Professor Emile Tassel in 1893, it was the first work in which Victor Horta was able to realize his original conception of architecture, with all the characteristic features that he developed in his other town houses. The house was finished in 1894, but Horta continued designing the furniture for some years, as well as making some minor changes requested by the client. When completed, the H&amp;ocirc;tel Tassel raised mixed reactions, but it was soon considered a key building in the development of modern architecture. After World War II the house was split up into small flats so that little of the decoration remained visible. In 1976 the architect Jean Delhaye bought the house, restored the street facade and the main doors, and adapted the building to function as prestige offices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Commissioned by Armand Solvay, the H&amp;ocirc;tel Solvay was built from 1895 to 1898, with furniture completed in 1903. The construction of stables was designed by the architects C Bosmans and H Vandeveld, beginning in 1899, though Horta may have been consulted for the design. The Solvay family kept the house until 1957, when M and Mme Wittamer-De Camps bought it, thus avoiding its demolition. The building became the seat of their fashion house, bringing some changes. The southern light-well, of which the glass had been broken in 1942, was closed by atelier floors. At the ground level two large display windows were opened. After transferring the fashion activity elsewhere in 1980, the owners started the restoration of the building, including the restitution of the glass roofs of the main staircase (1980-82), cooling of the interior decoration, and restoring the fa&amp;ccedil;ades (1988-89).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Commissioned by M and Mme Van Eetvelde in 1895, the construction of the H&amp;ocirc;tel Van Eetvelde started in 1897; the west wing was completed in 1900, and the east wing in 1901. In 1920, after the death of Mme Van Eetvelde, the property was divided in two parts. The original building and the east wing (4 avenue Palmerston) were sold to the Pouppez de Kettenis family, who lived there for some 30 years. In 1950, it was bought by the current owner, the F&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;ration de l'Industrie du Gaz (FIGAZ), who used the main floor for representation. A garage was added to the east wing, and in 1966 offices were added to the light-well. In 1988, FIGAZ started a restoration, conducted by a former student of Horta, the architect Jean Delhaye, and the architect Barbara Van der Wee. The west wing was connected with the corner building in 1920, resulting in some unfortunate changes. When the Nicolaides-Hoffman family acquired the building in 1926, they wanted to demolish it, but were fortunately not given the permit. Finally the building was bought by Jean Delhaye as his personal residence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Maison &amp;amp; Atelier Horta responded to the professional and family needs of the architect, and were built in 1898- 1901 on two lots in a fashionable district of the town. Soon after completion, Horta made some modifications, expanding the house into the garden in 1906. After his divorce, he leased the buildings for a while, but then continued living there, making changes in the interior; a terrace and a winter garden were added, and the atelier was enlarged. In 1911 the street front was modified when Horta introduced a garage. In 1919 the buildings were sold to Major Henri Pinte and in 1926 the two parts of the building were separated. In 1961 the Commune of Saint-Gilles acquired the residential part for a museum of Horta's work. The building was restored in 1967 by Jean Delhaye, to accommodate its use as a museum, and further works were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s. A new restoration was initiated in 1989.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1005</http_url><id_number>1005</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1005.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Town Houses of Victor Horta in Brussels are works of human creative genius, representing the highest expression of the influential Art Nouveau style in art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The appearance of Art Nouveau in the closing years of the 19th century marked a decisive stage in the evolution of architecture, making possible subsequent developments, and the Town Houses of Victor Horta in Brussels bear exceptional witness to its radical new approach.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Town Houses of Victor Horta are outstanding examples of Art Nouveau architecture brilliantly illustrating the transition from the 19th to the 20th century in art, thought, and society.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.8280600000</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.3622300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The appearance of Art Nouveau in the closing years of the 19th century marked a decisive stage in the evolution of architecture, making possible subsequent developments, and the four town houses of Victor Horta in Brussels (H&amp;ocirc;tel Tassel, H&amp;ocirc;tel Solvay, H&amp;ocirc;tel van Eetvelde, Maison et Atelier Horta) bear exceptional witness to its radical new approach. They brilliantly illustrate the transition from the 19th to the 20th centuries in art, thought and society. The stylistic revolution represented by these works is characterized by their open plan, the diffusion of light, and the brilliant joining of the curved lines of decoration with the structure of the building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The H&amp;ocirc;tel Tassel can be considered the founding work of Art Nouveau. Commissioned by Professor Emile Tassel in 1893, it was the first work in which Horta was able to realize his original conception of architecture. The house was finished in 1894, but Horta continued designing the furniture for some years. After the Second World War, the house was split into small flats so that little of the decoration remained visible. In 1976 the street facade and the main doors were restored and the building was adapted as prestige offices. The street facade, built from stone, is remarkably integrated into its context. Above the entrance there is a two-storey bow window in an innovative steel structure. On the street site the building has the entrance floor, a mezzanine, first and second floor, and an attic. These levels are shifted towards the garden side by way of a central staircase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Commissioned by Armand Solvay, the H&amp;ocirc;tel Solvay was built from 1895 to 1898, with furniture completed in 1903. In 1957 the building became the seat of a fashion house; in 1980 the owners started the restoration of the building, including the restitution of the glass roofs of the main staircase, cooling of the interior decoration, and restoring the facade. It is the best preserved of all Horta's house and still maintains its interior intact, including original art objects and the utilities in functional order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1895 the diplomat and Secretary General of Congo, Van Eetvelde, commissioned the house that bears his name and construction started in 1897. The building was to provide a home for the family and a prestigious setting for the reception of international guests. The west wing area was completed in 1900 and the east wing in 1901. In 1920, after the death of Mme Van Eetvelde the property was divided in two parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Maison et Atelier Horta responded to the professional and family needs of the architect, and were built in 1898-1901 on two lots in a fashionable district of the town. After his divorce, he leased the building for a while, but then continued living there, making changes in the interior; a terrace and a winter garden were added and the atelier was enlarged. The facade is built from stone and has delicately designed metal railings. The most spectacular element in the building is represented by the vast glass ceiling over the main staircase. In 1919 the buildings were sold to Major Henri Pinte and in 1926 the two parts of the building were separated. In 1961 the Commune of Saint Gilles acquired the residential part for a museum  of Horta's work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The four town houses by Victor Horta form an essential link from the classical tradition to the Modern Movement in the history of architecture, as conceived by one of the pioneers of Art Nouveau. He revolutionized the architectural concepts of his time by introducing the idea of an open plan and creating real dialogue of materials and their uses according to their intrinsic nature within a new way of conceiving decoration. The Horta buildings revive the 19th-century tradition of bourgeois residential buildings, combining residential and representational functions, which require a subtle organization of spaces and differentiated circulation. In each case, Horta's genius created a coherent unity of architecture and decoration, reflecting the personality of the owner.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The four major town houses - H&amp;ocirc;tel Tassel, H&amp;ocirc;tel Solvay, H&amp;ocirc;tel van Eetvelde, and Maison &amp;amp; Atelier Horta - located in Brussels and designed by the architect Victor Horta, one of the earliest initiators of Art Nouveau, are some of the most remarkable pioneering works of architecture of the end of the 19th century. The stylistic revolution represented by these works is characterised by their open plan, the diffusion of light, and the brilliant joining of the curved lines of decoration with the structure of the building.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta (Brussels)</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1173</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The period when Spiennes developed large-scale flint mining, using techniques which may be termed preindustrial, is known as a result of radiocarbon dating of organic materials such as charcoal, bone, and antler, and also from the artefacts abandoned in the mines or workshops, such as pottery or cord for binding antler tools. Underground flint mining was taking place there from the second half of the 5th millennium BCE (between 4400 and 4200 BCE), making Spiennes one of the oldest mining sites in Europe. Several dates show that mining activity went on, apparently without interruption, throughout the whole 4th millennium and even during the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE, ie from the beginning of the Middle Neolithic until the Late Neolithic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, because of the extent of the site it is not yet possible for each mining area to be individually dated. Camp-&amp;agrave;-Cayaux and Petit-Spiennes have, however, produced similar dating and so the two plateaux were probably being mined contemporaneously. Dating is under way for the mining sector at the Versant de la Wampe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, on both plateaux, different mines intersect one another, showing that there were successive mining phases. At Petit-Spiennes, for example, new shafts were sunk around 3000 BCE in an area which had already been mined between 4400 and 4000 BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The considerable number of artefacts discovered at Spiennes, and more particularly the pottery, give a fairly precise picture of which human groups were engaged in underground flint mining. Other groups have left at times abundant traces, but the reasons for their presence are more difficult to interpret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest Neolithic remains at Spiennes are two adzes characteristic of the Neolithic Ruban&amp;eacute; Culture, dating from the second half of the 6th millennium BCE. However, these are surface finds and cannot be taken as evidence that flint was being mined at Spiennes at that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the pottery discovered in the flint mining structures and in the workshops and the upper parts of filled-in shafts is characteristic of the Michelsberg Culture. This covers a large area from central Germany to the Rhineland, Belgium, and northern France. It flourished between the last third of the 5th millennium and the middle of the 4th millennium BCE. Broken pottery found at the bottom of shafts shows clearly that it was left there by the miners themselves before the shafts were filled in.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;So far as the Late Neolithic is concerned, although the radiocarbon dates suggest that mining went on, no pottery characteristic of the Seine-Oise-Marne Culture (a local group from the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE) has yet been found. The use of axes with splayed blades suggests that they were made from Spiennes flint during the transition between the Late Neolithic and the Bronze Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spiennes was also important during the Metal Ages. Remains probably linked to settlements can be attributed to the Late Bronze Age (8th or 7th century BCE) and the Second (La T&amp;egrave;ne) Iron Age. At this period the nature of human occupation therefore changed. However, flint was still being used for toolmaking by these peoples. The Late Bronze Age finds include a stone-working workshop, demonstrating that local flint was still being worked on the site. It is not known how the Late Bronze Age craftsmen obtained the local flint - whether by small-scale extraction or scavenging the many pieces of debris left by previous occupations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many pits in the La T&amp;egrave;ne settlement have been found to contain flint. Here, too, the presence of flint-working debris may well have encouraged the Iron Age people to use this abundant material to make tools.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1006</http_url><id_number>1006</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1006.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Neolithic flint mines at Spiennes provide exceptional testimony to early human inventiveness and application.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The arrival of the Neolithic cultures marked a major milestone in human cultural and technological development, which is vividly illustrated by the vast complex of ancient flint mines at Spiennes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The flint mines at Spiennes are outstanding examples of the Neolithic mining of flint, which marked a seminal stage of human technological and cultural progress.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.4307700000</latitude><location>Province of Hainaut, Wallonia Region</location><longitude>3.9787900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The arrival of the Neolithic cultures marked a major milestone in human cultural and technological development, which is vividly illustrated by the vast complex of ancient flint mines at Spiennes. The mines at Spiennes provide exceptional testimony to early human inventiveness and application. The mining centres, like the higher settlements, show there were already major changes taking place in Europe in the 5th and 4th millennia BCE. They constitute a landmark between the first settled communities and the emergence, probably in the Bronze Age, of true 'clan centres'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The process of change throughout Europe is represented in Spiennes by the Michelsberg Culture, which was present in the middle Neolithic over a vast territory, including a large part of Germany, Belgium and northern France. Spiennes is a remarkable example of this culture because it has two characteristic sites: a fortified settlement on high ground and a vast flint mine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flint mines at Spiennes are outstanding examples of the lithic mining of flint, which marked a seminal stage of human technological and cultural progress. Spiennes is one of the best known examples of prehistoric flint mining. Its shafts are among the deepest ever sunk to extract this raw material. The exceptional size of the blocks of flint that were extracted shows how skilled the Neolithic miners must have been. The technique of 'striking', which is characteristic of Spiennes, was developed to allow these blocks to be extracted. The quality of the worked artefacts is one of the most remarkable illustrations of the great skill of the craftsmen, who produced extremely regular blades and axes 25cm long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Spiennes mines, covering more than 100ha, are the largest and earliest concentration of ancient mines in Europe. The mining site, 6&amp;nbsp;km south-east of Mons, occupies two chalk plateaux separated by the Trouille valley, a tributary of the Haine. The mines were in operation for many centuries and the remains vividly illustrate the development and adaptation of technology by prehistoric man over time in order to exploit large deposits of a material that was essential for the production of tools and implements, and hence for cultural evolution generally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Underground flint mining was taking place there from the second half of the 5th millennium BCE (between 4400 and 4200 BCE), making Spiennes one of the oldest mining sites in Europe. Several dates show that mining activity went on, apparently without interruption, from the beginning of the middle Neolithic until the late Neolithic period. The considerable number of artefacts discovered at Spiennes, and more particularly the pottery, give a fairly precise picture of which human groups were engaged in underground flint mining. Spiennes was also important during the Metal Ages. Remains probably linked to settlements can be attributed to the late Bronze Age (8th or 7th centuries BCE) and the second Iron Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first archaeological discoveries of prehistoric mine shafts were made in the 1840s, but it was not until 1867, when the Mons-Chimay railway line cut part of the Petit-Spiennes plateau, that more systematic work took place. Ever since the reporting of these discoveries to the Royal Academy of Belgium the following year, the mines have been intensively studied, with major excavation programmes in 1912-14 and continuously since 1953.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Currently the site appears on the surface as a large area of meadows and fields strewn with millions of scraps of worked flint. Underground the site is an immense network of galleries linked to the surface by vertical shafts dug by Neolithic man. The authenticity of the Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes is total. Many have never been excavated and those which are open to the public are in their original condition, with the exception of some modern shoring and props for security reasons.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Neolithic flint mines at Spiennes, covering more than 100 ha, are the largest and earliest concentration of ancient mines in Europe. They are also remarkable for the diversity of technological solutions used for extraction and for the fact that they are directly linked to a settlement of the same period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Neolithic Flint Mines at Spiennes (Mons)</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1174</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 1st century BCE Tournai was already an important Roman administrative and military centre (Turnacum), on the river Escaut at the crossroads of an extensive network of roads. Christianity was brought to Tournai in the late 3rd or early 4th century by St Piat, but it was not until the 5th century that the bishopric was created, probably in the reign of Childeric, King of the Franks. After extending the kingdom as far as the Pyrenees his son Clovis (481- 511) moved the main royal residence from Tournai to Paris. An episcopal foundation grew up around the Cathedral of St Stephen and the church of St Mary and became the centre of the city's political, economic, social, and intellectual life under the Carolingians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Romanesque Cathedral was built after fire destroyed the episcopal ensemble in the mid 9th century. The great 11th century basilica, part of which still remains, owes its construction to the growing importance of the Marian cult, which attracted many pilgrims in the wake of the plague of 1089 (Notre- Dame des Malades, "Our Lady of the Sick," otherwise known as Notre-Dame de Tournai or the Flemish Notre-Dame). Another factor was the wealth of Flanders and of Tournai, its religious centre and a renowned centre of learning, in a region that produced wool and exported local limestone. In 1146 the city was granted its own bishop instead of being attached to the archdiocese of Noyon, as it had been since the early 7th century. The Romanesque elements of the Cathedral have never been definitively dated. Recent research, however, would seem to put the date of construction in the first half of the 12th century, that of the nave more precisely in the first third of the century and the transept in the second. The original plan included a ceilinged nave with vast galleries on the vaulted side-aisles and a harmonious west front.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of the Gothic choir seems to have opened out on a building completed when Bishop Etienne d'Orleans (1192-1203) had the chapel of St Vincent built on the south-west side and added vaulting over the transept and choir of the Cathedral in 1198. Towards the beginning of the 13th century, the first Romanesque portal was replaced by a more monumental construction which was later masked by a stone porch at the beginning of the following century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bishop Gautier de Marvis (1219-52) planned to build a new cathedral. Work began on the choir in 1242 and ended in 1255 but did not affect the Romanesque nave and transept. Other constructions were added to the building: a vast chapel, contemporary with the Gothic choir, in the south aisle which would be dedicated to Louis IX of France in 1299 and the prayer-chapel added to the choir in the 14th century. From this period onwards the Gothic choir seems to have shown disturbing signs of instability and potential collapse, remedies for which were sought through consolidation work carried out at different periods. Once completed, the Romano-Gothic Cathedral benefited from the climate of artistic creativity that reigned for many centuries in Tournai and acquired many works of art for its embellishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The spires of the flanking towers, and no doubt that of the central tower as well, date from the 16th century, as does the parish chapel, now vanished, that once stood up against the north side of the nave on the site of the Romanesque cloister. Tournai did not escape the rise of Calvinism, losing the archdeaconates of Bruges and Ghent in 1559 and seeing its Cathedral sacked in 1566. The Cathedral was restored the following year, however, and a Renaissance rood screen replaced the Gothic enclosure. Numerous alterations were made over the next two centuries, such as the partial reconstruction of the narthex in Tuscan style (1620), the raising of new vaulting over the nave galleries to replace a wooden ceiling (after 1640) and over the nave (1753), the modification of the Romanesque staircases in the western bay of the side-aisles (1757), the closing off of the side arcades opening out onto the narthex, and the opening of new doors into the side-aisles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The return of the French in 1797 brought with it the closure of the Cathedral, the sale of its rich furnishings, and the dispersal of its collection of works of art. The building narrowly escaped demolition, but its poor state of preservation necessitated restoration work, which began in the choir in 1840 and continued over subsequent decades: the principal realizations were the reconstruction of the gable-end of the north apse to match that of the south apse, which was itself renovated, the reconstruction of a neo-Romanesque gable-end inspired by those of the transept arms, and the creation of the great rose window. In the early 19th century the Cathedral was left standing in isolation by the demolition of the surrounding houses. Incendiary bombs landed in the choir on 17 May 1940 and the fire spread to the roof of the nave. The parish chapel, the episcopal palace, the diocesan archives, and the extensive chapter library were all destroyed. A fresh restoration campaign was launched after the war ended.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1009</http_url><id_number>1009</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1009.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Tournai bears witness to a considerable exchange of influence between the architecture of the Ile de France, the Rhineland, and Normandy during the short period at the beginning of the 12th century that preceded the flowering of Gothic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; In its imposing dimensions, the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Tournai is an outstanding example of the great edifices of the school of the north of the Seine, precursors of the vastness of the Gothic cathedrals.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.6060300000</latitude><location>Province of Hainaut, Wallonia Region</location><longitude>3.3892600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Notre-Dame Cathedral in Tournai bears witness to a considerable exchange of influence between the architecture of the Île de France, the Rhineland and Normandy during the short period at the beginning of the 12th century that preceded the flowering of Gothic architecture. In the case of the nave and transept, the early date of the elevation to four levels and its subsequent widespread extension meets the criterion of considerable influence and is further reinforced in the transept by the masterly integration of a 'corridor triforium' and by the unusual composition of volumes. The early 12th-century construction in the nave of a 'viaduct' structure on a four-storey elevation is unique in a period where church builders limited themselves to three levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In its imposing dimensions, the cathedral is an outstanding example of the great edifices of the school of the north of the Seine, precursors of the vastness of the Gothic cathedrals. The nave and the transept meet the criterion of unique testimony, in the light of their outstanding state of conservation in a region that has lost virtually all its great basilicas of the Romanesque or pre-Chartres Gothic periods. This is particularly true of the sculpted decoration of the nave. Archaeological sources of exemplary value serve to put the environment of the cathedral into perspective.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1st century BC, Tournai was already an important Roman administrative and military centre (Turnacum), on the river Escaut at the crossroads of an extensive network of roads. Christianity was brought to Tournai in the late 3rd or early 4th centuries by St Piat, but it was not until the 5th century that the bishopric was created, probably in the reign of Childeric, King of the Franks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral was built in the first half of the 12th century after fire had destroyed the episcopal ensemble in the mid-9th century. The great 11th-century basilica, part of which still remains, owes its construction to the growing importance of the Marian cult, which attracted many pilgrims in the wake of the plague of 1089. The cathedral lies at the heart of the old town, not far from the left bank of the Escaut. In architectural terms, it is the product of three design periods that can still easily be distinguished: it offers the contrast of a Romanesque nave and a Gothic choir linked by a transept in a transitional style featuring an impressive group of five bell towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the exterior a Gothic porch shelters the double portal in the west front. The lower ranges of the front are decorated with sculptures dating from different periods (14th, 16th and 17th centuries) depicting Old Testament scenes, episodes from the city's history and saints. Above them runs a row of bays surmounted by a great neo-Romanesque rose window and, finally, a gable end flanked by two circular turrets decorated with two rows of columns. The choir, rebuilt in the 13th century, is in the pure Gothic style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the interior the Romanesque nave, divided into nine spans over a length of 48 m, is flanked by side-aisles and it is distinctive for its rise to four levels, separated by continuous horizontal cable designs. Two Romanesque vaulted rooms, probably chapels, were added shortly after the construction of the nave, one to the north and the other to the south, at the turn of the western galleries over the side-aisles against the arms of the transept. The transept is vaulted in its entirety and its two arms each culminate in an apse with a narrow ambulatory framed by two towers. The rectangular crossing is topped by a lantern, two floors of which are visible above a Gothic arch. The elevation of the nave extends into the arms, with the adjustments necessary to incorporate the ogival vaulting and smooth the transition to the elevation of the apses. The choir extends over seven spans surmounted by ogival vaulting along the longer side and ends in a semi-decagonal apse topped with an octagonal vault. The chapels open off the ambulatory include six three-sided radiant chapels in the apse.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Tournai was built in the first half of the 12th century. It is especially distinguished by a Romanesque nave of extraordinary dimensions, a wealth of sculpture on its capitals and a transept topped by five towers, all precursors of the Gothic style. The choir, rebuilt in the 13th century, is in the pure Gothic style.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Notre-Dame Cathedral in Tournai</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1179</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;In the application, the history of the old town of Antwerp and the development of the mansion of Plantin and the Moretus, with its printing and publishing workshops, are fully and accurately set out. It was the constantly growing economic role of the town which was crucial; the other essential factor was the fact that Christophe PLANTIN moved to Antwerp in 1555, and took up residence in the mansion (today the Museum premises) which later came to be known as the Golden Compass, in the heart of the historic nucleus of the town, explain the evolution of the monument and its importance in the history of printing and publishing, from 1579, the date of the construction of the first set of printing workshops (Officina Plantiniana) to&lt;br /&gt;1871, when the last in the line of printers/publishers associated with the workshops, Edouard Moretus (1804-1880) abandoned the printing activity, dedicating himself to preserving the furniture and property patrimony, and the treasures accumulated over the centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;Over this long period, a distinction can be drawn between three phases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;- The thriving enterprise of Plantin, up to his death in 1589 (by that date, his Officina had already produced some 2450 works) was continued by his son-in-law Jan I Moretus (1543-1610), who made it the best equipped printing works in Europe. His son, Balthasar I Moretus (1574-1641) took over from him and consolidated the firm's reputation, with the help of his friendship with Peter Paul Rubens. This famous artist produced drawings for remarkable and exceptional works of Baroque publishing, which were universally imitated in the second half of the 17th century. The Officina's international reputation and the unrivalled&lt;br /&gt;quality of its books led to visits to the Officina by Marie de M&amp;eacute;dicis in 1631, Queen Christina of Sweden in 1654 and a number of Italian and Polish princes and princesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;- The second half of the 17th century marked the beginning of a period of decline for printing in Antwerp. However, the Moretuses' Officina maintained its position as the largest in the Spanish Netherlands. Its books, mainly religious, were produced for the Spanish market and were exported as far afield as China, and to the Spanish possessions in the New World. From 1715 to 1764, its output made one of the largest contributions to the international export trade in books.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;- Despite an incipient renewal in the first quarter of the 19th century, the situation of the Moretuses deteriorated. They proved unable to come to terms with the modernisation of printing, and in particular the consequences of the development of mechanical and rotary presses. Edward Moretus (1804-1880) was to be the last of the printer/publishers of the family, and after the publication in 1866 of a final book, Horae diurnae S. Francisci, he was forced to cease printing. In 1871, he became the curator of the family patrimony and a collector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;The Plantin/Moretus saga was over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;In 1873, he negotiated the sale of the property with all its contents under an agreement with the Belgian state and the City of Antwerp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;In 1876, the Plantin-Moretus Museum was born. To these phases of historical evolution correspond&lt;br /&gt;developments in architecture, refurbishment and museographical equipment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;a- 1576-1580: Establishment of the core of the mansion, and construction&lt;br /&gt;of the printing works with its tools and equipment&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;b- 1620-1640: Successive extensions of the residence, and various alterations which create the interior courtyard in its present form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;c- 1761-1763: During the flourishing period under the ownership of Franciscus Joannes Moretus (1717-1768), the seven small house fronts were demolished and replaced by the existing building, in a transitional Louis XV-Louis XVI style, reflecting the tastes of the ennobled upper bourgeoisie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;d- From 1876 to the present day: &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;- Purchase of the whole property (including its contents) by the Belgian state and the City of Antwerp in 1876.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;- Opening of the Plantin-Moretus Museum on 19 August 1877.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;- In 1937, addition of a new wing to house the Print Room of the City of Antwerp, a subsidiary of the Museum, with its sizeable collection of graphic art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;- In 1947 restoration work was carried out following the damage caused in WW2: on 2 January 1945, a flying bomb damaged the house of 1580 on the south side, and the facade of the East wing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;Fortunately, the collections, which had been moved to a safe place, were not damaged.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1185</http_url><id_number>1185</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1185.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt; Through the publications of the Officina Plantiniana, the Plantin-Moretus complex is a testimony to the major role played by this important centre of 16th century European humanism in the development of science and culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt; Considered as an integral part of the Memory of the World (UNESCO, 2001), the Plantinian Archives, including the business archives of the Officina, the books of commercial accounts and the correspondence with a number of world-renowned scholars and humanists, provide an outstanding testimony to a cultural tradition of the first importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt; As an outstanding example of the relationship between the living environment of a family during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the world of work and the world of commerce, the Plantin-Moretus Complex is of unrivalled Documentary value relating to significant periods of European history: the Renaissance, the Baroque era and Classicism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt; The Plantin-Moretus complex is tangibly associated with ideas, beliefs, technologies and literary and artistic works of outstanding universal significance.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.2183300000</latitude><location>City of Antwerp, Flanders Region</location><longitude>4.3977800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Through the publications of the Officina Plantiniana, the Plantin-Moretus complex bears witness to the major role played by this important centre of 16th-century European humanism in the development of science and culture. The Plantinian Archives, including the business archives of the Officina, the books of commercial accounts and the correspondence with a number of world-renowned scholars and humanists, provide an outstanding testimony to a cultural tradition of the first importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As an outstanding example of the relationship between the living environment of a family during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the world of work and the world of commerce, the Plantin-Moretus Complex is of unrivalled documentary value relating to significant periods of European history - the Renaissance, the Baroque era and Classicism. The Plantin-Moretus complex is tangibly associated with ideas, beliefs, technologies and literary and artistic works of outstanding universal significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old town of Antwerp (Antwerpen in Flemish) developed on the right bank of the Schelde River, at the foot of a fortress with a tollgate for the control of river transport, dating back to the 9th century. After being substantially extended during the 13th and 14th centuries, Antwerp asserted its position, at the expense of Bruges (Brugge), as:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;a centre of monetary transactions;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;an international marketplace (including an art market);&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;a meeting place for humanists and artists;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;a hub of European cultural exchanges, importing in particular the key elements of the Italian Renaissance which were to inspire the Flemish Renaissance.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The booming vitality of Antwerp from 1500 onwards was conducive to the development of printing. By the mid-16th century, some 140 printers, publishers and booksellers were working in the town, where the book market took on an increasingly international dimension. Antwerp thus became the centre of the book businesses for all regions north of the Alps, and (with Venice and Paris) one of the three capitals of European typography, thanks primarily to the activity of Christopher Plantin between 1555 and 1589.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was in the setting of the metropolis of Antwerp, which in the mid-16th century had a population of over 100,000 that Plantin set up his printing and publishing firm, the Officina Plantiniana with a complex of workshops adjoining a patrician residence. The Officina at that time was quite easily the largest typographical company in Europe. On the death of Plantin in 1589, his son-in-law Jan Moretus I (1543-1610) took over at the head of the best equipped company in Europe, and it was thanks to the Moretus family that the continuity of the production activities of the firm was maintained until 1867. This continuity refers to the same functions carried out in the same place. This explains the homogeneity of the plan of the building, which is reflected in the present-day museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In all, the historic building in its current state comprises 35 rooms (including the drawing room dedicated to the memory of the jurist Ren&amp;eacute; Vandevoir (1892-1966), a benefactor of the museum, and of the French-speaking Flemish writer, Emile Verhaeren (1855-1916).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Plantin-Moretus Museum is a printing plant and publishing house dating from the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Situated in Antwerp, one of the three leading cities of early European printing along with Paris and Venice, it is associated with the history of the invention and spread of typography. Its name refers to the greatest printer-publisher of the second half of the 16th century: Christophe Plantin (c. 1520–89). The monument is of outstanding architectural value. It contains exhaustive evidence of the life and work of what was the most prolific printing and publishing house in Europe in the late 16th century. The building of the company, which remained in activity until 1867, contains a large collection of old printing equipment, an extensive library, invaluable archives and works of art, among them a painting by Rubens.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Plantin-Moretus House-Workshops-Museum Complex</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1362</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Adolphe Stoclet (1871-1949) came from a family of bankers. His first career was as a railway engineer. He then married Suzanne Stevens, daughter of the art critic Arthur Stevens. Stoclet was an eminent art lover and collector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When working on the construction of a railway in Austria, he became fascinated by the Vienna Secession movement, its innovative spirit, and its avant-garde works. His meeting with Josef Hoffmann (1870-1956) was a decisive one. The architectural and decorative work of Hoffmann, and more generally the creativity of the Secession group, seemed in Stoclet's view to perfectly define what a bourgeois family residence should be, in phase with its time in aesthetic and moral terms, and also in its modernity and functionality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Called back to Belgium on the death of his father, Stoclet succeeded him at the head of the Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; G&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale, a major Belgian bank. He then decided to establish his family residence in Brussels, calling in Hoffmann and his Secession colleagues so that the group's artistic and architectural principles could be applied unhindered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The specification was entirely functional. In addition to housing the family, the residence was to provide a setting for a large art collection; it was to permit musicians and artists to give private concerts; it was also to offer the best possible conditions for welcoming distinguished guests and friends. Hoffmann and the artists of the Secession were given a free hand, but they had numerous meetings with Stoclet, for whom the construction of the residence was the accomplishment of a work of art in which he was participating both aesthetically and intellectually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the time of the commission Hoffmann was at the pinnacle of his art. Not only was his own architectural work already widely acclaimed, it was he who had designed from the outset the exhibitions of the Secession, of which he was one of the co-founders. He was also a teacher, which allowed him to have a significant influence on the new generation of artists from Vienna and more widely from Central Europe. In the critical spirit of the Secession, which aimed to renew the principles of an Art Nouveau movement that was increasingly influential at the time, Hoffmann had already designed several remarkable villas and residences; he was just completing the Purkersdorf Sanatorium. The Stoclet project, on which no restrictions would be imposed, came at just the right time: Hoffmann was able to gather around him the most outstanding creative members of the Viennese artistic movement. He was able to advance and take further his stylistic research, moving even farther away from the initial influences of Art Nouveau and the Arts and Crafts movement, towards an exaltation of simple and geometrical forms, an austere primitive ideal, and total integration of the different art forms to serve the project. The same idiom is in evidence in the exterior and interior architecture, in the decoration and the furniture, and in the gardens and the approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Designed in 1905, the House was built without interruption from 1906 to 1911.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Stoclet family occupied the mansion continuously as its private residence until 2002, when the Baroness Annie Stoclet died. Since then the House has been managed by the real estate company &amp;lsquo;Suzanne and Adolphe Stoclet' (SAS), the directors of which are the descendants of the founder and heirs of the House. Today the building is only permanently lived in by two caretakers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The House has not undergone any major change in its history. There have been minor alterations of a functional or technical nature, and maintenance work has been carried out to preserve its integrity. The main changes made are as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The German occupation authorities removed the bronze elements from the roof during World War I. These were afterwards replaced by the owners in conformity with the initial plans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The entrance porch leading into the street was enlarged in 1954 when the garden was extended by the purchase of an adjacent plot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Terrace waterproofing works were carried out in the late 1980s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- In the 2000s, the tiling of the entrance porch threshold was replaced, and the door and window frames of the west and then the south facades were repainted; the wooden garden shed was rebuilt according to Hoffmann's plans and new boilers were installed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The electrical wiring was brought into compliance with standards in 1950, and again in 2006.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;No change has been made to the interior of the building, apart from the restoration of some items of furniture and the replacement of some furnishing fabrics, in conformity with the originals. Some carpets and light fittings have been placed in the attic, where they await restoration.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1298</http_url><id_number>1298</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1298.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.8350000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.4161111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;When banker and art collector Adolphe Stoclet commissioned this house from one of the leading architects of the Vienna Secession movement, Josef Hoffmann, in 1905, he imposed neither aesthetic nor financial restrictions on the project. The house and garden were completed in 1911 and their austere geometry marked a turning point in Art Nouveau, foreshadowing Art Deco and the Modern Movement in architecture. Stoclet House is one of the most accomplished and homogenous buildings of the Vienna Secession, and features works by Koloman Moser and Gustav Klimt, embodying the aspiration of creating a &amp;lsquo;total work of art' (Gesamtkunstwerk). Bearing testimony to artistic renewal in European architecture, the house retains a high level of integrity, both externally and internally as it retains most of its original fixtures and furnishings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stoclet House</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1578</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1344</http_url><id_number>1344</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1344.jpg</image_url><iso_code>be</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.4352777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.8383333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The four sites of the property form a strip 170&amp;nbsp;km long by 3&amp;ndash;15&amp;nbsp;km wide, crossing Belgium from east to west, consisting of the best-preserved 19th- and 20th-century coal-mining sites of the country. It features examples of the utopian architecture from the early periods of the industrial era in Europe within a highly integrated, industrial and urban ensemble, notably the Grand-Hornu colliery and workers&amp;rsquo; city designed by Bruno Renard in the first half of the 19th century. Bois-du-Luc includes numerous buildings erected from 1838 to 1909 and one of Europe&amp;rsquo;s oldest collieries dating back to the late 17th century. While Wallonia had hundreds of collieries, most have lost their infrastructure, while the four components of the listed site retain a high measure of integrity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Major Mining Sites of Wallonia</site><states>Belgium</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1837</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>1</danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/764</http_url><id_number>764</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_764.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System under natural &lt;em&gt;criteria (vii), (ix) and (x)&lt;/em&gt; as the largest barrier reef in the Northern hemisphere, as a serial nomination consisting of seven sites. The Reef illustrates a classic example of reefs through fringing, barrier and atoll reef types.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>16.7500000000</latitude><location>Belize District (sites I, II, III), Stann Creek District ( IV,V,VI), Toledo District (VII)</location><longitude>-87.0583333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The coastal area of Belize is an outstanding natural system consisting of the largest barrier reef in the northern hemisphere, offshore atolls, several hundred sand cays, mangrove forests, coastal lagoons and estuaries. The system's seven sites illustrate the evolutionary history of reef development and are a significant habitat for threatened species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reef extends from the border with Mexico to the north, to near the Guatemalan border to the south. The Belize submarine shelf and its barrier reef, represent the world second largest reef system and the largest reef complex in the Atlantic-Caribbean area. Outside the barrier, there are three large atolls: Turneffe Islands, Lighthouse Reef and Glover's Reef.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between the mainland and the barrier reef is an extensive offshore lagoon which increases in width and depth from north to south. In the north, water depth averages 2-3&amp;nbsp;m over a flat, featureless bottom 20-25&amp;nbsp;km wide. South of Belize City, the shelf gradually deepens forming a channel between the mainland and the outer platform, reaching a depth of 65&amp;nbsp;m in the Gulf of Honduras.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The approximately 450 sand and mangrove cays confined within the barrier and atolls range in size from small, ephemeral sand spits to larger, permanent islands capable of sustaining human settlements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A total of 178 terrestrial plants and 247 taxa of marine flora has been described from the area. There are over 500 species of fish, 65 scleritian corals, 45 hydroids and 350 molluscs in the area, plus a great diversity of sponges, marine worms and crustaceans. The area harbours a number of species of conservation concern, including West Indian manatee, green turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead turtle and American crocodile. The West Indian manatee population (300-700 individuals) is probably the largest in the world. Several bird species of conservation concern are found in the cayes and atolls. Major seabird and waterbird colonies include those of the red-footed booby (3,000-4,000 individuals) on Half-Moon Caye, brown booby on Man O'War Caye, and common noddy on Glover's Reef. Other noteworthy breeding birds are the brown pelican and the magnificent frigate bird. The Belize coral reef ecosystem is distinctive in the Western Hemisphere on account of its size, its array of reef types and the luxuriance of corals thriving in such pristine conditions. The are several unusual geophysical features including the nearby contiguous shelf edge barrier reef, the complex maze of patch reefs and faros in a relatively deep shelf lagoon, the unusual of reef types in a small area, the presence of atolls, and the large offshore mangrove cays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shell middens at Mayan sites along the coast and on the cayes provide evidence that the reefs were used for fishing some 2500 years ago. Between 300 BC and AD 900, the coastal waters were probably used extensively for fishing by the Mayans, and trading posts, ceremonial centres and burial grounds were established on the cayes. With the decline of the Maya civilization, the reef's resources probably went largely unused for a number of centuries, although early Spanish explorers used the cayes to repair their boats and collect fresh water. By the early 17th century, the coastal water of Belize had however become a heaven for pirates and buccaneers, largely from Britain, who looted Spanish and British trading ships and survived on the abundant marine resources available. Subsequently, many of the pirates, as well as Puritan traders from the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua, settled in the cayes, becoming fishermen and plantation owners. Since then, there have been a number of waves of immigration into the coastal area, including the Garifuna people, immigrants from Mexico, and most recently North Americans and other foreigners who have been lured by the beauty of the reef and its surroundings and have taken up residence in the cayes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The coastal area of Belize is an outstanding natural system consisting of the largest barrier reef in the northern hemisphere, offshore atolls, several hundred sand cays, mangrove forests, coastal lagoons and estuaries. The system’s seven sites illustrate the evolutionary history of reef development and are a significant habitat for threatened species, including marine turtles, manatees and the American marine crocodile.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System</site><states>Belize</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>900</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/323</http_url><id_number>323</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_323.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bj</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.1833333330</latitude><location>Province du Zou</location><longitude>1.9833333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Palaces of Abomey bear exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition that has become vulnerable under the impact of time. Still used regularly for traditional rituals and for royal ceremonies, the palace buildings are important not simply because of the past that they represent, but also for the tradition they help to sustain. For a society without written documents, the bas-reliefs (used as decorative features) serve as a unique record of the past, they represent the most significant events in the evolution of the Fon people and their empire, glorifying the military victories and power of each king and documenting the Fon people's myths, customs and rituals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The West African Kingdom of Abomey (formerly Dahomey), founded in 1625 by the Fon people, developed into a powerful military and commercial empire. Under the twelve kings who succeeded one another from 1695 to 1900, the kingdom became one of the most powerful on the west coast of Africa. Until the late 19th century its primary source of wealth was from selling of prisoners of war as slaves to European slave traders for transport across the Atlantic to the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Each of the twelve kings built a lavish palace on the royal grounds in Abomey, the capital city, all within the same cob-walled area, in keeping with previous palaces as regards the use of space and materials. They are all characterized by a number of structural constants: within the walled enceinte, each palace has its own walls and is also built around three courtyards. The exterior courtyard is the site of ritual ceremonies and military parade, the interior courtyard and the private courtyard afford access to the residence of the king and queens of two distinct zones, that of the palaces and that of the north-northwest, the zone of the Akaba Palace. Over the centuries, the palace complex came to be filled with dwellings, facilities, murals, sculptures, and a series of intricate bas-reliefs. Earthen bas-reliefs were used as an essential decorative feature in the facades of most of the palaces. The walls show that the military might of the Abomey kingdom was based, in part, on companies of female warriors who matched their male counterparts in fierceness and courage. They also portray mythical animals that symbolized the characteristics of the kings and their power as rulers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In order to defy French occupation in 1892, Abomey King Behanzin ordered that the city (including the palaces) be burned. The Salle des Bijoux (Hall of Jewels), the palace of an earlier ruler, is thought to have been one of the few structures to survive the fire, making its bas-reliefs of particular importance as a historic record of the Fon's rich culture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From 1625 to 1900, 12 kings succeeded one another at the head of the powerful Kingdom of Abomey. With the exception of King Akaba, who had his own separate enclosure, they all had their palaces built within the same cob-wall area, in keeping with previous palaces as regards the use of space and materials. The royal palaces of Abomey are a unique reminder of this vanished kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Palaces of Abomey</site><states>Benin</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1560</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2014</danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/420</http_url><id_number>420</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_420.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-19.5836100000</latitude><location>Potosi, Province of Potosi</location><longitude>-65.7530600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the pre-Hispanic period, Potos&amp;iacute; was only a small hamlet perched at an altitude of 4,000&amp;nbsp;m, in the icy solitude of the Andes. It owes its prosperity to the discovery, between 1542 and 1545, of the New World's biggest silver lodes in the Cerro de Potos&amp;iacute;, the mountain south of the city which overlooks it. As a result, Potos&amp;iacute; is directly and tangibly associated with an event of outstanding universal significance: the economic change brought about in the 16th century by the flood of Spanish currency resulting from the massive import of precious metals from the New World into Seville.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'Imperial City' of Potos&amp;iacute;, which it became following the visit of Francisco de Toledo in 1572, exerted lasting influence on the development of architecture and monumental arts in the central region of the Andes by spreading the forms of a Baroque style incorporating Indian influence. Growth was extremely rapid: in the new town, where building began under the terms of the Law of the Indies in 1572, there were by the 17th century 160,000 colonists, as well as 13,500 Indians who were forced to labour in the mines. Following a period of disorganized exploitation of the native silver lodes, the Cerro de Potos&amp;iacute; reached full production capacity after 1580, when a Peruvian-developed mining technique, known as patio, was implemented. In the 16th century, this area was regarded as the world's largest industrial complex in which the extraction of silver ore relied on a series of hydraulic mills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Potos&amp;iacute; is the one example par excellence of a major silver mine in modern times. The city and the region conserve spectacular traces of this activity: the industrial infrastructure comprised 22 lagunas or reservoirs, from which a forced flow of water produce the hydraulic power to activate the 140 ingenios or mills to grind silver ore. The ground ore was then amalgamated with mercury in refractory earthen kilns called huayras or guayras. It was then moulded into bars and stamped with the mark of the Royal Mint. From the mine to the Royal Mint, the whole production chain is conserved, along with dams, aqueducts, milling centres and kilns. Production continued until the 18th century, slowing down only after the country's independence in 1825.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of the industrial monuments of the Cerro Rico, where water is provided by an intricate system of aqueducts and artificial lakes; the colonial town with the Casa de la Moneda; the Church of San Lorenzo; several patrician houses; and the barrios mitayos, the areas where the workers lived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Casa de la Moneda (House of the Mint), in the centre of the city close to Republic Square, was constructed between 1753 and 1773. The house today is a numismatic museum. It possesses more than 100 colonial pictures and various archaeological and ethnographic collections. The church of San Francisco was the first church built during the colonial period; it houses the patron of Potos&amp;iacute;, El Senor de la Vera Cruz. The church of San Lorenzo was built in 1548; it is an outstanding example of dressed stone in the local Baroque style.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century, this area was regarded as the world&amp;rsquo;s largest industrial complex. The extraction of silver ore relied on a series of hydraulic mills. The site consists of the industrial monuments of the Cerro Rico, where water is provided by an intricate system of aqueducts and artificial lakes; the colonial town with the Casa de la Moneda; the Church of San Lorenzo; several patrician houses; and the barrios mitayos, the areas where the workers lived.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Potosí</site><states>Bolivia (Plurinational State of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>484</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/529</http_url><id_number>529</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_529.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-16.0000000000</latitude><location>Department of Santa Cruz</location><longitude>-60.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sent by the Spanish Crown to assure the conquest of the Indias del Cielo, the Jesuit fathers arrived at the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1567 to bring Christianity to the indigenous communities. The first collegial church was founded in 1577 at Potos&amp;iacute;, on Bolivian territory; in 1592 a new house was established at Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The Jesuits seemed to have rationalized, in the Chiquito territory, the model of &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; (settlements of Christianized Indians) which was largely inspired by the ideal city of the humanist philosophers. Between 1696 and 1760, six groups of &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; were founded in a style that married Roman Catholic architecture with local traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They defined the urban model: the houses of Indians regularly spaced along the three sides of a rectangular square, with the fourth reserved for the church, the collegial church, two workshops, and the schools, and sometimes also for the Casa de la Misericordia (almshouse), which housed widows and abandoned women. Unlike other Jesuit missions in South America that were abandoned after 1767, the &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; of the Chiquitos survived the expulsion of the Company of Jesus. The six that remain - San Francisco Javier, Concepci&amp;oacute;n, Santa Ana, San Miguel, San Rafael and San Jos&amp;eacute; - make up a living heritage on the former territory of the Chiquitos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The churches of the Chiquitos Missions of Bolivia are a remarkable example of the adaptation of Christian religious architecture to local conditions and traditions. Long walls defining three interior aisles divided by wooden columns and two exterior galleries, also supported by columns, constitute a very unique type of architecture, distinguished by the special treatment of the wooden columns and banisters. Only San Jos&amp;eacute; is an exception, because its stone construction was inspired by a Baroque model. These traditional architectural ensembles, which often enclose remarkable popular art objects, have become vulnerable under the impact of changes that threatened the Chiquitos populations following the agrarian reform of 1953.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Francisco Javier, the westernmost and the earliest, is now a small village whose traditional habitat preserves some characteristics of the domestic architecture of the Jesuits, although the height of 6.25&amp;nbsp;m established for each house is rarely encountered. The school has survived, as well as the church, the work of Father Martin Schmidt. Concepci&amp;oacute;n, founded in 1709, was not established permanently until 1722. The church, begun in 1725, is also a work of Father Martin Schmidt. Santa Ana was founded in 1755 and its church was erected between 1768 and 1831, after the expulsion of the Jesuits. San Miguel was established in 1721. The church, the construction of which began in 1750, was built according to the designs of Father Johann Messner. San Raphael has retained from the Jesuit period only its church, constructed in about 1750 by Father Martin Schmidt. It is distinguished by an outside promenade gallery and a wooden bell tower. San Jos&amp;eacute;, founded in 1698, was one of the most interesting &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; of Chiquito. Four chapels for processions stand at the corners of the square. The religious ensemble was extensively remodelled in the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Between 1696 and 1760, six ensembles of reducciones (settlements of Christianized Indians) inspired by the &amp;lsquo;ideal cities&amp;rsquo; of the 16th-century philosophers were founded by the Jesuits in a style that married Catholic architecture with local traditions. The six that remain &amp;ndash; San Francisco Javier, Concepci&amp;oacute;n, Santa Ana, San Miguel, San Rafael and San Jos&amp;eacute; &amp;ndash; make up a living heritage on the former territory of the Chiquitos.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos</site><states>Bolivia (Plurinational State of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>619</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/566</http_url><id_number>566</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_566.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-19.0430600000</latitude><location>Department de Chuquisaca, Province Oropeza</location><longitude>-65.2591700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The rich heritage of the historic centre of the Spanish city of Sucre (also known as the city of four names - La Plata, Characas, Ciudad Blanca and Sucre) is an excellent, intact and well-preserved illustration of the architectural blending achieved in Latin America through the assimilation of local traditions and styles imported from Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of La Plata was founded by Pedro de Anzures, Marqu&amp;eacute;s de Campo Rotondo, in 1538. Its foundation was a result of mining activities overseen by Gonzalo Pizarro, who was interested in exploring the highland eastern region of the Andean Cordillera. In 1559, the Spanish King Felipe II commanded the foundation of the Audiencia de Characas, with its headquarters in the city of La Plata, to administer the eastern territories. The Audiencia held judicial authority and executive powers and presided over the regions of what are now Paraguay, south-eastern Peru, northern Chile and Argentina, and most of Bolivia. The Spanish city was designed on a simple urban plan, like all the cities founded by the Spanish in the regions of America in the 16th century. The mineral wealth of the nearby city of Potos&amp;iacute; influenced the economic development of La Plata, which was also a major cultural centre (Universidad de San Francisco, the Royal Academia Carolina, San Isabel de Hungria Seminario), and the seat of the Characas Audiencia, a forerunner of the present Supreme Court.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1609 the city became the seat of an archbishopric, and during the 17th century La Plata served as a legal, religious and cultural centre of the Spanish eastern territories. The first call for independence in the Americans took place in the city of La Plata in 1809. In August 1825 independence was declared and a new republic was born under the name of Bolivia. In the same days the name of the city, La Plata, was changed to Sucre in honour of Mariscal Ant&amp;oacute;nio Jos&amp;eacute; de Sucre, who fought for independence from Spanish rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The buildings in the city's historic centre are characteristic of 18th-century local architecture, and are similar to those built during the same period in Potos&amp;iacute;. More recent buildings (late 18th and early 19th centuries) still have patios, but they are adapted to a neoclassical style brought from metropolitan Spain. The House of Freedom is considered to be the most important historical monument of the country, because it was here that the events that led to the independence of Bolivia took place. It was built in 1621 as part of the Convent of the Jesuits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, many religious buildings bear witness to the period that marked the beginning of the Spanish city, including the churches built by settlers dating back to the 16th century, such as San L&amp;aacute;zaro, San Francisco, Santo Domingo, and the Metropolitan Cathedral, the construction of which began in 1559 and was not completely finished until 250 years later. Its architecture displays Renaissance, Baroque and also 'Mestizo Baroque' features. The church of Santa Barbara is the only church in Renaissance style in Bolivia: its interior structure, of neo-Gothic style, dates from 1887. All the churches of Sucre illustrate the blending of local architectural traditions with styles imported from Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sucre, the first capital of Bolivia, was founded by the Spanish in the first half of the 16th century. Its many well-preserved 16th-century religious buildings, such as San L&amp;aacute;zaro, San Francisco and Santo Domingo, illustrate the blending of local architectural traditions with styles imported from Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Sucre</site><states>Bolivia (Plurinational State of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>668</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Tiwanaku began as a small settlement, in what as known as its "village period," around 1200 BCE. It was self-sufficient, with a non-irrigated form of farming based on frost-resistant crops, essential at this high altitude, producing tubers such as potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), oca (Oxalis tuberosa) and cereals, notably quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). In more sheltered locations near Lake Titicaca, maize and peaches were also cultivated. The inhabitants lived in rectangular adobe houses that were linked by paved streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 1st century CE Tiwanaku expanded rapidly into a small town. This may be attributable to the introduction of copper metallurgy and the consequent availability of superior tools and implements. These facilitated the creation of irrigation systems, which resulted in agricultural surpluses, which in turn encouraged the growth of an hierarchical social structure and the rise of specialist craftsmen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wealthy upper class, who also controlled the profitable trade in wool from the vast herds of domesticated alpaca in the region, provided the finance for the creation of large public buildings in stone, designed by architects on a monumental scale and lavishly decorated by the skilled masons. Paved roads were built, linking Tiwanaku with other settlements in the region, along which its produce was exported using llamas as beasts of burden. The distribution of artefacts in copper, ceramics, textiles, and stone from the workshops of the Tiwanaku craftsmen shows that by around 550 the city became the capital of a vast empire covering what is now southern Peru, northern Chile, most of Bolivia, and parts of Argentina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The marshy tracts on the lakeside, where the climatic conditions were more favourable, were brought into cultivation by the creation of terraced raised fields. This was a vast enterprise, estimated to have covered as much as 65km2. The camellones were 6m wide and could be more than 200m long, and were separated by irrigation canals 3m wide. The canals served not only to bring water and nutriments to the fields but also acted as heat reservoirs during the day, bringing significant improvements to the microclimate of the fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tiwanaku empire probably entered its most powerful phase in the 8th century AD. Many daughter towns or colonies were set up in the vast region under Tiwanaku rule, the most important of which was Wari in Peru, which was to set itself up as a rival to Tiwanaku. At its apogee Tiwanaku is estimated to have extended over an area of as much as 6km2 and to have housed between 70,000 and 125,000 inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The political dominance of Tiwanaku began to decline in the 11th century, and its empire collapsed in the first half of the 12th century. The reasons for this collapse are not yet understood. Scholars now reject invasion and conquest and attribute it to climatic change, giving rise to poor harvests and a progressive weakening of the central power to the point when it yielded to the pressures for autonomy from its components.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/567</http_url><id_number>567</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_567.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bo</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The ruins of Tiwanaku bear striking witness to the power of the empire that played a leading role in the development of the Andean prehispanic civilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The buildings of Tiwanaku are exceptional examples of the ceremonial and public architecture and art of one of the most important manifestations of the civilizations of the Andean region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-16.5583333300</latitude><location>Province of Ingavi, Department of La Paz</location><longitude>-68.6777800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Tiwanaku bear striking witness to the power of the empire that played a leading role in the development of the Andean pre-Hispanic civilization. The buildings are exceptional examples of the ceremonial and public architecture and art of one of the most important manifestations of the civilizations of the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tiwanaku began as a small settlement, in what is known as its 'village period', around 1200 BCE. It was self-sufficient, with a non-irrigated form of farming based on frost-resistant crops, essential at this high altitude, producing tubers such as potatoes, oca and cereals, notably quinoa. In more sheltered locations near Lake Titicaca, maize and peaches were also cultivated. The inhabitants lived in rectangular adobe houses that were linked by paved streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 1st century CE, Tiwanaku expanded rapidly into a small town. This may be attributable to the introduction of copper metallurgy, to the consequent availability of superior tools and implements and to the creation of irrigation systems. The wealthy upper class, which also controlled the profitable trade in wool from the vast herds of domesticated alpaca in the region, provided the finance for the creation of large public buildings in stone and paved roads linking Tiwanaku with other settlements in the region. The marshy tracts on the lakeside, where the climatic conditions were more favourable, were brought into cultivation by the creation of terraced raised fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tiwanaku Empire probably entered its most powerful phase in the 8th century AD. Many daughter towns or colonies were set up in the vast region under Tiwanaku rule, the most important of which was Wari in Peru, which was to set itself up as a rival to Tiwanaku. The political dominance of Tiwanaku began to decline in the 11th century, and its empire collapsed in the first half of the 12th century&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tiwanaku is located near the southern shores of Lake Titicaca on the Altiplano, at an altitude of 3,850 m. Most of the ancient city, which was largely built from adobe, has been overlaid by the modern town. However, the monumental stone buildings of the ceremonial centre survive in the protected archaeological zones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most imposing monument at Tiwanaku is the temple of Akapana. It is a pyramid originally with seven superimposed platforms with stone retaining walls rising to a height of over 18m. Only the lowest of these and part of one of the intermediate walls survive intact. Investigations have shown that it was originally clad in blue stone and surmounted by a temple, as was customary in Mesoamerican pyramids. It is surrounded by very well-preserved drainage canals. The walls of the small semi-subterranean temple (Templete) are made up of 48 pillars in red sandstone. There are many carved stone heads set into the walls, doubtless symbolizing an earlier practice of exposing the severed heads of defeated enemies in the temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the north of the Akapana is the Kalasasaya, a large rectangular open temple, believed to have been used as an observatory. It is entered by a flight of seven steps in the centre of the eastern wall. The interior contains two carved monoliths and the monumental Gate of the Sun, one of the most important specimens of the art of Tiwanaku. It was made from a single slab of andesite cut to form a large doorway with niches on either side. Above the doorway is an elaborate bas-relief frieze depicting a central deity, standing on a stepped platform, wearing an elaborate head-dress, and holding a staff in each hand. The deity is flanked by rows of anthropomorphic birds and along the bottom of the panel there is a series of human faces. The ensemble has been interpreted as an agricultural calendar.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Tiwanaku, capital of a powerful pre-Hispanic empire that dominated a large area of the southern Andes and beyond, reached its apogee between 500 and 900 AD. Its monumental remains testify to the cultural and political significance of this civilisation, which is distinct from any of the other pre-Hispanic empires of the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture</site><states>Bolivia (Plurinational State of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>670</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is known to have been occupied and used as a ritual and residential centre by people belonging to the Mojocoyas culture as early as AD 300, and it was at this time that work began on the shaping of this great rock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to the Spanish priest Diego de Alcaya, writing at the beginning of the 17th century, it was occupied in the 14th century by the Inca, who made it a provincial capital. This is confirmed by the features that have been discovered by excavation - a large central plaza with monumental public buildings around it and terracing of the neighbouring hillsides for agriculture - which are characteristic of this type of Inca settlement. It formed a bulwark against the incursions of the warlike Chiriguanos of the Chaco region in the 1520s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The strategic location of the site, which had attracted the Inca to it, was also recognized by the Spaniards. It is uncertain when they moved into this region. The frontier of the Viceroyalty of Lima was consolidated on the eastern side of the Cochabamba Valley in the 1560s, However, the silver mines of the Cerro Rico at Potos&amp;iacute; began to be worked in 1545 and this would have needed supplies of manpower and food, both of which would have been sought further to the east, in the region of Samaipata. It was also important to construct fortresses for use against the marauding Chiriguanos. What is certain is that the colonial settlement of Samaipata had become an important staging post on the highway from Asunc&amp;iacute;on and Santa Cruz to the colonial centres in the High Andes such as La Plata (modern Sucre), Cochabamba, and Potos&amp;iacute;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the establishment of the new town of Samaipata in the Valle de la Purificaci&amp;oacute;n, the ancient settlement had no further military importance and was abandoned. It was quickly covered with vegetation and only visited by treasure hunters and herdsmen. However, the memory of El Fuerte (the Fort) was kept alive by the local people. It first came to the notice of scholars at the end of the 18th century, and has been studied intensively since the beginning of the present century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/883</http_url><id_number>883</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_883.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bo</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion ii:&lt;/em&gt; The sculptured rock at Samaipata is the dominant ceremonial feature of an urban settlement that represents the apogee of this form of prehispanic religious and political centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iii:&lt;/em&gt; Samaipata bears outstanding witness to the existence in this Andean region of a culture with highly developed religious traditions, illustrated dramatically in the form of immense rock sculptures.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-18.1666666700</latitude><location>Province of Florida, Department of Santa Cruz</location><longitude>-63.8166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Samaipata bears outstanding witness to the existence in this Andean region of a political culture with highly developed religious traditions, illustrated dramatically in the form of the dominant ceremonial feature of this site, its immense rock sculptures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is known to have been occupied and used as a ritual and residential centre by people belonging to the Mojocoyas culture as early as AD 300, and it was at this time that work began on the shaping of this great rock. It was occupied in the 14th century by the Inca, who made it a provincial capital. This is confirmed by the features that have been discovered by excavation - a large central plaza with monumental public buildings around it and terracing of the neighbouring hillsides for agriculture - which are characteristic of this type of Inca settlement. It formed a bulwark against the incursions of the warlike Chiriguanos of the Chaco region in the 1520s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The strategic location of the site, which had attracted the Inca to it, was also recognized by the Spaniards. The silver mines of the Cerro Rico at Potos&amp;iacute; began to be worked in 1545 and the colonial settlement of Samaipata had become an important staging post on the highway from Asunci&amp;oacute;n and Santa Cruz to the colonial centres in the High Andes such as La Plata (modern Sucre), Cochabamba and Potos&amp;iacute;. With the establishment of the new town of Samaipata in the Valle de la Purificaci&amp;oacute;n, the ancient settlement had no further military importance and was abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Samaipata consists of two parts: the hill with its many carvings, believed to have been the ceremonial centre of the old town (14th-16th centuries), and the area to the south of the hill, which formed the administrative and residential district. The reddish sandstone hill is divided naturally into a higher part, known as El Mirador, and a lower, where the carvings are located.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The carvings in the western part include two felines on a circular base, the only examples of high-relief carving in the whole site. The remains of a stone wall of the Inca period cut across a number of the carvings, indicating a pre-Inca date. These include two parallel channels, between and alongside them there are smaller channels cut in zigzag patterns, giving rise to the local name for this feature, El Dorso de la Serpiente.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the highest point is Coro de los Sacerdotes, which consists of a deeply cut circle with triangular and rectangular niches cut into its walls. Further to the east is a structure which probably represents the head of a feline. Most of the southern face of the rock was originally dominated by a series of at least five temples or sanctuaries, of which only the niches cut into their walls survive. The Casa Colonial is situated on an artificial platform at the foot of the rock. Excavations have revealed evidence of Inca and pre-Inca structures here, and so it is known as the Plaza of the Three Cultures. The house of the colonial period, only the stone lower walls of which survive, is in characteristic Arab-Andalusian style, with a central open courtyard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Away from the rocky hill, there are a number of isolated small buildings surrounded by perimeter walls, a typical Inca form known as kancha. One of these contains two buildings and another five, arranged in a U-pattern. The main administrative-religious centre of the Inca period is situated on a series of three artificial platforms to the south of the rock. The main feature is an enormous building known as the Kallanka; it is on the lowest platform and faces the ceremonial area on the rock across a spacious plaza. To the west of the Kallanka and on the second platform is a group of at least twelve large or medium-sized houses, laid out in H-shape, provisionally known as the Akllawasi. These are interpreted as remains of the textiles woven for ritual purposes or exchange by the Virgins of the Sun, whose name akllas is given to this group. On the third platform there is a group of seven Inca houses disposed round an open space on an artificial mound.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Samaipata consists of two parts: the hill with its many carvings, believed to have been the ceremonial centre of the old town (14th–16th centuries), and the area to the south of the hill, which formed the administrative and residential district. The huge sculptured rock, dominating the town below, is a unique testimony to pre-Hispanic traditions and beliefs, and has no parallel anywhere in the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fuerte de Samaipata</site><states>Bolivia (Plurinational State of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1035</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/967</http_url><id_number>967</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_967.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bo</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (ix) and (x):&lt;/em&gt; The site contains an array of habitat types including evergreen rainforests, palm forests, cerrado, swamps, savannahs, gallery forests, and semi-deciduous dry forests. The cerrado habitats found on the Huanchaca Meseta have been isolated for millions of years providing an ideal living laboratory for the study of the evolution of these ecosystems. The site also contains a high diversity of plant and animal species, including viable populations of many globally threatened large vertebrates.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-14.2666700000</latitude><location>Velasco Province, Santa Cruz Department</location><longitude>-60.8666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The National Park is one of the largest (1,523,000&amp;nbsp;ha) and most intact parks in the Amazon Basin. With an altitudinal range of 200&amp;nbsp;m to about 1,000&amp;nbsp;m, it contains a rich mosaic of habitat types from cerrado savannah and forest to upland evergreen Amazonian forests. The park boasts an evolutionary history dating back over a billion years to the Precambrian. Located on the border with Brazil, the site includes a large section of the Huanchaca Plateau and surrounding lowlands. There are rugged cliffs in the northern, western and southern sides of the plateau, with several valleys and steep slopes in its eastern side. Several rivers have their sources on the plateau and form spectacular waterfalls. The largest river in the area is the It&amp;eacute;nez, which marks the border with Brazil, to the north of the park, and the Paragu&amp;aacute; River dominates the lowlands to the west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The north-eastern sector of the Santa Cruz Department is part of a transition zone where Amazon forest intergrades with the dry forest and savannah habitats of the Cerrado biogeographic realm. Habitat types of the region can be grouped into five basic units that represent distinct ecosystems: upland evergreen forest; deciduous forest; upland Cerrado savannah; savannah wetlands; and forest wetlands. The humid forests of the park are floristically distinct from the moist forests of western Amazon and the Andean piedmont. These forests are classified in several habitat types still scarcely studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An evergreen forest with tall trees is found on deep and well-drained soils, while there is a dwarf forest formation occupying a transition zone with the Cerrado. A peculiar feature of the forest is the lianas, which form a low and very thick canopy. Although trees are also part of the canopy, the lianas proliferate in such a way that they dominate. The Huanchaca Plateau has a rich Cerrado flora that incorporates many species that were thought to have a distribution restricted to central Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The outstanding habitat diversity of the park favours the existence of a highly diverse fauna and the site is an important repository for many rare mammals of Bolivia. Over 80% of the park's mammal species are found in humid forests. Good populations of tapir, brocket deer and jaguar inhabit the upland humid forests. Long-haired spider monkey has large populations throughout the tall evergreen forests, and black-tailed silvery marmoset and monk are also present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The open grassland habitats on the southern portion of the plateau have possibly one of the largest remaining populations of pampas deer. Two other large mammals, maned wolf and marsh deer are found in the seasonally flooded termite savannahs below the plateau.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The National Park is one of the largest (1,523,000 ha) and most intact parks in the Amazon Basin. With an altitudinal range of 200 m to nearly 1,000 m, it is the site of a rich mosaic of habitat types from Cerrado savannah and forest to upland evergreen Amazonian forests. The park boasts an evolutionary history dating back over a billion years to the Precambrian period. An estimated 4,000 species of flora as well as over 600 bird species and viable populations of many globally endangered or threatened vertebrate species live in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Noel Kempff Mercado National Park</site><states>Bolivia (Plurinational State of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1131</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement on the Neretva between the Hum Hill and the Velez mountain since prehistory, as witnessed by discoveries of fortified enceintes and cemeteries. Evidence of Roman occupation comes from beneath the present town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Little is known of Mostar in the medieval period, though the Christian basilicas of late antiquity continued in use. The name of Mostar is first mentioned in a document of 1474, taking its name from the bridge-keepers (mostari) this refers to the existence of a wooden bridge from the market town on the left bank of the river which was used by soldiers, traders, and other travelers. At this time it was the seat of a kadiluk (district with a regional judge). Because it was on the trade route between the Adriatic and the mineral-rich regions of central Bosnia, the settlement spread to the right bank of the river. It became the leading town in the Sanjak of Herzegovina and, with the arrival of the Ottoman Turks from the east, the centre of Turkish rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was fortified between 1520 and 1566 and the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The second half of the 16th century and the early decades of the 17th century were the most important period in the development of Mostar. Religious and public buildings were constructed, such as mosques, a madrasah (Islamic school), and a hammam (public bath); these were concentrated on the left bank of the river, in a religious complex (kullia). At the same time many private and commercial buildings, organized in distinct quarters, known as mahalas (residential) and the bazaar, were erected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bosnia-Herzegovina was first occupied (1878) and then annexed (1908) by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and it was in this period that a number of administrative, military, cultural, and Christian religious buildings were established. These were mainly on the right bank of the river, where a new quarter was developed according to a strict ‘Rondo' plan. This provides a strong contrast with the left bank where there was a more organic growth on the steeper slopes, with winding narrow streets and public open spaces for trading (pazar), recreation (mejdan), and prayer (musallah). The town was also connected at this time by rail and new roads to Sarajevo and the Adriatic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1992 and 1995 the town was badly damaged during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina and much of the urban centre was left in ruins and the Old Bridge destroyed. Since 1998 there have been major restoration projects carried out in the centre of the Old Town, most notably the rebuilding of the Old Bridge.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/946</http_url><id_number>946</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_946.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ba</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt;With the “renaissance” of the Old Bridge and its surroundings, the symbolic power and meaning of the City of Mostar - as an exceptional and universal symbol of coexistence of communities from diverse cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds - has been reinforced and strengthened, underlining the unlimited efforts of human solidarity for peace and powerful co-operation in the face of overwhelming catastrophes.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.3481200000</latitude><location>Herzegovina-Neretva Canton</location><longitude>17.8109200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Old Bridge area of the Old City of Mostar, with its exceptional multicultural (pre-Ottoman, eastern Ottoman, Mediterranean and western European) architectural features, and satisfactory interrelationship with the landscape, is an outstanding example of a multicultural urban settlement. The qualities of the site's construction, after the extremely ravaging war damage and the subsequent works of renewal, have been confirmed by detailed scientific investigations. These have provided proof of exceptionally high technical refinement in the skill and quality of the ancient constructions, particularly of the Old Bridge. Of special significance is the Radoboija stream, which enters the Neretva on its right bank. This provided a source of water for the growing settlement, and from it springs a number of small canals used for irrigation and for driving the wheels of water-mills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement on the Neretva between the Hum Hill and the Velez Mountain since prehistory, as witnessed by discoveries of fortified enceintes and cemeteries. Evidence of Roman occupation comes from beneath the present town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Little is known of Mostar in the medieval period, although the Christian basilicas of late antiquity continued in use. The name of Mostar is first mentioned in a document of 1474, taking its name from the bridge-keepers (&lt;em&gt;mostari&lt;/em&gt; ); this refers to the existence of a wooden bridge from the market town on the left bank of the river which was used by soldiers, traders, and other travellers. At this time it was the seat of a &lt;em&gt;kadiluk&lt;/em&gt; (district with a regional judge). Because it was on the trade route between the Adriatic and the mineral-rich regions of central Bosnia, the settlement spread to the right bank of the river. It became the leading town in the Sanjak of Herzegovina and, with the arrival of the Ottoman Turks from the east, the centre of Turkish rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was fortified between 1520 and 1566, and the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The second half of the 16th century and the early decades of the 17th century were the most important period in the development of Mostar. Religious and public buildings were constructed, concentrated on the left bank of the river, in a religious complex. At the same time many private and commercial buildings, organized in distinct quarters, known as mahalas (residential) and the bazaar, were erected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the thirteen original mosques dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, seven have been destroyed during the 20th century for ideological reasons or by bombardment. One of the two 19th-century Orthodox churches has also disappeared, and the early 20th-century synagogue, after undergoing severe damage in the Second World War, has been converted for use as a theatre. Several Ottoman inns also survive, along with other buildings from this period of Mostar's history, such as fountains and schools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The administrative buildings are all from the Austro-Hungarian period and have neoclassical and Secessionist features. A number of surviving late Ottoman houses demonstrate the component features of this form of domestic architecture - hall, upper storey for residential use, paved courtyard, and verandah on one or two storeys. The later 19th-century residential houses are all in neoclassical style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some early trading and craft buildings are still existent, notably some low shops in wood or stone, stone storehouses, and a group of former tanneries round an open courtyard. Once again, the 19th-century commercial buildings are predominantly neoclassical. A number of elements of the early fortifications are visible. The Hercegusa Tower dates from the medieval period, whereas the Ottoman defences are represented by the Halebinovka and Tara Towers, the watchtowers over the ends of the Old Bridge, and a stretch of the ramparts.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Mostar, spanning a deep valley of the Neretva River, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries as an Ottoman frontier town and during the Austro-Hungarian period in the 19th and 20th centuries. Mostar has long been known for its old Turkish houses and Old Bridge, Stari Most, after which it is named. In the 1990s conflict, however, most of the historic town and the Old Bridge, designed by the renowned architect Sinan, was destroyed. The Old Bridge was recently rebuilt and many of the edifices in the Old Town have been restored or rebuilt with the contribution of an international scientific committee established by UNESCO. The Old Bridge area, with its pre-Ottoman, eastern Ottoman, Mediterranean and western European architectural features, is an outstanding example of a multicultural urban settlement. The reconstructed Old Bridge and Old City of Mostar is a symbol of reconciliation, international co-operation and of the coexistence of diverse cultural, ethnic and religious communities.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Bridge Area of the Old City of Mostar</site><states>Bosnia and Herzegovina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1107</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vi&amp;scaron;egrad Bridge was commissioned by the Grand Vizier Mehmed Pa&amp;scaron;a Sokolović (1505-1579), who exercised power over a long period at the summit of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of three sultans. The commissioning of the bridge was primarily a tribute to his native region. Founding edifices of this sort, which were both religious and social, formed part of the traditions of power, which expressed itself through major architectural creations which thus reinforced its symbolic nature and its image of civil and religious power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vi&amp;scaron;egrad Bridge was secondly a major structure in terms of planning and control of the inner Balkans by the Ottoman Empire from Istanbul. It thus forms a highlight of the route linking the plains of the Danube to Sarajevo and the Adriatic coast, particularly to the free port of Ragusa (Dubrovnik). The period of its construction coincided with the apogee of the Ottoman Empire, following the reign of S&amp;uuml;leyman the Magnificent (1520-1566). This was a long period of peace and prosperity for the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great court architect and engineer Koca Mimar Sinan, who was the head of the team of architects of the Empire, was called on to design and construct the bridge. He had already built, on behalf of Mehmed Pa&amp;scaron;a Sokolović, several major civil and religious architectural works: mosques, bridges, civil constructions, in Istanbul and in several regions of the Empire. Sinan is an emblematic representative of the classical architectural creation of the Ottoman Empire at its apogee. The Vi&amp;scaron;egrad Bridge was constructed from 1571 to 1577, and substantial human and financial resources were employed in the task.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For two and a half centuries, the solidly built bridge suffered primarily from flooding. There are records of works in 1625 and then in 1875 on the piers. The exceptional flooding of 1896 submerged it entirely, resulting in serious damage. The piers were shaken and eroded, and the parapets were washed away. The bridge was not however destroyed. In 1911-1912, extensive works were carried out to stabilise and reinforce the piers by Austro-Hungarian engineers (piers 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9). At that time the bridge was strategically important in military terms, being located at the frontier with Serbia. The installation of a new thicker stone parapet brought a change to the visible parts of the bridge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During World War I, in 1914-1915, piers 3 and 4 were blown up with dynamite. After the war, a provisional repair was carried out using steel girders supported by the remaining parts of the initial bridge. The reconstruction in stone, following the original design, was carried out in 1939-1940.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During World War II, in 1943, five of the bridge's arches were completely destroyed, affecting piers 3, 4, 5 and 6. The arches destroyed were rebuilt by the Ministry of Communication and the Roads Administration, between 1950 and 1952, following the model of the parts still intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most recent period has been marked by the construction of the Bajina Basta power station downstream (1966), and by that of the Vi&amp;scaron;egrad power station upstream, some 2.5 km away (1989). These two constructions on the Drina, relatively close to the bridge, have profoundly modified the hydraulic rate of flow of the river (see chapter 4 and 5). In terms of bridge maintenance, the main event was, from 1980 to 1982, an analysis of the bridge and then the launch of restoration work on the foundations of piers 5, 6 and 8. Unfortunately, this work remained uncompleted, because of a lack of funds. The same is true of the work on pier 2, begun in 1992 and not completed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The war of 1992-1995 had no direct impact on the Vi&amp;scaron;egrad Bridge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The access ramp on the left bank was restored in 1991, in a spirit of respect for the heritage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 2003, vehicle traffic was prohibited, because of the structural risks arising from the state of the bridge (see chapter 4 and 5). In 1986 a modern bridge was built about 1 km downstream, duplicating the function of the historic bridge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the exceptional flooding of 1896 and the damage during the wars of the 20th century, the bridge has undergone a succession of repairs and reconstructions, with the two last campaigns of works unfortunately remaining uncompleted. The resulting structural fragility has been increased by changes in the rate of flow of the Drina, as a result of the construction of the hydroelectric power plants and their management.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1260</http_url><id_number>1260</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1260.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ba</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.7814444444</latitude><location>Republika Srpska, Sarajevo Macro Region</location><longitude>19.2880250000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mehmed Pa&amp;scaron;a Sokolović Bridge of Vi&amp;scaron;egrad across the Drina River in the east of Bosnia and Herzegovina was built at the end of the 16th century by the court architect Mimar Koca Sinan on the orders of Grand Vizier Mehmed Pa&amp;scaron;a Sokolović. Characteristic of the apogee of Ottoman monumental architecture and civil engineering, the bridge has 11 masonry arches with spans of 11 m to 15 m, and an access ramp at right angles with four arches on the left bank of the river. The 179.5 m long bridge is a representative masterpiece of Sinan, one of the greatest architects and engineers of the classical Ottoman period and a contemporary of the Italian Renaissance, with which his work may be compared. The unique elegance of proportion and monumental nobility of the whole site bear witness to the greatness of this style of architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad</site><states>Bosnia and Herzegovina</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1437</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Present evidence indicates the earliest occupants at Tsodilo probably in the Middle Stone Age, perhaps around 100,000 years ago or earlier. A Late Stone Age cultural presence is dated around 70,000 years ago. In general, repeated use over an extensive period of time appears to reflect small mobile groups of people camping briefly, perhaps on seasonal visits, for example when the fruit of the mongongo tree, Ricinodendron rautanenii, ripens. Local quartz as well as exotic stone were used for tool-making in both the Middle and Late Stone Ages. The use of non-local raw material suggests that contact and some form of exchange have existed at Tsodilo for tens of thousands of years. The Middle Stone Age is marked by the appearance of large stone blades. Tsodilo is unique in demonstrating an extensive record of freshwater fish exploitation in a now arid landscape where rivers formerly flowed. Barbed bone points were probably used to tip fish-spears; bone toolmaking at Tsodilo may well go back 40,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fishbone and stone artefacts decrease in the Late Stone Age (c 30,000 BP). The appearance of ostrich eggs in archaeological deposits around that time indicates the development of a new strategy for acquiring a new resource for food and artefact-making. In particular, a tradition of making beads of ostrich egg-shell began then and continues today. Until as recently as c AD 600, the people of Tsodilo lived entirely by hunting, fishing, and foraging for wild food.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 7th century AD, however, the pace of change in technology, subsistence, and settlement organization increased as iron and copper metallurgy were introduced. This phase is also marked by the introduction of cattle. Interaction between Late Stone Age foragers and Early Iron Age agro-pastoralists occurred. Settlement took the form of apparently unique social structures. Divuyu itself is the richest site yet discovered in southern Africa for this period. Copper and iron beads, bracelets, and other ornaments became common. All the metal was imported - the copper probably from southern Zaire or north-eastern South Africa, the iron perhaps from only 40km distant - and worked locally. Nqoma at the end of the 1st millennium has the richest variety of metal jewellery of any known contemporary site in southern Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The same two sites in particular, Divuyu and Nqoma, have indicated domestic herding and a settled lifestyle as early as the 7th-8th centuries AD from evidence of middens and house foundations. Cultivated crops such as sorghum and millet were added to the diet. Sheep and goats augmented the few domestic cattle kept by earlier foraging communities. Pottery was produced for a range of domestic purposes and personal adornment became common and often elaborate. Mining for specularite was extensive in 800-1000, and continued into the 19th century. The output was enormous, doubtless contributing to the amount of jewellery and cattle owned by the Nqoma people. The rich elements of Tsodilo Iron Age culture continued well into the 13th century when Nqoma declined, possibly because of drought or war. No further durable exotic objects seem to have entered the Tsodilo region until the effects of the European Atlantic trade began to be felt in the 18th century. Tsodilo became part of the Portuguese Congo-Angola trade axis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Historically, the Tsodilo area was occupied by the N/hae, who left in the mid-19th century. Its first appearance on a map was in 1857, as a result of information collected by Livingstone during his explorations in 1849-56. In the 1850s the earliest known horsemen, Griqua ivory hunters, passed through the region. The !Kung arrived in the area and made at least a few of the paintings, possibly some of those showing horsemen. The rock art was first sketched and brought to Western attention in 1907 by Siegfried Passarge, a German geologist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two, present-day local communities, Hambukushu and !Kung, arrived as recently as c 1860. Nevertheless, they both have creation myths associated with Tsodilo, and they both have strong traditional beliefs that involve respect for Tsodilo as a place of worship and ancestral spirits. The spirituality of the place has become best known to non-local people through the writings of Laurens van der Post, notably The Lost World of the Kalahari (1958). Today, local churches and traditional doctors travel to Tsodilo for prayers, meditation, and medication. Most visitors arrive for religious reasons.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1021</http_url><id_number>1021</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1021.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bw</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion i:&lt;/strong&gt; For many thousands of years the rocky outcrops of Tsodilo in the harsh landscape of the Kalahari Desert have been visited and settled by humans, who have left rich traces of their presence in the form of outstanding rock art.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion iii:&lt;/strong&gt; Tsodilo is a site that has witnessed visits and settlement by successive human communities for many millennia.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion vi: &lt;/strong&gt;The Tsodilo outcrops have immense symbolic and religious significance for the human communities who continue to survive in this hostile environment.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-18.7500000000</latitude><location>The Ngamiland District, north-west&#xd;
&#xd;
Botswana</location><longitude>21.7333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;For many thousands of years the rocky outcrops of Tsodilo in the harsh landscape of the Kalahari  Desert have been visited and settled by humans, who have left rich traces of their presence in the form of outstanding rock art. The outcrops have immense symbolic and religious significance for the human communities who continued to survive in this hostile environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tsodilo is situated in the north-western corner of Botswana near the Namibian Border. Its massive quartzite rock formations rise from ancient sand dunes to the east and a dry fossil lake bed to the west. They are prominent isolated residual small mountains surrounded by an extensive lowland erosion surface in a hot dry region, known as inselbergs. Their height, shape and spatial relationship have given rise to a distinctive name for each: Male, Female, Child, Grandchild.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Caves and shelters are one of the main resources of the rock outcrop from the human point of view. Where excavated, they show a long sequence of occupation beginning in some cases as early as 100,000 years ago. They indicate repeated use thereafter, the artefact densities appearing to reflect visits, perhaps seasonal, by small mobile group of people. Divuyu and Nqoma are two excavated settlements of particular significance in the 1st millennium AD. Divuyu lies in a saddle at the top of Female; Nqoma is on plateaux below. A general pattern of public housing and living space, flanked by communal middens and perhaps burial areas, seemed to be the settlement plan, suggesting similarities with the spatial patterning of villages of central Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rock-art paintings are executed in red ochre derived from hematite occurring in the local rock. Much of the red art is naturalistic in subject and schematic in style, characterized by a variety of geometric symbols, distinctive treatment of the human figure, and exaggerated body proportions of many animals. In terms of style and content the art has much in common with paintings of similar antiquity in Zambia and Angola rather than neighbouring Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. A distinctive series of white paintings occurs at only twelve sites: animals in white are rarer and include more domestic species than the reds. Human figures are common, as are geometric designs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The art is not well dated, although some of it could be more than 2,000 years old. Pictures with cattle are regarded as 600-1200, following the introduction of cattle to Tsodilo after the 6th century AD; geometric art is generally regarded as about 1,000 years old. The latest paintings date to the 19th century on oral evidence. Some white paintings appear to be riders on horses, unknown until the 1850s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cup- and canoe-shaped hollows in rock, a common phenomenon throughout the continent, are particularly numerous at Tsodilo. One group, interpreted as a trail of animal footprints, is spread over several hundred metres and is one of the largest rock pictures in the world. These hollows may have been made in the late Stone Age, about 2,000 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The extent and intensity of mining activity on the mountains to recover ochre, specularite and green stone, used for decorative purposes, is impressive. The mines are clearly pre-colonial.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;With one of the highest concentrations of rock art in the world, Tsodilo has been called the ''Louvre of the Desert''. Over 4,500 paintings are preserved in an area of only 10 km2 of the Kalahari Desert. The archaeological record of the area gives a chronological account of human activities and environmental changes over at least 100,000 years. Local communities in this hostile environment respect Tsodilo as a place of worship frequented by ancestral spirits.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tsodilo</site><states>Botswana</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1191</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1432</http_url><id_number>1432</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1432.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-19.2833333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>22.9000000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This delta in north-west Botswana comprises permanent marshlands and seasonally flooded plains. It is one of the very few major interior delta systems that do not flow into a sea or ocean, with a wetland system that is almost intact. One of the unique characteristics of the site is that the annual flooding from the River Okavango occurs during the dry season, with the result that the native plants and animals have synchronized their biological cycles with these seasonal rains and floods. It is an exceptional example of the interaction between climatic, hydrological and biological processes. The Okavango Delta is home to some of the world&amp;rsquo;s most endangered species of large mammal, such as the cheetah, white rhinoceros, black rhinoceros, African wild dog and lion.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Okavango Delta</site><states>Botswana</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1976</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/124</http_url><id_number>124</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_124.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.3888888900</latitude><location>State of Minas Gerais</location><longitude>-43.5055555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located 513&amp;nbsp;km north of Rio de Janeiro, Ouro Preto (Black Gold) was the main focal point of the period known as the Golden Age of Brazil. Originally called Vila Rica, this city played a leading role in Brazil's history in the 18th century. It was created by thousands of soldiers of fortune eager to enrich themselves by exploiting the gold deposits; they were followed by many artists who came to settle and produce works of outstanding quality, such as the S&amp;atilde;o Francisco of Assis church by Antonio Francisco Lisboa (Aleijadinho).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ouro Preto, the old capital of Minas Gerais, owes its origins to the discovery and exploitation of the gold. The creation in 1698 of the Capitania de S&amp;atilde;o Paulo e Minas do Ouro resulted in the earlier mining settlements being transformed into villas (small towns), the second of which was Vila Rica, in 1712. Minas Gerais became an independent Capitania in 1720, with Vila Rica as its capital. The growth of the town was rapid as a result of the rich mineral resources, and it developed its own urban features characteristic of a mining town. In the closing years of the 18th century it became a centre of the movement for the emancipation of Brazil from colonial rule known as Inconfid&amp;ecirc;ncia Mineira. A rapid decline in mineral resources and mining resulted in a deterioration in the economy of this part of the province. In 1823 its status was changed to that of an imperial town, with the new name of Ouro Preto and this attracted a number of higher education establishments, but with the transfer of the provincial capital in 1897 to Belo Horizonte the fortunes of Ouro Preto declined again. Since the 1930s it has been principally a tourist centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was shaped by the grouping together of small settlements (arriais) in a hilly landscape, where the houses, mostly single- or two-storeyed, seem to support one another, forming an irregular urban layout that follows the contours of the landscape. However, the resources derived from mining, coupled with the talents of artists such as Aleijadinho and others, some outstanding architectural and artistic masterpieces are to be found. A 'Mining Baroque' style developed in the second half of the 18th century which successfully fused Brazilian influences with European Baroque and Rococo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of Sa&amp;otilde; Francisco de Assis is considered to be a masterpiece of Brazilian architecture. Ouro Preto also boasts a number of other fine churches and secular buildings such as the churches of Our Lady of the Pillar, the Ros&amp;aacute;rio dos Homens Pretos, the Virgin of the Concei&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o, and the Virgin of Carmel, the House of the Baroness, the chafarizes of the High Da Cruz and Alto of the Heads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tiradentes Square is the main point from which all the roads diverge. Around it are situated imposing public and private buildings, such as the old Parliament House (1784), today the Museum of the Inconfid&amp;ecirc;ncia, and the Palace of the Governors, which has become the School of Mines and Metallurgy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The townscape of Ouro Preto is also noteworthy for its bridges and fountains, all blending into an urban and natural setting of great beauty.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded at the end of the 17th century, Ouro Preto (Black Gold) was the focal point of the gold rush and Brazil&amp;rsquo;s golden age in the 18th century. With the exhaustion of the gold mines in the 19th century, the city&amp;rsquo;s influence declined but many churches, bridges and fountains remain as a testimony to its past prosperity and the exceptional talent of the Baroque sculptor Aleijadinho.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of Ouro Preto</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>136</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/189</http_url><id_number>189</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_189.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-8.0133333330</latitude><location>State of Pernambuco, North-East Region of Brazil</location><longitude>-34.8450000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historical centre of Olinda, which is located several kilometres to the north of the harbour installations, industrial zones and skyscrapers of Recife, still retains the charm of a city museum of the colonial period. Olinda was founded in 1537 by the Portuguese Duarte Coelho Pereira and owed its rapid rise to the cultivation of sugar cane in the region of Pernambuco using slave labour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century, churches and convents, of which only rare examples such as the Church of S&amp;atilde;o Jo&amp;atilde;o exist today, were built by religious missions. The Dutch occupied the region from 1630 to 1654 and during the occupation a well-planned town was built where present-day Recife is located. Pernambuco was ably governed by the Dutch and prospered with the production of sugar in the plantations located in the rich alluvial soil along the coast. However, the invaders burned down Olinda, although they created a pacific and developed administration centred in Recife.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Portuguese rule replaced that of the Dutch in Pernambuco in 1654, and Olinda recovered; once again it was an important Brazilian village, as a developed and cultural centre. In the early 18th century a bitter rivalry developed between Olinda, the administrative capital of the Captaincy and the residence of rich aristocratic plantation owners, and Recife, which was the commercial centre, largely inhabited by traders, ship's chandlers and warehouse workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recife continued to prosper, however, while Olinda declined, and in 1827 it was made the capital of the province. In 1817 Pernambuco was the scene of a local armed rebellion against Portuguese rule. It remained for years a hotbed of republicanism and revolutionary agitation, and it was the site of unsuccessful insurrections against Portuguese rule in 1821-22, 1824, 1831 and 1848. Pernambuco became a state of the Brazilian Republic in 1891.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The essential urban fabric of Olinda dates from the 18th century, although it incorporates some older monuments. Among the more important of the buildings of Olinda are the Episcopal Church, the Jesuit College and Church (now the Church of Gra&amp;ccedil;a), the Franciscan, Carmelite, Benedictine and other monasteries and convents, and the Miseric&amp;oacute;rdia, Amparo and S&amp;atilde;o Jo&amp;atilde;o Batista churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The unique quality of the Historic Centre arises from the balance, which has generally been maintained, between the private and public buildings and the gardens of the early land allotment. It is a town of unexpected views: one of the numerous Baroque churches and convents or the numerous passos (chapels and oratories) will appear unexpectedly as one turns a corner. The studied refinements of the decor of these conscious architectural structures contrasts with the charming simplicity of the houses, which are painted in vivid colours or faced with ceramic tiles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over recent decades, Olinda - a city of art, much appreciated by artists - has been the object of numerous preservation measures. Outstanding buildings such as the Church of Gra&amp;ccedil;a, with the former Jesuit College, the Convent do Carmo and the Episcopal Palace have all been more or less completely restored. The construction of new complexes is regulated by a master plan and the zone of protection was extended in 1979.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 16th century by the Portuguese, the town&amp;rsquo;s history is linked to the sugar-cane industry. Rebuilt after being looted by the Dutch, its basic urban fabric dates from the 18th century. The harmonious balance between the buildings, gardens, 20 Baroque churches, convents and numerous small passos (chapels) all contribute to Olinda&amp;rsquo;s particular charm.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of the Town of Olinda</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>210</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/309</http_url><id_number>309</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_309.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-12.9666666700</latitude><location>Bahia State, north-east region of Brazil</location><longitude>-38.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Salvador de Bahia is an eminent example of Renaissance urban town planning adapted to a colonial site by having an upper city of a defensive, administrative and residential nature which overlooks the lower city where commercial activities revolve around the port. The density of monuments makes it, along with Ouro Preto, the colonial city par excellence in the Brazilian Northeast. It is one of the major points of convergence of European, African and American Indian cultures in the 16th-18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Salvador was the first historic capital of Brazil, since, as early as 1549, the Governor General, Thome de Souza, on the orders of Jo&amp;atilde;o II of Portugal, made it the seat of the royal administration. It played a leading economic and political role until 1763, when the seat of administration was transferred to Rio de Janeiro. The upper city, located in the area of Bahia de Todos los Santos, was discovered in 1502 by Amerigo Vespucci, and has been preserved by its historical evolution. It was built upon a ridge parallel to the Atlantic coast, which made possible defence against Spanish (1580) and Dutch (1624) attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the north and north-east, the lower city and port have not retained their pristine character, whereas on the three other sides population growth, which has been particularly fast since 1966 owing to the industrial development of the region, has resulted in the historic city being enclosed by a very dense urban zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historical centre itself, which revolves around the Pelourinho quarter with its triangular place, is characterized by its fidelity to the 16th-century plan, the density of its monuments, and the homogeneity of its construction on a hilly and picturesque site which embellishes the urban scenery by providing steeply falling and ascending views of incomparable beauty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to a number of major buildings of the 17th-18th centuries, such as the cathedral and the convents of St Francis, St Dominic, Carmel and St Anthony, Salvador also retains a host of 16th-century open spaces (Municipal Plaza, House of Mercy) and Baroque palaces (Archiepiscopal Palace, Saldanha Palace, Ferr&amp;atilde;o Palace, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are also many streets which are characteristic of the colonial city, lined with bright multicoloured houses, which in some cases are decorated with high-quality stucco.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;As the first capital of Brazil, from 1549 to 1763, Salvador de Bahia witnessed the blending of European, African and Amerindian cultures. It was also, from 1558, the first slave market in the New World, with slaves arriving to work on the sugar plantations. The city has managed to preserve many outstanding Renaissance buildings. A special feature of the old town are the brightly coloured houses, often decorated with fine stucco-work.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Salvador de Bahia</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>348</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/334</http_url><id_number>334</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_334.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.4997222200</latitude><location>State of Minas Gerais, City of Congonhas</location><longitude>-43.8577777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, Minas Gerais was in its heyday - there were more than 30,000 prospectors in 1712. Moreover, the devotion of these pioneers was responsible for a remarkable blossoming of religious art, full of Baroque reminiscences, influenced by Rococo currents and pregnant with modern Expressionist invention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At Congonhas de Campo, the wish of a Portuguese immigrant who had been miraculously cured of a crippling infirmity was the impetus for the construction of one of Christian art's most amazing groupings of monuments. Buried in the still luxuriant nature of the Brazilian highlands, the Sanctuary is an integral part of the landscape, constituting the full attainment of the union of nature, man, and deity of Brazilian culture. The ensemble includes Bom Jesus Church, completed in 1772 and built on the peak of the Morro do Maranh&amp;atilde;o. Inspired by the Sanctuaries of Bom Jesus do Motosinhos, not far from Oporto, and Bom Jesus de Braga, both in Portugal, the complex was completed in a little more than 60 years of hard work, and constituted an original creation, unique in its style, of the best-known Brazilian artists and artisans of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church is a simple construction in the tradition of the first religious edifices in Minas Gerais. However, after the death of its founder, Feliciano Mendes, in 1765 it was given a sumptuous interior decor of &lt;em&gt;rocaille&lt;/em&gt; and Rococo style inspired by Italian models, transforming its original appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church was the creation of the architect Francisco Lima Cerqueira and the master builders Domingos Antonio Dantas and Antonio Rodrigues Falcado, who completed the building in 1773. Cerqueira was responsible, in particular, for the remarkable innovations incorporated in the architecture of the church, which were sufficient to create a regional school of architecture in its own right. The plan of the building develops along a single and broad aisle, terminating in a principal chapel where the altar is located. On either side of the central structure stand two tall bell towers, recessed from the main line of the facade, and covered with domes similar to those on the other chapels, but smaller in size. The facade is a simple square opened by a portal with its jambs finely adorned, as well as by two windows. The upper part terminates in a pediment with an undulating silhouette. Externally, the complex is rendered in bright white plaster, broken only by the reliefs in soapstone that mark its profile along the parapet of the staircase, the corners of the towers, the jutting consoles that divide the main part of the facade from the pediment, the reliefs of the portal, and the pediment itself. The motifs are repeated in slightly simpler form for the chapels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Whereas the exterior represents the Brazilian Baroque style, the interior harks back to Italian culture with the decoration in a luxuriant Rococo style that covers the walls and ceilings and clearly inspires the carvings on the altar, the statues and the paintings that cover the walls of the hall and the principal tribune.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The parvis, the arrangement of which began in 1770, is decorated with twelve statues of the Prophets by Aleijadinho between 1800 and 1805. The Passos, seven Stations of the Cross which are housed in small chapels were also sculpted by Aleijadinho between 1796 and 1800. Christian art in Latin America reached its unquestioned zenith with those multicoloured groups whose scenographic presentation strengthens the pathetic character. As has been pointed out on numerous occasions, with Aleijadinho, a half-breed born in Vila Rica, Baroque sculpture takes on an aesthetic dimension that is unknown to Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This sanctuary in Minais Gerais, south of Belo Horizonte was built in the second half of the 18th century. It consists of a church with a magnificent Rococo interior of Italian inspiration; an outdoor stairway decorated with statues of the prophets; and seven chapels illustrating the Stations of the Cross, in which the polychrome sculptures by Aleijadinho are masterpieces of a highly original, moving, expressive form of Baroque art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Congonhas</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>380</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1999-2001</danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/355</http_url><id_number>355</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_355.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.6833300000</latitude><location>Paraná State</location><longitude>-54.4333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park shares with Iguazu National Park in Argentina one of the world's largest and most impressive waterfalls. It is home to many rare and endangered species of flora and fauna, among them the giant otter and the giant anteater. The clouds of spray produced by the waterfall maintain a lush growth of vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Igua&amp;ccedil;u Falls span the border between Argentina and Brazil. Some 80&amp;nbsp;m high and 3&amp;nbsp;km wide, the falls are made up of many cascades and rapids that generate vast sprays of water and produce one of the most spectacular waterfalls in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lower park is subtropical rainforest rich in tree ferns, lianas and epiphytes. The upper part is mainly humid subtropical deciduous forest with stands of the Brazilian pine with two palms, the Assai palm and wild coconut palm, and the imbuya. These stands are limited to a small section in the north-east of the park. Subtropical rainforest occupies in total about 90% of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fauna recorded within the park include giant otter, La Plata otter, ocelot, jaguar, puma, margay, brocket deer, American tapir, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, great dusky swift, solitary tinamou, ornate hawk eagle, red-breasted toucan and harpy eagle. Giant anteater has been recorded as well as pampas deer, black howler monkey, capybara, puma, black eagle, chimango caracara, crested cayman and urutu viper. Noteworthy birds include solitary tinamou, harpy eagle, black-fronted piping guan, glaucous macaw, vinaceous-breasted and red-spectacled parrots and white-tailed trogon.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The park shares with Iguazú National Park in Argentina one of the world’s largest and most impressive waterfalls, extending over some 2,700 m. It is home to many rare and endangered species of flora and fauna, among them the giant otter and the giant anteater. The clouds of spray produced by the waterfall are conducive to the growth of lush vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Iguaçu National Park</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>408</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445</http_url><id_number>445</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_445.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-15.7833300000</latitude><location>Federal District</location><longitude>-47.9000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Brasilia, a capital created ex nihilo in the centre of the country in 1956, was a landmark in the history of town planning. The 20th-century principles of urbanism, as expressed by Le Corbusier, have rarely been applied on the scale of capital cities. Only two noteworthy exceptions exist: Chandigarh and Brasilia. Its creators intended that every element, from the layout of the residential and administrative districts (often compared to the shape of a bird in flight) to the symmetry of the buildings themselves, should be in harmony with the city's overall design. The official buildings, in particular, are innovative and imaginative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The idea of building a capital in the interior of Brazil is an old one, having been proposed on various occasions since the end of the 17th century. When elected president of the Republic of Brazil in 1955, Juscelino Kubitschek made the creation of the capital city a symbol of his policy to upgrade the image of the entire country, to expand industry, and to undertake major construction projects. In 1956 he appointed a commission to determine an exact location for the city and set up an executive body to carry out the construction work. In the same year, Oscar Niemeyer was made Director of the Department of Architecture and Urban Affairs, and Lucio Costa won the competition held for the plan of Brasilia. This choice brought back together the members of a team that had already proved its worth, Le Corbusier having previously been consulted for this project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The definition of an urban ideal based on the separation of functions, the incorporation of vast natural spaces, and a street plan whose wide traffic lanes broke with the tradition of narrower streets, was implicit in the theoretical training of Costa and Niemeyer. However, the practical development of their own style meant that the primary functionalism of the International Style would be rejected in favor of solutions better adapted to the Brazilian context. In this regard, it may be recalled that Niemeyer had built, in 1942-44 at Kubitschek's request, the group at Pampulha, after having designed, in collaboration with Costa, the Brazilian pavilion at the New York World's Fair in 1939.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'pilot plan' that Costa drew up for Brasilia was one of great expressive power. As he himself described it, it was born of the initial gesture of someone designating a place and taking possession of it: a cross formed by two bars intersecting at right angles. This figure was then adapted to the topography and the natural slope of the ground: its orientation was improved by curving the arms of one of the crossbars. The curving north-south axis traces the layout of the wide transportation artery. Along it are the residential zones separated into superquadrats, all practically self-contained, and each possessing its own commercial and leisure centres, green spaces, schools, churches, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The perpendicular east-west axis, known as the Monumental Axis, links the administrative sections of the new city, which became the official capital in 1960. Oscar Niemeyer's most renowned edifices were built there. They are noteworthy for the purity of their forms and their obvious monumental character, the result of an intelligent balance between horizontal and vertical buildings, rectangular volumes and curved surfaces, and the raw, unfinished materials and polished exteriors of certain structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most beautiful buildings in the urban landscape of Brasilia are those sited around the Plaza of Three Powers, the Planalto Palace, or the Hall of Government, the Congress, with its twin skyscrapers flanked by the cupola of the Senate building and by the inverted cone of the House of Representatives, and finally the Supreme Court. Other structures of an exceptional artistic quality are the Esplanade of the Ministers, the cathedral, the Pantheon of Juscelino Kubitschek and the National Theatre.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Brasilia, a capital created &lt;em&gt;ex nihilo&lt;/em&gt; in the centre of the country in 1956, was a landmark in the history of town planning. Urban planner Lucio Costa and architect Oscar Niemeyer intended that every element – from the layout of the residential and administrative districts (often compared to the shape of a bird in flight) to the symmetry of the buildings themselves – should be in harmony with the city’s overall design. The official buildings, in particular, are innovative and imaginative.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Brasilia</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>516</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/606</http_url><id_number>606</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_606.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-8.4166666670</latitude><location>Sud-est de Etat du Piaui – Communes de Sao Raimundo Nonato, Sao Joao do Piaui et Canto do Butriti</location><longitude>-42.3333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Many of the numerous rock shelters in the Serra da Capivara National Park are decorated with cave paintings, some more than 25,000 years old. They are an outstanding testimony to one of the oldest human communities of South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is situated near the town of S&amp;atilde;o Raimondo Nonato, 220&amp;nbsp;km south of Floriano and 5,230&amp;nbsp;km from Teresina. The main body of the park is the Serra do Congo massif and the central Chapada da Capivara in the State of Piau&amp;igrave;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 300 archaeological sites have been found within the park, the majority consisting of rock and wall paintings dating from 50,000-30,000 years ago. Certain geological formations and palaeofauna that included giant sloths, horses, camelids and early llamas indicate that the Ice Age environment was quite different from the existing semi-arid conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site must have been inhabited by the early men who populated the American continents. Fragments of broken wall found in the Pedra Furada shelter appear to be the oldest traces of rock art in South America; they have been dated to 26,000-22,000 BC. In spite of the value of the rich archaeological elements discovered thus far, this site is especially remarkable because of the rock-art paintings that decorate the shelters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The shelters in Serra da Capivara National Park bear exceptional testimony to the oldest human communities that have populated South America and preserve the oldest examples of rock art on the continent. Moreover, the deciphering of the iconography of these rock-art paintings, which is being carried out gradually, reveals major aspects of the religious beliefs and practices of this people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Physiographically, the area is connected with the Piaui and Bom Jesus do Gurgeia regions of the north-eastern basin. For 180&amp;nbsp;km, cliffs up to 270&amp;nbsp;m high form a border between two contrasting geological zones: a plain to the south-east and mountain massifs to the north-east. Erosion has hollowed out canyons and valleys within the mountain terrain. The landscape is characterized by mountains, valleys and open plains. The area is an important watershed, including the river valley system of Riacho Toca da Onca, Riacho Baixo da Lima, Riacho Bom Jesus and the Gruta do Pinga. Typical of the semi-arid region of the north-east of Brazil, the vegetation is in a transition zone between the central and the Atlantic provinces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park largely consists of dense thorny scrubland vegetation, known as &lt;em&gt;caatinga&lt;/em&gt;, with a predominance of semi-arid vegetation dominated by succulents, drought-resistant deciduous thorny trees and shrubs, and other xerophytic vegetation. Relict isolated patches of forest cover survive in a few deep, narrow canyons. This vegetation, which includes palaeo-endemic relict genera and families representative of rainforest which were found in the area during the humid Ice Age of over 11,000 BP, is restricted to the canyons that retain moisture during the dry season. Serra de Capivara is recognized as one of the few protected areas within the &lt;em&gt;caatingas&lt;/em&gt; biogeographic province which includes a vegetation type endemic to north-east Brazil. It contains unique species of animal and plant unknown elsewhere. Characteristic fauna is scarce in caatinga thorn scrubland, although recorded in the park are notable species including ocelot, bush dog, rocky cavy, red-legged seriema and a species of Tropidurus lizard.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Many of the numerous rock shelters in the Serra da Capivara National Park are decorated with cave paintings, some more than 25,000 years old. They are an outstanding testimony to one of the oldest human communities of South America.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Serra da Capivara National Park</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>719</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1612 two Lieutenants of Louis Xl1I of France, in the service of Marie de M&amp;eacute;dicis, were instructed to set up a colony in this region, as part of the policy of creating an "Equinoctial France" in Brazi.l. Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de La Ravardi&amp;egrave;re, and his associate Fran&amp;ccedil;ois de Razi.ly, Seigneur de Razily et Aunelles, built a fort on the site of the abandoned Capitania de Maranh&amp;acirc;o on the island of Trindade, known to the Tupinamb&amp;amp;s Indians as Upaon-a&amp;ccedil;u. Historians assert that there bad been a Portuguese and Spanish village, known as Nossa Senhora de Nazar&amp;eacute;, since 1531. The new fort was named Fort Saint-Louis in honour of the French king.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The French were weil received by the 27 tribes living on the island, but they were there for only two years. The Portuguese Jer&amp;ocirc;nomo de Albuquerque drove them out in 1615 after the battle of Guaxenduba. However, less than three decades later Maranh&amp;acirc;o again attracted an European colonial power. Emissaries of Maurice of Nassau, from The Netherlands, took possession of the town in 1641 and held it until 1643, when the native spirit re-asserted itself A resistance movement was organized by a local leader, Muniz Barreto; he was killed during the struggle against the Dutch invaders, but his successor. Teixeira de Melo, held the town until the Portuguese returned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As early as 1615, when the French had been driven out, the Chief Engineer of the State of Brazi.l, Francisco Frias de Mesquita, visited S&amp;acirc;o Luis to draw up plans for new defences of the liberated town. In addition, he prepared an urban plan, and this was used as the guide to its expansion and development. lt was based on geometrie regularity (perhaps the fust of its type in Brazi.l), in contrast to the medieval layout of narrow winding streets applied by the Portuguese in Rio de Janeiro, Recife, and Olinda. lt was to served as the basis for the expansion of what was from .the early 17th century the capital of Maranh&amp;acirc;o up to the end of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the 17th century S&amp;acirc;o Luis bad a population of some ten thousand, a figure that bad risen to seventeen thousand a century later. The economy of the town underwent profound changes during this period, owing to a number of measures taken by the Marqu&amp;ecirc;s de Pombal, Prime Minister of King Jos&amp;eacute; I. The most important of these were the introduction oftrade in black slaves and the creation in 1755 of the Companhia Gerai de Com&amp;eacute;rcio do Gr&amp;acirc;o Para e do Maranh&amp;acirc;o. S&amp;acirc;o Luis and Alc&amp;acirc;ntara, the main shipping ports for the region, were integrated into the world trading system, exporting rice, cotton, and other regional products. The wealth that ensued led to a cultural flowering in both towns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As S&amp;acirc;o Luis developed in the 18th and 19th centuries the early bouses in pis&amp;eacute; and straw were replaced by solid structures in mortared stone and fin.ished with lime, fish oil, wood, and marble brought from Portugal. Features adapted to a bumid tropical climate were introduced, such as wooden verandas. The use of azulejos for cladding the exteriors became one of the most characteristic features of the architecture of S&amp;acirc;o Luis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was the fust town in this region of Brazil to install a tramway system, to set up a water and electricity company. to light its streets with gas, and to have a teleppone system. lts prosperity was enhanced by the establishment of a number of textile companies. which have left their mark in the form of imposing industrial buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the 20th century saw a long period of economie stagnation. Ali expansion came to an end in the 1920s and the town ofthat period was effectively what is now identified as the Historie Centre of S&amp;acirc;o Luis. This was in fact a major factor in allowing the town to retain its historie :framework and features.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/821</http_url><id_number>821</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_821.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (iii), (iv) and (v), considering that the Historic Centre of S&amp;atilde;o Luis do Maranh&amp;atilde;o is an outstanding example of a Portuguese colonial town that adapted successfully to the climatic conditions in equatorial South America and which has preserved its urban fabric, harmoniously integrated with its natural setting, to an exceptional degree.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-2.5141666670</latitude><location>Maranhão State, Brasil’s North-East Region</location><longitude>-44.3025000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Centre of S&amp;atilde;o Luis do Maranh&amp;atilde;o is an outstanding example of a Portuguese colonial town that adapted successfully to the climatic conditions in equatorial South America and which has preserved its urban fabric, harmoniously integrated with its natural setting, to an exceptional degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The late 17th-century core of this historic town, founded by the French in 1612 and occupied by the Dutch before coming under Portuguese rule, has preserved the original rectangular street plan in its entirety. Thanks to a period of economic stagnation in the early 20th century, an exceptional number of fine historic buildings have survived, making this an outstanding example of an Iberian colonial town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The buildings of the town are disposed on the rectangular grid of streets laid out in the 17th century. The private houses are built round courtyards, and the most outstanding examples have tiled roofs; facades faced with Portuguese &lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; or painted, ornamented cornices; tall, narrow window bays with decorated surrounds; and balconies with forged or cast-iron railings. The floors are dressed stone. Features relating to the tropical climate in which they were built include raised piers and shuttered verandas on the inside. There are some 4,000 buildings within the Historic Centre. They may be classified in three categories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sumptuous manor houses were built by the rich middle classes in the 18th century. Common features include dressed stone door and window openings, some embellished with classical decorative elements, triangular pediments, curved balconies, marble facades, and wrought-iron grilles. Inside there are vestibules with marble or river pebble floors. A main staircase provides access to the upper storeys in which the family lived, the ground floor being reserved for housing coaches and services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The multistorey houses, sometimes up to four storeys in height, are mostly faced with marble. Balconies run right across the facades, in front of the windows. They have elegant wrought- or cast-iron balustrades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third group, that of small houses, is subdivided into 'full dwellings', with a central doorway and a window on either site; 'half dwellings', with a doorway at one end and two windows side-by-side; and simple door and window dwellings. They are either single- or two-storeyed. Despite their modest form, many have facades decorated with &lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to the dwelling houses that make up the greater proportion of the town's stock of historic buildings, there is a number of public buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, which are largely in neoclassical style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economic stagnation of the earlier part of the 20th century has resulted in the historic urban fabric having been preserved to a remarkable degree. Only two buildings in unexceptionable modern style disturb the overall view.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The late 17th-century core of this historic town, founded by the French and occupied by the Dutch before coming under Portuguese rule, has preserved the original rectangular street plan in its entirety. Thanks to a period of economic stagnation in the early 20th century, an exceptional number of fine historic buildings have survived, making this an outstanding example of an Iberian colonial town.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of São Luís</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>970</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Diamantina is like an oasis lying in the heart of the arid and rocky mountains of East-Central Brazil. It is in the State of Minas Gerais, 350km from Belo Horizonte and 710km from Brasilia, on the slope of a hill, spread over a difference of height of 150m. It developed in the 18th century in the southern Espinha&amp;ccedil;o Chain, at an altitude of 1200m, surrounded by the Serro dos Cristais in the valley of the Jequitinhonoha river. The land of the Diamantina region is composed almost exclusively of quartzite rocks and schist, which give this region its mountainous and colourful aspect, but it also has a poor, permeable soil with a rupestrine vegetation. Its geological formations have shaped both the beauty of its landscape and its economic development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One of the expeditions undertaken from S&amp;atilde;o Paolo in 1713 to explore the interior of the Brazilian territory led to the establishment of one of the settlements of the Arraial do Tijuco, which was later to become Diamantina. Large quantities of diamonds were found on the mountain slopes and along the rivers of the region. As the best deposits were concentrated in the valley of the Tijuco stream, a small tributary of the Rio Grande, its banks were chosen as the site for a small hamlet called Burgalhau. However, unlike what happened in other Portuguese-speaking towns on the continent, such as Ouro Preto, the growth and consolidation of the Arraial led to the discovery in 1720 of an unsuspected source of wealth, diamonds. In this respect, the history of Diamantina is different from that of other mining towns in Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Portuguese Crown discovered the existence of this source of wealth in 1731, it set up a new body to administer the region, the Demarca&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o Diamantina, which encompassed the former Arraial do Tijuco and other mining hamlets in the neighbourhood. In 1734, it created the Diamond Intendancy which moved to Tijuco, already the biggest settlement in the region. The Intendancy was responsible for controlling the extraction and sale of diamonds. Initially, there was the so-called "period of the contracts," established in 1739, when mining rights were granted to private monopolies. In 1771, the Crown took back the ownership of this resource and entrusted the management of its mining to the Real Extra&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o do Diamante which continued to operate until 1845. The royal monopoly was then handled by the Regimento Diamantino which, it was claimed, was manned by more administrators than soldiers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As it was governed by the State, Tijuco did not become a vila, that is to say, an entity bigger than a hamlet but smaller than a town, until 1832, ten years after the creation of Brazil. It then had the right to have its own local government. It was only in 1838, in recognition of its importance at regional level, that Tijuco was elevated to the rank of town. In 1845, the Real Extra&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o was dissolved, and the mining leases signed under the supervision of the Inspetoria dos Terrenos Diamantinos were cancelled in 1906 with the dissolution of the Inspetoria itself. In the meantime, the first mechanical mining companies, diamond-cutting workshops, and silversmiths and goldsmiths were set up in the region. Unfortunately, the discovery of richer and better-quality deposits in South Africa caused the dramatic collapse of mining activities in Diamantina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 19th century, the utopian project of a textile industry in Diamantina led to the creation of Biri Biri, an idyllic industrial establishment built in close harmony with the very scenic landscape, about 12km from the town. Created out of nothing to make this dream come true, like the spontaneous villages set up by diamond hunters near the mining sites, the Biri Biri complex played an important role in the local economy, at least for a while. The industry did not survive but the village site has lost nothing of its atmosphere or charm. In 1914, the railway ran up to Diamantina, thus confirming its role as an economic centre and crossroads of the region. The railway closed down in 1973.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the town suffered from so few disruptions since the decline of mining in the 19th century, its old fabric has been well protected and has survived almost intact.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/890</http_url><id_number>890</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_890.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii) Diamantina shows how explorers of the Brazilian territory, diamond prospectors, and representatives of the Crown were able to adapt European models to an American context in the 18th century, thus creating a culture that was faithful to its roots yet completely original. Criterion (iv) The urban and architectural group of Diamantina, perfectly integrated into a wild landscape, is a fine example of an adventurous spirit combined with a quest for refinement so typical of human nature.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-18.2333333300</latitude><location>State of Minas Gerais</location><longitude>-43.6000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Diamantina shows how explorers of the Brazilian territory, diamond prospectors, and representatives of the Crown were able to adapt European models to an American context in the 18th century, thus creating a culture that was faithful to its roots yet completely original. This urban and architectural group, perfectly integrated into a wild landscape, is a fine example of an adventurous spirit combined with a quest for refinement that is so typical of human nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town lies in the heart of the arid, rocky mountains of East-Central Brazil. It is in the State of Minas Gerais, 350&amp;nbsp;km from Belo Horizonte and 710&amp;nbsp;km from Brasilia, on the slope of a hill, spread over a difference of height of 150&amp;nbsp;m. The land of the Diamantina region is composed almost exclusively of quartzite rocks and schist, which give this region its mountainous and colourful aspect, but it also has a poor, permeable soil with a rupestrine vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The morphology of the town, inspired by the model of a Portuguese medieval town, has developed while respecting the continuity of the first settlement. The 18th-century built-up area has become denser without losing its original character. The layout of roads, lanes, alleys and public squares is the result of a natural occupation of the site, given the demanding topography, and it reflects the traffic which grew between the mining hamlets over the years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The centre of the old town has a greater density, and it is situated on ground that is slightly flatter than the outskirts. The architecture of Diamantina is of Baroque inspiration like most other mining villages in Brazil. However, it has a number of specific features which distinguish it from the traditional Portuguese colonial model. Its geometry and certain details confirm that the colonizers sought to transpose on a modest scale some of the features of the architecture of their home country to their adopted land, as was equally the case for music and the arts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The streets of the town are paved with large, flat, grey flagstones laid in such a way as to form a type of paving known as capistranas, named after President Jo&amp;atilde;o Capistrano Bandeira de Melo, who introduced it in 1877. This picturesque paving creates a contrast between the road and the casario, a regular alignment of 18th- and 19th-century semi-detached houses, with one or two floors. Their facades, in bright colours on a white ground, are borrowed systematically from the same typology, and they display certain affiliations with the Portuguese Mannerist architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the churches and religious buildings in Diamantina have been incorporated inside the regular and homogeneous complex of the casario, usually standing back only slightly from the alignment. This reveals that the spiritual power was closely related with the population, which distinguished it from, and no doubt subjugated it to, temporal power, given the very few church squares and areas set aside for social intercourse and public events. The construction of the churches is similar to that of civil buildings: they have the same colours and textures; the churches have only one bell tower, usually erected on the side of the building; and the pediment is in sculpted wood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town has a few architectural curiosities of interest, especially the Old Market Hall constructed in 1835 and recently restored, the Passadi&amp;ccedil;o, a covered footbridge in blue and white wood spanning the Rua da Gl&amp;oacute;ria to join the two buildings of the Eschwege Geology Centre, the muxarabi of the Ant&amp;ocirc;nio Torres Library, a kind of balcony completely enclosed by a wooden lattice, and finally the chafariz of the Rua Direita, near the cathedral, a sculpted fountain which guarantees that whoever drinks from it will return to Diamantina.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Diamantina, a colonial village set like a jewel in a necklace of inhospitable rocky mountains, recalls the exploits of diamond prospectors in the 18th century and testifies to the triumph of human cultural and artistic endeavour over the environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of the Town of Diamantina</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1042</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/892</http_url><id_number>892</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_892.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; The Brazilian Discovery Coast includes a number of areas containing the best and largest remaining examples of Atlantic forest in the northeast region of Brazil and contains high numbers of rare and endemic species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; The site displays the biological richness and evolutionary history of the few remaining areas of Atlantic forest of northeast Brazil. The site reveals a pattern of evolution of great interest to science and importance for conservation. The fact that only these few scattered remnants of a once vast forest remain, make them an irreplaceable part of the world&amp;rsquo;s forest heritage.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-16.5000000000</latitude><location>Atlantic Coast, states of Bahia and Espirito Santo, northeast Brazil</location><longitude>-39.2500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves consist of eight separate protected areas containing 112,000&amp;nbsp;ha of Atlantic forest and associated shrub (&lt;em&gt;restingas&lt;/em&gt;). The rainforests of Brazil's Atlantic coast are the world's richest in terms of biodiversity. The site contains a distinct range of species with a high level of endemism and reveals a pattern of evolution that is not only of great scientific interest but is also of importance for conservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A limestone plateau with tabular hills (sierras) covers much of the site, forming a line of white or reddish cliffs near the sea. Sediments and sands from river and sea deposits form an irregular coastal stretch of sand plains and dunes, and accumulate in large river valleys. The highest formations of the Discovery Coast are the round-shaped hills of volcanic and metamorphic origin that are concentrated in the south, the most famous being Monte Pascoal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rainforests of southern Bahia and northern Espirito Santo states are considered the world's richest in terms of the number of species of tree per hectare. Until 300&amp;nbsp;m, the principle vegetation type is highly diverse primary tropical moist broadleaf forest with tall canopy trees. The area contains perhaps the largest number of trees of Pau Brasil left on Earth. In dryer sectors, pia&amp;ccedil;aba palm-tree is frequent and lianas become more abundant. Along the river valleys, there is a gallery forest with jatoba, jussara and ara&amp;ccedil;a, as well as typical species from surrounding moist forests and areas of &lt;em&gt;restingas&lt;/em&gt;. There are areas rich in epiphytes and parasitic plants that have a dense shrub layer. On sand coastal soils, there is &lt;em&gt;restinga&lt;/em&gt; vegetation ranging from humid prairies and shrubs to low forests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna is relatively poorly known. Ecological heterogeneity makes precise definition of habitats and local fauna difficult. With the exception of some ecosystems such as wetlands, many organisms are characterized by selecting areas of vegetation gradients and ecotones. Best known groups are birds and primates. Some species present, which are endemic to the Atlantic forest, include maned sloth, thin-spined porcupine, jaguar and Geoffroy's tufted-ear marmoset.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves, in the states of Bahia and Esp&amp;iacute;rito Santo, consist of eight separate protected areas containing 112,000 ha of Atlantic forest and associated shrub (&lt;em&gt;restingas&lt;/em&gt;). The rainforests of Brazil&amp;rsquo;s Atlantic coast are the world&amp;rsquo;s richest in terms of biodiversity. The site contains a distinct range of species with a high level of endemism and reveals a pattern of evolution that is not only of great scientific interest but is also of importance for conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1044</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/893</http_url><id_number>893</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_893.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Atlantic Forests (Southeast) contain the best and largest remaining examples of Atlantic forest in the southeast region of Brazil. The 25 protected areas that make up the site display the biological richness and evolutionary history of the few remaining areas of Atlantic forest of southeast Brazil. The area is also exceptionally diverse with high numbers of rare and endemic species. With its &amp;ldquo;mountains to the sea&amp;rdquo; attitudinal gradient, its estuary, wild rivers, karst and numerous waterfalls, the site also has exceptional scenic values.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-24.1666700000</latitude><location>Atlantic coast, states of Parana and Sao Paolo</location><longitude>-48.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The 25 Atlantic Forest South-East Reserves contain some of the best and most extensive examples of remaining Atlantic forest in Brazil displaying the biological wealth and evolutionary history of the one of the world's richest and most endangered habitats. From mountains covered by dense forests, down to wetlands, coastal islands with isolated mountains and dunes, the area comprises a rich natural environment of great scenic beauty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Partially isolated since the Ice Age, the Atlantic forests have evolved into a complex ecosystem with exceptionally high endemism (70% of the tree species, 85% of the primates and 39% of the mammals) and are considered to be among the world's richest forests for tree species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated site comprises the Serra do Mar Mountain Chain, which runs parallel to the Atlantic coast and separates the Brazilian high plateau (&lt;em&gt;planalto&lt;/em&gt;) from the lower sea plains; part of the Estuarine Lagoon Complex of Iguape-Canan&amp;eacute;ira-Paranagua, which includes a great variety of wetlands, from the flooded plains of the Ribeira de Iguape River to saline waters of the lagoon complex itself. There is also a vast extension of beaches showing a succession of opened ocean-sand dunes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated World Heritage site contains well-preserved remnant patches of highly diverse and endangered Atlantic rainforest. More than 450 tree species per hectare can be found in some areas, indicating that the diversity of woody plants in the region is larger than in the Amazon rainforest. Major vegetation types in the site are tall mountain and lower mountain Atlantic rainforest. Forest canopy along river valleys is taller, with isolated trees reaching up to 30&amp;nbsp;m in height. Species composition and structure change with altitude, and transitional stages between forest types are linked to soil depth, fertility and humidity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a highly diverse fauna with several species of conservation concern. Mammals include 120 species, probably the largest number in Brazil. Some noteworthy species are jaguar, ocelot, bush dog, La Plata otter, 20 species of bat and various species of endangered primate, notably muriqui and brown howler monkey. The newly discovered black-faced lion tamarin is endemic to the area. The avifauna is very diverse, with 350 recorded species. The area is an important breeding ground for harpy eagle, red-tailed Amazon and black-fronted piping guan, among many others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than 50 archaeological sites were unearthed in the area. These sites contain accumulation of shells, pottery and stone tools.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Atlantic Forest South-East Reserves, in the states of Paran&amp;aacute; and S&amp;atilde;o Paulo, contain some of the best and most extensive examples of Atlantic forest in Brazil. The 25 protected areas that make up the site (some 470,000 ha in total) display the biological wealth and evolutionary history of the last remaining Atlantic forests. From mountains covered by dense forests, down to wetlands, coastal islands with isolated mountains and dunes, the area comprises a rich natural environment of great scenic beauty.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Atlantic Forest South-East Reserves</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1045</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of the town of Goi&amp;aacute;s are closely related with the history of the more or less official expeditions (bandeiras), which left from S&amp;atilde;o Paulo to explore the interior of the Brazilian territory. One expedition, under the command of Fern. Dias Pais, explored the region of Minas (1673-81), and another expedition, under the command of Bartolomeu Bueno da Silva, explored the region of Goi&amp;aacute;s (1682), finding some gold. However, the discoveries at Minas were far superior and, from 1700, attracted a vast number of people; the population of Brazil went from 80,000 to over one million in a few years. As a result of wars in the coastal regions, attention was again drawn to the interior; in 1718, gold was found in Cuiab&amp;aacute; (the current capital of Mato Grosso), and three years later the son of Bartolomeu Bueno discovered gold in Rio Vermelho, where he was nominated the superintendent of the mines of Goi&amp;aacute;s. One year later he established the settlement of Santana, and a chapel was built there in 1729.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In order to guarantee better control of the mines of Goi&amp;aacute;s, the Portuguese authorities decide to reinforce the regional government. In 1739, the governor of S&amp;atilde;o Paulo chose Santana, which took the name of Vila Boa de Goi&amp;aacute;s. The mining village was thus doubled in size by adding to it a small administrative quarter. In 1748, Goi&amp;aacute;s was chosen as the headquarters of a new sub-district; its first governor was Dom Marcos de Noronha (1749-55), who transformed the modest village into a small capital. Amongst the first constructions was the Casa de Fundi&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o (1750) for the control of gold, the governor's palace (1751), and the military barracks (1751). Under his successors the town continued being improved, including the construction of the Casa de C&amp;acirc;mara e Cadeia (1761), improvement of the roads and streets, building of the fountains of Carioca and Chafariz de Cauda, and opening of a theatre (1772-77). The governor Luis da Cunha Meneses (1778-83) planted trees, improved the street alignment, laid out the public square of Chafariz, and opened a slaughterhouse (1778-83). He also had the urban master plan prepared (1782), providing the town with a structure that has survived till the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1770 an inevitable decline in gold mining began and Goi&amp;aacute;s entered a long period of stagnation. It retained its status as a capital, but remained far behind Rio de Janeiro, and so further progress was arrested. In 1935-37 its administrative status was removed but the townscape remained intact. In 1950 IPHAN, the conservation authority of Brazil, listed its principal churches and the barracks, and in 1951 the Casa da C&amp;acirc;mara, the palace, and the main areas in the centre. The inauguration in 1960 of the new capital city of Brazil, Brasilia, gave the region a new impetus. Since the 1980s Goi&amp;aacute;s has been revitalized with some new constructions. Fortunately, the entire centre area was listed by IPHAN for protection in 1978.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/993</http_url><id_number>993</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_993.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion ii:&lt;/em&gt; In its layout and architecture the historic town of Goiás is an outstanding example of a European town admirably adapted to the climatic, geographical and cultural constraints of central South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iv:&lt;/em&gt; Goiás represents the evolution of a form of urban structure and architecture characteristic of the colonial settlement of South America, making full use of local materials and techniques and conserving its exceptional setting.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-15.9332800000</latitude><location>State of Goiás</location><longitude>-50.1333600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In its layout and architecture the historic town of Goi&amp;aacute;s is an outstanding example of a European town admirably adapted to the climatic, geographical and cultural constraints of central South America. It represents the evolution of a form of urban structure and architecture characteristic of the colonial settlement of South America, making full use of local materials and techniques and conserving its exceptional setting. The urban layout is an example of the organic development of a mining town, adapted to the conditions of the site. Although modest, both public and private architecture form a harmonious whole, thanks to the coherent use of local materials and vernacular techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of the town of Goi&amp;aacute;s are closely related with the history of the more or less official expeditions (&lt;em&gt;bandeiras&lt;/em&gt; ), which left from S&amp;atilde;o Paulo to explore the interior of the Brazilian territory. One expedition, under the command of Fernando Dias Pais, explored the region of Minas (1673-81), and another expedition, under the command of Bartolomeu Bueno da Silva, explored the region of Goi&amp;aacute;s (1682), finding some gold. As a result of wars in the coastal regions, attention was again drawn to the interior; gold was found in Cuiab&amp;aacute; and in Rio Vermelho (the mines of Goi&amp;aacute;s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In order to guarantee better control of the mines of Goi&amp;aacute;s, the Portuguese authorities decide to reinforce the regional government. In 1739, the governor of S&amp;atilde;o Paulo chose Santana, which took the name of Vila Boa de Goi&amp;aacute;s. The mining village was thus doubled in size by adding to it a small administrative quarter. In 1748, Goi&amp;aacute;s was chosen as the headquarters of a new subdistrict; its first governor was Dom Marcos de Noronha (1749-55), who transformed the modest village into a small capital. Among the first constructions was the Casa de Fundi&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o (1750) for the control of gold, the governor's palace and the military barracks. The town continued to be improved, including the construction of the Casa de C&amp;acirc;mara e Cadeia, improvement of the roads and streets, building of the fountains of Carioca and Chafariz de Cauda, and the opening of a theatre. In 1782 the governor had the urban master plan prepared, providing the town with a structure that has survived until the present day. In 1770 an inevitable decline in gold mining began and Goi&amp;aacute;s entered a long period of stagnation. In 1935-37 its administrative status was removed but the townscape remained intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Goi&amp;aacute;s is built between two series of hills, along a small river, the Rio Vermelho. The areas on the right bank are tight up against the north-western hills, and have a popular character, indicated by the church of Rosario, which was traditionally reserved for slaves. The areas on the left bank, limited by the hills to the south-east, are reserved for the more representative groups of buildings, including the parish church (today the cathedral) of Santana, the Governor's Palace, the barracks, the Casa de Fundi&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o, extending to the Pla&amp;ccedil;a do Chafariz and climbing towards the hill of Chapeu do Padre. Here are also to be found the historic residential quarter and a characteristic market place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is characterized by the harmony of its architecture, due to the proportions and types of buildings. At the same time, the history of construction can be read in the variation of styles from the classical 18th-century buildings to the eclectic architecture of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Goi&amp;aacute;s went through a long period of stagnation from the 19th century until recent times. Its townscape has therefore not been subject to any major changes in modern times, except perhaps for the reconstruction of the church of Rosario in Gothic Revival style in 1933. Otherwise, Goi&amp;aacute;s is a good example of the appearance of the mining town of the 18th and 19th centuries, including its natural environment, which has remained intact.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Goiás testifies to the occupation and colonization of the lands of central Brazil in the 18th and 19th centuries. The urban layout is an example of the organic development of a mining town, adapted to the conditions of the site. Although modest, both public and private architecture form a harmonious whole, thanks to the coherent use of local materials and vernacular techniques.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of the Town of Goiás</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1157</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/998</http_url><id_number>998</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_998.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; The varzea and igap&amp;oacute; forests, lakes, rivers, and islands of the proposed site together constitute physical and biological formations and demonstrate ongoing ecological processes in the development of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. They include a constantly changing and evolving mosaic of river channels, lakes, and landforms. The floating (and constantly moving and changing) mats of vegetation typical of the varzea watercourses include a significant number of endemic species, including the largest array of electric fishes in the world. Anavilhanas contains the second largest archipelago of river islands in the Brazilian Amazon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; The expanded property substantially increases the already impressive protection offered by Ja&amp;uacute; National Park to the biological diversity, habitats, and endangered species found in the Central Amazon region. The area is one of the Endemic Bird Areas of the World, is considered as one of the World Wildlife Fund&amp;rsquo;s 200 Priority Ecoregion for Conservation, and it is also a Centre of Plant Diversity. The expansion of Ja&amp;uacute; National Park to include an important sample of Varzea ecosystems, igap&amp;oacute; forests, lakes and channels significantly increases the representation of the aquatic biodiversity of the Central Amazon region. Expansion of the site also enhance the protection of key threatened species including giant arapaima fish, the Amazonian manatee, the black caiman, and two species of river dolphin.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-2.3333333330</latitude><location>State of Amazonas</location><longitude>-62.0083333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Central Amazon Conservation Complex makes up the largest protected area in the Amazon Basin (over 6&amp;nbsp;million hectares) and is one of the planet's richest regions in terms of biodiversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is made up of Ja&amp;uacute; National Park, Demonstration area of Mamairau&amp;aacute; Sustainable Development Reserve, Aman&amp;atilde; Sustainable Development Reserve and the Anavilhanas Ecological Station located in Amazonas State &amp;nbsp;The site includes an important sample of annually flooded (&lt;em&gt;v&amp;aacute;rzea&lt;/em&gt;) ecosystems, &lt;em&gt;igap&amp;oacute;&lt;/em&gt; forests, lakes and channels which take the form of a constantly evolving aquatic mosaic that is home to the largest array of electric fish in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rivers provide a landscape of white-sand beaches during the dry season and flooded forest during the wet season, as well as secondary stream beds of distinct sizes, channels, &lt;em&gt;paran&amp;aacute;s&lt;/em&gt; and an important fluvial phenomenon, the &lt;em&gt;ria&lt;/em&gt; lake, which is typical of all large rivers in the Amazon region. The site contains the nine-tier waterfall of the Carabinani River, and also includes a significant proportion of the black-water drainage system, the headwaters of which are located primarily in the Guiane Shield. Its dark colour results from organic acids released into the water through the decomposition of organic matter and the lack of terrestrial sediments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The forest cover is linked to the extensive and continuous forests of the Amazon Central Plain. It encompasses a landscape, which is characteristic of the lower Negro River and was typified as follows: dense tropical forest, located primarily on &lt;em&gt;terra firme&lt;/em&gt;, thereby free from inundation in the flooding season; open tropical forest, apparently associated with the physiognomy of tropical forests and areas of ecological tension, such as wide soil and climatic transitions between two distinct geobotanical zones; and Campinarana, a vegetation mosaic restricted to the Negro River watershed, occupying primarily upland regions and drained by tabular watercourses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park protects an impressive sample of fauna, with many species associated to black-water river systems. There is a high diversity of vertebrates with 120 species of mammals, 411 birds, 15 reptiles and 320 fishes. Numerous species of conservation concern live within the park, including jaguar, giant otter, Amazonian manatee, South American river turtle and black caiman. The importance of the site for Amazon fauna is reflected in the fact that it contains approximately 60% of the species of fish reported to exist in the Negro River watershed, and also 60% of the birds recorded from the Central Amazon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is home to relics of past human occupation of the Amazon region. A recent survey identified 17 archaeological sites at the mouth of the Negro River, with collected material as of yet undated, suggesting that the area may have been a passageway between the Solimoes and Negro watersheds and representative of ethnic groups present in these two regions. Numerous stone carvings are found on the river's edge, reinforcing the potential for archaeological research.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2003</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Central Amazon Conservation Complex makes up the largest protected area in the Amazon Basin (over 6 million hectares) and is one of the planet&amp;rsquo;s richest regions in terms of biodiversity. It also includes an important sample of varzea ecosystems, igap&amp;oacute; forests, lakes and channels which take the form of a constantly evolving aquatic mosaic that is home to the largest array of electric fish in the world. The site protects key threatened species, including giant arapaima fish, the Amazonian manatee, the black caiman and two species of river dolphin.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central Amazon Conservation Complex</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1163</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/999</http_url><id_number>999</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_999.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (vii), (ix) and (x):&lt;/em&gt; The site is representative of the Greater Pantanal region. It demonstrates the on-going ecological and biological processes that occur in the Pantanal. The association of the Amolar Mountains with the dominant freshwater wetland ecosystems confers to the site a uniquely important ecological gradient as well as a dramatic landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site plays a key role in the dispersion of nutrients to the entire basin and is the most important reserve for maintaining fish stocks in the Pantanal. The area preserves habitats representative of the Pantanal that contain a number of globally threatened species. The area is a refuge for fauna as it is the only area of the Pantanal that remains partially inundated during the dry season.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-17.7166700000</latitude><location>Southwest of the State of Mato Grosso and Northwest of the State of Mato Grosso do Sul, adjacent to the Brazil/Bolivian borders</location><longitude>-57.3833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pantanal Conservation Complex consists of a cluster of four protected areas located in western central Brazil on the border with Bolivia and Paraguay. The site is part of the Pantanal region, one of the world's largest freshwater wetland ecosystems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pantanal is an immense alluvial plain.. Its landscape encompasses a variety of ecological subregions, including river corridors, gallery forests, perennial wetlands and lakes, seasonally inundated grasslands and terrestrial forests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Surrounded by mountain ridges and plains, the region presents a flat landscape with a small inclination which follows a north-south, east-west direction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main source of water for the Pantanal is the Cuiaba River. The water spreads and covers broad expanses, seeking a natural outlet, which will only be found hundreds of kilometres downstream, at the confluence of the river and the Atlantic, beyond the Brazilian territory. Hydrological studies indicate the presence of a network of underground streams and a degree of subsurface water movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation is located in an area of transition between the dry savannah (&lt;em&gt;cerrado&lt;/em&gt;) of central Brazil and the semi-deciduous forest of the south and south-east. The diversity of interacting habitat types produces a remarkable plant diversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna of the Pantanal is extremely diverse and includes 80 species of mammal, 650 bird, 50 reptile and 400 fish. Dense populations of species of conservation concern such as jaguar, marsh deer, giant anteater and giant otter live in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pantanal is a sanctuary for birds with many species occurring in large numbers. It is one of the most important breeding grounds for typical wetland birds such as Jabiru stork, as well as several other species of heron, ibis and duck, which are found in enormous flocks. Parrots are also very diverse, with 26 species recorded in the area including the hyacinth macaw, the world's largest parrot. A large proportion of the remnant wild population of this species, estimated at about 3,000 birds, inhabit the region. Habitat destruction and capture for the pet trade are two factors that, in combination, have led to the risk of extinction.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pantanal Conservation Area consists of a cluster of four protected areas with a total area of 187,818 ha. Located in western central Brazil at the south-west corner of the State of Mato Grosso, the site represents 1.3% of Brazil's Pantanal region, one of the world's largest freshwater wetland ecosystems. The headwaters of the region's two major river systems, the Cuiabá and the Paraguay rivers, are located here, and the abundance and diversity of its vegetation and animal life are spectacular.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pantanal Conservation Area</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1164</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1000</http_url><id_number>1000</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1000.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; FNNMP/AdRBR represents over half the insular coastal waters of the Southern Atlantic Ocean. These highly productive waters provide feeding ground for species such as tuna, billfish, cetaceans, sharks, and marine turtles as they migrate to the Eastern Atlantic coast of Africa. An oasis of marine life in relatively barren, open ocean, the islands play a key role in the process of reproduction, dispersal and colonisation by marine organisms in the entire Tropical South Atlantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii)&lt;/em&gt;: Ba&amp;iacute;a dos Golfinhos is the only know place in the world with such a high population of resident dolphins and Atoll das Rocas demonstrates a spectacular seascape at low tide when the exposed reef surrounding shallow lagoons and tidal pools forms a natural aquarium. Both sites have also exceptional submarine landscapes that have been recognised worldwide by a number of specialised diving literatures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; FNNMP/AdRBR is a key site for the protection of biodiversity and endangered species in the Southern Atlantic. Providing a large proportion of the insular habitat of the South Atlantic, the site is a repository for the maintenance of marine biodiversity at the ocean basin level. It is important for the conservation of endangered and threatened species of marine turtles, particularly the hawksbill turtle. The site accommodates the largest concentration of tropical seabirds to be found in the Western Atlantic Ocean, and is a Global Centre of Bird Endemism. The site also contains the only remaining sample of the Insular Atlantic Forest and the only oceanic mangrove in the South Atlantic region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-3.8579444440</latitude><location>Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Norte States</location><longitude>-32.4251111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Peaks of the Southern Atlantic submarine ridge form the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Rocas Atoll off the coast of Brazil. They represent a large proportion of the island surface of the South Atlantic and their rich waters are extremely important for the breeding and feeding of tuna, shark, turtle and marine mammals. The islands are home to the largest concentration of tropical seabirds in the Western Atlantic. Baia de Golfinhos has an exceptional population of resident dolphin and at low tide the Rocas Atoll provides a spectacular seascape of lagoons and tidal pools teeming with fish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fernando de Noronha part of the site covers the majority of the main island and includes the majority of smaller offshore islands and islets. The Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Rocas Atoll represent the peaks of a large submarine mountain system of volcanic origin, which rises from the ocean floor some 4,000&amp;nbsp;m in depth. The Fernando de Noronha volcano is estimated to be between 1.8&amp;nbsp;million and 12.3&amp;nbsp;million years old. The coastline is complex, with a number of high cliffs and sandy beaches. The north-west facing shores are relatively calm, whereas the south-east shores face the predominant currents and winds and are largely rocky shores with significant wave action.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rocas Atoll is a reef formation on a submarine mountain rock substrate, with an area of some 7.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. During high tide only two sandy islands with a maximum height of 3&amp;nbsp;m above sea level and some isolated calcareous formations, the 'rocas', stand above water. Farol Island, the larger of the two, has a stretched 'S' form, with approximately 1,000&amp;nbsp;m in length and 200&amp;nbsp;m average width. During low tide the reef ring of the atoll is exposed, consisting of a natural wall some 1.5&amp;nbsp;m high and bordered by sandbanks. Inside the atoll is a large lagoon with shallows and pools 1-5&amp;nbsp;m deep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The highly productive coastal waters around islands are used by many fish species for spawning and as a refuge for juvenile fish. The shallow waters also provide habitat for benthnic organisms (such as coral, sponges and algae). Oceanic islands therefore play a key role in the reproduction and dispersal of marine organisms, providing a staging point for the colonization of other coastal areas and the surrounding ocean. There are less than 10 oceanic islands in the South Atlantic and the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Rocas Atoll represent more than 50% of the islands in terms of surface area. As the site makes up such a large proportion of insular South Atlantic coastal area, it is an important repository for the maintenance of biodiversity for the entire South Atlantic basin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fernando de Noronha is also the only know location for Insular Atlantic Forest - a subtype of Atlantic Rainforest. To date over 400 species of vascular plants have recorded in FNNMP, including three endemics. FNNMP also contains the sole oceanic mangrove in the South Atlantic. The vegetation on Atoll das Orcas is mainly herbaceous, salt-resistant and typical of sandy beaches.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Peaks of the Southern Atlantic submarine ridge form the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Rocas Atoll off the coast of Brazil. They represent a large proportion of the island surface of the South Atlantic and their rich waters are extremely important for the breeding and feeding of tuna, shark, turtle and marine mammals. The islands are home to the largest concentration of tropical seabirds in the Western Atlantic. Baia de Golfinhos has an exceptional population of resident dolphin and at low tide the Rocas Atoll provides a spectacular seascape of lagoons and tidal pools teeming with fish.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Brazilian Atlantic Islands: Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas Reserves</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1166</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1035</http_url><id_number>1035</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1035.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix)&lt;/em&gt;: CPA has played a key role for millenia in maintaining the biodiversity of the Cerrado Ecoregion. Due it its central location and altidudinal variation, it has acted as a relatively stable species refuge when climate change has caused the Cerrado to move north-south or east-west. This role as a species refuge is ongoing as Earth enters another period of climate change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; CAS contains samples of all key habitats that characterise the Cerrado ecoregion – one of Earth’s oldest tropical ecosystems. It contains over 60% of all floral species and almost 80% of all vertebrate species described for the Cerrado. With the exception of the Giant Otter, all of the Cerrado’s endangered large mammals occur in the site. In addition, the site supports many rare small mammals and bird species that do not occur elsewhere in the Cerrado and a number of species new to science have been discovered in CPA.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-14.0056944400</latitude><location>Central Brazil Plateau, State of Goiás</location><longitude>-47.6846111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The two sites included in the designation contain flora and fauna and key habitats that characterize the Cerrado - one of the world's oldest and most diverse tropical ecosystems. For millennia, these sites have served as refuge for several species during periods of climate change and will be vital for maintaining the biodiversity of the Cerrado region during future climate fluctuations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park is part of the highest plain in Central Brazil, with its highest point being the Serra da Santana. The region is of outstanding beauty, and is made up of wide plateaus with waterfalls and crystal clear springs. The uplands give way to deep rocky canyons and valleys. The main watercourse is the Preto River, which flows on a north-west to south-west direction; the northern extremity of the park is drained by the Santana and Bartolomeu rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the region of the park and its surroundings, three landscape areas can be recognized: the Rio Claro Valley Region is a lowland area, with relatively flat, undulating terrain; the Ridge Region is located in the middle-northern portion of the park, including the Rio Preto, Santana, Capim Branco and upland areas to the south; and the Highlands Region is distributed along the central portion of the park and is characterized by a plain relief pattern with some isolated tabular hills that dot landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Emas National Park is located in the south-west of Goi&amp;aacute;s State, close to its border with the Mato Grosso do Sul State; it is part of Serra dos Caiap&amp;oacute;s plateau. It forms the major water divide between the La Plata to the south and the Amazon to the north. The plateau is a gently rolling plain which descends to the Araguaia basin to the north, to the Jacub-Correntes rivers system to the east and to the Taquar&amp;iacute; river and Pantanal complex to the west. The main watercourses inside the National Park are the Jacuba and Formosa rivers and tributaries, both of which drain into Parana&amp;iacute;ba River.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mammals include giant anteater, giant armadillo, maned wolf, jaguar and pampas deer. The avifauna of Emas National Park contains many Cerrado grassland specialists and endemic species. Threatened species include lesser nothura, dwarf tinamou, Brazilian merganser, yellow-faced Amazon, white-winged nightjar, rufous-sided pygmy-tyrant, cineous warbling finch, marsh seedeater and black-masked finch. Bird surveys include black-hawk eagle, ocellated crake, greater rhea, Brazilian merganser and dwarf tinamu.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The two sites included in the designation contain flora and fauna and key habitats that characterize the Cerrado – one of the world’s oldest and most diverse tropical ecosystems. For millennia, these sites have served as refuge for several species during periods of climate change and will be vital for maintaining the biodiversity of the Cerrado region during future climate fluctuations.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cerrado Protected Areas: Chapada dos Veadeiros and Emas National Parks</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1208</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o was the old capital of Sergipe del Rey; it demonstrates the occupation processes of the region and the development of towns founded during the reign of King Philip II, during the 60-year period when Portugal was under Spanish domain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The modes of territorial occupation and settlement used by Spain and Portugal in their American colonies between the 15th and the 17th centuries were distinctive. Portugal established a maritime trade network, and was able to occupy coastal territories in Africa and Asia prior to establishing trade and colonial settlements in Brazil. Portugal occupied the Brazilian coast, founding port cities as connection points with Portugal and its other colonies. The urban plans of these settlements respected the topography by adapting the layouts to local conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o is related to the colonisation of Sergipe, when due to the strong resistance of the indigenous people, it was vital to establish a constant communication between Salvador and Olinda, the two most important urban centres of the colony. It was also crucial to secure free access to the main rivers, often blocked by French smugglers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In order to strengthen the colony in its conflicts with the Brazilian Amerindians and the French smugglers, Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o de Barros founded the city of S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o, on the isthmus formed by the Poxim River, in the present-day Aracaj&amp;uacute; region. The land was granted to him by King Philip II with the expectation that it would be divided among the colonists, encouraging the settlement process. The town was moved in 1594-95 and again in 1607 to its present location. S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o became the capital of Sergipe, the administrative and commercial centre between Salvador and Recife, and the departure point for the colonisation of the hinterland up to the mid-19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1855, the state capital was transferred to the city of Aracaj&amp;uacute;. S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o, with its churches, convents and secular mansions, remains as a testimony to the past of Sergipe and Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1938, S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o was declared an Historic Monument by the State government. Between 1941 and 1962 many monuments were individually protected, and in 1967 the Architectural, Urban and Landscape Ensemble of S&amp;atilde;o Crist&amp;oacute;v&amp;atilde;o was registered at the federal level in the Archaeological, Ethnographic and Landscape Protection Book.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1272</http_url><id_number>1272</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1272.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-11.0161111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>-37.2100000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;S&amp;atilde;o Francisco Square, in the town of S&amp;atilde;o Cristov&amp;atilde;o, is a quadrilateral open space surrounded by substantial early buildings such as S&amp;atilde;o Francisco Church and convent, the Church and Santa Casa da Miseric&amp;oacute;rdia, the Provincial Palace and the associated houses of different historical periods surrounding the Square. This monumental ensemble, together with the surrounding 18th- and 19th- century houses, creates an urban landscape which reflects the history of the town since its origin. The Franciscan complex is an example of the typical architecture of the religious order developed in north-eastern Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>São Francisco Square in the Town of São Cristóvão</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1725</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1100</http_url><id_number>1100</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1100.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-22.9477777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>-43.2913888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site consists of an exceptional urban setting encompassing the key natural elements that have shaped and inspired the development of the city: from the highest points of the Tijuca National Park&amp;rsquo;s mountains down to the sea. They also include the Botanical Gardens, established in 1808, Corcovado Mountain with its celebrated statue of Christ, and the hills around Guanabara Bay, including the extensive designed landscapes along Copacabana Bay which have contributed to the outdoor living culture of this spectacular city. Rio de Janeiro is also recognized for the artistic inspiration it has provided to musicians, landscapers and urbanists.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rio de Janeiro: Carioca Landscapes between the Mountain and the Sea</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1843</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1493</http_url><id_number>1493</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1493.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-19.8519444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>-43.9736111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pampulha Modern Ensemble was the centre of a visionary garden city project created in 1940 at Belo Horizonte, the capital of Minas Gerais State. Designed around an artificial lake, this cultural and leisure centre included a casino, a ballroom, the Golf Yacht Club and the São Francisco de Assis church. The buildings were designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer, in collaboration with innovative artists. The Ensemble comprises bold forms that exploit the plastic potential of concrete, while fusing architecture, landscape design, sculpture and painting into a harmonious whole. It reflects the influence of local traditions, the Brazilian climate and natural surroundings on the principles of modern architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pampulha Modern Ensemble</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2077</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1548</http_url><id_number>1548</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1548.jpg</image_url><iso_code>br</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-22.8971111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>-43.1873944444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Valongo Wharf Archaeological Site is located in central Rio de Janeiro and encompasses the entirety of Jornal do Comércio Square. It is in the former harbour area of Rio de Janeiro in which the old stone wharf was built for the landing of enslaved Africans reaching the South American continent from 1811 onwards. An estimated 900,000 Africans arrived in South America via Valongo. The site is composed of several archaeological layers, the lowest of which consists of floor pavings in &lt;em&gt;pé de moleque&lt;/em&gt; style, attributed to the original Valongo Wharf. It is the most important physical trace of the arrival of African slaves on the American continent.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Valongo Wharf Archaeological Site</site><states>Brazil</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2173</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/42</http_url><id_number>42</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_42.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.6500000000</latitude><location>Boyana district, Sofia</location><longitude>23.2666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;During the Middle Ages the strong Bulgarian fortress of Boyana (Batil) stood on the lower slopes of Mount Vitosha in what is now the Sofia suburb of Boyana. This name is mentioned for the first time in 969. Boyana was one of the 35 fortresses and settlements that formed the fortification systems of the city of Sredets (Sofia). Boyana Church was built within the fortress and is a magnificent example of medieval architecture and monumental art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church has undergone many transformation and extensions, and thus its present complex volume differs considerably from the original. New buildings have been added to the First (East) Church, architectural transformations have been made, and the decoration has been changed. At present Boyana Church consists of buildings from the 11th, 13th and 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest Boyana Church, the so-called East or First Church, was designed and used as a chapel. It had a typical Greek cross plan with a dome, and a concealed internal cross without free-standing support and without a narthex. It is built entirely of brick. The north and south facades are articulated on the outside with three blind arches, each with the central arch higher than the side ones; the arches are not related to the structure of the building. The brickwork decorations are figural: archivolts with 'wolf's tooth' and concentric rows of bricks above the arches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plan of the interior is reminiscent of a Greek cross and is scantily lit by long narrow openings (one each on the north and south walls, four on the dome) as well as through one triforium on the apse. The entire interior surface of the walls and dome was covered with murals. Some larger fragments have been preserved in the apse. As the First Church was painted again in the mid-18th century, traces of the original paintings are noticeable only where the upper layer of murals has been destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century the feudal ruler of the western region of the Second Bulgarian State, Sebastocrator Kaloyan and his wife Desislava, who were closely related to the royal family, commissioned the extension of the church. The builders added a new two-storey building to the western wall of the First Church. The ground floor has direct access from the First Church and was intended as a narthex. It is rectangular, covered with a cylindrical vault. On the inside, the walls are decorated only with two niches on the southern and northern sides respectively, probably for a family tomb. The upstairs floor of Kaloyan's Church has an almost identical architectural composition to the older building, in the shape of a Greek cross, and it was used as a family chapel. It was dedicated to the martyr healer St Panteleimon. Access to the chapel is by an outside staircase along the southern wall. It is possible that the stairs connected the chapel with the house of the nobleman. There are grounds for believing that in the event of danger, the mobile staircase was removed, thus, the upstairs chapel could also be used as a defence tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The articulation of the facades is figural as in the First Church. The northern and southern facades have four blind arches each on the level of the second floor. One of the arches on the southern wall is wider and was used as an entrance to the chapel on the second floor. The eastern facade of Kaloyan's Church rises above the roof of the First Church. On the outside its surface is broken by a small semicircular apse. The western, entrance facade is the most representative and has a pronounced monumental character. The new church, extended and renewed by the family of the Sebastocrator, was decorated with paintings and consecrated in 1259.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Boyana frescoes are an early example of the icon-painting style which later on was adopted in mural painting and as such they mark the beginning of specific features which strongly influenced the Tirnovo artistic school. The icon-style murals that became widespread in the Serbian, Russian and Mount Athos monasteries during the 14th to 16th centuries are closely related to this innovation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the outskirts of Sofia, Boyana Church consists of three buildings. The eastern church was built in the 10th century, then enlarged at the beginning of the 13th century by Sebastocrator Kaloyan, who ordered a second two storey building to be erected next to it. The frescoes in this second church, painted in 1259, make it one of the most important collections of medieval paintings. The ensemble is completed by a third church, built at the beginning of the 19th century. This site is one of the most complete and perfectly preserved monuments of east European medieval art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Boyana Church</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>46</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/43</http_url><id_number>43</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_43.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3000000000</latitude><location>Village of Madara, Province of Shumen</location><longitude>27.1500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The sculptor carved a relief of a majestic horseman 23&amp;nbsp;m above ground level in an almost vertical 100&amp;nbsp;m high cliff. The horseman is thrusting a spear into a lion lying at his horse's feet, while a dog runs after the horseman. In antiquity the Thracian tribes inhabited the plain. There was an ancient Thracian sanctuary in the large open cave under the rocks, which is known today as the Nymphs' Cave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortress and a large farm (&lt;em&gt;villa rustica&lt;/em&gt;) prospered at the foot of the cliff for more than three centuries during Roman times, until it fell into disuse with the decline of the Roman Empire. The pitched towers of the fortress were rebuilt when the first Bulgarian capital, Pliska, was established nearby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the difficult times at the end of the 7th century the relations of the young Bulgarian state and Byzantium were very complex. The Bulgarians won the right to establish their state in a victorious battle, but Byzantium considered itself an heir to the Roman Empire and never gave up its claim on this territory. When the dethroned Byzantine Emperor Justinian asked for help from the Bulgarian Khan Tervel, he was obliged to accept the Bulgarian conditions. The Emperor was reinstalled on the throne in Constantinople thanks to the Bulgarian army. These events took place in the year 705: thus, only a quarter of a century after the Bulgarian state had been founded, it was not only recognized by but also received tribute from Byzantium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Madara Horseman was carved at the very beginning of the 8th century, about three decades after the foundation of the Bulgarian State (681). The sculpture marks a triumph: the Byzantine Empire had recognized the new state. The relief is not an abstract symbolic scene but presents a particular image with its own historical background and profound symbolism. The place chosen is such that the bulge of the rock allows some parts of the relief to project more than the rest. Other elements of the composition are almost flat because they had to be accommodated in the slope of the rock surface.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sculptor used three methods for the carving of the figures. First he outlined the images with a 1.5&amp;nbsp;cm wide and 2&amp;nbsp;cm deep groove in the rock (only the lion is not surrounded by such a groove). Then he hewed out the surrounding surface so that the figures project from it. The third method used was to cover the figures in red plaster so as to outline them even better against the rock. Most of this plaster has been destroyed by the elements, but some traces are still visible. The letters of the inscriptions were also filled with the same plaster. The sculptor worked carefully on the composition in order to ensure that the relief would be seen clearly from a distance. The elements of this skilful composition are arranged in such a way as not to distract but emphasize the impact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sculpture offers an original combination of dynamic and static character, of formal gestures and realistic details. The image is of a particular event but it implies a sense of triumph beyond the limits of time. However, although this monumental work of art combines the concrete with the abstract, the inscription cut in the left and right sides of the composition provided curt, precise and simple information about the event and some of the circumstances related to it. The profound historical meaning of the relief is further clarified by the inscriptions around the figures. These inscriptions were made in three consecutive stages and are related to important events. They are the earliest proto-Bulgarian inscriptions and the earliest written data on Bulgarian history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, these traditions began with the texts on the Madara relief. These three texts not only mark the beginning of the historic annals but are also related to the images and meaning of the relief, of the victorious scene presented. The existence of a state acquires its complete meaning only through its international recognition, and these texts mark precisely the events connected with the international recognition of the state, with its introduction into international relations as a respected partner.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Madara Rider, representing the figure of a knight triumphing over a lion, is carved into a 100-m-high cliff near the village of Madara in north-east Bulgaria. Madara was the principal sacred place of the First Bulgarian Empire before Bulgaria&amp;rsquo;s conversion to Christianity in the 9th century. The inscriptions beside the sculpture tell of events that occurred between AD 705 and 801.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Madara Rider</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>47</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/44</http_url><id_number>44</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_44.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.6166666700</latitude><location>Kazanlak, Province of Stara Zagora</location><longitude>25.4000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1942 a tomb dated to the 3rd century BC was discovered near Kazanlak in the romantic Valley of Roses, near the ancient city of Teutopolis. The Kazanlak Tomb is a peak in the development of Hellenistic art; it is a significant contribution to the art of the entire Hellenistic world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The numerous burial mounds in the Kazanlak area (more than 500), together with the remains of Thracian settlements, including Seuthopolis, the only Thracian city that has been completely excavated, preserved and researched, show that the area was inhabited by a large Thracian population, which reached the height of its cultural development during the 5th to 3rd centuries BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Seuthopolis was founded by the Thracian King Seuth III at the end of the 4th century BC. The city was fortified, with a layout based on the principles of the Greek polis. Monumental works of Thracian architecture have been found in Seuthopolis, such as the palace-temple, with interiors decorated with murals, and the temples of Dionysius and the Great Thracian Gods. Seven brick tombs were discovered in the necropolis, four of which are of the beehive type. The use of brickwork in the making of tombs is typical for the area of Seuthopolis: nowhere else in Thrace were bricks used so widely in building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb stands on top of a rocky hill, and has been constructed without deep foundations. It comprises the three chambers required by the Thracian cult of the dead: an antechamber for the chariot, horses, or slaves which accompanied the dead man in the after-life; a corridor (&lt;em&gt;dromos&lt;/em&gt;), which was a small room for the things needed in the after-life; and a burial chamber for the body itself. The three components have different shapes and dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The murals are the chief asset of the Kazanlak Tomb, because they are the only entirely preserved work of Hellenistic art that has been found in exactly the state in which it was originally designed and executed. They start from the antechamber. The walls are of a light ochre colour, against which large stones are outlined with dark-blue lines, in imitation of squared stonework, thus creating a solemn atmosphere before entering the corridor and burial chamber. Only a small part of this decoration is preserved, high on the east wall of the antechamber. The entrance to the corridor has a painted dark-ochre frame.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The painting in the corridor and the burial chamber in fact represent a monumental facade. It begins with a high podium, above it follows the neutral load-bearing wall, and then the composition ends in architectural details with pictures between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The artworks in the Tomb reach their peak in the burial chamber. The floor is coloured in Pompeian red. The podium stands on the circle of the plinth and is covered on the top with a wide black band. The plinth imitates pink marble with light blue veins. The podium consists of eight squares divided with grooves imitating marble facing. The load-bearing wall coloured in Pompeian red follows above the black band. The composition in the burial chamber is designed with great skill and knowledge of the architectural elements of the Ionic entablature. The painter, however, has intentionally infringed the Ionic proportions with the large figure frieze. He thus achieved an exceptional impact by enclosing the entire composition in a colourful frame of architectural motifs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The murals were executed on the basis of a preliminary design drawn upon the final fine layer of plaster. Even today faint lines incised on the wet plaster can be distinguished, marking out the plinths and the contours of the vault. The pattern of the Kazanlak Tomb murals shows that they were not painted spontaneously: the paintings are a result of carefully premeditated artistic composition executed in accordance with a precise project. The architecture and the pattern of the composition were prepared together as an integrated work of art. It is clear that both were the work of one person - an artist-architect.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Discovered in 1944, this tomb dates from the Hellenistic period, around the end of the 4th century BC. It is located near Seutopolis, the capital city of the Thracian king Seutes III, and is part of a large Thracian necropolis. The tholos has a narrow corridor and a round burial chamber, both decorated with murals representing Thracian burial rituals and culture. These paintings are Bulgaria&amp;rsquo;s best-preserved artistic masterpieces from the Hellenistic period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>48</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/45</http_url><id_number>45</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_45.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.7166666700</latitude><location>Village of Ivanovo, 16 km from the town of Ruse, Province of Ruse</location><longitude>25.9666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the valley of the Roussenski Lom River, in north-east Bulgaria, a complex of rock-hewn churches, chapels, monasteries and cells developed in the vicinity of the village of Ivanovo. This is where the first hermits had dug out their cells and churches during the 12th century. The 14th-century murals testify to the exceptional skill of the artists of the Tarnovo school of painting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period of the history of Bulgaria from the last years of the 12th century, when for the second time the country became independent from Byzantium, until the Ottoman Empire annexation in 1396, is known as the Second Bulgarian Empire. Independence from Byzantium could not be complete until the Bulgarian clergy became dependents of the Patriarch of Costantinopoli. In 1204, the Kaloyan Tsar signed an agreement with the Papacy in order to return as part of the Roman Catholic church. It was not to be a long-lasting agreement. During the reign of Tsar Ivan Ansen II, Bulgaria once again embraced Orthodox Christianity, but with its own Patriarch, not subordinate to Costantinople.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Patriarch was the monk Gioacchino, who shared with Ivan Ansen the plan to expand the Bulgarian church. Before taking over the Patriarchal throne he had lived as a hermit in a cave in the river Rusenski Lom valley, not far from the village of Ivanovo. The monk achieved so high a level of sanctity that Tzar Ivan Ansen entrusted to him the construction of a monastery, something which contributed to strengthen his image as a merciful monarch. The convent was built between 1218 and 1235 and had from the outset a rocky character; all its buildings were dug into the limestone cliff gorge of the river and its contributories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the years between 1331 and 1371 the monastery, thanks to further new royal donations, acquired the best of its artistic patrimony: the splendid frescoes attributable to the painters of the so-called Tarnovo School.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the conquest of the country by the Ottoman Turks in 1396, the forgotten monastery of Ivanovo fell quickly into ruins and was abandoned. The solid limestone out of which it was carved and on which frescoes were painted enabled it to resist to the inclemency of the weather. Along the two walls of the Rusenski Lom river gorge there is a labyrinth of cells, of rooms, and above all of churches and chapels dug into the cliff face which were originally completely covered by frescoes, but of which only five are still in good condition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bearing in mind the fact that three of these churches go back to the reign of Ivan or immediately afterwards, they constitute remarkable evidence of the revolution in painting during the two centuries of the Second Bulgarian Empire. In the churches of the first period, the human figures are painted in the same realistic style, with oval faces and fleshy lips, and the colours of the clothing are bright. The 14th-century frescoes by contrast are in the classical style of the Palaeologic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The five churches and their frescoes are testimony to the Byzantine art influence in Bulgaria. The creation and decoration of these rock-hewn churches is largely attributable to the donations of the Bulgarian Tzars in the 13th and 14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the valley of the Roussenski Lom River, in north east Bulgaria, a complex of rock-hewn churches, chapels, monasteries and cells developed in the vicinity of the village of Ivanovo. This is where the first hermits had dug out their cells and churches during the 12th century. The 14th-century murals testify to the exceptional skill of the artists belonging to the Tarnovo School of painting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>49</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/216</http_url><id_number>216</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_216.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.1166666700</latitude><location>On the slopes of Rila, the highest Balkan Peninsula Mountain, in the valley of the Rilska River, 29 km east of the Sofia-Thessaloniki Highway. Rila, Kyustendil Province</location><longitude>23.4000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rila Monastery, the oldest in the Slav world and still the largest active religious centre in Bulgaria, is first and foremost an exceptionally fine artistic complex, in which architecture and painting merge harmoniously. Apart from this, it has been for centuries the seat of the development, preservation, and diffusion of Slav religious culture in all its various manifestations, including literary and artistic, and it became the symbol of Bulgarian cultural identity that was continually threatened by Turkish domination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery stands about 120&amp;nbsp;km from Sofia, in the heart of the Rila Massif, located at the north-western extremity of the Rodopi Mountains, a mountainous system with peaks that rise to almost 3,000&amp;nbsp;m. In this area, which was still covered by forest in AD 876-946, lived the hermit Ivan Rilski (Saint John of Mila), the evangelizer of the Slavic peoples. He was responsible for the construction of the original nucleus of the coenobitic community, a short distance from the cave in which he lived as an anchorite; this nucleus was completely destroyed in the 13th century by fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new building was constructed a few kilometres from the site of the first foundation, and it was completed in the 15th century thanks to the donations of Stefan Hrelyu, a powerful local prince who ordered in 1355 the construction of the tower that still bears his name and a church dedicated to John of Rila, who had in the meantime been canonized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Ottoman Turkish domination of Bulgaria, the monastery took on the role of bulwark of national identity in the face of foreign occupation. It became a destination for pilgrimages from all over the Balkan region, especially after 1469, when the relics of the saint were brought there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex continued to serve this function in the centuries that followed, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, when it became one of the powerhouses of the Bulgarian Renaissance. This period is documented by the splendid cross that is still preserved in the museum of the monastery, executed and decorated with more than 100 biblical scenes by the monk Raphael, one of the leading figures of the movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The existing structures, with the exception of the Hrelyu Tower, date back to the 19th-century building project. They occupy a vast area which forms an irregular square, provided with two entrances, both decorated with frescoes. The building that surrounds it contains four chapels, a refectory and some 300 cells, a library and rooms for the guests of the monastery. The complex has an interior courtyard overlooked by three- and four-storey constructions, embellished by orders of arches set upon stone columns which unify their facades and form airy loggias. This is enlivened by the chromatic interplay between the white of the plaster and the red and black hues of the bricks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hrelyu tower is a compact building 23&amp;nbsp;m high, square in plan. The highest of its five storeys contains a chapel dedicated to the Transfiguration and decorated by a series of frescoes that were done in the second half of the 14th century: in the nave are depicted stories of Saint John of Rila.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the building constructed in the 19th century, the most important is the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption, built in 1833 on the structure of the preceding building. This church houses a magnificent carved wooden iconostasis, executed in 1842 by Athanasios Taladuro of Thessalonica, and many frescoes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural heritage contained in the monastery is not limited to its buildings, but extends to the works of art and documents that constitute a priceless testimonial to Bulgarian civilization; they are chiefly to be found in the museum and in the library.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Rila Monastery was founded in the 10th century by St John of Rila, a hermit canonized by the Orthodox Church. His ascetic dwelling and tomb became a holy site and were transformed into a monastic complex which played an important role in the spiritual and social life of medieval Bulgaria. Destroyed by fire at the beginning of the 19th century, the complex was rebuilt between 1834 and 1862. A characteristic example of the Bulgarian Renaissance (18th&amp;ndash;19th centuries), the monument symbolizes the awareness of a Slavic cultural identity following centuries of occupation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rila Monastery</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>239</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/217</http_url><id_number>217</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_217.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.6561100000</latitude><location>Burgas Province</location><longitude>27.7300000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Systematic archaeological studies, reinforcement, restoration and conservation have preserved the material traces of history in Nessebar more than anywhere else. The small peninsula is a meeting place of bygone times. Nessebar has demonstrated on several occasions the significant historic position of a frontier city on the outposts of a threatened empire. The millennia of uninterrupted human occupation (the earliest traces of human settlement date back to over 3,000 years ago) have produced an impressive cultural occupation layer that is as thick as 6&amp;nbsp;m in some places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Confined to a rocky promontory of the Bulgarian coast, Nessebar is a rich city-museum with more than three millennia of history. The Thracians were the first to establish themselves on this natural defensive site, as attested by numerous discoveries of Bronze Age objects. Strabo records, moreover, the legendary foundation by the Thracian, Mena, from whom the city took its original name, Menebria. Dorian colonists from Megara made it one of the oldest Greek colonies of Pontus Euxinus (the Black Sea) under the name of Messembria: according to Herodotus it was already in existence in 513 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nessebar lies nestling along a romantic isthmus. Its cobbled streets, well kept medieval churches, and timbered houses from the 19th century illustrate its chequered past. Nessebar's churches can be best described as a cross between Slav and Greek Orthodox architecture, and are some of the finest in the area. &lt;a name="include_255"&gt;One of the oldest towns in Europe, it still exudes the spirit of different ages and peoples - Thracians, Hellenes, Romans, Slavs, Byzantines and Bulgarians.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Greek city, whose acropolis rose on the eastern end of the peninsula, was defended on the landward side by a 6th-century wall which still partially exists to the north. Vestiges of the agora, the theatre, and the Temple of Apollo were brought to light near buildings constructed during the period when Messembria fell under Roman influence. The city was taken in 71 BC, but continued to enjoy numerous privileges, such as that of minting its own coinage. When the death of Theodosius (395) provoked the schism with the Roman Empire, Messembria fell into the Byzantine domain and it was not long before it became one of the most important strongholds of the Eastern Empire, and the object of struggles between Greeks and Bulgarians. It was successively held by first one and then the other, depending on the fortunes of each army, until 812 when the Bulgarian Khan Krum seized it after a siege of two weeks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until its capture by the Turks in 1453, Nessebar comprised monuments of exceptional quality: for example, the Stara Mitropolia, a large basilica without transept rebuilt in the 9th century; the Church of the Virgin; the Nova Mitropolia, founded in the 11th century and continually embellished until the 18th century; the Church of St John the Baptist, which houses the archaeological museum; and finally a remarkable series of 13th- and 14th-century churches: St Theodore, St Paraskebba, St Michael and St Gabriel, and St John Alituhgethos. Other notable churches are the Old Bishop's Residence in an early Byzantine style (4th-5th centuries), and the New Bishops Residence (St Stefan), containing valuable 12th-century murals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Turkish domination coincided with the decline of Nessebar, but it did not diminish the monumental heritage, which was enriched from the 19th century by numerous houses in the 'Plovdiv style'. This vernacular architecture ensures the cohesion of an urban fabric of high quality. Nessebar's National Revival houses with stone foundations and broad wooden eaves, which overhang narrow cobbled lanes leading right to the sea, are also remarkably beautiful.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on a rocky peninsula on the Black Sea, the more than 3,000-year-old site of Nessebar was originally a Thracian settlement (Menebria). At the beginning of the 6th century BC, the city became a Greek colony. The city&amp;rsquo;s remains, which date mostly from the Hellenistic period, include the acropolis, a temple of Apollo, an agora and a wall from the Thracian fortifications. Among other monuments, the Stara Mitropolia Basilica and the fortress date from the Middle Ages, when this was one of the most important Byzantine towns on the west coast of the Black Sea. Wooden houses built in the 19th century are typical of the Black Sea architecture of the period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Nessebar</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>240</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/359</http_url><id_number>359</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_359.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.6666700000</latitude><location>Razgrad Province</location><longitude>26.6666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The discovery in 1982 of the Thracian tomb of Sveshtari was one of the most spectacular archaeological events of the 20th century. The tomb itself is a unique artistic achievement with its half-human, half-vegetable caryatids enclosed in chitons in the shape of inverted palmettes. The fact the original polychromy has been preserved with its ochre, brown, blue, red and lilac shades adds to the bewitching charm of an expressive composition where the anthropomorphic supports conjure up the image of a choir of mourners frozen in the abstract positions of a ritual dance. The tomb is an exceptional testimony to the culture of the Getae, a Thracian people living in the north of Hemus, in contact with the Greek and Hyperborean worlds according to ancient geographers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb is located in a region declared an archaeological reserve, near the town of Razgra between the villages of Malak Porovetz and Sveshtari in Isperih municipality, in the river Krapinetz canyon and on the hills around. The time when the Sveshtari tomb was built (mid-3rd century BC) coincided with the period of a great political, economic and cultural upsurge of the Thracian tribe of the Getae. The rich decoration and perfect architecture of the tomb demonstrate the political power of the ruler.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src="file:///C:/Users/M_MONC%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" alt="" width="1" height="10" /&gt;Under a tumulus 11.5&amp;nbsp;m high and roughly 70&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, geophysical prospecting revealed, to the south-east, the monumental entrance to a hypogeum of exceptional interest, including a dromos, an antechamber, and two rectangular funeral chambers. The layout of this Thracian king's tomb, which is very different from that of Thracian tombs with cupolas such as that of Kazanlak, fits a Hellenistic model to be found in Macedonia, Asia Minor and Egypt. The tomb of Sveshtari is, however, unique in its architectural decor and in the specific character of funeral rites revealed by the excavation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb consists of a corridor (&lt;em&gt;dromos&lt;/em&gt;) and three square chambers: antechamber, lateral chamber, and main burial chamber covered by a semi-cylindrical vault. The plan of the building provides a new interesting example in Thracian building practice. The decoration of the tomb is executed in the spirit of the contemporary Hellenistic architecture. Its entrance is flanked by two rectangular columns (&lt;em&gt;antae&lt;/em&gt;). Above them there is an architrave plate with a frieze in relief, consisting of stylized bovine heads (&lt;em&gt;bucrania&lt;/em&gt;), rosettes and garlands. Ten beautiful female figures with hands raised high like caryatids are impressive. The figures are about 1.20&amp;nbsp;m tall, presented frontally, wearing long sleeveless dresses (&lt;em&gt;chitons&lt;/em&gt;) tied with a thin belt below the breasts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two funerary beds, human bones and grave offerings were discovered in the central chamber. From the scattered stone details it was possible to reconstruct the facade of the tomb (&lt;em&gt;aedicula&lt;/em&gt;), consisting of pilasters, cornice and a pediment, and closed with three stone doors. Being situated in front of the large funerary bed as a symbol of the boundary between life and death, the &lt;em&gt;aedicula&lt;/em&gt; isolated the grave of the deified ruler (the most sacral part of the tomb) from the rest of the place. In the centre of the composition the goddess is offering a gold wreath to the ruler, depicted as a horseman facing her. On both sides of them there are processions of servants and armour-bearers carrying different gifts in their hands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The layout of the central chamber which contained two stone funeral beds and an aedicula imitates the arrangement of a peristyle house: five half-columns and ten sculpted feminine caryatids in high relief on limestone flagstones support the architrave barrel-vaulted Doric frieze with its triglyphs and metopes spanning the room at mid-height.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the north-west lunette, on the wall opposite the entrance, there is a painting depicting the deceased as hero, who, in the presence of several protagonists, is advancing on horseback towards the central figure of a deity extending a laurel wreath. Skeletal material found during excavation bears witness to the horse sacrifices that accompanied the funerary rites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Discovered in 1982 near the village of Sveshtari, this 3rd-century BC Thracian tomb reflects the fundamental structural principles of Thracian cult buildings. The tomb has a unique architectural decor, with polychrome half-human, half-plant caryatids and painted murals. The 10 female figures carved in high relief on the walls of the central chamber and the decoration of the lunette in its vault are the only examples of this type found so far in the Thracian lands. It is a remarkable reminder of the culture of the Getes, a Thracian people who were in contact with the Hellenistic and Hyperborean worlds, according to ancient geographers.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>412</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1992-2003</danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The area was declared a wildfowl refuge in 1942 and established as a nature reserve by the Ministry of Agriculture and Foods on 20 September 1948, Decree No. 2-11-931. It was accepted as a World Heritage site on 7 March 1974, as a Ramsar site on 24 September 1975 and as a biosphere reserve in January 1977.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/219</http_url><id_number>219</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_219.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.1144400000</latitude><location>Village of Srebarna, Province of Silistra; 16 km west of the town of Silistra and 1 km south of the Danube</location><longitude>27.0780600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Srebarna Nature Reserve is a freshwater lake adjacent to the Danube and extending over 600&amp;nbsp;ha. It is the breeding ground of almost 100 species of bird, many of which are rare or endangered. Some 80 other bird species migrate and seek refuge there every winter. Among the most interesting bird species are the Dalmatian pelican, great egret, night heron, purple heron, glossy ibis and white spoonbill, white-tailed eagle, little cormorant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve was set up primarily to protect the rich diversity of wildfowl, the bird species represent half of the Bulgarian avifauna. Species found in Srebarna include mute swan, a variety of geese and ducks, red-necked grebe, two of the three European species of marsh tern, and bearded tit. Otter is occasionally found in the reserve. White-fronted goose, red-breasted goose and blue throat have become established as wintering species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 67 plant species can be found in Srebarna Nature Reserve, including water lily and a number of rare marsh plants. Reeds occupy two-thirds of the reserve and form a thick barrier around the lake. They form reed-mace islands which birds use for nesting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This freshwater lake is situated on the flood plain of the River Danube, to which it was connected until 1949. The disconnection prevented annual flooding and the level of lake falls 1&amp;nbsp;m per year. However, the lake was reconnected by canal in 1978 with the Danube to prevent water levels from becoming too low and to restore the lake's fish population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve is affected by a rapid and abnormal development of succession processes due to annual sedimentation of large reed-mace vegetation in the reserve, as well as the insufficient water influence of the Danube. Consequently, the reed-mace islands are extended and increased in thickness so that wild boars, foxes and jackals now pose a threat to both individual birds nests and colonies. A series of upstream interferences, including the Iron Gate Dam, have permanently altered the natural hydrology of the Danube River in this region and that of Srebarna.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Srebarna Nature Reserve is a freshwater lake adjacent to the Danube and extending over 600 ha. It is the breeding ground of almost 100 species of birds, many of which are rare or endangered. Some 80 other bird species migrate and seek refuge there every winter. Among the most interesting bird species are the Dalmatian pelican, great egret, night heron, purple heron, glossy ibis and white spoonbill.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Srebarna Nature Reserve</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1621</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1963 Vikhren National Park (6,212ha) was established in the northern part of the Pirin mountains under Decree No. 3074 of 6 November 1962 of the Committee of Forestry and Forestry Management. In 1976 it was enlarged 27,OOOha and renamed Pirin National Park (Decree No. 1036 of 3 March 1976, Ministry of Forestry). Pirin NP was enlarged to 40,060ha in 1987 (Decree No. 1036 of 17 November, Committee of Environmental Protection at the Council of Ministers. Baevi Doubki Natural Reserve was established in 1934, extended in 1976 and renamed Baevi Doupki - Dzindzeritza (2,873ha) in 1979. It was declared a biosphere reserve in 1977.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/225</http_url><id_number>225</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_225.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.7427222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>23.4304722222</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Extending over an area of 27,400 ha and lying at an altitude of 1,008-2,914 m in the Pirin mountains, south-west Bulgaria, Pirin National Park has a limestone Balkan landscape, with lakes, waterfalls, caves and pine forests. The rugged mountains, with some 70 glacial lakes scattered throughout them, are home to hundreds of endemic and rare species, many of which are representative of the Balkan Pleistocene flora. The mountains also have diverse and unique landscapes of great aesthetic value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pirin Mountain stretches from north-west to south-east between the valleys of the Strouma and Mesta rivers. There are many rivers and waterfalls. Winter in the upper parts is cold and long with snow cover remaining for five to eight months. Summer is cool and short.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The presence of limestone rocks, the southerly position of the range and close proximity to the Aegean, coupled with its relative isolation, have made Pirin Mountain an important refuge for many species. Forests in the park are mainly coniferous with endemic Macedonian pine being widespread and forming the timberline in the granite part of the mountain. Endemic Bossnian pine occurs in the highest zone of the karst area. Unique stands of &lt;em&gt;Pinus peuce&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Pinus leucodermis&lt;/em&gt; , up to 250-300 years old and 30-45 m high, are found in Baiouvi Doupki-Djindjiritsa Reserve. Some individual &lt;em&gt;Pinus leucodermis&lt;/em&gt; trees are over 500 years old. Silver fir, Austrian pine, spruce, Scots pine and beech form a mixed coniferous forest type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Generally, the timberline has developed as a result of human interference over a long period and descends as low as 2,000 m, but in some places reaches 2,200-2,300 m. In the subalpine zone there are thickets of dwarf mountain pine and &lt;em&gt;Juniperus sibirica&lt;/em&gt; . Above 2,400-2,600 m is a layer of alpine meadows, stony slopes, screes, rocks, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora of Pirin, comprising as it does many rare species, is of great interest and beauty. One of the most active flora speciation in Bulgaria is situated in the limestone part of the mountain. Pirin has a mixture of central European, Alpine, Balkan mountain and sub-Mediterranean species, but in addition there are about 30 local endemic species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a wide variety of animal species including many endemic species and glacial relicts among the invertebrate fauna. Threatened bird and mammal species include brown bear, grey wolf, pine marten, rock marten, polecat, badger, otter, wild cat, red deer, roe deer, wild boar, Balkan chamois, golden eagle, capercaillie, hazel grouse, eagle owl, black woodpecker and three-toed woodpecker.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Spread over an area of over 27,000 ha, at an altitude between 1008 and 2914 m in the Pirin Mountains, southwest Bulgaria, the site comprises diverse limestone mountain landscapes with glacial lakes, waterfalls, caves and predominantly coniferous forests. It was added to the World Heritage List in 1983. The extension now covers an area of around 40,000 ha in the Pirin Mountains, and overlaps with the Pirin National Park, except for two areas developed for tourism (skiing). The dominant part of the extension is high mountain territory over 2000m in altitude, and covered mostly by alpine meadows, rocky screes and summits.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pirin National Park</site><states>Bulgaria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1641</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The recent inter-disciplinary project has allowed a reassessment of the history of Lorop&amp;eacute;ni. This has pushed much further back the date of its construction from around the 17th century to at least the 11th century AD and disassociated it from the Gan people, mentioned in the previous evaluation report.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Indeed in spite of the many writings on these ruins since the beginning of the 20th century, no serious archaeological investigations have been undertaken to support information from oral traditions and the other documentary sources. The recent targeted excavations were to thus able to start to bridge this gap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is necessary to locate the construction of the Lorop&amp;eacute;ni ruins in the geopolitical context of the sub-Saharan kingdoms. They appeared after the fall of the first empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, when there were migrations of gold miners and goldsmiths into the Lobi area, and well before the development to the south of the Akan kingdoms, such as the powerful Ashanti kingdom, which caused migrations to the north as people fled slave hunters. Around Lobi country are the remains of many gold mines such as Werimitangna, close to Lorop&amp;eacute;ni.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gold bearing region was connected by caravans to the large commercial cites to the north on the river Niger, such as Dj&amp;eacute;nn&amp;eacute;, Mopti and Timbuktu and from there across the Sahara to north Africa., It was probably later that the gold was traded south to the Atlantic coast. Lobi country is crossed by the north-south Mopti - Sore-Dioulasso - Kong route, and the east-southwest route from Ouagadougou, through Boromo, Di&amp;eacute;bougou, Gaoua, to Bondoukou.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruins have long been associated with the gold trade but the evidence for this is circumstantial. It is suggested that such large and fortified structures need to be associated with defending a high value product and the need to house labour. The southern enclose could have been used for slaves or miners at the gold mines. However no direct evidence for gold or for the use of the southern enclosure was forthcoming from the recent excavations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most oral traditions collected since the &amp;quot;discovery&amp;quot; of the ruins in 1902 indicate the Koulango people as builders of fortresses in the area, as well as in Burkina Faso in Ivory Coast. However, the most recent research shows that the Koulango were preceded by Lorhon and Nab&amp;eacute; peoples who migrated south into the area and were known to be in the area of Kong, from the 10th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Gan, who have been attributed as being the builders of the ruins, simply re-used them from the end of the 17th century when they left the territory of current Ghana to escape oppression from the Ashanti. At around the same time the focus of gold production moved south to the Ashanti area and the gold trade declined around the Lobi area. With its decline the fortified buildings were abandoned to be re-colonised by the Gan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is contrary to the work of Madeleine P&amp;egrave;re, recently published posthumously, who maintained that the Lorop&amp;eacute;ni settlement would have been built by Tokp&amp;atilde; Farma, ninth king of the dynasty of Gan, towards the end of his life with the aim of transferring the capital to it from Obir&amp;eacute;. This project apparently did not meet with the approval of the ancestors and he died three years later. This explains the name &amp;lsquo;Kp&amp;ocirc;kay&amp;acirc;ga', the house of the refusal, by which the site is known. In the previous report it was stated that not all local historians and archaeologists accept the attributions of the ruins to the Gan. It was suggested that archaeological excavations could provide evidence to help understand the genesis of the ruins and this indeed has been the case.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Certain versions of oral tradition record that the quadrangular ramparts were initially built, then the interior partitions and finally the buildings. Observation of the junction between the walls corroborates this assertion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recent studies and excavations have revealed evidence for use over a long duration and with possible discontinuities, or even periods of abandonment. Certain zones present several coats of plaster (up to five perfectly distinct layers), and the mortar in the external walls shows clearly several repairs. The higher levels from the excavation show a poverty of finds suggesting that the places could have been looted. Lorop&amp;eacute;ni seems to have fallen out of use in the early to mid 19th century and before colonial times. The trees growing out of the ruins confirm this timescale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The recent research has provided some enlightenment, but more work is needed. The conclusion of the archaeological report is that it is necessary to set up a research programme of a few years duration to elucidate better the function, use and historical context of the ruins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1225</http_url><id_number>1225</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1225.jpg</image_url><iso_code>bf</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>10.2500000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-3.5833333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 11,130m2 property, the first to be inscribed in the country, with its imposing stone walls is the best preserved of ten fortresses in the Lobi area and is part of a larger group of 100 stone enclosures that bear testimony to the power of the trans-Saharan gold trade. Situated near the borders of C&amp;ocirc;te d&amp;rsquo;Ivoire, Ghana and Togo, the ruins have recently been shown to be at least 1,000 years old. The settlement was occupied by the Lohron or Koulango peoples, who controlled the extraction and transformation of gold in the region when it reached its apogee from the 14th to the 17th century. Much mystery surrounds this site large parts of which have yet to be excavated. The settlement seems to have been abandoned during some periods during its long history. The property which was finally deserted in the early 19th century is expected to yield much more information.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ruins of Loropéni</site><states>Burkina Faso</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1696</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The island of Santiago was discovered around 1460 and claimed for the Crown of Portugal. There was no human presence on the island. Exploration of the islands of the archipelago led to the development of the port of call of Ribeira Grande in the years that followed. As early as 1466 it was granted a royal charter entitling its inhabitants to practise the slave trade. It became an essential port of call for Portuguese sea traffic, first towards the coasts of Africa and later on to the Cape. Construction of the first defensive structures, the town hall, and the first church began at the end of the 15th century (see Description).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ribeira Grande was an ideal location, isolated and well placed for the organisation of the triangular transatlantic traffic, particularly trade in African slaves, of which the Portuguese theoretically had a monopoly under the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). The ancient pillory monument provides direct evidence of the links with violence established by the system of slavery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the town developed rapidly, favoured by an exceptional maritime position, its intercontinental geographical location, and the Azores current. Ribeira Grande bears witness to the first successes of European navigation on the high seas. It was a major crossroads for a Portuguese trade that rapidly became globalised. The fleets leaving for or arriving from Guinea, the Indian Ocean, India, Siam, Brazil, the Antilles, and, of course, Europe came together there, to exchange merchandise, plants, men, and information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ribeira Grande was granted the status of a royal town and became the first bishopric of Cape Verde and the African coasts in 1533, institutionalising its role as a place of transit, exchange, and a variety of contacts between several African peoples, as well as between African slaves and free European men. The slaves were given the rudiments of European culture and evangelised before being shipped to Europe or the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite its limited area, Cidade Velha is an important place in the history of agronomy, forming as it did a centre of transit and acclimatisation for many plant species. In the 16th and 17th centuries in particular it was an experimental garden and a conservatory for seeds and plants from all the continents which were sent on to other countries as they were required. The dry but relatively hot climate over which the trade winds blew, in a pivotal position between temperate and tropical zones, offered favourable conditions for a very diverse vegetation, so long as fresh water was available. Among the plants concerned were sugar cane, bananas, the East African coconut, American maize, citrus fruits and figs from Europe, cotton, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For a century and a half the geostrategic importance of the town was based on its role as a major port of call and on the importance of its slave market. It concentrated considerable wealth in a particularly limited space, defended by a complex system of forts and walls. It attracted the attentions of many seafarers - for example, England's Sir Francis Drake sacked the town in 1585. The defensive system was strengthened by the royal fortress of S&amp;atilde;o Felipe, completed in 1593, one of the strongest of its time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 17th century onwards, however, the new European maritime powers successfully challenged the oceanic commercial hegemony of Portugal and Spain. Jacques Cassard, a corsair from Nantes, attacked and laid waste to Ribeira Grande in 1712 on behalf of Louis XIV, but already by that time it was no longer the rich and powerful maritime citadel of earlier centuries. The decline of the town became more pronounced in the 18th century; the elite classes left the town, and Praia was preferred as a commercial port of call. Political and administrative functions were transferred to Praia in the second half of the 18th and at the beginning of the 19th century. The lack of building materials and the proximity of the two towns resulted in the demolition of a great number of the best constructed buildings, for the benefit of the new capital. It was then that Ribeira Grande became Cidade Velha, the &amp;lsquo;old town.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, a residual settlement survived in the middle of the ruins of the Portuguese colonial town into the 19th century, and was then partially reconstructed in the second half of the 20th century. It has a certain local importance, and has developed traditional housing which is typical of Cape Verde.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An initial restoration campaign was carried out in the early 1960s, involving the royal fortress, the church of Nossa Senhora do Ros&amp;aacute;rio, and the Pillory Monument. In 1992 ICOMOS described the scientific level of this campaign as mediocre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1970s the State Party again looked at Cidade Velha, with a view to assessing the property and raising awareness. An initial UNESCO mission took place in 1978. This was, however, not taken further because of a lack of human and financial resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A second programme of consolidation of vestiges and restoration was undertaken in 1999-2003. It is continuing, with the help of international cooperation, particularly in the urban ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1310</http_url><id_number>1310</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1310.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cv</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.9151388889</latitude><location></location><longitude>-23.6051944444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Ribeira Grande, renamed Cidade Velha in the late 18th century, was the first European colonial outpost in the tropics. Located in the south of the island of Santiago, the town features some of the original street layout impressive remains including two churches, a royal fortress and Pillory Square with its ornate 16th century marble pillar.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cidade Velha, Historic Centre of Ribeira Grande</site><states>Cabo Verde</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1600</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1992-2004</danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 9th century AD the two states that covered the territory of modern Cambodia were united by Jayavarman II. who laid the foundations of the Khmer Empire, which was the major power in south-east Asia for nearly five centuries. One of the sites where his court resided for some years was in central Cambodia, to the north of Tonle Sap (The Great Lake), where half a century later Jayavarman's son, Yashovarman, was to establish Yashodapura, the permanent capital of the Khmer Empire until the 15th century. It was later given the name Angkor (from the Sanskrit "nagara", meaning city or capital).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first capital was at latter-day Roluos, itself a pre-Angkorian capital, Hariharalaya. This conformed with the classic form of Khmer capital. This comprised certain fundamental elements: a defensive bank and ditch with a state temple at its centre built in brick or stone, and a wooden palace. Leading dignitaries would also build temples, both inside and outside the enceinte, which were dedicated, like the state temple, to Hindu divinities, notably Shiva. There would also have been many secular buildings, constructed almost entirely of wood, in and around the enceinte. The state temple at Roluos, the Bakong, and the temple built in memory of the royal ancestors, Preah Ko, were erected around 880. Another essential feature of a Khmer capital, a large reservoir, was added a decade later, with in its centre a third temple. Lolei.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yashodapura was built to the north-west of Roluos, around the hill of Phnom Bakeng. The enclosure was square, each side measuring 4km, and it was equipped with a vast reservoir (baray) measuring 7km by 1.8km, now known as the Eastern Baray. The state temple was built at the summit of Phnom Bakeng around 900. Following a short period when the Khmer capital was transferred to Koh Ker, some 60km north-east of Angkor, the second capital at Angkor proper was built by Rajendravarman in the 960s. the state temple being situated at Pre Rup. He alsoconstructed a temple, the Eastern Mebon, on an artificial island in the centre of the Eastern Baray. During his reign Rajendravarman's guru built the exquisite temple of Banteay Srei, some 25 km north-east of Angkor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rajendravarman's son. Jayavarman V, abandoned the Pre Rup site in favour of a new location. with its state temple at Ta Kev. which was consecrated around 1000. Shortly afterwards he was overthrown by Suryavarman I, who was responsible for the formidable fortifications around his Royal Palace and state temple, the Phimeanakas, and also for the construction of the great Western Baray, extending over an area of 8x2.5km. In 1050 his successor created a new and more impressive state temple, the Baphuon, to the north of the temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The succeeding rulers left little traces in the form of monumental buildings, and it was not until the accession of Suryavarman II in 1113 that the next great phase of building began. It was he who was responsible for the greatest of all Khmer monuments, Angkor Vat, set within an extensive enclosure and dedicated to Vishnu. Among other important monuments dating from this period are Thommanon and Chau Say Tevoda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The death of Suryavarman II around 1150 was followed by a period of internal strife and external pressure, culminating in 1177 with the sack of Angkor by the Chams. The situation was restored by Jayavarman VII, who celebrated his military success by creating yet another capital at Angkor Thorn and launching an unprecedented building campaign. His state temple was the towering Bayon (dedicated to Buddha): among the many other monuments of Jayavarman VII's reign are Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Ta Som, and Banteay Prei.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Such was the grandeur of this capital that none of Jayavarman VII's successors saw fit to replace it. Nor were there any major monumental additions between his death around 1200 and the end of the Khmer Empire in the first half of the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Angkor group, including Roluos and Banteay Srei, has to be treated as an ensemble which steadily grew over some three centuries, Masterpieces such as the Bayon and Angkor Vat have to be seen in their contexts and integrated with the temples and other constructions, particularly the great reservoirs. It is also essential to take into consideration that the areas of jungle between the brick and stone monuments constitute a reserve of buried archaeological remains of immense importance in the study and interpretation of Khmer culture. Another significant element of the Angkor complex is the irrigation system of the region based on the great reservoirs, which provided the economic infrastructure for the successive Khmer capitals and their rulers. a .~-&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/668</http_url><id_number>668</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_668.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.4333333300</latitude><location>Province Siem Reap</location><longitude>103.8333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Angkor is one of the most important archaeological sites in South-East Asia. It contains the magnificent remains of the different capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th centuries. The influence of Khmer art, as developed at Angkor, was a profound one over much of South-East Asia and played a fundamental role in its distinctive evolution. Khmer architecture evolved largely from that of the Indian subcontinent, from which it soon became clearly distinct as it developed its own special characteristics, some independently evolved and others acquired from neighbouring cultural traditions. The result was a new artistic horizon in oriental art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 9th century the two states that covered the territory of modern Cambodia were united by Jayavarman II, who laid the foundations of the Khmer Empire, the major power in south-east Asia for some five centuries. One of the sites was in central Cambodia, to the north of Tonle Sap (Great Lake), where half a century later Jayavarman's son, Yashovarman, was to establish Yashodapura (later called Angkor), the permanent capital of the Khmer Empire until the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first city conformed with the classic form of Khmer capital with certain fundamental elements: a defensive bank and ditch with a state temple at its centre, built from brick or stone, and a wooden palace. There would also have been many secular buildings, constructed almost entirely of wood, in and around the enceinte. The state temple at Roluos, the Bakong, and the temple built in memory of the royal ancestors, Preah Ko, were erected around 880. Another essential feature of a Khmer capital, a large reservoir, was added a decade later, with in its centre a third temple built to the north-west of Roluos, around the hill of Phnom Bakeng, now known as the Eastern Baray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second capital at Angkor was built by Rajendravarman in the 960s, the state temple being situated at Pre Rup. He also constructed a temple, the Eastern Mebon, on an artificial island in the centre of the Eastern Baray. During his reign he built the exquisite temple of Banteay Srei. Rajendravarman's son, Jayavarman V, abandoned the Pre Rup site in favour of a new location with its state temple at Ta Kev, which was consecrated around 1000. Shortly afterwards he was overthrown by Suryavarman I, who was responsible for erecting the formidable fortifications around his Royal Palace and state temple, the Phimeanakas, and also for the construction of the great Western Baray.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1050 his successor created a new and more impressive state temple, the Baphuon. The succeeding rulers left little traces in the form of monumental buildings, and it was not until the accession of Suryavarman II in 1113 that the next great phase of building began. He was responsible for the greatest of all Khmer monuments, Angkor Vat, set within an extensive enclosure and dedicated to Vishnu. The death of Suryavarman II, around 1150, was followed by a period of internal strife and external pressure, culminating in 1177 with the sack of Angkor by the Chams. The situation was restored by Jayavarman VII, who celebrated his military success by creating yet another capital at Angkor Thorn and launching an unprecedented building campaign. His state temple was the towering Bayon, dedicated to Buddha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Another significant element of the Angkor complex is the irrigation system of the region based on the great reservoirs, which provided the economic infrastructure for the successive Khmer capitals and their rulers.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Angkor is one of the most important archaeological sites in South-East Asia. Stretching over some 400 km2, including forested area, Angkor Archaeological Park contains the magnificent remains of the different capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century. They include the famous Temple of Angkor Wat and, at Angkor Thom, the Bayon Temple with its countless sculptural decorations. UNESCO has set up a wide-ranging programme to safeguard this symbolic site and its surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Angkor</site><states>Cambodia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>791</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1224</http_url><id_number>1224</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1224.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.3883333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>104.6838888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the edge of a plateau that dominates the plain of Cambodia, the Temple of Preah Vihear is dedicated to Shiva. The Temple is composed of a series of sanctuaries linked by a system of pavements and staircases over an 800 metre long axis and dates back to the first half of the 11th century AD. Nevertheless, its complex history can be traced to the 9th century, when the hermitage was founded. This site is particularly well preserved, mainly due to its remote location. The site is exceptional for the quality of its architecture, which is adapted to the natural environment and the religious function of the temple, as well as for the exceptional quality of its carved stone ornamentation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Temple of Preah Vihear</site><states>Cambodia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1591</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1532</http_url><id_number>1532</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1532.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.8725000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>105.0430555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Sambor Prei Kuk, “the temple in the richness of the forest” in the Khmer language, has been identified as Ishanapura, the capital of the Chenla Empire that flourished in the late 6th and early 7th centuries AD. The property comprises more than a hundred temples, ten of which are octagonal, unique specimens of their genre in South-East Asia. Decorated sandstone elements in the site are characteristic of the pre-Angkor decorative idiom, known as the Sambor Prei Kuk Style. Some of these elements, including lintels, pediments and colonnades, are true masterpieces. The art and architecture developed here became models for other parts of the region and lay the ground for the unique Khmer style of the Angkor period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Temple Zone of Sambor Prei Kuk, Archaeological Site of Ancient Ishanapura</site><states>Cambodia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2140</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Protected as a 'reserve de faune et de chasse' by Law No. 319 of 25 April 1950, and then as a 'reserve de faune' lrnder the National Forestry Act Ordinance No. 73/18 of 22 May 1973. ,&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/407</http_url><id_number>407</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_407.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cm</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>3.0000000000</latitude><location>Provinces du Sud et de l’Est (Départments: du Dja-et-LOBO pour la partie Ouest, du Haut-Nyong pour la partie Est)</location><longitude>13.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is situated on the Dja which almost completely encircles the reserve, forming its natural boundary, except to the south-west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Except in the south-east of the reserve, the relief is fairly flat and consists of a succession of round-topped hills. A major fault line on the southern edge of the reserve, which is followed by the Dja River, has lead to the formation of rather deeper cut valleys on the south-eastern edge of the plateau. Cliffs run along the course of the river in the south for some 60&amp;nbsp;km, and are associated with a section of the river broken up by rapids and waterfalls. Dja is located in a transition zone between the forests of southern Nigeria, south-west Cameroon and the forests of the Congo Basin. It seems likely that the forests of the region are essentially undisturbed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation mainly comprises dense evergreen Congo rainforest with a main canopy at 30-40&amp;nbsp;m rising to 60&amp;nbsp;m. The shrub layer contains over 53 species. The forest is also rich in lianes. The herbaceous layer is composed principally of &lt;em&gt;Marantaceae&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Mapania&lt;/em&gt; species. The Congo rainforest is also characterized by almost pure stands of &lt;em&gt;Gilbertiodendron dewevrei&lt;/em&gt; forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other main vegetation types are swamp vegetation, and secondary forest around old villages (which were abandoned in 1946) and recently abandoned cocoa and coffee plantations. Composition of the secondary forest is noticeably different as a result of the relative scarcity of species of the &lt;em&gt;Meliaceae&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the area is poorly studied, it is known to have a wide range of primate species including western lowland gorilla, greater white-nosed guenon, moustached guenon, crowned guenon, talapoin, red-capped mangabey, white-cheeked mangabey, agile mangabey, drill, mandrill, potto, Demidorff's galago, black and white colobus monkey and chimpanzee. Other mammals include elephant, bongo, sitatunga, buffalo, leopard, warthog, giant forest hog and pangolin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Birds include Bates's weaver, which is endemic to southern Cameroon, and grey-necked picathartes probably also occurs in this reserve. The type locality of Dja River warbler is near the reserve and there are few other records of this kind. Reptiles include python, lizard and two species of crocodile (both of which are threatened species).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A population of pygmies lives within the reserve, in small sporadic encampments, maintaining an essentially traditional lifestyle.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This is one of the largest and best-protected rainforests in Africa, with 90% of its area left undisturbed. Almost completely surrounded by the Dja River, which forms a natural boundary, the reserve is especially noted for its biodiversity and a wide variety of primates. It contains 107 mammal species, five of which are threatened.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dja Faunal Reserve</site><states>Cameroon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>470</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established as a national park reserve in 1972. Accepted as a World Heritage site in 1978.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/24</http_url><id_number>24</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_24.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>61.5472222200</latitude><location>Northwest Territories</location><longitude>-125.5894444000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the south-west corner of Northwest Territories, along the course of the South Nahanni and Flat rivers, the park lies in a diverse mountainous area comprising mountain ranges, rolling hills, elevated plateaus, deep canyons and huge waterfalls, as well as a unique limestone cave system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dissected sandstone, shale and limestone mountains ranges in the east and central areas of the park sharply contrast the Ragged Range of harder igneous rocks in the park's western extremity. The park encompasses parts of the Hyland Plateau, Selwyn Mountains, Liard Plateau, Mackenzie Plain and Mackenzie Mountains and a major part of the Nahanni River, one of North America's finest wild rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the valley below the Ragged Range, tufa mounds known as the Rabbitkettle Hotspring, rise in a succession of terraces to a height of 30&amp;nbsp;m. Other features of the area include three major canyons; Virginia Falls; extensive karst terrain with a complex underground river system, caves, labyrinths, closed canyons and sinkholes; wind eroded sandstone landforms known as the Sand Blowouts; and large areas that have remained unglaciated for up to 300,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains transitional and vegetation types of two major biomes: Nearctic boreal forest; and Nearctic alpine tundra. All stages of boreal forest occur, from recent burns to mature spruce forests, and with associated variations on wet, mesic and dry habitats. Densely growing white spruce and poplar dominate valley bottoms. At higher altitudes and on the northern slopes, black spruce is more prominent. An area of spruce-larch/lichen taiga with several orchid species is present near Virginia Falls. Alpine tundra characterized by sedges, lichens, grasses and shrubs occurs on the higher mountains of the Tlogotsho, Headless and Funeral ranges. Wild mint, golden rod, yellow monkey-flower and aster are among the many flowering plants that grow in abundance near mineral springs in the vicinity of Flat River. Almost 600 species of vascular plant and 325 species of bryophyte have been identified in Nahanni.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;40 species of mammal, including grey wolf, grizzly bear, black bear, woodland caribou, moose, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, Dall's sheep and beaver are present. A total of 170 species of bird in 29 families have been observed including peregrine falcon, golden eagle, trumpeter swan and bald eagle. Arctic grayling and Dolly Varden trout occur in the streams that flow into the Nahanni and Flat rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original inhabitants of this area are ethnologically known as Goat or Mountain Indians and Kaska Indians, who were found living in the area when the Northwest and Hudson Bay fur trading companies established their trading posts along the Mackenzie River in the 1820s.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located along the South Nahanni River, one of the most spectacular wild rivers in North America, this park contains deep canyons and huge waterfalls, as well as a unique limestone cave system. The park is also home to animals of the boreal forest, such as wolves, grizzly bears and caribou. Dall's sheep and mountain goats are found in the park's alpine environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Nahanni National Park</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>27</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/71</http_url><id_number>71</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_71.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.7677777800</latitude><location></location><longitude>-111.4922222000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Dinosaur Provincial Park - located at the heart of Alberta's badlands - contains some of the most important fossil discoveries ever made from the 'Age of Reptiles', in particular about 35 species of dinosaur, dating back some 75&amp;nbsp;million years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dinosaur Provincial Park is located in the &lt;a href="http://www.cd.gov.ab.ca/preserving/parks/anhic/drymixedgrass.asp"&gt;Dry Mixedgrass Subregion&lt;/a&gt; of the Grassland Natural Region. This is the warmest and driest subregion in Alberta. Permanent streams are relatively rare, although the ones that do exist are deeply carved into the bedrock in some places. This as exposed Cretaceous shales and sandstones, creating extensive badlands, the largest in Canada. &lt;a name="grassland"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a name="badlands"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Great rivers that flowed here 75&amp;nbsp;million years ago left sand and mud deposits that make up the valley walls, hills and hoodoos of modern-day Dinosaur Provincial Park. About 15,000 years ago this area was flat and covered by an ice sheet some 600&amp;nbsp;m thick. During this ice age, glacial melt water carved steep-sided channels; ice crystals, wind and flowing water continued to shape the badlands. Today, water from prairie creeks and run-off continues to sculpt the landscape and expose bedrock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the late Cretaceous period, 75&amp;nbsp;million years ago, the landscape was very different. The climate was subtropical, with lush forests covering a coastal plain. Rivers flowed east, across the plain into the Bearpaw warm inland sea. The low swampy country was home to a variety of animals, including dinosaurs. The conditions were also perfect for the preservation of their bones as fossils. Between 1979 and 1991, a total of 23,347 fossil specimens were collected, including 300 dinosaur skeletons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Geological strata of the Judith River formation have yielded many of the dinosaur remains for which the park is renowned. Some 35 species of over 34 genera of 12 families of dinosaurs have been found in the park, including specimens from every known group of dinosaurs from the Cretaceous period. The families &lt;em&gt;Hadrasauridae&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Ornithomimidae&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Tyrannosauridae&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Nodosauridae&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Pachycephalosauridae&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Ceratopsidae&lt;/em&gt; are best represented. Other fossil remains include fish, turtles, marsupials and amphibians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;About 6% of the park is occupied by significant and, for the most part, undisturbed riparian habitat shaped by the meandering channel of the Red Deer River and characterized by point bars, wide terraces, fans and cut banks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The river terraces support lush and diverse vegetation in various successional stages, ranging from pioneer willow stands to structurally complex plains, cottonwood forest, tall shrub thickets, ephemeral wetlands and dense sagebrush flats. Plains cottonwood riparian communities are among the most threatened habitats in semi-arid regions. The 'badlands' provide habitat for a number of ecologically specialized plant species and are characterized by open vegetation dominated by plants of the genus Artemisia and the family &lt;em&gt;Chenopodiaceae&lt;/em&gt;. Remnant and recently created grasslands occur on buttes and large pediments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mild winter microclimate, coupled with an abundant food supply, provides critical winter range for native ungulates such as pronghorn, mule deer and white-tailed deer. The relative richness and abundance of breeding avifauna is noteworthy. Over 150 species of bird have been recorded. The area supports a number of species locally threatened or at their biogeographic limits, including golden eagle, prairie falcon, ferruginous hawk, loggerhead shrike, merlin, sparrow and grasshopper sparrow. Plains spade-foot toad also occurs.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In addition to its particularly beautiful scenery, Dinosaur Provincial Park – located at the heart of the province of Alberta's badlands – contains some of the most important fossil discoveries ever made from the 'Age of Reptiles', in particular about 35 species of dinosaur, dating back some 75 million years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dinosaur Provincial Park</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>75</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/157</http_url><id_number>157</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_157.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.0950000000</latitude><location>Province of British Columbia</location><longitude>-131.2202778000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The village of Ninstints (Nans Dins) is located on a small island off the west coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii), and it bears a unique testimony to the vanished civilization of the Haida Indians, a tribe living essentially from hunting and fishing in the archipelago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The San Christoval Mountains form the backbone of Gwaii Haanas, rising to 1,123&amp;nbsp;m at Mount de la Touche. The higher elevations of this range are dominated by mountain hemlock and alpine tundra vegetation zones. The lower elevations are mainly cedar, pine and western hemlock. The hemlock-Sitka spruce zone is on the islands of the eastern part of Gwaii Haanas, including the eastern fringe of Moresby Island. The distinct island flora and fauna have evolved over thousands of years. The species here often differ from those found on the mainland. Many common continental species are not found on the islands at all, or have evolved into unique subspecies such as the black bear and pine marten (both larger than mainland cousins), deer mouse, dusky shrew and short-tailed weasel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An estimated 1.5&amp;nbsp;million seabirds nest along some 4,700&amp;nbsp;km of shoreline on the islands from May to late August. Approximately half of these seabirds can be found in Gwaii Haanas. Many are burrow-nesters, such as the rhinoceros auklet, ancient murrelet, tufted puffin, horned puffin, Cassin's auklet, Leach's storm petrel and fork-tailed storm petrel. Because the islands are situated along the Pacific flyway, dozens of species of migrating birds stop here in spring and autumn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a name="2"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;The seas around Gwaii Haanas teem with life. These waters are home to salmon, herring, halibut, rockfish, mussels, crab, starfish, sea urchin and octopus, along with numerous other species. Haida Gwaii is also on the spring migration route of the grey whales which spend their summers in feeding grounds in the Bering Sea. Killer whales (orcas), humpback and minke whales are also seen in the waters surrounding Gwaii Haanas, along with dolphins, porpoises and harbour seals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first traces of human occupation date back almost 2,000 years; the village was not deserted until shortly after 1880, when about 25 Indians still took up winter quarters there before leaving for summer hunting and fishing expeditions near Queen Charlotte Islands. A series of unit dwellings, cedar longhouses, still exists, of which 10 are in good condition. However, it is above all the 32 totemic and mortuary columns on the edge of the dwelling zone which contribute to the world renown of the site. These wooden columns, sculpted with stylized anthropo-zoomorphic figures, have suffered considerable erosion at the hands of nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More of the village has been taken by nature, consumed by age and the elements, and returned to the forest. What remains is unique in the world, a 19th-century Haida village where the ruins of ten houses and 32 memorial or mortuary poles bespeak the power and artistry of a rich and flamboyant society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Haida have always thrived on the wealth of both the sea and the forest. Shellfish and salmon were staple foods. Giant Western red cedars were the raw material of ocean-going canoes, vast post-and-plank houses, and great poles bearing both symbols of family history and holding inside them the bones of ancestors. The Haida lived on SGaang Gwaii for thousands of years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Remains of houses, together with carved mortuary and memorial poles, illustrate the Haida people's art and way of life. The site commemorates the living culture of the Haida people and their relationship to the land and sea, and offers a visual key to their oral traditions. Gwaii Haanas is a protected area that contains the essence of the rugged beauty and ecological character of the Pacific coast. It is a celebration of more than 10,000 years of connection between land, sea and Haida culture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The village of Ninstints (Nans Dins) is located on a small island off the west coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii). Remains of houses, together with carved mortuary and memorial poles, illustrate the Haida people's art and way of life. The site commemorates the living culture of the Haida people and their relationship to the land and sea, and offers a visual key to their oral traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>S&lt;U&gt;G&lt;/U&gt;ang Gwaay</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>175</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/158</http_url><id_number>158</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_158.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.7494444400</latitude><location>Province of Alberta</location><longitude>-113.6238889000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in south-west Alberta, Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump is one of the most important hunting sites identified to date. At the edge of a landscape of hills and of highlands cut by natural passes, a high sandstone cliff falls off to the east. This coastal relief lends itself ideally to primitive hunting methods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For thousands of years the native people of the plains hunted the North American bison. The plains Indian lifestyle became dependent on hunting buffalo, and they adapted numerous hunting techniques to obtain their livelihood. The most sophisticated technique developed by the native people to kill buffalo was the buffalo jump. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump is one of the oldest and best preserved sites of this kind with its elaborate drive lane complex and deep archaeological deposits still intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site was used for the slaughter of bison from 3600 BC to 2600 BC, then intermittently towards 900 BC, and finally, continuously from AD 200 to 1850. Explored for the first time in 1938, it has since 1960 been the object of systematic excavations which have considerably enriched the knowledge of prehistoric arms and tools, and above all, transformed current thinking on the use of game as food and in clothing and lodging.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;West of the cliff lies a large drainage basin 40&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in extent. This is a natural grazing area with plenty of water and mixed grass which remains fresh well into the fall. This natural grazing area attracted herds of buffalo late into the fall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To start the hunt, 'buffalo runners', young men trained in animal behaviour, would entice the herd to follow them by imitating the bleating of a lost calf. As the buffalo moved closer to the drive lanes (long lines of stone cairns were built to help the hunters direct the buffalo to the cliff kill site), the hunters would circle behind and upwind of the herd and scare the animals by shouting and waving robes. As the buffalo stampeded towards the edge of the cliff, the animals in front would try to stop but the sheer weight of the herd pressing from behind would force the buffalo over the cliff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Below the cliff kill site are deep stratified deposits that contain evidence of use going back more than 5,700 years. These deposits consist of accumulated layers of dirt, stone rubble and bones referred to as loess. Over thousands of years of use, the loess has accumulated to a depth of over 11&amp;nbsp;m. Artefacts found in the kill site include bone, worn or broken stone tools and resharpening flakes, thousands of stone points, dart points and arrow heads. A few stone knives and choppers have also been found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flat area immediately below the kill site was where the hunters camped while they finished butchering the buffalo. A few tipi rings, the stones used to anchor tipis against the wind, can still be seen on the prairie level. It was here that meat was sliced into thin strips and hung on racks to dry in the sun. Large leg bones were smashed to remove the nutritious marrow, and the numerous boiling pits excavated by archaeologists in this area indicate these broken bones were also boiled to render grease. Boiling was done by throwing red-hot rocks into hide-lined pits filled with water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump is associated with human survival during the prehistoric period and bears witness to a custom practised by the peoples of the North American plains for some 6,000 years. By its size, Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump broadly outdistances analogous sites discovered in the 19th century in Europe, such as Solutr&amp;eacute; in France (slaughter of wild horses) or Vestonice in Czechoslovakia (slaughter of young mammoths).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In south-west Alberta, the remains of marked trails and an aboriginal camp, and a tumulus where vast quantities of buffalo (American Bison) skeletons can still be found, are evidence of a custom practised by aboriginal peoples of the North American plains for nearly 6,000 years. Using their excellent knowledge of the topography and of buffalo behaviour, they killed their prey by chasing them over a precipice; the carcasses were later carved up in the camp below.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>176</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;1922 (as 2,600,OOOha), expanded in 1926. Includes much of the Whooping Crane Summer Range and the Peace-Athabaska Delta (Wood Buffalo National Park section), both designated as Ramsar sites ln May 1982.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/256</http_url><id_number>256</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_256.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.3583333300</latitude><location>Northwest Territories and Alberta</location><longitude>-112.2933333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the Northern Boreal Plains in the north-central region of Canada, Wood Buffalo comprises a vast wilderness area (44,807&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ) which is home to North America's largest population of wild bison. It is also the natural nesting place of the whooping crane. Another of the park's attractions is the world's largest inland delta, located at the mouth of the Peace and Athabasca rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park has four main landscape featues: a glacially eroded plateau; glaciated plains; a major freshwater delta formed by three major rivers; and alluvial river lowlands. The lowlands and floodplains of Peace, Athabasca and Slave rivers and the delta in Lake Athabasca exhibit classic fluvial landforms, with a complex series of meander scars, oxbow lakes and former river terraces, and good examples of birds-foot delta development. During dry periods, the mudflats of one plain are dominated by mineral salts. These salt plains are unique in Canada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation is typical of the boreal forest zone with white spruce, black spruce, jack pine and tamarack predominant. Many watercourses have stands of balsam poplar and some upland has almost pure stands of aspen. Extensive stands of white spruce forests cover the banks of Peace, Athabasca and Birch rivers. The upper surface of the plateau is about 1,500&amp;nbsp;m above the rest of the park and supports a spruce-willow-birch upland tundra community. Some areas of prairie occur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shrublands of willow and alder occur where wet marsh soils meet drier forest soils. There is also extensive muskeg in the west and north of the park, an association of black spruce, sphagnum moss and northern heath plants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains the largest undisturbed grass and sedge meadows in North America. The park was created specifically to protect North American bison, one of the largest free-roaming, self-regulating herds in existence, and consisting of a cross between 'wood' bison and 'plains' bison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is one of a few sites where the predator-prey relationship between wolves and bison still exists. A total of 46 other mammal species have been recorded including black bear, woodland caribou, Arctic fox, moose, grey wolf, lynx, snowshoe hare, muskrat, beaver and mink. Occasionally animals more common to southern Canada are seen, such as red fox, porcupine and white-tailed deer. The caves of karstlands provide essential hibernation sites for bats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A total of 227 bird species have been recorded which include great grey owl and snowy owl, willow ptarmigan, redpoll crossbill and boreal chickadee. This is the only breeding site of whooping crane; peregrine falcon and bald eagle also breed within the park. The Peace-Athabasca Delta is an important area for migrant waterfowl including snow geese, white-fronted geese and Canada geese, whistling swan, diver, all seven species of North American grebe and species of duck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reptiles and amphibians are severely limited in numbers, but Canadian toad, leopard frog and red-sided garter snake reach their northern limits here. Boreal chorus frog and wood frog are also found in aquatic habitats. The fish fauna has been poorly studied, although there are a wide variety of aquatic habitats. 36 species have been recorded to date, four of them introduced.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the plains in the north-central region of Canada, the park (which covers 44,807 km2) is home to North America's largest population of wild bison. It is also the natural nesting place of the whooping crane. Another of the park's attractions is the world's largest inland delta, located at the mouth of the Peace and Athabasca rivers.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wood Buffalo National Park</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>286</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/300</http_url><id_number>300</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_300.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.8094444400</latitude><location>Province of Quebec, City of Quebec</location><longitude>-71.2105555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Qu&amp;eacute;bec illustrates one of the major stages in the population and growth of the Americas during the modern and contemporary period. When Samuel de Champlain founded Qu&amp;eacute;bec, the capital of New France, in 1608 he chose the natural site of a steep plateau overlooking the St Laurent River. The old heart of the city was established on this promontory, Cap-aux-Diamants, which is protected by Fort St Louis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Qu&amp;eacute;bec, which was a fortified city, a centre of population, and a harbour where ships delivered manufactured goods from Europe and loaded the precious pelts from the Great North, had an urban organization very early on and a zoning system which stemmed from these various functions. The cliff obviously divided the city into two districts: the district of business, barter, and the navy located in the Lower City, and the administrative and religious centre which gradually took hold in the Upper City.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under English domination from 1759 to 1867 urban growth stayed within the limits of the site, and so the city expanded towards the west, all the way to the ramparts built in 1720 by Gaspard Chaussegros de L&amp;eacute;ry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of a citadel at the far south-east end of Cap-aux-Diamants by the engineer Elias Durnford from 1819 to 1831 and the expansion of the system of fortifications to cover the city's entire perimeter were in keeping with the original spatial organization of the city and gave Qu&amp;eacute;bec its current topographical features. The city is an early example of urban heritage conservation as a result of the action of Lord Dufferin, who from 1875 to 1880 took a stand against the demolition of the fortifications which, from a strategic standpoint, had become useless. He simply had new gates to the city cut into them. From the beginning of the 20th century, and so well before being classified as a historic monument in 1957, the fortified walls of Qu&amp;eacute;bec were maintained by Canadian government funds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest quarters are located in the Lower City in the vicinity of the Place Royale, which along with the Rue Notre Dame is lined with old 17th- and 18th-century houses. Notre-Dame des Victoires Church, which was built starting in 1688 according to Claude Baillif's plans and which was burned down during the siege of 1759, was rebuilt during the English domination. In the Upper City, the convents of the Jesuits (1625), the Recollet&amp;eacute;s (1629) and the Ursulines (1642), along with the Seminary (1663), have not retained their original form. However, despite the vicissitudes of history (the siege of 1759, great fires in the 18th and 19th centuries) they have retained some of the original elements. Of the 700 old civil or religious buildings remaining, 2% date back to the 17th century, 9% to the 18th century and 43% to the first half of the 19th century. At the same time, the city took on its present aspect, which was greatly influenced by the Baillairg&amp;eacute;s, a dynasty of architects who, for several generations, imposed an interesting interpretation of the neoclassical style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A coherent urban ensemble, Qu&amp;eacute;bec's historic district, including the citadel, the Upper City defended by walls with bastions, and the Lower City with its harbour and old quarters, provides an outstanding example of a fortified colonial town, which is by far the most complete in North America.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Québec was founded by the French explorer Champlain in the early 17th century. It is the only North American city to have preserved its ramparts, together with the numerous bastions, gates and defensive works which still surround Old Québec. The Upper Town, built on the cliff, has remained the religious and administrative centre, with its churches, convents and other monuments like the Dauphine Redoubt, the Citadel and Château Frontenac. Together with the Lower Town and its ancient districts, it forms an urban ensemble which is one of the best examples of a fortified colonial city.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic District of Old Québec</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>336</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Jasper National Park &lt;br /&gt;Created a national park in 1930. First protected as Jasper Forest Park (1,295,000ha) in 1907. Accepted as a World Heritage Site (in combination with Kootenay, Banff and Yoho national parks) in 1984.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yoho National Park &lt;br /&gt;1886. Accepted as a World Heritage site (in combination with Jasper, Kootenay and Banff national parks) in 1984.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Banff National Park &lt;br /&gt;1885 as a park reserve (2,600ha) around the Cave and Basin mineral hot springs. Formally established in 1887 as Rocky Mountains Park (67,300ha), Canada's first national park, under the Rocky Mountains Park Act. Named as Banff National Park (669,500ha) in 1930 under the National Parks Act. Deletion of S,400ha in 1949. Accepted as part of the World Heritage Site, Canadian Rockies, in 1984.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/304</http_url><id_number>304</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_304.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.4247222200</latitude><location>Provinces of British Columbia and Alberta</location><longitude>-116.4797222000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks comprises Banff National Park, Hamber Provincial Park, Jasper National Park, Kootenay National Park, Mount Robson Provincial Park, Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park and Yoho National Park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Canadian Rocky Mountains are oriented in a south-eastern to north-western direction along the Continental Divide and consist of the Western Ranges, the Main Ranges, the Front Ranges and the Foothills, all of which are represented within the parks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Active glaciers and ice fields still exist throughout the region, particularly in the Main Ranges. The most significant is the Columbia ice field, the largest in North America's subarctic interior. Covering 325 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , the ice field spans the Continental Divide and the boundary between Jasper and Banff National Parks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Columbia ice fields of Jasper National Park are regarded as the hydrographic apex of North America and are the headwaters to three major river systems: the North Saskatchewan River, the Athabasca River and the Columbia River. The park waters of Yoho flow to the Pacific along Kicking Horse. Mount Robson Park encompasses the headwaters of Fraser River while Hamber Park encompasses Fortress Lake watershed. There are numerous lakes in Mount Assiniboine Park, most of which are located in broad alpine valleys and plateaus where they occupy glacially scoured depressions in the limestone bedrock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rockies have been divided into three life zones or ecoregions: montane, subalpine and alpine. Montane vegetation occurs in major valley bottoms, on the foothills and sun-exposed slopes of lower mountain sides, especially in the front ranges. Forest is generally found between 1,200 m and 1,800 m and typical species include Douglas fir, white spruce, aspen and poplar. Montane wetlands and meadows occupy areas adjacent to major rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The subalpine ecoregion occupies mountainsides between 1,800 m and 2,100 m, and valley bottoms of high elevations. This is the most extensive ecoregion in the Rockies and can be subdivided into lower and upper subalpine. The alpine ecoregion occurs above the timberline. It is characterized by diminutive and hardy vegetation such as low-growing willow and dwarf birch, heath, mountain avens and sedge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A total of 56 mammalian species have been recorded. Characteristic species found in alpine meadows include Rocky Mountain goat, bighorn sheep, northern pika and hoary marmot. Forest mammals include moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, caribou, red deer and red squirrel. Carnivores include grey wolf, grizzly bear, black bear, wolverine, lynx and puma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 280 avifaunal species have been noted, including northern three-toed woodpecker, white-tailed ptarmigan, grey jay, mountain bluebird, Clark's nutcracker, golden eagle, mountain chickadee and rock pipit. Other recorded fauna includes one species of toad, three species of frog, one species of salamander and two species of snake.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1990</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The contiguous national parks of Banff, Jasper, Kootenay and Yoho, as well as the Mount Robson, Mount Assiniboine and Hamber provincial parks, studded with mountain peaks, glaciers, lakes, waterfalls, canyons and limestone caves, form a striking mountain landscape. The Burgess Shale fossil site, well known for its fossil remains of soft-bodied marine animals, is also found there.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>342</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established under a Federal/Provincial Agreement signed by the Governments of Canada and Newfoundland and Labradc on 13 August 1973. The same authorities amended this agreement on 18 May 1983, whereby approximately 9,300ha were returned to the province. The park is currently being formally established under the National Parks Act (Parks Canada, 1986). Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1987.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/419</http_url><id_number>419</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_419.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.6125000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador</location><longitude>-57.5313888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the western shore of the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, the park provides a rare example of the process of continental drift, where deep ocean crust and the rocks of the Earth's mantle lie exposed. More recent glacial action has resulted in some spectacular scenery, with coastal lowland, alpine plateau, fjords, glacial valleys, sheer cliffs, waterfalls and many pristine lakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park comprises part of the Long Range Mountains on the Gulf of St Lawrence. The park includes coastal lowlands and an alpine plateau. The marine areas included in the park covers the inner portion of St Paul's Inlet, intertidal zones and estuaries. The shoreline features beaches, steep cliffs, and dune formations up to 30&amp;nbsp;m in height.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An upland alpine plateau with perched lakes, bare rock and valleys, covers a large proportion of the eastern central park. The serpentine hills in the south-west comprise ultra-basic igneous rocks, which, due to high heavy metal content, inhibit most plant life. A number of steep sided, glacial valleys cut through the Long Range scarp face, forming deep, oligotrophic fjords, with vertical cliffs up to 685&amp;nbsp;m high. A number of waterfalls are fed in the summer by snow-melt at higher altitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is geologically diverse with areas of Ordovician sedimentary rocks, Precambrian granite and gneiss, Palaeozoic serpentinized ultra-basic rocks, gabbros, volcanic and Lower Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks. Exposed oceanic crust, mantle, a section of ancient Mohorovicic discontinuity, and other distinctive geological features are also found. There is also an unusually complete palaeotological sequence which has been proposed as the world stratotype for the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are up to 36 distinct vegetation types and communities, with some vascular species and bryophytes, representing about 60% of Newfoundland's insular flora.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coast includes typical shoreline communities, active dunes with white spruce, and cliffs with prostrate spruce and balsam fir. The coastal plain further inland has a number of plant communities including a mosaic of sedges in meadows with American larch scrub. Black spruce dominates wet, oligotrophic sites and balsam fir is found in more protected and mesic areas. Tundra vegetation has developed on the plateau above this and varies from small areas of coniferous forest and stunted forest to bare rock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Faunal diversity resembles an oceanic rather than continental-shelf island and is markedly reduced compared with the mainland. However a number of species scarce in Canada are found, including lynx, caribou and arctic hare. The more common marine mammals that can be observed from the park, albeit with a diminishing frequency in recent years include pilot, minke and finback whales and harbour seals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The avifauna comprises arctic, boreal and pelagic species, with strays from mainland, the north-west Atlantic and Europe. The park is a significant breeding site for harlequin duck, blackpoll warbler, common tern and arctic tern, a nesting site for bald eagle, rock ptarmigan and American tree sparrow, and a stopover for migrating shore birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Anadromous Atlantic salmon and arctic char are found in park waters and also in permanent freshwater form in certain landlocked lakes on the Long Range Mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are a number of archaeological sites in the park and human habitation can be traced back to the Maritime Archaic Indians (4,500-3,000 years ago) and the Dorset Eskimos (1,800-1,200 years ago). Europeans settled the area from the late 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the west coast of the island of Newfoundland, the park provides a rare example of the process of continental drift, where deep ocean crust and the rocks of the earth's mantle lie exposed. More recent glacial action has resulted in some spectacular scenery, with coastal lowland, alpine plateau, fjords, glacial valleys, sheer cliffs, waterfalls and many pristine lakes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gros Morne National Park</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>483</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/686</http_url><id_number>686</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_686.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; In its representation of vertebrate life, Miguasha is the most outstanding fossil site in the world for illustrating the Devonian as the “Age of Fishes”. The area is of paramount importance in having the greatest number and best preserved fossil specimens found anywhere in the world of the lobe-finned fishes that gave rise to the first four-legged, air-breathing terrestrial vertebrates - the tetrapodes.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.1050000000</latitude><location>Gaspé Peninsula, Province of Quebec</location><longitude>-66.3530555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The palaeontological site of Miguasha National Park, in south-eastern Quebec on the southern coast of the Gasp&amp;eacute; Peninsula, is considered to be the world's most outstanding illustration of the Devonian period known as the 'Age of Fishes'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dating from 370&amp;nbsp;million years ago, the Upper Devonian Escuminac Formation represented here contains six of the eight fossil fish groups associated with this period. Its significance stems from the discovery of the highest number and best-preserved fossil specimens of the lobe-finned fishes that gave rise to the first four-legged, air-breathing terrestrial vertebrates - the tetrapods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This 1&amp;nbsp;km wide formation extends for a distance of 8&amp;nbsp;km along the north shore of the Ristigouche River. The formation, extending 300-600&amp;nbsp;m underground, is represented by four distinct outcrops. The most important of these extends for a distance of 3&amp;nbsp;km and basically constitutes the park. Constituted essentially of grey rock sediments, the Escuminac Formation (dating from 350-375&amp;nbsp;million years ago) is composed of alternating layers of thick sandstone, silt and calcareous schists. The Fleurant Formation is found at the base of the Formation, while the summit is lined by the carboniferous Bonaventure Formation, whose reddish colour is the origin of the word &lt;em&gt;Miguasha&lt;/em&gt; in the language of the Micmacs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora and fauna fossils of Miguasha are particularly important in representing ichthyological fauna (fishes) of the Devonian period. Of the eight groups attached to this period, also known as the 'Age of Fishes', six are found at Miguasha, the other two being typically marine; this representation is uncommon among sites of the same age throughout the world. The site is also distinguished by invertebrates, plants and spore fossils (over 70 spore species) which, along with geochemical studies, have allowed a picture of the Devonian ecosystem to be constructed. Furthermore, the site is characterized by the exceptional condition of fossil remains, allowing, for example, study of soft body parts represented in gill imprints, digestive traces and cartilaginous elements of skeleton. Of particular importance is the presence of the crossopterygian group, typified by &lt;em&gt;Eusthenopteron foordi&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Elpistostege watsoni&lt;/em&gt;. Nicknamed the 'Prince of Miguasha', the &lt;em&gt;Eusthenopteron&lt;/em&gt;, which share many characteristics with the tetrapods, have largely resulted in the focused attention of the international scientific community on the Escuminac Formation. Indeed, it was the discovery and study of Eusthenopteron which notably gave rise to the modern conception of evolution from fish to terrestrial tetrapod vertebrates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following taxa present an evolutive and phylogenetic interest: &lt;em&gt;Archaeopteris&lt;/em&gt; belongs to &lt;em&gt;Gymnosperma&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Spermasposita&lt;/em&gt; is considered as the oldest flowering plant, while &lt;em&gt;Petaloscorpio&lt;/em&gt; is the first terrestrial scorpion. The macroflora includes 10 species belonging to the first vascular plants of Devonian forests, and the microflora is composed of 80 spore species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For more than a century, the flora and fauna fossils of Miguasha have been recognized as unique, manifest by the large numbers of scientists and collectors from Europe and America who have visited the Escuminac Formation. The site is particularly important in representing ichthyological fauna (fishes) of the Devonian period.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The palaeontological site of Miguasha National Park, in south-eastern Quebec on the southern coast of the Gaspé peninsula, is considered to be the world's most outstanding illustration of the Devonian Period known as the 'Age of Fishes'. Dating from 370 million years ago, the Upper Devonian Escuminac Formation represented here contains five of the six fossil fish groups associated with this period. Its significance stems from the discovery there of the highest number and best-preserved fossil specimens of the lobe-finned fishes that gave rise to the first four-legged, air-breathing terrestrial vertebrates – the tetrapods.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Miguasha National Park</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>812</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The narrow peninsula on which Lunenburg was built was first settled formally in 1753, when German, Swiss, and Montbeliardian French immigrants were brought to Nova Scotia under a British colonization plan. A rigid gridiron plat was superimposed on the slope of the steep hill rising up from the harbour. The new settlement was named Lunenburg after the Royal house of Brunswick-L&amp;uuml;neberg, from which the Hanoverian Kings of England were descended. The 1453 largely German-speaking protestants who migrated to Lunenburg in 1752-53 represent the most northerly German settlement in North America in the 18th century. German customs and the German language survived an unusually long time in Lunenburg, owing to its relative isolation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lunenburg was the second British colonial "model" town plan, after Halifax (1749). The model town was an important aspect of imperial policy for the British, to provide the functional space thought necessary for the smooth working of a colony. The model for laying out new towns in the colonies was created by the Board of Trade and Plantations. The Lunenburg plan (1753) incorporated all the principles Of the model town: geometrically regular streets and blocks; the allocation of public spaces; an allowance for fortifications; and a distinction between urban and non-urban areas. Of these all but the fortifications survive in present-day Lunenburg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is home to the oldest continuous worshipping Lutheran and Presbyterian congregations in Canada, both having been founded in 1753.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 19th century the town developed a strong economy based on fishing and shipbuilding. These industries expanded in the 20th century. In the 1850s it sent the first fleet to the Grand Banks; in the 1870S it revolutionized the industry with the introduction of "double dory" trawl fishing; in the 19205 it was at the forefront of the development of fresh-fish processing in Canada; and today it is the base for Canada's largest fish-processing plant and fleet of deep-sea trawlers. Lunenburg was, and remains, an important centre for shipbuilding and related industries. It is one Of the very few communities in North America Where traditional shipbuilding Skills are still to be found.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/741</http_url><id_number>741</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_741.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.3761111100</latitude><location>Nova Scotia</location><longitude>-64.3091666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lunenburg is a remarkably well-preserved town, and one which retains most of the qualities of the original British model colonial settlement, without losing its status as a fully functioning community in the modern world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The narrow peninsula on which Lunenburg was built was first settled formally in 1753, when German, Swiss and Montb&amp;eacute;liardian French immigrants were brought to Nova Scotia under a British colonization plan. A rigid gridiron plan was superimposed on the slope of the steep hill rising up from the harbour. The new settlement was named Lunenburg after the Royal House of Brunswick-Luneberg, from which the Hanoverian kings of England were descended. The 1453 largely German-speaking Protestants who migrated to Lunenburg in 1752-53 represent the most northerly German settlement in North America in the 18th century. German customs and the German language survived an unusually long time in Lunenburg, owing to its relative isolation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lunenburg was the second British colonial 'model' town plan, after Halifax (1749). The model town was an important aspect of imperial policy for the British, to provide the functional space thought necessary for the smooth working of a colony. The Lunenburg plan (1753) incorporated all the principles of the model town: geometrically regular streets and blocks; the allocation of public spaces; an allowance for fortifications; and a distinction between urban and non-urban areas. Of these all but the fortifications survive in present-day Lunenburg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The layout of the existing town preserves almost in its entirety the model layout of the mid-18th century. The plan consisted of six divisions of eight blocks each, each block being in turn subdivided into fourteen lots. Each settler was given a town lot and a larger 'garden lot' outside the town limits. One section of the town was not divided into lots, to serve as a public parade ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town site, true to then-current convention, consisted of seven north-south streets, 12.5&amp;nbsp;m wide (with the exception of King Street, which is 24.4&amp;nbsp;m wide), intersected at right angles by nine east-west streets, each 12.2&amp;nbsp;m wide, creating blocks that were further divided into 14 lots of 12.2&amp;nbsp;m by 18.3&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architectural stock of Lunenburg's Old Town is remarkably homogeneous and cohesive. Over 95% of the buildings are built from wood, many of them using the coulisse construction technique that is uncommon in North America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The founding period in the 18th century is represented by at least eight buildings of &lt;em&gt;coulisse&lt;/em&gt; construction (wooden frames in-filled with horizontal planks). They were built close to one another and to the streets, with the wider elevation facing the harbour. Two-thirds of the buildings of Lunenburg date from the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earlier examples continue the 18th-century tradition. The pattern of construction of the residential buildings is repeated in the commercial and waterfront buildings, where wood predominates. The same applies to the churches: the second oldest protestant church building in Canada, St John's Anglican Church, begun in 1754, is considered by experts to be an example of 'Carpenter Gothic' at its finest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Given the innate conservatism of the inhabitants of the town with respect to their houses, and taking account of the care being taken to restore historic houses to their original states, the level of authenticity is high on every count. The setting and layout of the town itself have changed minimally since 1753, only the defences having been demolished. Wood remains overwhelming the principal construction material and traditional techniques have been maintained when restoration has been carried out on earlier buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Lunenburg is the best surviving example of a planned British colonial settlement in North America. Established in 1753, it has retained its original layout and overall appearance, based on a rectangular grid pattern drawn up in the home country. The inhabitants have managed to safeguard the city's identity throughout the centuries by preserving the wooden architecture of the houses, some of which date from the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town Lunenburg</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>875</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;As a result of the American War of Independence, thousands of people who remained loyal to the British Crown moved northwards to Canada. The government immediately began identifying areas suitable for the development of settlements for the loyalists. The Cataraqui and the Rideau rivers was one of the areas surveyed and by 1800, a number of mills had been built, the first, at Kingston Mills, in 1784. Within a few years, there were mills at most of the major falls along the two rivers. However the difficulty of navigation along the rivers north to the St Lawrence river, the main settlement area, hindered much concentrated development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The impetus to improve the waterway came though not from agriculture or other economic stimuli but from the needs of defence. The War of 1812-1814 between Britain and the United States of America had brought into focus the vulnerability of the St Lawrence River as the main supply line for the colony. Not only was it slow with a series of rapids, but it was vulnerable to attack from America along much of its length between Montr&amp;eacute;al and Lake Ontario. After the end of hostilities, America was still seen as a potential threat and the need for a secure military supply route a key necessity. Accordingly military planners turned their attention to the Cataraqui and the Rideau rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After an exploratory mission, at the end of the war, the canal project was really launched in 1824-1825, with two studies, one by the civil engineer Samuel Clowes, at the request of the authorities of Upper Canada, and the other at the request of the Duke of Wellington, then commander-in- chief of the army. The strategic dimension of the canal led the British government to take charges of its realisation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lieutenant Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers Corp was appointed by the British Government to supervise the construction of the canal in 1826. Before his appointment, military engineers had mapped out a scheme to construct new channels to bypass the rapids and swamps along the rivers. This would have necessitated around 40km of new channels along the 202 km route. By took a different approach and persuaded the government to adopt a &amp;lsquo;slackwater' system that raised the level of the water above the rapids and swamps thorough the use of tall dams. This created a practical route with the minimum of excavation. By also pressed for the canal to accommodate the then newly introduced steamships and this necessitated dams that were taller and wider than anything previously constructed in North America. Canal construction begun in 1828 and involved around 6,000 workers at multiple sites along the length of the canal. The whole length was navigable in 1832.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The choice of route for the Rideau Canal, and the use of a slack water canal design, were influenced by the underdeveloped nature of the country through which the canal was to pass. In many parts of Europe, for instance, owners of riverside agricultural land, water mills and fishing rights would have resisted the alteration in river levels required by such a system. Slackwater canals are easier to build, and require fewer workers. Therefore this method will be chosen instead of a more costly conventional canal where the environment allows, as was the case with the Rideau Canal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As with many canals, the Rideau Canal seems to have formed a catalyst for development. Ottawa grew around the canal as it runs southward from the Ottawa River, and elsewhere towns sprung up on the canal's banks. This is typical of economic development associated with canals, and mirrors the development of towns following canal building elsewhere in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rideau Canal has survived almost in its original condition as it was by-passed following the improvement in relations between Britain and the USA and the development of the much larger St Lawrence Seaway. Its military capacity was never put to the test. It now functions mainly as a waterway for leisure craft.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1221</http_url><id_number>1221</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1221.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.9943861111</latitude><location>Province of Ontario</location><longitude>-75.7651250000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rideau Canal, a monumental early 19th-century construction covering 202 km of the Rideau and Cataraqui rivers from Ottawa south to Kingston Harbour on Lake Ontario, was built primarily for strategic military purposes at a time when Great Britain and the United States vied for control of the region. The site, one of the first canals to be designed specifically for steam-powered vessels, also features an ensemble of fortifications. It is the best-preserved example of a slackwater canal in North America, demonstrating the use of this European technology on a large scale. It is the only canal dating from the great North American canal-building era of the early 19th century to remain operational along its original line with most of its structures intact.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rideau Canal</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1475</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1285</http_url><id_number>1285</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1285.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.7097222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>-64.4358333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Joggins Fossil Cliffs, a 689 ha palaeontological site along the coast of Nova Scotia (eastern Canada), have been described as the &amp;ldquo;coal age Gal&amp;aacute;pagos&amp;rdquo; due to their wealth of fossils from the Carboniferous period (354 to 290 million years ago). The rocks of this site are considered to be iconic for this period of the history of Earth and are the world&amp;rsquo;s thickest and most comprehensive record of the Pennsylvanian strata (dating back 318 to 303 million years) with the most complete known fossil record of terrestrial life from that time. These include the remains and tracks of very early animals and the rainforest in which they lived, left in situ, intact and undisturbed. With its 14.7 km of sea cliffs, low bluffs, rock platforms and beach, the site groups remains of three ecosystems: estuarine bay, floodplain rainforest and fire prone forested alluvial plain with freshwater pools. It offers the richest assemblage known of the fossil life in these three ecosystems with 96 genera and 148 species of fossils and 20 footprint groups. The site is listed as containing outstanding examples representing major stages in the history of Earth.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Joggins Fossil Cliffs</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1516</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p align="left"&gt;Since the 1680s, when a small group of Acadian settlers first arrived in the area and called the vast wetlands la grand pr&amp;eacute;, the human history of Grand Pr&amp;eacute; has been linked to its natural setting and the exceptional fertility of this land by the sea. The earliest settlers were isolated. They were a long way from home and were mostly ignored by the various French and British authorities who administered the area. The settlers developed close relations with the local Mi&amp;rsquo;kmaq, the indigenous people of Nova Scotia &amp;ndash; not just at Grand Pr&amp;eacute; but elsewhere in Acadie &amp;ndash; as they came to grips with the natural setting and began to claim fertile land from the sea by building dykes. All of these factors contributed to their developing a new and distinct identity. Though French by birth, over the course of the second half of the 17th century they came to see themselves as belonging to l&amp;rsquo;Acadie, as being Acadiens and Acadiennes. During the roughly 70 years before their forcible removal in 1755, the Acadian community of Grand Pr&amp;eacute; introduced an environmental management approach that had been applied elsewhere in Acadie. Acadians took European&amp;nbsp; practices, developed for wetlands and saltpans, and adapted them to the much different environment in Acadie. Faced with the highest recorded tides in the world, the Acadians at Grand Pr&amp;eacute; worked for three generations to transform over 1300 hectares of tidal marsh into farmland. The farmland was then &amp;ndash; and remains today &amp;ndash; some of the finest farmland in North America. In 1760, fi ve years after the Acadians were fi rst deported from Grand Pr&amp;eacute; and dispersed throughout the world, a contingent of New England Planters was settled at Grand Pr&amp;eacute; to take over the lands. Then, as now, the transformed marsh was the primary focus for the area&amp;rsquo;s inhabitants. Like the Acadians before them, the New England Planters in the Grand Pr&amp;eacute; area developed their own strong connections to the land and their rural way of life. The Grand Pr&amp;eacute; dykeland remains highly fertile today, and the most important features of the original dyked area remain in place. Then, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing until today, Grand Pr&amp;eacute; developed as the most important lieu de m&amp;eacute;moire of the Acadian people. Memorials and commemorative gardens were created adjacent to the transformed marsh to mark the ancient Acadian settlement, commemorate the removal of the people in 1755, and celebrate the vitality of the Acadian community. This last transformation completed the symbolic reclamation by the Acadians of an agricultural land from which they had been forcibly removed.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1404</http_url><id_number>1404</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1404.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification>&lt;p align="left"&gt;The Landscape of Grand Pr&amp;eacute; is an outstanding example and enduring model of the human capacity to overcome extraordinary natural challenges and cultural ordeals.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.1183333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>-64.3072222222</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The nominated property consists of 1323 hectares of dykelands, known elsewhere as polders, and uplands on the southern edge of the Minas Basin, an eastern arm of the Bay of Fundy in western mainland Nova Scotia. It is bordered by the Gaspereau River to the east, the Cornwallis River to the west, Long Island to the north, and parts of the communities of Grand Pr&amp;eacute;, Hortonville, and Lower Wolfville to the south. Dominating the distant background, beyond the nominated property, Cape Blomidon extends into the basin as an instantly recognizable landmark. The nominated property includes the dykeland area that the Acadians created in the 17th century, which successive generations of farmers have expanded. It also includes distinctive representative sections of the Acadian settlement and of the current agricultural community, as well as the entire planned settlement for the New England Planters, a British town grid. No clear historical record marks the boundaries of the 17th and 18th century community of Grand Pr&amp;eacute;. In fact, historical accounts and maps alternately use the names Grand-Pr&amp;eacute; and Les Mines to refer to the general area next to the Minas Basin and to the reclaimed marsh between the Rivi&amp;egrave;re-aux-Canards (Canard River) and the Rivi&amp;egrave;re Gaspareau (Gaspereau River). Even so, other records attest to the presence of the Acadian settlement on the uplands portion of the nominated property. The heart of the Acadian settlement is now defi ned by a concentration of archaeological remains of houses, fi eld patterns, the cemetery, the traditional location of the remains of the parish church of Saint-Charles-des-Mines, and the intersection of main roads. The southeast corner of the nominated property includes the surviving evidence of the planned British town grid in Hortonville. The grid is defi ned by Railway Street, King Street, and Middle Street running east&amp;ndash;west and by Horton Cross Road, Wharf Road, and Patterson Street running north&amp;ndash;south. Today, the agricultural community surrounds the dykelands and extends over the hills to the Gaspereau River. The nominated property includes the heart of the Acadian settlement and the British town grid. Since the time of the fi rst Acadian settlement in the 17th century, people have continuously worked these dykelands. The property also includes parts of the hamlet of Grand Pr&amp;eacute;, which hosts provincially and municipally designated heritage properties and some local services, plus farms on the hills and an expanse of fi elds and pastures. At the heart of both the nominated property and the Acadian settlement lies Grand-Pr&amp;eacute; National Historic Site of Canada. The national historic site consists of the commemorative gardens, the Memorial Church, cemeteries, and many other memorials to the Acadian Deportation. Through tangible and intangible evidence, this exceptional landscape illustrates the harsh environment, the genius of the dyking system, the productivity of the farmland, and its symbolic reclamation by the Acadian people.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the southern Minas Basin of Nova Scotia, the Grand Pr&amp;eacute; marshland and archaeological sites constitute a cultural landscape bearing testimony to the development of agricultural farmland using dykes and the &lt;em&gt;aboiteau &lt;/em&gt;wooden sluice system, started by the Acadians in the 17th century and further developed and maintained by the Planters and present-day inhabitants. Over 1,300&amp;nbsp;ha, the cultural landscape encompasses a large expanse of polder farmland and archaeological elements of the towns of Grand Pr&amp;eacute; and Hortonville, which were built by the Acadians and their successors. The landscape is an exceptional example of the adaptation of the first European settlers to the conditions of the North American Atlantic coast. The site &amp;ndash; marked by one of the most extreme tidal ranges in the world, averaging 11.6&amp;nbsp;m &amp;ndash; is also inscribed as a memorial to Acadian way of life and deportation, which started in 1755, known as the &lt;em&gt;Grand D&amp;eacute;rangement.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Landscape of Grand Pré</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1828</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1412</http_url><id_number>1412</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1412.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.7269250000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-56.4295222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Red Bay, established by Basque mariners in the 16th century at the north-eastern tip of Canada on the shore of the Strait of Belle Isle is an archaeological site that provides the earliest, most complete and best preserved testimony of the European whaling tradition. Gran Baya, as it was called by those who founded the station in 1530s, was used as a base for coastal hunting, butchering, rendering of whale fat by heading to produce oil and storage. It became a major source of whale oil which was shipped to Europe where it was used for lighting. The site, which was used in the summer months, includes remains of rendering ovens, cooperages, wharves, temporary living quarters and a cemetery, together with underwater remains of vessels and whale bone deposits. The station was used for some 70 years, before the local whale population was depleted.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Red Bay Basque Whaling Station</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1874</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1497</http_url><id_number>1497</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1497.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.6350000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-53.2111111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This fossil site is located at the south-eastern tip of the island of Newfoundland, in eastern Canada. It consists of a narrow, 17 km-long strip of rugged coastal cliffs. Of deep marine origin, these cliffs date to the Ediacaran Period (580-560 million years ago), representing the oldest known assemblages of large fossils anywhere. These fossils illustrate a watershed in the history of life on earth: the appearance of large, biologically complex organisms, after almost three billion years of micro-dominated evolution.  &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mistaken Point</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2083</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1415</http_url><id_number>1415</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1415.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.8264166667</latitude><location></location><longitude>-95.4112777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Pimachiowin Aki ('The Land That Gives Life') is a landscape of rivers, lakes, wetlands, and boreal forest. It forms part of the ancestral home of the Anishinaabeg, an indigenous people living from fishing, hunting and gathering. The site encompasses the traditional lands of four Anishinaabeg communities (Bloodvein River, Little Grand Rapids, Pauingassi and Poplar River). It is an exceptional example of the cultural tradition of Ji-ganawendamang Gidakiiminaan ('keeping the land'), which consists of honouring the gifts of the Creator, respecting all forms of life, and maintaining harmonious relations with others. A complex network of livelihood sites, habitation sites, travel routes and ceremonial sites, often linked by waterways, provides testimony to this ancient and continuing tradition.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pimachiowin Aki</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2214</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/4</http_url><id_number>4</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_4.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ca</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.4666666700</latitude><location>Province of Newfoundland and Labrador</location><longitude>-55.6166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;At the tip of the Great Northern Peninsula of the island of Newfoundland, the remains of an 11th-century Viking settlement are evidence of the first European presence in North America. The excavated remains of wood-framed peat-turf buildings are similar to those found in Norse Greenland and Iceland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recognized in 1960, excavated from 1961 to 1968 and then from 1973 to 1976, and protected by Parks Canada since1977, the Epaves Bay archaeological site, which is located near Anse aux Meadows, at the northern extremity of Newfoundland is of great importance in the history of the settlement of Rwarica. The earliest sign of human activity go back roughly 5,000 years and among the prehistoric and protohistoric populations which succeeded one another is a well-defined branch of Eskirms (Dorset Eskimos) which has been shown to have existed from about AD 400-700. A temporary settlement for fishermen, this coastal site, which is located on a coastline covered by peat bogs, would appear to have been abandoned for roughly a century. During the 9th century it was re-established by an archaic native population similar to that from which, during the historic era, the Beothuk 'Indians' descended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until about 1500, this population maintained a quasi-permanent settlement, many traces of which have been found in the bay and surrounding area. This occupation, whether seasonal or continuous, was not the only presence in the area. The exceptional significance of l'Anse aux Meadows arises precisely from a temporary Viking settlement comprising eight houses, one forge and four workshops. The excavations provided detailed information on the settlement, implements and lifestyle of the occupants. The large houses (the most spacious of which measured respectively 24&amp;nbsp;m by 4.5&amp;nbsp;m and 19&amp;nbsp;m by 14&amp;nbsp;m) are characterized by the building techniques used, which are similar to those in use in Norway during the same period: a structure covered with turf taken from the peat bog; a type of especially pointed roof; thick peat partitions on the sod floors; layout of the rooms, fireplaces and openings. The objects found include a number which fall clearly within the categories of Viking artefacts such as a stone oil lamp, a balance, a birch bark case for a ballast stone, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Near the forge, the low-shaft furnace (which is partially conserved) a deposit of slag was found. The fifty-odd forged iron objects (nails, rivets, buckles, etc.) that were found both in the dwellings and workshops comply with the normal typology of late Viking settlements along the Norwegian coastline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The excavation of L'Anse aux Meadows was conducted on a vulnerable site and followed by extensive laboratory study. It was possible, thanks to a palaeo-ecological study making use of seed and pollen fossils, to reconstruct the long-term landscape and surroundings of this human settlement. In spite of the astonishing appearances of its archaeological vestiges, L'Anse aux Meadows is an outstanding property of human heritage. It is a precious and, until now, unique milestone in the history of human migration and the discovery of the universe: it is the oldest settlement of European origin in America.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;At the tip of the Great Northern Peninsula of the island of Newfoundland, the remains of an 11th-century Viking settlement are evidence of the first European presence in North America. The excavated remains of wood-framed peat-turf buildings are similar to those found in Norse Greenland and Iceland.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>L’Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site</site><states>Canada</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2248</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1997</danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Part national Manovo-Gounda-St Floris was declared on 17 May 1979 with a total area of 1,740,00Oha, including the previously designated St Floris National Park and the former Safarafric hunting/tourism concession. Part of the area was first designated as Oubangui-Chari National Park (13,SOOha) on 10 December 1933 and renamed Matoumara National Park in 1935. The area was subsequently redefined on 27 July 1940 as St Floris National Park with an area of 40,00Oha, enlarged to cover 100,700ha in 1960, and again to cover 277,600ha in 1974. The area previously designated St Floris National Park forms the northern region of the current park. Inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1988.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/475</http_url><id_number>475</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_475.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cf</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>9.0000000000</latitude><location>Bamingui-Bangoran</location><longitude>21.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The area occupies most of the eastern end of Bamingui-Bangoran Province in the north of the country, on the international border with Chad. The boundaries on three sides of the park are formed by the international border, the eastern and southern borders of the province, whereas the western boundary is mainly marked by the Manovo River. The park comprises three main zones: the flood plain of the Bahr Aouk and Bahr Kameur rivers in the north, the Massif des Bongo in the south, and a gently undulating transitional plain between. The lowland areas, which are seasonally flooded, have fine, deep, alluvial soils, although drainage in these areas may be quite poor. This gives way to a flat plain with coarse, generally ferruginous and well-drained soils, in which some areas, particularly the depressions, have developed a lateritic or ironstone shield, on which woody vegetation is noticeably sparse or absent. The massif, which is separated from the plain by an escarpment, is chiefly composed of sandstone and is highly dissected. Five major rivers run down from the massif through the park to the Bahr Aouk and Bahr Kameur. These are the Vakaga, Goro, Gounda, Koumbala and Manovo. However, the flow may be interrupted towards the end of the dry season, and may actually only reach the Bahr Aouk and Bahr Kameur during the wettest months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The predominant vegetation type over much of the park is Sudanese-Guinean woodland savannah which can be divided into five types: &lt;em&gt;Terminalia laxiflora&lt;/em&gt; wooded savannah; &lt;em&gt;Isoberlinia doka&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Monotes kerstingii&lt;/em&gt; woodland; &lt;em&gt;Pseudocedrela kotschyi&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Terminalia macroptera&lt;/em&gt; woodland; mixed lowland woodland or wooded savannah; and &lt;em&gt;Anogeissus leiocarpus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Khaya senegalensis&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lowland areas are subject to both flooding and fire, and this is reflected to some extent in the vegetation. Further south, the higher ground is covered by bamboo open savannah, and woodlands associated with the hilly areas of the river sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several species of particular conservation concern occur within the park: black rhinoceros, elephant, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, shoebill and crocodile. Unfortunately, poaching still has a significant effect on rhinoceros and elephant numbers, and has in the past affected both leopard and crocodile. Red-fronted gazelle is also found within the park at its southern limit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the St Floris region, the most abundant large mammal would appear to be kob, with nine other fairly abundant ungulates including the duiker, waterbuck, hartebeest, oribi, topi, reedbuck, buffalo and warthog. Other conspicuous or noteworthy large mammals include hippopotamus, roan antelope, lion, giraffe and giant eland. Less common animals include golden cat, red-flanked duiker and yellow-backed duiker. Some 320 species of bird have been identified, with at least 25 species of raptor including bataleur and African fish eagle. There are large seasonal populations of pelican and marabou stork, and the park may be fairly important for both waterbirds and shorebirds.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The importance of this park derives from its wealth of flora and fauna. Its vast savannahs are home to a wide variety of species: black rhinoceroses, elephants, cheetahs, leopards, wild dogs, red-fronted gazelles and buffalo, while various types of waterfowl are to be found in the northern floodplains.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park</site><states>Central African Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>553</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1400</http_url><id_number>1400</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1400.jpg</image_url><iso_code>td</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.0550000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>20.5055555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site includes eighteen interconnected lakes in the hyper arid Ennedi region of the Sahara desert covering an area of 62,808&amp;nbsp;ha. It constitutes an exceptional natural landscape of great beauty with striking colours and shapes. The saline, hyper saline and freshwater lakes are supplied by groundwater and are found in two groups 40&amp;nbsp;km apart. Ounianga Kebir comprises four lakes, the largest of which, Yoan, covers an area of 358&amp;nbsp;ha and is 27&amp;nbsp;m deep. Its highly saline waters only sustain algae and some microorganisms. The second group, Ounianga Serir, comprises fourteen lakes separated by sand dunes. Floating reeds cover almost half the surface of these lakes reducing evaporation. At 436&amp;nbsp;ha, Lake Teli has the largest surface area but is less than 10&amp;nbsp;m deep. With their high quality freshwater, some of these lakes are home to aquatic fauna, particularly fish.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lakes of Ounianga</site><states>Chad</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1824</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1475</http_url><id_number>1475</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1475.jpg</image_url><iso_code>td</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.0416666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>21.8627777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the northeast of the country, the sandstone Ennedi Massif has been sculpted over time by water and wind erosion into a plateau featuring canyons and valleys that present a spectacular landscape marked by cliffs, natural arches and pitons. In the largest canyons, the permanent presence of water plays an essential role in the Massif’s ecosystem, sustaining flora and fauna as well as human life. Thousands of images have been painted and carved into the rock surface of caves, canyons and shelters, presenting one of the largest ensembles of rock art in the Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ennedi Massif: Natural and Cultural Landscape</site><states>Chad</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2091</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Rapa Nui was settled around AD 300 by Polynesians, probably from the Marquesas, who brought with them a wholly Stone Age society. All the cultural elements in Rapa Nui prior to the arrival of Europeans indicate that there were no other incoming groups; they rule out the many hypotheses that have been advanced regarding settlement from South America, Melanesia, Egypt, or elsewhere. According to island tradition, the colonizing expedition of fifty people in two canoes was led by King Hotu Matu'a.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between the 10th and 16th centuries the island community expanded steadily, small settlements being set up along practically the entire coastline. The high cultural level of this society was high, and is best known from its monumental stone figures that evolved from this Situation gave rise to the socalled "Birdman" cult, based on the small islands Offshore of Orongo, which superseded the statue-building religion and was instrumental in most of the moai and ahu being thrown down and slighted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On Easter Sunday 1722 Jacob Roggeveen of the Dutch East India Company chanced upon the island, and gave it its European name. The Spanish, led by Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez, claimed the island in 1770, naming it San Carlos in honour of Carlos III. The celebrated English explorer, Captain James Cook, was there briefly in 1774, and his great French contemporary, the Comte de la Perouse, in 1786. Whalers began to call at the island in the early 19th century, bringing with them venereal disease, which ravaged the population. However, the most devastating impact on the island's society and culture came in the 1860s, when Peruvian slavers carried off some two thousand islanders, including the king and the priests, in 1862. AS a result of public protests, about a hundred of them were put on a ship to be taken back to the island in 1865. However, smallpox broke out on board and only fifteen islanders survived to return to Rapa Nui, bringing with them the disease which led to an epidemic that nearly wiped out the remaining islanders: by 1877 only 111 inhabitants remained out of the estimated population of around 10,000 When Europeans first arrived. The island was annexed by Chile in 1888 in the belief that it had strategic and economic potential, but the mainland farmers who settled there found that agriculture was not profitable. A sheep ranch was moderately successful, but the lease of the company running this operation was revoked in 1952 and the Chilean Navy took control of the island. In the 1960's civil administration was resumed, Easter Island being given the status of a department within the province of Valparaiso. The population is now around two thousand people, about one third of them from Chile and the remainder descendants of the original Polynesian settlers.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/715</http_url><id_number>715</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_715.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-27.1500000000</latitude><location>Easter Island province of the Valparaíso Region</location><longitude>-109.4500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rapa Nui contains one of the most remarkable cultural phenomena in the world. An artistic and architectural tradition of great power and imagination was developed by a society completely isolated from external cultural influences of any kind for over a millennium. The substantial remains of this culture blend with their natural surroundings to create an unparalleled cultural landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island was settled around AD 300 by Polynesians, probably from the Marquesas, who brought with them a wholly Stone Age society. All the cultural elements in Rapa Nui before the arrival of Europeans indicate that there were no other incoming groups. Between the 10th and 16th centuries the island community expanded steadily, settlements being set up along practically the entire coastline. The high cultural level of this society is best known from its monumental stone figures (&lt;em&gt;moai&lt;/em&gt; ) and ceremonial shrines (&lt;em&gt;ahu&lt;/em&gt; ); it is also noteworthy for a form of pictographic writing (&lt;em&gt;rongo rongo&lt;/em&gt; ), so far undeciphered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, there was an economic and social crisis in the community in the 16th century, attributable to over-population and environmental deterioration. This resulted in the population being divided into two separate groups of clans who were constantly involved in warfare. The warrior class that evolved from this situation gave rise to the so-called Birdman cult, based on the small islands offshore of Orongo, which superseded the statue-building religion and threw down most and slighted most of the moai and ahu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On Easter Sunday 1722 Jacob Roggveen of the Dutch East India Company chanced upon the island and gave it its European name. It was annexed to Chile in 1888.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most famous archaeological features of Rapa Nui are the moai, which are believed to represent sacred ancestors who watch over the villages and ceremonial areas. They range in height from 2&amp;nbsp;m to 20&amp;nbsp;m and are for the most part carved from the scoria, using simple picks (&lt;em&gt;toli&lt;/em&gt; ) made from hard basalt and then lowered down the slopes into previously dug holes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A number of moai are still in an uncompleted condition in the quarries, providing valuable information about the method of manufacture. Some have large cylindrical pieces of red stone known as pukao, extracted from the small volcano Punapao, as headdresses: these are believed to denote special ritual status. There is a clear stylistic evolution in the form and size of the moai, from the earlier small, round-headed and round-eyed figures to the best-known large, elongated figures with carefully carved fingers, nostrils, long ears, and other features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The shrines (ahu) vary considerably in size and form. There are certain constant features, notably a raised rectangular platform of large worked stones filled with rubble, a ramp often paved with rounded beach pebbles, and levelled area in front of the platform. Some have moai on them, and there are tombs in a number of them in which skeletal remains have been discovered. The ahu are generally located on the coast and oriented parallel to it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Orongo ceremonial village, which was probably the centre of a complex of religious practices related to the Birdman cult, consists of over fifty semi-subterranean stone-houses built in contiguous groups, located on the rim of the Ran Kay crater below a towering cliff. There are abundant remains of the stone houses (hare) built by the earlier inhabitants of the island. The houses were raised on basalt foundation and form the nucleus for associated structures such as ovens or hearths, farm buildings and stone chicken houses. House groups sited near the coast are sometimes associated with round stone towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nature of the geology of the island in such that are many caves (&lt;em&gt;ana&lt;/em&gt; ) around the coast of the island, and these were used in the past by the islanders as temporary of permanent dwellings, being converted by the erection of stone walls at their mouths. A number of these contain wall paintings of deities, birds and fertility symbols.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Rapa Nui, the indigenous name of Easter Island, bears witness to a unique cultural phenomenon. A society of Polynesian origin that settled there c. A.D. 300 established a powerful, imaginative and original tradition of monumental sculpture and architecture, free from any external influence. From the 10th to the 16th century this society built shrines and erected enormous stone figures known as &lt;em&gt;moai&lt;/em&gt; , which created an unrivalled cultural landscape that continues to fascinate people throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rapa Nui National Park</site><states>Chile</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>846</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The territory was originally inhabited by Chango Indians, who lived on farming and fishing. The site of Valpara&amp;iacute;so in the Valley of Quintil, on the Pacific coast, was discovered by Juan de Saavedra in 1536. The settlement was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1544, and it was designated the first port of the nation in 1554. The settlement developed first in the areas known as Juna Gomez (today Carampangue), San Francisco, and San Agustin. At the end of the 16th century, a road connection was built from Valpara&amp;iacute;so to Santiago. The Spanish immigrants introduced the Catholic faith, and built the first chapel in the settlement village, at the foot of the San Francisco ravine. The church of La Matr&amp;iacute;z was built there in 1658, followed by the construction of the fortresses. At this time, other religious orders arrived, including the Augustinians and the Franciscans, and the settlement started taking shape. The commercial centre and the warehouses occupied the main coastal area. The opening of Cape Horn meant intensive wheat trading from Valpara&amp;iacute;so to El Callao in the 18th century. The urban layout developed mainly around two focal points, the seaport with the commercial centre, and the Almendral beach area with farmhouses and small businesses. After a disastrous earthquake in 1730, the inhabitants were forced to move on the hillsides, thus developing the most characteristic feature of the town. From this time on, most of the settlement developed over the hills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the independence of Chile in 1810, Valpara&amp;iacute;so soon became the most important harbour town on the Pacific coast. This meant commercial transactions with Europe as well as with the United States, ending Chile's dependence on Spain. Around 1839-40, Valpara&amp;iacute;so was granted independent administrative status as an Intendencia, and in 1842 it became the capital of the Province of Valpara&amp;iacute;so, with fiscal warehouses and the Stock Exchange. At this time, the town attracted great numbers of immigrants from England, France, Germany, and the United States, contributing to the development of shipping and commerce. This influence can still be appreciated on the streets at the foot of hills in Arsenal (now Bustamante), La Planchada (now Serrano), La Aduana (now Prat) and Del Cabo (now Esmeralda). The city acquired a cosmopolitan image. In the 1840s and 1850s, more warehouses were built between the present Aduana Square and the Duprat fortress. In 1852, a railway was built to the inner cities of the region and to the capital, Santiago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the second half of the 19th century, the position of Valpara&amp;iacute;so was further strengthened as the main harbour and commercial centre of the country, and its activities included mining activities with Tarapaca and Antofagasta. The main economic resource gradually shifted from wheat to saltpetre. Following this development, the town was articulated into areas characterized by their principal activities, such as commerce, harbour, industry, and business. The streets of Planchada and Aduana were the main areas for diplomatic missions, banks, and international agencies. Between 1847 and 1870, Valpara&amp;iacute;so attained its characteristic identity as a commercial and financial centre. The town expanded, and the chain of hills was connected by the Cintura highway some 100 m above the sea, based on the project by Fermin Vivaceta in 1872.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1903, the electrical train system started operating, providing the first change to the 19th century urban environment. In 1906, a violent earthquake struck the region, causing damage especially in the downtown area, and leading to substantial reconstruction programmes. In addition, the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the national independence gave a further incentive to erect public, commercial, and private buildings of high quality. In 1914, however, the opening of the Panama Channel meant that Valpara&amp;iacute;so lay aside from the great commercial routes between the two oceans. The economic crisis of saltpetre reduced the importance of the port, and, at the same time, Santiago consolidated its status as the political and economic centre of the country. The world economic crisis in 1929 further contributed to the change. Nevertheless, Valpara&amp;iacute;so continued its development, even though facing serious social and economic problems. As a result, solutions were sought, and new construction activities expanded in the upper zones of the city, including the areas of Juan Gomez, San Francisco, San Juan de Dios, and de Jaime, the present Francia Avenue.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/959</http_url><id_number>959</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_959.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: Valpara&amp;iacute;so is an exceptional testimony to the early phase of globalisation in the late 19th century, when it became the leading merchant port on the sea routes of the Pacific coast of South America.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-33.0406388900</latitude><location>Fifth Region, Province Valparaíso</location><longitude>-71.6280000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Valpara&amp;iacute;so, the second largest in Chile, is exceptional testimony to the early phase of globalization in the late 19th century. It is located on the Pacific coast some 100&amp;nbsp;km north of Santiago, in the centre of the country. The geography of Valpara&amp;iacute;so consists of a bay, a narrow coastal plain and a series of hills. The World Heritage site is located between the sea and the first terrace, in the area where the city first developed; it comprises part of the plain and surrounding hills, and is composed of five interlaced neighbourhoods:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ol&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;La Matr&amp;iacute;z Church and Santo Domingo Square lies between the hills and the plain. It is spatially linked with Plaza Echaurren and its surroundings, as well as with Cerro Santo Domingo. The architecture of La Matr&amp;iacute;z Church (1842), Valpara&amp;iacute;so's founding church, although rebuilt four times after destruction by pirates and earthquakes, is typical transition between colonial and republican styles.It is surrounded by late 19th-century buildings, typical of the seaport architecture. The Plaza La Matr&amp;iacute;z is the centre of Valpara&amp;iacute;so's most traditional religious activities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Echaurren Square and Serrano Street has a predominantly commercial character, marked by the presence of the Port Market, commercial establishments, and active street trade. The buildings represent three types: 'block building' or 'island building', facing four streets; 'head building', facing three streets; and buildings facing two streets. The most outstanding among the block-buildings is the Astoreca Building (1906), built for commercial and residential purposes in a symmetrical and orthogonal order. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Prat Pier, Sotomayor and Justicia Squares and the Sea Museum Quarter comprises the main transversal axis of the area and has the largest public spaces. The square is surrounded by administrative and service buildings of different periods and styles. The Sea Museum, at the top of Cerro Cordillera, stands on the site of the old San Jos&amp;eacute; Castle, a fortress built to repel the attacks of corsairs and pirates. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Prat Street and Turri Square area evolves around the foothill and stretches out from Plaza Sotomayor to the beginning of Esmeralda Street, encompassing the Plazuela Turri as a singular public space. The area presents the markedly rectangular block characteristic of the plain, as well as its typical buildings, with frontage towards two or three streets. The buildings are examples of monumental architecture in their volume and formal expression.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The two hills of Cerro Alegre and Cerro Concepci&amp;oacute;n, separated by Urriola Street, form a single neighbourhood. To a large extent, this was planned and developed by German and English immigrants, starting from the first half of the 19th century. The area combines the different types of public space of Valpara&amp;iacute;so: squares, viewing points, promenades, alleyways, stairways, the elevators' top stations, and the havens usually formed by street intersections and bifurcations. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ol&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Valpara&amp;iacute;so used to have as many as 30 elevators, the oldest of which, the Concepci&amp;oacute;n Elevator, was inaugurated in 1883. Generally, they have two wooden or metal cars, moving simultaneously in opposite directions. They are mounted on a platform to which are attached the wheels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The territory was originally inhabited by Chango Indians, who lived on farming and fishing. The site was discovered by Juan de Saavedra in 1536, and the settlement was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1544, and it was designated the first port of the nation in 1554. After a disastrous earthquake in 1730, the inhabitants were forced to move on to the hillsides, thus developing the most characteristic feature of the town. From this time on, most of the settlement developed over the hills. The main economic resource gradually shifted from wheat to saltpetre. Following this development, the town was articulated into areas characterized by their principal activities, such as commerce, harbour, industry and business.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The colonial city of Valpara&amp;iacute;so presents an excellent example of late 19th-century urban and architectural development in Latin America. In its natural amphitheatre-like setting, the city is characterized by a vernacular urban fabric adapted to the hillsides that are dotted with a great variety of church spires. It contrasts with the geometrical layout utilized in the plain. The city has well preserved its interesting early industrial infrastructures, such as the numerous &amp;lsquo;elevators&amp;rsquo; on the steep hillsides.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Quarter of the Seaport City of Valparaíso</site><states>Chile</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1123</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the inhabitants of the Chilo&amp;eacute; archipelago followed a sedentary way of life, based on a mixed farming and fishing economy. Spanish navigators had discovered the Archipelago by the mid-16th century, but colonization did not begin until 1567, when Mart&amp;iacute;n Ruiz de Gamboa founded the towns of Santiago de Castro and Chacao on the Isla Grande de Chilo&amp;eacute;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Spaniards were impressed by the mild, receptive character of the local people. The universal encomienda system was applied, whereby the indigenous people paid tributes to the Spanish crown by working for the settlers in return for food and religious instruction. There were occasional native revolts, of which the most serious occurred in 1712, occasioned by the harsh treatment of the natives by the encomenderos of the time, who accused the Jesuits of having inspired the revolt, which was brutally repressed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Missionaries had arrived with the first settlers, from the orders of St Francis and Our Lady of Mercy. Following an exploratory visit in 1608, the Society of Jesus began sending its members to initiate the process of evangelization that was to shape the cultural features of the Archipelago and to result in the building of the churches that figure in the present nomination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jesuit strategy was encapsulated in the Peripatetic Mission. Annual tours were made by groups of Jesuits setting out from their College in Castro during the temperate months. They spent a few days at each of their missions according to a planned schedule; the missions had been founded close to the shore so as to permit these tours to be made by boat. While there they would attend to the spiritual and material needs of the communities. At first these missions were not permanently inhabited, but over time the Jesuits began building chapels and lodgings for their members, constructed by the local community using local materials and techniques. They appointed laymen, chosen from the leading families, to serve as fiscales, to care for the church and its cemetery and to minister to the basic spiritual needs of the community. This was in the Jesuit tradition, which encouraged active development of their own social and religious life by indigenous communities. By the end of the 19th century over a hundred churches had been built; between fifty and sixty survive to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pirate raids were a feature of the 17th century, and the Spaniards living in the towns began to desert them in favour of greater security in the countryside. By so doing they took over the lands of the indigenous people, increasing racial and cultural assimilation between the two groups. The majority Chilota group in the Archipelago is the result of this process of interbreeding (mestizaje). Christianity was embraced by the natives whilst the Spaniards adopted the local language, Veliche (now extinct), for communication. The Spaniards also adopted the way of life of the local people, engaging in fishing and agriculture and using their technologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Jesuits were expelled in 1767 their work was continued by the Franciscans, who appreciated the value of the Jesuits' work and actively continued it. They used the Peripatetic Mission as the basis for the creation of nine centres, each with its own area of work. This was to become the present parish system, created in 1840.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the efforts of the Spanish colonial power, the towns became no more than administrative centres, and by the time colonial rule came to an end there were no more than five towns (villas) in Chilo&amp;eacute;. The strategic importance of the Archipelago was recognized, however, and it was dependent on the Captaincy General of Lima rather than that of Chile. The military garrison was stationed in the fortress of San Carlos de Ancud, founded in 1768.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Chilota population was deeply loyal to the Spanish Crown. When the struggle for Chilean independence began in 1810, Chilo&amp;eacute; became the headquarters of the Spanish operation to recover Chile and Peru. Although this failed, Chilo&amp;eacute; remained a Spanish enclave after Chile finally won its independence in 1818; it remained the last toehold of Spanish rule in South America until it was incorporated into the new Republic eight years later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chilo&amp;eacute; enjoyed a period of prosperity in the 19th century. Its ports were visited by ships travelling south and its timber was a major export. This came to an end at the end of the century, as a result of the opening of the Panam&amp;aacute; Canal and the over-exploitation of the islands' cypress and larch trees. During the first half of the 20th century the economy also suffered from serious problems in agriculture and stockbreeding. As a result there was substantial Chilota emigration southwards, to Patagonia and the Magallanes Straits area. At the present time the economy of the Archipelago is developing on the basis of the controlled industrial exploitation of the natural resources (timber and fish) and traditional agriculture and fishing.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/971</http_url><id_number>971</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_971.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The churches of Chilo&amp;eacute; are outstanding examples of the successful fusion of European and indigenous cultural traditions to produce a unique form of wooden architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The mestizo culture resulting from Jesuit missionary activities in the 17th and 18th centuries has survived intact in the Chilo&amp;eacute; archipelago, and achieves its highest expression in the outstanding wooden churches.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-42.5000000000</latitude><location>Municipalities of Castro, Chonchi, Dalcahue, Puqueldón, Quemchi, and Quinchao, Chiloé Province, X Region de los Lagos</location><longitude>-73.7666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Churches of Chilo&amp;eacute; are outstanding examples of the successful fusion of European and indigenous cultural traditions to produce a unique form of wooden architecture. The mestizo culture resulting from Jesuit missionary activities in the 17th and 18th centuries has survived intact in the Chilo&amp;eacute; archipelago, and achieves its highest expression in the outstanding wooden churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the inhabitants of the Chilo&amp;eacute; archipelago, which extends from the Chacao Canal to the Corcovado Gulf, followed a sedentary way of life, based on a mixed farming and fishing economy. Spanish navigators had discovered the archipelago by the mid-16th century, but colonization did not begin until 1567, when Mart&amp;iacute;n Ruiz de Gamboa founded the towns of Santiago de Castro and Chacao on the Isla Grande de Chilo&amp;eacute;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following an exploratory visit in 1608, the Society of Jesus began sending its members to initiate the process of evangelization that was to shape the cultural features of the Archipelago. At first these missions were not permanently inhabited, but over time the Jesuits began building chapels and lodgings for their members, constructed by the local community using local materials and techniques. They appointed laymen, chosen from the leading families, to serve as fiscales, to care for the church and its cemetery and to minister to the basic spiritual needs of the community. This was in the Jesuit tradition, which encouraged active development of their social and religious life by indigenous communities. By the end of the 19th century over 100 churches had been built; between 50 and 60 survive to the present day, and 14 of these constitute the World Heritage site: Achao (Quinchao); Quinchao; Castro; Ril&amp;aacute;n (Castro); Nerc&amp;oacute;n (Castro); Aldachildo (Puqueld&amp;oacute;n); Ichuac (Puqueld&amp;oacute;n); Detif (Puqueld&amp;oacute;n); Vilipulli (Chonchi); Chonchi; Tena&amp;uacute;n (Quemchi); Colo (Quemchi); San Juan (Dalcahue); and Dalcahue.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional Chilo&amp;eacute; churches are located near the shore, facing an esplanade, which in some cases has been developed into a true plaza (Achao, Dalcahue), but elsewhere is no more than an open space defined by a fence or trees (Quinchao). Its size is determined by the importance of the religious festivals that take place there. The churches consist of a large volume with a pitched roof. The most typical feature of these buildings is the tower facade, on the side facing the esplanade, made up of an entrance portico, the gable wall or pediment, and the tower itself. This became the focus of urban development in these communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The portico is a characteristic feature of the earlier churches, but is lacking in those built in the 20th century. The tower is the dominating vertical feature, both as a religious element supporting the cross and also as a beacon for sailors. Most are of two or three storeys, with hexagonal or octagonal drums to reduce wind resistance. Only at Tena&amp;uacute;n are there smaller flanking towers. The horizontal volume of the church varies, but depth is favoured over width. They conform with a basilican ground plan with three aisles, only the central one extending to the back wall. The aisles are separated by solid wooden columns on stone pads; these support a huge beam that forms the ridge. In most cases the main nave is barrel-vaulted, the flanking aisles having flat ceilings. Achao with its segmented ceiling and Ril&amp;aacute;n with fan vaulting are rare exceptions. The latter is clearly influenced by Gothic architecture, and elements of other major architectural styles can be recognized - Classicism at Chonchi, Renaissance at Nerc&amp;oacute;n and Baroque at Achao. Everywhere there is abundant evidence of the Chilota mastery of working wood. The characteristic form and materials of the churches show virtually no variation over four centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ornamentation of the churches is profuse and varied. All the churches are adapted skilfully to their physical environment. They are built on hillsides, so as to avoid flooding during heavy rains, and are raised off the ground. The north sides are protected against storms, which generally come from this direction. They are fully enclosed structures, as protection against wind and rain, which can be heavy in this region.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Churches of Chilo&amp;eacute; represent a unique example in Latin America of an outstanding form of ecclesiastical wooden architecture. They represent a tradition initiated by the Jesuit Peripatetic Mission in the 17th and 18th centuries, continued and enriched by the Franciscans during the 19th century and still prevailing today. These churches embody the intangible richness of the Chilo&amp;eacute; Archipelago, and bear witness to a successful fusion of indigenous and European culture, the full integration of its architecture in the landscape and environment, as well as to the spiritual values of the communities.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Churches of Chiloé</site><states>Chile</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1135</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The existence of the el Teniente copper deposits seems to have been known and mined in pre-Hispanic times. During the 15th - 17th centuries, raw materials were exported by the Spanish and then for two hundred years there was little activity. In 1897 the then owner of the mining rights initiated a survey of the copper seams in the area. On discovering the huge potential of the site, and the fact that extracting the copper would require great investment, an approach was made in 1903 to the North American mining engineer William Braden who had taken part in the Great Exhibition in Santiago in 1894.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Braden arrived in Chile the following year, 1904, and begun acquiring the property. Almost immediately a road was constructed to the nearest railway line at Rancagua. Braden joined forces with E W Nash, President of the American Smelting and Refining Company and with Barton Sewell, the founder and Vice-President, they created the Braden Copper Company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Over the next two years the infrastructure was developed, customs exemption agreed by the government of Chile for the large amounts of machinery to be imported from the US, and the mine equipped. By 1906, the first mill and concentrator had been erected, a lift established and an electricity generator installed. All these works involved what was then cutting edge technology, but in an extremely remote and hostile environment which initially led to set-backs. However, mining was officially authorised and begun in 1905.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In 1909 the recession in the US led to financial difficulties and fresh funds were injected by a company belonging to the Guggenheim brothers who took overall control in 1915 and the Braden Copper Company became a subsidiary of Kennecott Copper Corporation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The operation base for the company was located at Rancagua which developed rapidly as a town. In 1917, the old foundry at Sewell was replaced by a more modern one in Caletones, where a new town also developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Although the company was prosperous, conditions for the mine workers in terms of industrial safety was not good. In 1945 a major, tragic, disaster occurred which spotlighted the problems: a fire in the entrance to the mine sent smoke to the galleries below choking 355 workers to death. The &amp;lsquo;Smoke Tragedy' led to a government investigation and a widespread national debate on the inadequacy of safety legislation and the power wielded by foreign companies. The company responded by developing a large department of industrial safety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;By the 1950s Chile had become the second largest copper producer in the world. As a result of &amp;lsquo;Chilenization' in 1967, the Government of Chile gained a 51% share of the mine and in 1971 the industry was nationalised and the company became a division of the Copper Corporation of Chile. This brought changes such as the El Teniente Club becoming the miners' cafeteria and the class A housing and other buildings being demolished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;At this time a decision was taken to move the population of Sewell further down the valley, in order to provide better facilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The town was abandoned as a mining settlement in 1980, remaining in partial use as a dormitory for contractors' personnel, and this led to the modification of some of the buildings and further demolition of others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Demolition was finally halted at the end of the 1980s and in 1998 the town was declared a national monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The mine however still functions and el Teniente division of the Copper Corporation now produces 3% of the worlds' copper.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1214</http_url><id_number>1214</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1214.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-34.0844444444</latitude><location>Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins Region, Province of Cachapoal, Municipality of Machali</location><longitude>-70.3827777777</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated at 2,000 m in the Andes, 60 km to the east of Rancagua, in an environment marked by extremes of climate, Sewell Mining Town was built by the Braden Copper company in 1905 to house workers at what was to become the world&amp;rsquo;s largest underground copper mine, El Teniente. It is an outstanding example of the company towns that were born in many remote parts of the world from the fusion of local labour and resources from an industrialized nation, to mine and process high-value natural resources. The town was built on a terrain too steep for wheeled vehicles around a large central staircase rising from the railway station. Along its route formal squares of irregular shape with ornamental trees and plants constituted the main public spaces or squares of the town. The buildings lining the streets are timber, often painted in vivid green, yellow, red and blue. At its peak Sewell numbered 15,000 inhabitants, but was largely abandoned in the 1970s.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sewell Mining Town</site><states>Chile</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1391</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;From pre-Hispanic times indigenous peoples in the area, the Atacamenos and the Incas, used nitrate as a fertiliser, extracting and grinding the saltpeter and spreading it on fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Europeans used the saltpeter for explosives. The mineral was mined and sent on mules to Lima to be processed into gunpowder. Increase in demand for explosives in the late 18th century led to exploration of new fields in northern Chile and the discovery of the Tarapaca seams. At around the same time, a German scientist, Thadeus Haencke, discovered how to manufacture potassium nitrate. The first saltpeter works were opened in 1810. These were small-scale individual operators who extracted and crushed the material by hand, boiled it in simple vats and left it in the sun to evaporate. The first shipments were made to Great Britain in the 1820s and to the USA and France in the 1830s, all for use in explosives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its fertilising properties were discovered in Europe in the 1830s and demand started to soar as cereal production begun to spread to unexploited lands in USA, Argentina and Russia. The fertiliser also begun to be used for coffee in Brazil, Sugar in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Chile became the main world producer of natural nitrate. What transformed the scale and scope of the works was a new processing technique developed by the Chilean Pedro Gamboni in 1853 for dissolving saltpeter. This encouraged owners to install fixed equipment: boilers, troughs etc and expand homes for workers. A second factor was improved transport: until the railways arrived in the second half of the 19th century, transport to the coast on packhorse mules limited the scale of the industry. The railways spread rapidly, funded by private investment: by 1905 there were 1,787 km of track and by 1913, 5,000 km.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1879 the so-called Saltpeter War involving Chile, Bolivia and Peru (who supported Bolivia) gave Chile dominance of the industry. The aftermath encouraged European investment and this in turn acted as a trigger for a surge in the nation's economy. By 1890 saltpeter accounted for 50% of the country's total revenue; by 1913 80% of all its exports.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The First World War brought terrible consequences for the saltpeter producers. The sea routes became unsafe and Germany, one of the largest importers, begun to develop its own saltpeter based on synthetic ammonia. However as European investors withdrew, Chilean participation increased. Nevertheless demand continued to decline and in spite of re-structuring, the creation of the Chilean Saltpeter Company (COSACH) split between state and private investors, and a new production system, which allowed the use of lower grade ore, the market did not improve and COSACH was wound up. By 1930s only 10% of the world's nitrate came from Chile and this had dropped to 3% by 1950s. COSACH's successor, COSATAN, which had a monopoly of saltpeter, survived until 1961. The Peruvian Nitrate Company built Humberstone saltpeter works, originally known as La Palma, in 1862. Until 1889, it was one of the biggest saltpeter-mines in Tarapac&amp;aacute; zone with about 3,000 inhabitants. With the economic crisis that affected all the production of sodium nitrate, La Palma was shut down to be reopened in 1933 under the ownership of the COSACH and bearing the name by which it is known now, the Humberstone saltpeter work, in homage to chemical engineer Humberstone. Between 1933 and 1940 the operations were expanded, new buildings built around the Market Square and the population reached 3,700 people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Laura Work, built ten years after Humberstone in 1872 by the &amp;lsquo;Barra y Risco' Company, was smaller and had only 450 families in 1920. After facing successive crisis, it too was taken over by COSATAN.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1959 COSATAN was wound up and the two works closed finally. The works were auctioned in 1961. Both were bought by the same private individual for scrap. In order to avoid them being destroyed, the properties were declared national monuments in 1970. This has not stopped quite drastic deterioration, robberies and vandalism and some dismantling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the owner went bankrupt, in 1995 the properties came under the control of the &amp;lsquo;Ministerio de Bienes Nacionales' (National Assets Ministry) and they have assigned them for a period of thirty years to the Saltpeter Museum Corporation, a non-profit organization, which has taken over the management.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1178</http_url><id_number>1178</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1178.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The development of the saltpeter industry reflects the combined knowledge, skills, technology, and financial investment of a diverse community of people who were brought together from around South America, and from Europe. The saltpeter industry became a huge cultural exchange complex where ideas were quickly absorbed and exploited. The two works represent this process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt;The saltpeter mines and their associated company towns developed into an extensive and very distinct urban community with its own language, organisation, customs, and creative expressions, as well as displaying technical entrepreneurship. The two nominated works represent this distinctive culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The saltpeter mines in the north of Chile together became the largest producers of natural saltpeter in the world, transforming the Pampa and indirectly the agricultural lands that benefited from the fertilisers the works produced. The two works represent this transformation process.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-20.2058200000</latitude><location>Province of Iquique</location><longitude>-69.7940600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The development of the saltpeter industry reflects the combined knowledge, skills, technology, and financial investment of a diverse community of people who were brought together from around South America and from Europe. The saltpeter industry became a huge cultural exchange complex where ideas were quickly absorbed and exploited. The two works represent this process. The saltpeter mines and their associated company towns developed into an extensive and very distinct urban community with its own language, organization, customs and creative expressions, as well as displaying technical entrepreneurship. The saltpeter mines in the north of Chile together became the largest producers of natural saltpeter in the world, transforming the Pampa and indirectly the agricultural lands that benefited from the fertilisers the works produced. The two works represent this transformation process and the distinctive culture that it produced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two abandoned saltpeter works lie in the Tamarugal Pampa and are 1.5&amp;nbsp;km apart, separated by Route A16. Saltpeter (sodium nitrate) deposits are found in an arid, desert altiplano in the far north of Chile, in the regions of Tarapac&amp;aacute; and Antofagasta - the Pampa, which is one of the driest deserts in the world with virtually no annual rainfall, and large differences in temperature between day and night. The porous Pampa filters water coming down from the Andes Mountains. Near the coastal ridge, the water formed small lakes in the impermeable granite-like rock, giving rise to 'salt pans' as a result of the evaporation of water, and 'saltpeter' beds in fissures between the hard and softer rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mining of saltpeter began at the foot of the eastern edge of the Coastal Range, first for manufacturing explosives and then more profitably as a fertilizer that was exported around the world. Defying the extremes of climate, 200 works to mine and process the saltpeter, with towns to house the workers and railways to transport the powder to coast, were established in an intensive period of around 50 years from 1880. The huge extent of the deposits and the high grade and thickness of the saltpeter veins turned the Pampa into the main producer of natural nitrate in the world. During the 1920s, competition from synthetic nitrates in Europe led to the closure of many works and by 1933 most of the industry had come to an almost complete standstill. The Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter works are two that have managed in part to survive the asset stripping that followed the decline of the nitrate industry. None of the buildings are now in use apart from some bathrooms that have been restored for the use of visitors and a reception building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Together they represent the technical and social systems that created great wealth and prosperity for some and arduous, communal living for others. The Pampinos, those who live in the Pampa, are now seen as pioneers in the social struggle for better working conditions, and their distinctive and creative culture is celebrated in print and film.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Humberstone and Santa Laura works contain over 200 former saltpeter works where workers from Chile, Peru and Bolivia lived in company towns and forged a distinctive communal pampinos culture. That culture is manifest in their rich language, creativity, and solidarity, and, above all, in their pioneering struggle for social justice, which had a profound impact on social history. Situated in the remote Pampas, one of the driest deserts on Earth, thousands of pampinos lived and worked in this hostile environment for over 60 years, from 1880, to process the largest deposit of saltpeter in the world, producing the fertilizer sodium nitrate that was to transform agricultural lands in North and South America, and in Europe, and produce great wealth for Chile. Because of the vulnerability of the structures and the impact of a recent earthquake, the site was also placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger to help mobilize resources for its conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works</site><states>Chile</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1869</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/437</http_url><id_number>437</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_437.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.2666700000</latitude><location>Spanning the cities of Tai’an and Jinan in central Shandong Province with the main peak in the city of Tai’an</location><longitude>117.1000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The majestic site of the sacred Mount Tai (Taishan), with its dense forests and ancient temples complementing each other has been the object of imperial pilgrimage for some 2,000 years, and the artistic masterpieces contained within it are in perfect harmony with the natural landscape. It has always been a source of inspiration to Chinese artists and scholars, and symbolizes ancient Chinese civilizations and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located in central Shandong Province, just north of Tai'an City, Taishan rises abruptly from the vast plain of central Shandong. Geologically, it is the oldest and most important example of the palaeo-metamorphic system representative of the Cambrian period in eastern China. Referred to as the Taishan Complex, it comprises magmatized, metamorphic and sedimentary rock and an intrusive mass of various origins that were formed in the Archaean era 170-200&amp;nbsp;million years ago. Subsequently, in the Proterozoic era, the Taishan region began to rise, and this uplift continued until the middle of the Cenozoic era. The gneiss that emerged in the Taishan region is the foundation for all of North China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation covers 80% of the densely wooded area and the flora is diverse, 989 species. Medicinal plants total 462 species, include multiflower knotweed, Taishan ginseng, Chinese gromwell, and sealwort, which are renowned throughout the country. There are over 200 species of animal in addition to 122 species of bird. Large-scaled fish are found in running water at 300-800&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taishan has a very rich cultural heritage, and the integration of this with the natural scenery is considered a precious legacy. Cultural relics include memorial objects, architectural complexes, stone sculptures, and archaeological sites of outstanding importance. It is one of the birthplaces Chinese civilization, evidence of human activity dating back 400,000 years to Yiyuan Man in the Palaeolithic period. By Neolithic times, 5,000-6,000 years ago, it had become a significant cultural centre with two cultures flourishing, the Dawenkou to the north and the Longshan to the south of the mountain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC) of the Zhou dynasty (1100-221 BC) witnessed the first flare of cultural creativity with the emergence of two rival states, Qi to the north and Lu to the south of the mountain. During the Warring States Period (475-221 BC), the State of Qi built a 500&amp;nbsp;km long wall as protection from possible invasion by the State of Chu. The ruins of this earliest of the great walls in Chinese history are still evident.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For over 3,000 years, Chinese emperors of various dynasties have made pilgrimages to Taishan for sacrificial and other ceremonial purposes. Rock inscriptions, stone tablets and temples testify to such visits. Renowned scholars, including Confucius whose home town, Qufu, is only 70&amp;nbsp;km away, have composed poetry and prose and left their calligraphy on the mountain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taishan was also an important centre of religious activity for both Buddhism and Taoism. In 351 BC an eminent monk named Lang, the first to come to the mountain, set up the Lang and Divine Rock temples. During the Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420-589), the Jade Spring, God's Treasure and Pervading Light temples were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prime Minister Li Jiefu of the Tang dynasty (618-907) regarded the Divine Rock Temple as first among China's four temple wonders. Places for Taoist activities included the Temple to the Heavenly Queen Mother, the Palace of Goddess Doumu, the Azure Cloud Temple, the Rear Rock Basin Temple and the Supreme Lord of Heaven Temple. The Temple to the Heavenly Queen Mother, built before the period of the Three Kingdoms (220-80), is the earliest whereas the Azure Cloud Temple is the most influential, its influence extending over more than half of China.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The sacred Mount Tai ('shan' means 'mountain') was the object of an imperial cult for nearly 2,000 years, and the artistic masterpieces found there are in perfect harmony with the natural landscape. It has always been a source of inspiration for Chinese artists and scholars and symbolizes ancient Chinese civilizations and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Taishan</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>507</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/438</http_url><id_number>438</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_438.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.4166700000</latitude><location>Liaoning, Jilin, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Ningxia, Gansu, Xinjiang, Shandong, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, Qinghai provinces, municipalities and autonomous Regions</location><longitude>116.0833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Known to the Chinese as the 'Long Wall of Ten Thousand Li', the formidable defensive structures built to ward off invasion of the Celestial Empire by barbarians is called the Great Wall or the Wall of China by Europeans. The principle of these extraordinary fortifications goes back to the Chunqiu period (722-481 BC) and to the Warring States period (453-221 BC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of certain walls can be explained by feudal conflicts, such as that built by the Wei in 408 BC to defend their kingdom against the Qin. Its vestiges, conserved in the centre of China, antedate by many years the walls built by the Kingdoms of Qin, Zhao and Yan against the northern barbarians around 300 BC. Beginning in 220 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the founder of the Empire of the Ten Thousand Generations, undertook to restore and link up the separate sections of the Great Wall which had been built in the 3rd century BC, or perhaps even earlier, and which stretched from the region of the Ordos to Manchuria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Towards the west, he had extended the fortifications, the first cohesive defence system of which significant vestiges still remain in the valley of the Huanghe all the way to Lanzhou shortly before the accession of the Han dynasty (206 BC). During their reign the Great Wall was extended even further, and under the emperor Wudi (140-87 BC) it spanned approximately 6,000&amp;nbsp;km between Dunhuang in the west and the Bohai Sea in the east. The danger of incursion along the northern Chinese border by the federated Mongols, Turks and Tunguz of the Empire of the Xiongnu, the first empire of the steppes, made a defence policy more necessary than ever. After the downfall of the Han dynasty (AD 220), the Great Wall entered its medieval phase. Construction and maintenance works were halted; China at that time enjoyed such great military power that the need for a defence policy was no longer felt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was the Ming Emperors (1368-1644) who, after the long period of conflict that ended with the expulsion of the Mongols, revived the tradition begun by Qin Shi Huang. During the Ming dynasty, 5,650&amp;nbsp;km of wall were built. To defend the northern frontier, the Wall was divided into nine Zhen, military districts rather than garrisons. At strategic points, fortresses were built to defend the towns, passes, or fords. The passageways running along the top of the wall made it possible to move troops rapidly and for imperial couriers to travel. Two symbolic monuments still proudly stand at either end of the wall - the First Door under Heaven at Shanhaiguan, located at the wall's eastern end, and the Last Door under Heaven at Jiayuguan, which, as part of the fortress entirely restored after 1949, marks its north-western end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This complex and diachronic cultural property is an outstanding and unique example of a military architectural ensemble which served a single strategic purpose for 2,000 years, but whose construction history illustrates successive advances in defence techniques and adaptation to changing political contexts. The purpose of The Great Wall was to protect China from outside aggression, but also to preserve its culture from the customs of foreign barbarians. Because its construction implied suffering, it is one of the essential references in Chinese literature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Great Wall of the Ming is, not only because of the ambitious character of the undertaking but also the perfection of its construction, a masterpiece. The wall constitutes, on the vast scale of a continent, a perfect example of architecture integrated into the landscape. During the Chunqiu period, the Chinese imposed their models of construction and organization of space in building the defence works along the northern frontier. The spread of Sinicism was accentuated by the population transfers necessitated by the Great Wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;That the great walls bear exceptional testimony to the civilizations of ancient China is illustrated as much by the tamped-earth sections of fortifications dating from the Western Han that are conserved in Gansu Province as by the admirable and universally acclaimed masonry of the Ming period.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In c. 220 B.C., under Qin Shi Huang, sections of earlier fortifications were joined together to form a united defence system against invasions from the north. Construction continued up to the Ming dynasty (1368&amp;ndash;1644), when the Great Wall became the world's largest military structure. Its historic and strategic importance is matched only by its architectural significance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Great Wall</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>508</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/439</http_url><id_number>439</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_439.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Imperial Palaces represent masterpieces in the development of imperial palace architecture in China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The architecture of the Imperial Palace complexes, particularly in Shenyang, exhibits an important interchange of influences of traditional architecture and Chinese palace architecture particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Imperial Palaces bear exceptional testimony to Chinese civilisation at the time of the Ming and Qing dynasties, being true reserves of landscapes, architecture, furnishings and objects of art, as well as carrying exceptional evidence to the living traditions and the customs of Shamanism practised by the Manchu people for centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Imperial Palaces provide outstanding examples of the greatest palatial architectural ensembles in China. They illustrate the grandeur of the imperial institution from the Qing Dynasty to the earlier Ming and Yuan dynasties, as well as Manchu traditions, and present evidence on the evolution of this architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.7941666700</latitude><location></location><longitude>123.4469444000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Imperial Palaces bear exceptional testimony to Chinese civilization, being true reserves of landscapes, architecture, furnishings and objects of art, as well as containing exceptional evidence to the living traditions and the customs of shamanism practised by the Manchu people for centuries. They illustrate the grandeur of the imperial institution from the Qing dynasty to the earlier Ming and Yuan dynasties, as well as Manchu traditions, and present evidence on the evolution of this architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lying at the centre of Beijing to the north of Tiananmen Square, the Forbidden City was the Imperial Palace during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Now known as the Palace Museum, it is rectangular in shape and is the world's largest palace complex, covering 74&amp;nbsp;ha. The curtain wall has a gate on each side and there are towers at each of the four corners, affording views over both the palace and the city outside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Forbidden City is an extremely formal place: it is almost symmetrical and hierarchically arranged so that all the important buildings run down the centre, north-south. The Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony and the Hall of Preserving Harmony, which comprise the outer palace where the Emperor exercised his supreme power over the nation, and the Hall of Heavenly Purity, the Hall of Union and the Hall of Earthly Tranquillity, comprising the inner palace where the imperial family lived, stand in a line from south to north on the central axis. In keeping with geomancy, the main gate is in the south and the northern side is 'protected' by the artificial Coal Hill. The buildings of the Forbidden City fully embody the artistic features and style of ancient Chinese palace architecture, and can be called a masterpiece in Chinese, even world, architectural history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1406 the Ming dynasty Emperor Zhu Di ordered the construction of an imperial palace: its construction began in 1407 and was completed in 1420. The stone needed was quarried from Fangshan, a suburb of Beijing: for 20,000 peasants to be able to move an enormous stone cylinder in winter, engineers created a huge ice path by pouring liquid water on the frozen soil, and thousands of horses pulled the stone across the ice to the centre of Beijing. Wood was even more difficult to move. Giant trees in Sichuan province were felled for the main halls, but it was found that they were too large to move. Workers had to wait until torrential rains washed the logs into rivers, where boatmen steered them into the Grand Canal, from where they were floated north to Beijing and towed into the palace grounds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Imperial Palace of the Qing dynasty in Shenyang consists of 114 buildings; it contains an important library and testifies to the foundation of the last dynasty that ruled China, before it expanded its power to the centre of the country and moved the capital to Beijing. This palace then became auxiliary to the Imperial Palace in Beijing. This remarkable architectural edifice offers important historical testimony to the history of the Qing dynasty and to the cultural traditions of the Manchu and other tribes in the north of China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began on building the palace in 1625 and it was completed in 1636. Although considered to be a miniature of the Forbidden City in Beijing, the Shenyang Palace by comparison is smaller in scale. The Manchurian influence behind its construction also shows a departure in style from its predecessor. The main architecture on the central axis is the Chong Zheng Dian, where the Emperoro attended to his political affairs (this is where Juchen was renamed Manchu). Behind are Feng Huang Lou (Phoenix Tower) and Qing Ning Gong (Palace of Celestial Peace) in which he and his concubines lived. Da Zheng Dian (Hall of Great Affairs) is the main building on the east axis. In front of the hall there are eight pavilions where the Manchurian tribal lords gathered to discuss state affairs and for other important ceremonies.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2004</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Seat of supreme power for over five centuries (1416-1911), the Forbidden City in Beijing, with its landscaped gardens and many buildings (whose nearly 10,000 rooms contain furniture and works of art), constitutes a priceless testimony to Chinese civilization during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Imperial Palace of the Qing Dynasty in Shenyang consists of 114 buildings constructed between 1625–26 and 1783. It contains an important library and testifies to the foundation of the last dynasty that ruled China, before it expanded its power to the centre of the country and moved the capital to Beijing. This palace then became auxiliary to the Imperial Palace in Beijing. This remarkable architectural edifice offers important historical testimony to the history of the Qing Dynasty and to the cultural traditions of the Manchu and other tribes in the north of China.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Imperial Palaces of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>510</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/440</http_url><id_number>440</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_440.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.1333300000</latitude><location>Dunhuang County, Gansu Province.  At the eastern foot of Mount Mingsha, 25 kilometres southeast of the County seat.</location><longitude>94.8166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The group of caves at Mogao represents a unique artistic achievement as much by the organization of space into cells and temples built on five levels as by the production of more than 2000 sculptures carved out of the rock walls, then covered with clay and painted, and the approximately 45,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of murals, among which are many masterpieces of Chinese art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the desert landscape of the extreme north-west of Gansu Province are the cliffs of Mogao, which form the eastern edge of Mount Mingsha. The cliffs rise above the Dachuan River, which is 25&amp;nbsp;km south-east of the Dunhuang oasis. Within the cliffs are the 492 natural cells and rock sanctuaries extending over 1,600&amp;nbsp;m that make up the famous Caves of a Thousand Buddhas (Qianfodong). The history of these caves is inseparably linked with that of the first Chinese expeditions against the nomads of the Mongolian steppes and Central Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the almost complete failure of the expedition of Zhang Qian in the ancient country of Bactria in 139-126 BC, a long section of great walls was built to protect the northern frontier. In 117 BC, military posts, like that of Dunhuang, were established. Two years later, the number of these command posts was doubled. Control of the Hexi pass and the oases route, which was the central segment of the Silk Route that connected China with the Mediterranean world, was the motivating factor in the incessant conflicts between the Chinese sovereigns and the nomads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dunhuang would remain cut off from the Middle Empire for long periods at a time, and so constituted a cosmopolitan enclave where all the peoples of Asia mingled together. Many foreign religions were represented, and devotees of Buddhism, Nestorianism and Islam could be found in this caravan oasis. According to an inscription, Buddhist monks first began work on the caves of Mogao in AD 366, whereas the state officially recognized Buddhism as a religion only in 444.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The majority of the cells and temples were constructed, however, from the 5th century up through the 14th century, when the region began to decline. Several great moments of the history of Central Asia are illustrated in the caves and frescos that illustrate doctrinal themes, reflecting transcendental teaching, correspond to the period in the 7th century when the Tang dynasty tightened its control of the Silk Route.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Tantric themes appear at the time of the occupation of Dunhuang by the Tibetans, from 790 to 851. Following the conquest of Gansu by the Tanguts, these themes multiplied, encouraged by the proliferation of lama sects under the Western Xia (1036-1227). With this same invasion in 1036 correspond the 45,000 manuscripts discovered in 1900 by the Taoist monk Wang Yuan-lu (Wang Guolu) in a cave where they had been hidden at the approach of the Tanguts. Although dispersed, this fabulous collection is one of the essential sources of Asian history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mogao caves are closely associated with the history of transcontinental relations and that of the propagation of Buddhism in Asia. Being so strongly linked with the history of China, they constitute an anthology of Buddhist art with paintings and sculptures spanning a period of a thousand years. Moreover, since they were still occupied by Buddhist monks from the end of the 19th century until 1930, the rock-art ensemble at Mogao, administered by the Dunhuang Cultural Relics Research Institute, preserves the example of a traditional monastic settlement.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated at a strategic point along the Silk Route, at the crossroads of trade as well as religious, cultural and intellectual influences, the 492 cells and cave sanctuaries in Mogao are famous for their statues and wall paintings, spanning 1,000 years of Buddhist art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mogao Caves</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>511</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/441</http_url><id_number>441</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_441.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.3833333300</latitude><location>Lintong County, Shaanxi Province</location><longitude>109.1000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang is the largest preserved one in China. It is a unique architectural ensemble whose layout echoes the urban plan of the capital, Xianyang, with the Imperial Palace enclosed by the walls of the city, themselves encircled by other walls. The mausoleum is also associated with an event of universal significance: the first unification of the Chinese territory in a centralized state created by an absolute monarch, in 221 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang (Ying Zheng: 221-210 BC) arranged for his burial place long before his accession to the seat of supreme power. When he became king of Qin in 247 BC, Zheng had his geomancers choose a favourable site at the foot of Mount Li. Work was commenced and was carried out more energetically with each new political and military success over his rivals Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan and Qi. Following the proclamation of the Empire of Ten Thousand Generations in 221, work at the burial place took on extraordinary dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;About 700,000 workers from every province of the empire toiled unceasingly until the death of the emperor in order to construct a subterranean city within a gigantic mound. The place was a veritable scale model of the palace, the empire and the world. Its treasures were safeguarded by automatically triggered weapons designed to thwart tomb robbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Qin Shi Huang's death, the principal craftsmen of the hypogeum were walled up on the orders of the second emperor, as a precaution against their betraying their secrets. The mausoleum, 35&amp;nbsp;km from Xian, is still landmarked by an imposing mound 43&amp;nbsp;m high. The interior is built within a first square enclosure, with doors in the middle of each of the four walls corresponding to the four cardinal points. This in turn is surrounded by a second rectangular enclosure running north-south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mausoleum's superstructures have disappeared and there remains only a wooded knoll resembling a truncated pyramid on a 350&amp;nbsp;m square base. While sinking a well 1.5&amp;nbsp;km from the exterior eastern wall of the mausoleum's inner room, three peasants from the small village of Yangeun-West came upon a pit in which there were lifesize terracotta statues of warriors. Excavations were begun immediately. Pit 1 contained a veritable army of 1,087 warriors, the infantry and cavalry corps standing in battle formation with archers protecting the flanks. Today it is estimated that there are a potential 6,000 statues of warriors and horses in that one pit alone, which has floored galleries 230&amp;nbsp;m long. It is now entirely enclosed by the site museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two other pits were discovered just north of Pit 1 and were found to contain similar items - 1,500 warriors, carts and horses in Pit 2, and 68 officers and dignitaries and a cart with four horses in Pit 3. These pits were provisionally backfilled and the objects extracted from them displayed in exhibition rooms flanking the north and south ends of the great hall of the site museum. Other finds were made on the western slope of the mound; these included notably two half-life-size cast bronze quadrigae.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to current estimates, the statue army of the Qin Shi Huang Mausoleum must have represented the exact number of the imperial guards. Over the past thirteen years, discoveries have revealed the dimensions of the mausoleum, and the site constitutes one of the most fabulous archaeological reserves in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of their exceptional technical and artistic qualities, the terracotta warriors and horses and the funerary carts in bronze are major works in the history of Chinese sculpture prior to the reign of the Han dynasty. The army of statues also bears unique testimony to the military organization in China at the time of the Warring Kingdoms (475-221 BC) and that of the short-lived Empire of a Thousand Generations (221-210 BC) The direct testimony of the objects found &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; (lances, swords, axes, halberds, bows, arrows, etc.) is evident.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;No doubt thousands of statues still remain to be unearthed at this archaeological site, which was not discovered until 1974. Qin (d. 210 B.C.), the first unifier of China, is buried, surrounded by the famous terracotta warriors, at the centre of a complex designed to mirror the urban plan of the capital, Xianyan. The small figures are all different; with their horses, chariots and weapons, they are masterpieces of realism and also of great historical interest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>512</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/449</http_url><id_number>449</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_449.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.7333333300</latitude><location>Fangshanxian County, Beijing Municipality</location><longitude>115.9166667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site at Choukoutien (today Zhoukoudian), located 42&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Peking (Beijing), was explored as early as 1921 by the Swedish geologist J.&amp;nbsp;G. Anderson. The discovery in the sediment of a cave of hominid teeth and then, in 1926, of a whole skull by the Chinese archaeologist Pei Wen Chung (Pei Wen Zhong) excited universal interest, to which the works of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin contributed notably. The chronology of the beginnings of human history generally accepted until then was overthrown by this discovery, since &lt;em&gt;Sinanthropus pekinensis&lt;/em&gt;, or &lt;em&gt;Homo erectus pekinensis&lt;/em&gt;, lived in the Middle Pleistocene epoch, 700,000-200,000 years before modern times, had mastered fire, and used a number of chipped stone tools. Successive excavations in and around the cave brought to light a great number of incomplete human bones which, after anthropological study, were shown to belong to 40 different individuals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 100,000 objects, essentially rather rough chipped stone tools, numerous traces of domestic hearths, heat-affected stones, burnt bones, ash deposits, etc., as well as fossilized grains, were found. Not far from the main site, a second cave was found to contain remains of &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt;, dated back to between 18,000 and 11,000 BC, together with a large quantity of other material: necklaces made with teeth, pierced shells and pebbles, bone needles, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the Sino-Japanese conflict, which began in 1937, interrupted the excavations with the most disastrous consequences: the remains of Sinanthropus pekinensis discovered prior to this date were dispersed or lost. Only the casts exhibited in the site museum and some isolated fragments preserved in Sweden remain to this day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations undertaken after the war by archaeologists from the People's Republic of China have in part compensated for these losses through the discovery of a full jaw (1959) and several elements of cranium (1966). At the same time, other discoveries within China revealed hominids contemporary with Peking Man or older: Lantian Man, found in 1963-64 in Chansi (Shaanxi) Province; and Yuanmou Man, found in 1965 in Yunnan Province. Indeed, the Zhoukoudian site bears witness to the human communities of the Asian continent from the Middle Pleistocene to the Palaeolithic, and more generally illustrates the process of hominization that can only be fully apprehended on a worldwide scale and with the help of numerous examples.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Scientific work at the site, which lies 42 km south-west of Beijing, is still underway. So far, it has led to the discovery of the remains of &lt;em&gt;Sinanthropus pekinensis&lt;/em&gt;, who lived in the Middle Pleistocene, along with various objects, and remains of &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt; dating as far back as 18,000&amp;ndash;11,000 B.C. The site is not only an exceptional reminder of the prehistorical human societies of the Asian continent, but also illustrates the process of evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Peking Man Site at Zhoukoudian</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>521</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/637</http_url><id_number>637</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_637.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>33.0833300000</latitude><location>Nanping County, Sichuan Province</location><longitude>103.9166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The valley lies in the southern part of the Min Shan Range, approximately 330&amp;nbsp;km from the provincial capital of Chengdu and includes the catchment areas of the Shizheng, Rize and Zechawa gullies, which join Jiuzhaigou Valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lying on the edge of the diverging belt between the Qinghai-Tibet Plate and the Yangtze Plate, there are major fault lines running through the site: earthquakes are not uncommon and have been a major influence on the geological landscape. Of greater geological interest, are the high-altitude karst landforms that have been strongly influenced by glacial, hydrological and tectonic activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The best known features are the large number of lakes in the area: many are classic ribbon lakes, at the base of glacially formed valleys, which have been dammed naturally, for example behind rock falls from avalanches. Processes of carbonate deposition are responsible for the cementation and stabilization of these dams. A number of the lakes are bounded on the upstream and downstream sides by calcareous tufa dykes and shoals. In two places, there are a stepped series of lakes, like terraces separated by these tufa dykes. These sites, Shuzheng Lakes and Nuorilang Lakes, with 19 and 18 lakes respectively, can be compared with the travertine pools of Huanglong Scenic Area to the south. They are less well-developed geologically but are much larger in size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Also of note are a number of large and spectacular waterfalls, including Xionguashai (Panda Lake) Fall and the Zhengzhutan (Pearl Shoal) Fall. This latter fall lies at the downstream end of the Zhengshutan, which is the larger of two calcareous tufa shoals in the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hydrology of the site is dominated by three valleys, Rize and Zechawa gullies flowing from the south and meeting at the centre of the site where they form the Shuzheng Gully.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over most of the site the soils express their limestone parent rock, to a greater or lesser degree, while there is some variance in colour and texture. They are all neutral to slightly alkali. On the higher mountain slopes, the soils are poorly developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rich flora and wide altitudinal range undoubtedly contribute to a highly diverse and important range of fauna. There are no records of detailed surveys or inventories, but 10 mammal's species are listed including notable species such as giant panda, golden snub-nosed monkey, lesser panda, Szechwan takin, mainland serow, common goral and Thorold's deer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There have been 141 species of bird recorded from the site. Some 13 of these are listed including Chinese monal, snowy-cheeked laughing thrush and a subspecies of Tengmalm's owl, which is endemic to the region.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Stretching over 72,000 ha in the northern part of Sichuan Province, the jagged Jiuzhaigou valley reaches a height of more than 4,800 m, thus comprising a series of diverse forest ecosystems. Its superb landscapes are particularly interesting for their series of narrow conic karst land forms and spectacular waterfalls. Some 140 bird species also inhabit the valley, as well as a number of endangered plant and animal species, including the giant panda and the Sichuan takin.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jiuzhaigou Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>757</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established 1982. Large parts of the area have received protection for hundreds of thousands of years, either because of their inaccessibility or because of their important position in local culture and the Tibetan religion. The site was listed as a state scenic district in 1982; the Sichuan provincial government gave the entire site legal protection in January 1987. In 1992, the central and second class conservation zone was accepted as a natural World Heritage status on the basis of meeting criteria (iii). The Mouni Gully separate subdivision to the west is not part of the World Heritage site.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/638</http_url><id_number>638</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_638.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.7541700000</latitude><location>Songpan County, Sichuan Province</location><longitude>103.8222200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The property lies in the southern part of the Min Shan Range, approximately 150&amp;nbsp;km north/north-west of the provincial capital of Chengdu. It is divided into two distinct sites: the Huanglong subdivision and the Mouni Gully subdivision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tectonic activity, in the form of earthquakes, is fairly frequent. The relief is predominantly precipitous, a particularly spectacular example being where the Fujiang River flows through the Danyun Gorge. Above the timberline are extensive areas of precipitous mountain scenery, snow-covered for much of the year. Xuebaoding, or Snow Mountain Peak, is permanently snow-covered and bears the easternmost glacier in China. Of greatest geologically interest is the extensive calcite deposition that has taken place, notably along the 3.6&amp;nbsp;km Huanglonggou (Yellow Dragon Gully) where there are several extensive areas of travertine pools. Algae and bacteria proliferate in a number of these pools, giving a wide range of colours from orange and yellow to green and blue. Other karst features include long limestone shoals, notably Liujinshan (Glazed Golden Fan) and Jinshatan (Golden Sand Beach), in Huanglonggou. These are extensive slopes of active limestone deposition, covered entirely by a thin layer of flowing water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Huanglong subdivision contains the main tributaries leading into the upper waters of the Fujiang River, which has its source at the Snow Mountain Ridge. Water flow varies throughout the year, with peak flows during the flood season from May to July. A number of low-temperature hot springs rise from deep groundwater.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mouni Gully subdivision consists of two parallel small gullies, Zhaga and Erdaohai. There are two important areas of hot springs in this site: FeicuiKuang-quan and the springs in Zhuzhuhu. The waters of both springs have high mineral contents and are said to have important medicinal properties. Mouni Gully also contains a number of very attractive lakes and the Zhaga Waterfall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Huanglong is situated at the transition zone between the eastern damp forest zone and the mountainous coniferous woods/meadow grassland and shrub zone of Qing-Zang Plateau. It lies close to the intersection of four floral regions: Eastern Asia, Himalaya, and the subtropical and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1,700&amp;nbsp;m to 2,300&amp;nbsp;m, there is a belt of mixed forest dominated by Chinese hemlock, Chinese or dragon spruce and three species of maple. Between 2,300&amp;nbsp;m and 3,600&amp;nbsp;m, the forest is largely coniferous and subalpine in character, dominated by spruces; firs; larch and birches. Between 3,600&amp;nbsp;m and 4,200&amp;nbsp;m, the forest gives way to alpine meadows dominated by shrubs and grasses. From 4,200&amp;nbsp;m to 4,800&amp;nbsp;m vegetation is sparser, but includes shrubs. Above 4,800m, there is permanent snow and ice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A large number of faunal species listed are threatened mammals include such notable species as giant panda, golden snub-nosed monkey, brown bear Asiatic black bear, leopard, Pallas' cat, Asiatic wild dog, lesser panda, Szechwan takin, mainland serow, common goral, argali and three species of deer.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the north-west of Sichaun Province, the Huanglong valley is made up of snow-capped peaks and the easternmost of all the Chinese glaciers. In addition to its mountain landscape, diverse forest ecosystems can be found, as well as spectacular limestone formations, waterfalls and hot springs. The area also has a population of endangered animals, including the giant panda and the Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkey.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Huanglong Scenic and Historic Interest Area</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>758</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Approved as a scenic and historic interest area by the State Council in 1988, and was placed under the authority of Wulingyuan District Government which was created in the same year. In ancient times, the site was remote, inaccessible and seldom visited: it thus remained almost untouched by man until the founding of People's Republic of China in 1949. Since that time it was under the administration of three county governments, until the Wulingyuan District was established and instructed to take great care to ensure protection, with the closure of some hills to facilitate afforestation. In 1992 the core zone was established as a natural World Heritage Site on the basis of criterion (iii).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/640</http_url><id_number>640</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_640.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.3333300000</latitude><location>The Wulingyuan District of the City of Dayong, Hunan Province</location><longitude>110.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site lies in the Wulingyuan District of the city of Dayong and covers the entire drainage basin of the Suoxi Brook, which winds for 69&amp;nbsp;km through the site. The most notable feature, dominating about two-thirds of the site, are more than 3,000 quartzite sandstone pillars and peaks. Between the peaks are numerous ravines and gorges, many containing attractive streams, pools and waterfalls. The site also contains a number of karst features, notably some 40 caves which are concentrated on the banks of the Suoxiyu River and the south-east side of Tianzi Mountain. Huanglong or Yellow Dragon Cave is said to be one of the 10 largest caves in China. Spectacular calcite deposits are a major feature of many of these caves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are two spectacular natural bridges in the area: Xianrenqias (Bridge of the Immortals) and Tianqiashengkong (Bridge Across the Sky). It lies 357&amp;nbsp;m above the valley floor and may be the highest natural bridge in the world. The site is popularly known to have '800 brooks and streams' but in reality, there are far less, perhaps 60. Many drain into the Suoxi River which runs through the centre of the site. One of the side branches of this river has been dammed at one point, creating Baojeng Lake. This lake has been created for water supply, flood control and to enhance the habitat for the Chinese giant salamander as well as for recreation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wulingyuan lies in the Central China Botanic Region of the Sino-Japanese Botanic Zone, and was a refuge for many ancient species during the Quaternary glacial period. Below 700&amp;nbsp;m the community is predominantly evergreen broadleaf. Between 700&amp;nbsp;m and 950&amp;nbsp;m, there is a mixed community of evergreen and deciduous broadleaved trees. There are also some coniferous species including Chinese plum yew and pines. Above 950&amp;nbsp;m, there is a community of deciduous broadleaved trees, bushes and herbs; in some areas below 1,000&amp;nbsp;m, extensive communities are dominated by pine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;3,000 species of plant occur within the area, including some 600 species of woody plant; these are split fairly evenly between tropical/subtropical and temperate species. Many of the species are of value for timber, medical or ornamental purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A number of faunal species are globally threatened with extinction: Chinese giant salamander, Asiatic wild dog, Asiatic black bear, clouded leopard, leopard and Chinese water deer. The clouded leopard population is likely to be very small, although tracks and others signs have been found they have never actually been seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unlike many other areas of China, the site does not have a long human history. In ancient times it was regarded as remote and inaccessible. Local legends indicate that Zhangliang, a lord in the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220), lived in seclusion in Wulingyuan and was buried below Qingyan (now Zhangjiajie) Mountain.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A spectacular area stretching over more than 26,000 ha in China's Hunan Province, the site is dominated by more than 3,000 narrow sandstone pillars and peaks, many over 200 m high. Between the peaks lie ravines and gorges with streams, pools and waterfalls, some 40 caves, and two large natural bridges. In addition to the striking beauty of the landscape, the region is also noted for the fact that it is home to a number of endangered plant and animal species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>760</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In order to strengthen its control of the Mongolian region and the defence of the country's northern borders, the Qing government established the Mulan Hunting Ground on the Mongolian grasslands, over 350 km from Beijing. Each year the Emperor would bring his ministers and his eight Standard Royal troops, along with his family and concubines, to hunt at Mulan. To accommodate this entourage of several thousand people, 21 temporary palaces were built, among them the Mountain Resort (also known as the Rehe Temporary Imperial Palace) and its Outlying Temples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Building began in 1703 and the last project was completed in 1792, covering the reigns of three successive Emperors of the Qing Dynasty (Kang Xi, Yong Zheng, and Qian Long). The work was carried out in two stages:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;1703-14 Opening up of the lake area, construction of islets and dykes, preparatory to building of palaces, pavilions, and palace walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;1741-54 Addition of further palaces and scenic gardens. Between 1713 and 1780 the Outlying Temples were also being built. With the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911the resort was abandoned; restoration work&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/703</http_url><id_number>703</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_703.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.9869400000</latitude><location>Chengde City, Hebei Province</location><longitude>117.9383300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The landscape of the Mountain Resort and its Outlying Temples is an outstanding example of Chinese integration of buildings into the natural environment, which had and continues to have a profound influence on landscape design. The Mountain Resort was the Qing dynasty's garden-type Imperial Palace and so has rich social, political and historical significance. The site represents in material form, moreover, the final flowering of feudal society in China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In order to strengthen its control of the Mongolian region and the defence of the country's northern borders, the Qing government established the Mulan Hunting Ground on the Mongolian grasslands, over 350&amp;nbsp;km from Beijing. Each year the Emperor would bring his ministers and his Eight Standard Royal troops, along with his family and concubines, to hunt at Mulan. To accommodate this entourage of several thousand people, 21 temporary palaces were built, among them the Mountain Resort (also known as the Rehe Temporary Imperial Palace) and its Outlying Temples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Building began in 1703 and the last project was completed in 1792, covering the reigns of three successive emperors of the Qing dynasty. The work was carried out in two stages: from 1703 to 1714 opening up the lake area, construction of islets and dykes preparatory to building of palaces, pavilions and palace walls; and from 1741 to 1754 addition of further palaces and scenic gardens. Between 1713 and 1780 the Outlying Temples were also being built. With the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911 the resort was abandoned; restoration work began after the foundation of the People's Republic of China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mountain Resort consists of the palace area and the landscape. The palace area, which covers 102,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , is in the south part of the resort, and this was the area where the Qing emperors lived, handled administrative matters and held ceremonies. It originally consisted of four groups of buildings, including the Main Hall, Songhe Hall, Wanhe Songfeng Palace and East Palace; the buildings are in traditional simple Chinese style, but with imperial solemnity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lake Area, which covers 496,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the south-eastern part of the resort, is laid out in accordance with traditional Chinese garden design, based on Chinese mythology. There are eight lakes and several groups of buildings which create a landscape similar to that of the region to the south of the Yangtze River.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Plain Area, to the north of the Resort, covers 607,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and is divided into two parts - the western grasslands and the eastern forests. The former was used for horse-racing and the latter (also known as the Ten Thousand Tree Garden) was a political centre, used for receiving distinguished visitors. In the western part of the Ten Thousand Tree Garden is Wenjin Hall, one of the largest imperial libraries. Many other buildings are dotted around the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mountain Area, in the north-west of the resort, covers over 4&amp;nbsp;million m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and consists of four large ravines: Zhengzi, Songlin, Lishu and Songyun. Only the ruins survive of the 40 groups of halls, pavilions, temples and monasteries that were once located in this area. The Outlying Temples were built to appease the ethnic minority peoples (Mongolians, Tibetans and others) and to strengthen the administration of the border regions. They consist of twelve lamaseries in different architectural styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The combination of the Han and Tibetan styles of architecture is a major feature of the other Outlying Temples (Punin, Puyou, Anyuan and Pule). The front parts of the temples are in Han style and the rear in Tibetan style. They are especially notable for the technological and artistic skills in the images that they house, such as the Shanglewang Buddha in the Pule Temple and the Goddess of Mercy in the Puning Temple.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mountain Resort (the Qing dynasty's summer palace), in Hebei Province, was built between 1703 and 1792. It is a vast complex of palaces and administrative and ceremonial buildings. Temples of various architectural styles and imperial gardens blend harmoniously into a landscape of lakes, pastureland and forests. In addition to its aesthetic interest, the Mountain Resort is a rare historic vestige of the final development of feudal society in China.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mountain Resort and its Outlying Temples, Chengde</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>831</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Confucius (551-479 BC) was a renowned philosopher, politician, and educator in the Spring and Autumn Period. The system of belief that he created was adopted as the pre-eminent ideology in feudal Chinese society for more than two thousand years: he was the "Sacred First Teacher" and Sacred Model Teacher for Ten Thousand Years".&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two years after his death Duke Gun of Lu consecrated his former house in Qufu as a temple, within which were preserved his clothing, musical instruments, carriage, and books. Emperor Liu Bang of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 220) visited Qufu to offer sacrifices to the memory of Confucius and his example was followed by high officials. The temple was rebuilt in AD 153, and it was repaired and renovated several times in subsequent centuries. In AD 611 the Temple was rebuilt again, and this time the original three-room house effectively disappeared as a component of the complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much enlargement and extension was carried out in the 7th-10th centuries; in 1012 during the Song Dynasty it was expanded into three sections with four courtyards, containing over three hundred rooms, and in 1194a further extension increased the number of rooms to over 400. It was devastated by fire and vandalism in 1214, but rebuilding was commenced, so that by 1302 it had attained its former scale. An enclosure wall was built in 1331, on the model of an Imperial palace. Following another disastrous fire in 1499 it was rebuilt once again, to its present scale. Further fires resulted in the rebuilding on a more lavish scale of structures such as the Dacheng Hail. From the time of Liu Bang's visit, many Emperors visited the Temple to pay homage to Confucius, and it was given the highest rank among Chinese temples at a grand ceremony in 1906.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Confucius died in 479 BC he was buried on the bank of the Si River, 1 km north of Qufu, beneath a tomb in the form of an axe, with a brick platform for sacrifices. When Emperor Wu Di of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) accepted proposals to "eliminate the hundred schools of thought and respect only Confucianism", the Tomb became an important place of veneration and pilgrimage, and it was progressively enlarged and ornamented in the following centuries. By the 2nd century AD more than fifty tombs of Confucius's descendants had accumulated around the main tomb. Stelae commemorating him began to be erected in 1244 and in 1331 Kong Sihui began building the wall and gate of the Cemetery, and this work continued with the addition of gate towers, arches, pavilions, and the access road from the north gate of the city of Qufu (1594). By the late 18th century the Cemetery was extended to cover an area of 3.6 km', enclosed by a perimeter wall of over 7 km.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The descendants of Confucius lived and worked in the Kong Family Mansion, guarding and tending the Temple and Cemetery, and were given titles of nobility by successive Emperors. The hereditary title of Duke Yan Sheng granted by Emperor Ren Zhong of the Song Dynasty ((960-1279) was borne by successive direct male descendants until 1935, when the tide of the 77th generation direct descendant was changed to "State Master of Sacrifice and First Teacher".&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of the Mansion was moved in 1377 a short distance from the Temple, with which it had formerly been directly linked. The new Mansion was expanded in 1503 to comprise three rows of buildings, with a total of 560 rooms, and nine courtyards. It was completely renovated in 1838 at Imperial cost, but the new structure was destroyed by fire in 1885, only to be rebuilt, once again at Imperial cost, two years later.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/704</http_url><id_number>704</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_704.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.6116700000</latitude><location>Qufu City, Shandong Province</location><longitude>116.9750000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Qufu complex of monuments has retained its outstanding artistic and historic character owing to the devotion of successive Chinese emperors over more than 2,000 years. The system of belief that Confucius (551-479 BC) created was adopted as the pre-eminent ideology in feudal Chinese society for more than 2,000 years. Two years after the death of Confucius, Duke Gun of Lu consecrated his former house in Qufu as a temple, within which were preserved his clothing, musical instruments, carriage and books. The temple was rebuilt in AD 153, and it was repaired and renovated several times in subsequent centuries. In AD 611 the temple was again rebuilt, and this time the original three-room house effectively disappeared as a component of the complex. In 1012 during the Song dynasty it was expanded into three sections with four courtyards, containing over 300 rooms. It was devastated by fire and vandalism in 1214, but rebuilding was commenced, so that by 1302 it had attained its former scale. An enclosure wall was built in 1331, on the model of an imperial palace. Following another disastrous fire in 1499 it was rebuilt once again, to its present scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gateway to the temple is flanked by cypresses and pines on either side. The main part is arranged on a central axis and has nine courtyards. The first three, with their small gates and tall pines, lead the visitor into the heart of the religious complex. From the fourth courtyard onwards, the buildings are stately structures with yellow-tiled roofs and red-painted walls, set off by dark green pines, epitomizing the profundity and harmony of Confucianism. Over 1,000 stelae recording imperial donations and sacrifices from the Han dynasty onwards are preserved within the temple, along with outstanding examples of calligraphy and other forms of documentation, all priceless examples of Chinese art. There are many fine carved stones, among the most important being the Han stone reliefs (206 BC-AD 220) and the stone pillars and carved pictures depicting the life of Confucius of the Ming dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Confucius died in 479 BC he was buried on the bank of the Si River, beneath a tomb in the form of an axe, with a brick platform for sacrifices. When Emperor Wu Di of the Western Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) accepted proposals to 'eliminate the hundred schools of thought and respect only Confucianism', the tomb became an important place of veneration and pilgrimage. By the 2nd century AD more than 50 tombs of Confucius's descendants had accumulated around the main tomb, and stelae commemorating him began to be erected in 1244. In 1331 Kong Sihui began building the wall and gate of the Cemetery, and this work continued with the addition of gate towers, arches, pavilions, and the access road from the north gate of the city of Qufu (1594). The exterior gate of the Cemetery is connected with the north gate of Qufu by a straight road lined with cypresses and pines. There is a narrow walled enclosure leading to the second gate, which gives access to an open area containing grass, trees and a river; to the west, after crossing the Zhu River Bridge, the visitor comes upon the tomb of Confucius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The descendants of Confucius lived and worked in the Kong Family Mansion, guarding and tending the temple and cemetery, and were given titles of nobility by successive emperors. The hereditary title of Duke Yan Sheng granted by Emperor Ren Zhong of the Song dynasty (960-1279) was borne by successive direct male descendants until 1935, when the title was changed to State Master of Sacrifice and First Teacher. The mansion follows the traditional Chinese layout, with the official rooms at the front and residential quarters at the rear. At its apogee in the 16th century, the mansion was made up of 170 buildings with 560 rooms, but only 152 buildings with 480 rooms survive. Many important cultural relics are preserved within the Mansion, including scrolls and paintings. The interior decor is that of the later Qing dynasty and the Republic of China (1912-49).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The temple, cemetery and family mansion of Confucius, the great philosopher, politician and educator of the 6th&amp;ndash;5th centuries B.C., are located at Qufu, in Shandong Province. Built to commemorate him in 478 B.C., the temple has been destroyed and reconstructed over the centuries; today it comprises more than 100 buildings. The cemetery contains Confucius' tomb and the remains of more than 100,000 of his descendants. The small house of the Kong family developed into a gigantic aristocratic residence, of which 152 buildings remain. The Qufu complex of monuments has retained its outstanding artistic and historic character due to the devotion of successive Chinese emperors over more than 2,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Temple and Cemetery of Confucius and the Kong Family Mansion in Qufu</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>832</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Work began on the buildings in the Wudang Mountains in the early Tang Dynasty, in AD 627-49. To commemorate the success of Yiao Jian, Governor of the Wudang Administrative Region, in bringing rain by prayer, the Emperor Taizong ordered the Five Dragon Hall to be built. This was quickly followed by the Taiyi and Yanchang Temples, and in 869 the Weiwu Gong Temple (Temple of the Powerful Duke) was built. In 1018 the Song Emperor Zhenzong converted the Five Dragon Hall into a temple, and his successor Huizong had the Purple Heaven Hall built beneath the Zhanqi Peak. Then came the Laojun Monastery and the Xianguan Terrace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Yuan Emperors relied on Taoism for support, and so the Emperor Shizu extended the Five Dragon Temple and made it into a palace. The Emperor Renzong, whose birthday was that of the god Zhenwu, gave a commemorative plaque to the building designed to give the impression that he was the god in disguise. In 1304 the mountains became known as "The Blessed Land", at which time the Gate to the Blessed Land was constructed. The Tianyi-Zhenqing Palace, the Yuxu Cliff Temple, the Thunder God's Cave, and the Yinxian Cliff Temple were also built around this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After his enthronement the Ming Emperor Zhu Di declared that his imperial power was granted by God, and announced that he was under the protection of the Taoist god Zhenwu. To repay the god's favour, he put his son-in-law Mu Xin, the head of the Ministry of Works Guo Jin, and the head of the Ministry of Rites Jin Chun at the head of four hundred officials charged with construction work in the Wudang Mountains. It took twenty thousand men twelve years to complete the work, which included nine palaces, nine temples, 36 monasteries, 72 cliff temples, and over a hundred stone bridges, divided into 33 groups. In 1416 he sent over three thousand prisoners to the area to work on the land to provision the Taoist monks. The local inhabitants were exempted from co&amp;amp;e labour, a large military force was stationed in the area, and workers were assigned to keep the temples and palaces clean. Renowned Taoists were summoned from all parts of the country to serve as elders at important palaces and temples. The title of "Great Mountain" was conferred on the Wudang range. All the subsequenMt ing Emperors sent their favourite eunuchst o the mountain to worship and allocated funds for the upkeep of the buildings. In 1552 the Ming Emperor Shizong put Lu Jie, head of the Ministry of Works, in charge of repair work; under his leadership, a hundred officials and workmen from more than sixty counties worked for nearly two years. The Zhishi-Xuanyue Gate was set up to commemorate this work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Ming Dynasty over 4000 ha of land belonged to the temples, thousand of Taoists lived in the area, and 369 Imperial edicts concerning the mountain were issued. The fame of Taoist monks from Wudang such as Zhang Shouqing, Lu Dayou, and Wang Zhen spread widely across China.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/705</http_url><id_number>705</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_705.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.4666700000</latitude><location>Danjiangkou City, Hubei Province</location><longitude>111.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The palaces and temples which form the nucleus of this group of secular and religious buildings exemplify the architectural and artistic achievements of China's Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Situated in the scenic valleys and on the slopes of the Wudang Mountains in Hubei Province, the site, which was built as an organized complex during the Ming dynasty (14th-17th centuries), represents the highest standards of Chinese art and architecture over a period of some 1,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To commemorate the success of the Governor of the Wudang Administrative Region in bringing rain by prayer, Emperor Taizong ordered the Five Dragon Hall to be built (627-49). This was quickly followed by the Taiyi and Yanchang Temples, and in 869 the Weiwu Gong Temple. In 1018 Song Emperor Zhenzong converted the Five Dragon Hall into a temple, and his successor had the Purple Heaven Hall built beneath the Zhanqi Peak. Then came the Laojun Monastery and the Xianguan Terrace. In 1304 the mountains became known as 'The Blessed Land', at which time the Gate to the Blessed Land was constructed. The Tianyi-Zhenqing Palace, the Yuxu Cliff Temple, the Thunder God's Cave, and the Yinxian Cliff Temple were also built around this time. After his enthronement Ming Emperor Zhu Di started construction work in the Wudang Mountains. It took 20,000 men 12 years to complete the work, which included 9 palaces, 9 temples, 36 monasteries, 72 cliff temples, and over 100 stone bridges, divided into 33 groups.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Wudang (Taihe) Mountain is located in Danjiangkou City, Hubei Province. Sky Pillar Peak, the highest at 1,612&amp;nbsp;m is surrounded by 72 lesser peaks and 24 ravines. The palaces and temples, which acted as nuclei for other structures, were built in valleys or on terraces, with monasteries and cliff temples clustered around them. They were distributed regularly across the landscape and linked by a network of sacred roads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the vast complex created during the Ming dynasty, four Taoist palaces (and three in ruins) survive, along with two temples and many monasteries and cliff temples. The Golden Shrine, situated in the middle of a stone terrace on the top of Sky Pillar Peak, was built from bronze, imitating wooden construction. The shrine, in the form of a palace, is 5.54&amp;nbsp;m high and surrounded by columns that support the five-ridged roof with double eaves (a form only permitted on imperial buildings). The whole structure is richly decorated and painted. The Ancient Bronze Shrine, on top of the Lotus Flower Peak, was made in 1307, in the same way as the Golden Shrine. The metalwork of the shrine is the earliest anywhere in China. The Forbidden City round the Sky Pillar Peak dates from 1419. Four wooden gates represent the Gates of Heaven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Purple Heaven Palace, built in 1119-26, rebuilt in 1413 and extended in 1803-20, is the largest and best-preserved building complex in the Wudang Mountains. There are five ascending terraces on the central axis, each with its hall; on the sides of the halls there are pavilions and annexes used by the Taoist monks as living quarters. The main structure is the Purple Heaven Hall, built from gigantic wooden pillars and beams. The decoration is sumptuous, especially the roof, which is covered with peacock-blue tiles and ornamented ridge tiles. The Nanyang Palace, built in 1285-1310 and extended in 1312, includes 21 buildings. The major buildings include the Tianyi-Zhenqing Stone Hall, Liangyi Hall, Bagua Pavilion, Tiger and Dragon Hall, Grand Pavilion and South Heavenly Gate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Dragon Head Incense Burner is a stone structure that projects over a deep valley. The farther end is carved in the form of a dragon's head in which an incense burner was placed. It is of special artistic and technological importance for its design and construction. The Fuzhen Temple, below the Lion Peak, was built in 1412 and extended in 1683. A screen wall, an incense burner, the Dragon and Tiger Hall, and the Prince's Hall are on the main axis of the complex. The Zhishi-Xuanyue Gateway is located at the intersection of the former Sacred Road and the main highway and marks the entrance to the Wudang Mountains. It is built from stone imitating wood and dates from 1522. It is ornately decorated with carved patterns of tortoises, dragons, cranes, plants, clouds, waves and celestial beings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The palaces and temples which form the nucleus of this group of secular and religious buildings exemplify the architectural and artistic achievements of China's Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Situated in the scenic valleys and on the slopes of the Wudang mountains in Hubei Province, the site, which was built as an organized complex during the Ming dynasty (14th&amp;ndash;17th centuries), contains Taoist buildings from as early as the 7th century. It represents the highest standards of Chinese art and architecture over a period of nearly 1,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient Building Complex in the Wudang Mountains</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>833</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Lhasa&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to historical records, construction of the Potala Palace began in the time of Songtsen Gampo of the Thubet or Tubo dynasty in the 7th century AD. It was rebuilt in the mid 17th century by the 5th Dalai Lama. It reached its present size and form in the years that foilowed, as a result of repeated renovation and expansion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Songtsen Gampo (reigned c. 609-649) played a very important role in the political, economie, and cultural development of Tibet; he also encouraged close links with central China. He united Tibet and, for political and military reasons, moved the capital from Lalong to Lhasa, where he built a palace on the Red Mountain in the centre of the city. He married Princess Tritsun (Bhrikuti) of the Nepalese Royal House and Princess Wencheng of the Chinese Tang Dynasty. 1t is recorded that his palace was an enormous complex of buildings with three defensive walls and 999 rooms, plus one on the peak of the Red Mountain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the collapse of the Tubo Dynasty in the 9th century, Tibetan society was plunged into a long period of turmoil, during which the Red Mountain Palace fell into disrepair. However, it began to assume the role of a religious site. During the 12th century Khyungpo Drakse of the Kadampa sect preached there, and it was later used for the same purpose by Tshurpu Karmapa and Tsongkapa, founder of the Gelukpa sect, and his disciples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Gelukpa sect developed rapidly in Tibet during the 15th century, assuming the dominant place. With the help of Gushri Khan, leader of the Mongol Khoshotd tribe, the 5th Dalai Lama defeated the Karmapa Dynasty in the mid 17th century and founded the Ganden Phodrang Dynasty. The dynasty's first seat of government was the Drepung Monastery; however, since the Red Mountain Palace bad been the residence of Songtsen Gampo and was close to the three major temples of Drepung, Sera, and Ganden, it was decided to rebuild it in arder to facilitate joint political and religious leadership. Reconstruction began in 1645, and three years later a complex of buildings with the White Palace (Phodrang Karpo) as its nucleus was completed. The 5th Dalai Lama moved there from Drepung Monastery, and ever since that time the Potala Palace bas been the residence and seat of government of succeeding Dalai Lamas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Building of the Red Palace was begun by Sangye Gyatsho, the chief executive official of the time, eight years after the death of the 5th Dalai Lama, as a memorial to him and to accommodate his funerary stupa. It was completed four years later, in 1694, and is second in size only to the White Palace. With its construction the Potala Palace became a vast complex of palace halls, Buddha halls, and stupas. Funerary stupas (chortens) were added in memory of the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 13th Dalai Lamas, each within its own hall. The most recent is that of the 13th Dalai Lama, the building of which lasted from 1934 to 1936.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Special mention should be made of the fact that the Meditation Cave of the Dharma King, situated at the top of the mountain where Songtsen Gampo is said to have studied, and the Lokeshvara Chapel, both of which preceded the building of the present Palace, have been incorporated into the complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Building of the Jokhang Temple Monastery began in the reign of Srong-brtsan-sgam-po XXXII in the 7th century CE, during the Tang Dynasty in China. This ruler united Tibet and moved his capital to Demon (present-day Lhasa). The Tibetan imperial court eagerly espoused Buddhism when it was introduced, and this process was intensified when Princess Bhikruti of Nepal and Princess Wen Cheng of the Tang Dynasty came to Tibet as royal consorts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of the Temple Monastery was selected, according to legend, when the cart in which Wen Cheng was bringing the statue of Sakyamuni sank into the mud by Wotang Lake. The Princess used divination to identify this as the site of the Dragon Palace, the malign influence of which could only be counteracted by the building of a monastery. The foundation stone was laid in 647 and the foundations were completed within a year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 823 the Tibetan regime and the Tang Dynasty entered into an alliance. To commemorate this event a stone was erected outside the monastery, known as the Stone Tablet of Long- Term Unity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first major reconstruction of the Jokhang Temple Monastery took place in the early 11th century. The Jokhang Buddhist Hall was extensively renovated and the Hall of Buddha Sakyamuni was added to its eastern side. The circumambulatory corridor around the hall was added around 1167, when the mural paintings were restored. Upward curving tiled eaves were added in the early 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the century following the reunification of the Tibetan kingdom by the Sakya Dynasty in the mid-13th century, a number of new developments took place. These included extension of the Hall of Buddha Sakyamuni, construction of a new entrance and the Hall of Buddha Dharmapala, and the introduction of sculptures of Srong-brtsan-sgam-po, Wen Cheng, and Bhikruti Devi. Buddhist halls and golden tiled roofs were added on the third storey on the east, west, and north sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tsongka Pa founded the reforming Gelugpa School of Tibetan Buddhism in the early 15th century, initiating the Great Prayer Festival. At his instigation part of the inner courtyard of the main Jokhang Hall was roofed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tibet was formally included in the Chinese domain during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368). In 1642 the 5th Dalai Lama, who had received an Imperial title from the Qing rulers of China, began a project of restoration that was to last thirty years. It was continued during the regency of Sangyetgyatso (1679-1703). The main entrance of the Temple Monastery, the Ten Thousand Buddha Corridor (Qianfolang), the Vendana Path, and the third and fourth storeys of the main Buddhist Hall all date from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Norbulingka&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Norbulingka was a place with gentle streams, dense and lush forest, birds, and animals known as Lava tsel. The 7th Dalai Lama is reported to have had health problems and he used to come here for a cure. The construction of Norbulingka started in 1751 with the Uya Palace, benefiting from financial assistance from the central government. Successive Dalai Lamas continued building pavilions, palaces, and halls, making it their summer residence, and soon the site became another religious, political, and cultural centre of Tibet, after the Potala Palace. The Gesang Palace was built in 1755 and included a court for debates. The Tsoje Palace and the Jensen Palace were built by the 13th Dalai Lama in the 1920s, influenced by his time in Beijing; the Gesang Deje Palace was constructed in 1926. The Tagtan Migyur Palace was built in 1954-56 with support from the Central People's Government. Since the departure of the 14th Dalai Lama in 1959, Norbulingka has been managed first by the Culture Management Group under the Preparatory Committee of the Autonomous Region and later directly by the Cultural Management Committee and Bureau.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/707</http_url><id_number>707</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_707.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.6579200000</latitude><location>Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region</location><longitude>91.1171700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Potala Palace symbolizes Tibetan Buddhism and its central role in the traditional administration of Tibet. Also founded in the 7th century, the Jokhang Temple Monastery is an exceptional Buddhist religious complex. Norbulingka, the Dalai Lama's former summer palace, constructed in the 18th century, is a masterpiece of Tibetan art. The beauty and originality of the architecture of these three sites, their rich ornamentation and harmonious integration in a striking landscape, add to their historic and religious interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of the Potala Palace began at the time of Songtsen of the Thubet (Tubo) dynasty in the 7th century AD. It was rebuilt in the mid-17th century by the 5th Dalai Lama in a campaign that lasted 30 years, reaching its present size in the years that followed, as a result of repeated renovation and expansion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Potala is located on Red Mountain, 3,700&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, in the centre of the Lhasa valley. It covers an area of over 130,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and stands more than 110&amp;nbsp;m high. The White palace is approached by a winding road leading to an open square in front of the palace. Its central section is the East Main Hall, where all the main ceremonies take place. The throne of the Dalai Lama is on the north side of the hall, the walls of which are covered with paintings depicting religious and historical themes. At the top of the White Palace is the personal suite of the Dalai Lama.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Red Palace lies to the west of the White Palace. Its purpose is to house the stupas holding the remains of the Dalai Lamas. It also contains many Buddha and sutra halls. To the west of the Red Palace is the Namgyel Dratshang, the private monastery of the Dalai Lama. Other important components of the Potala complex are the squares to the north and south and the massive palace walls, built from rammed earth and stone and pierced by gates on the east, south and west sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Building of the Jokhang Temple Monastery began in the 7th century CE, during the Tang dynasty in China. The Tibetan imperial court eagerly espoused Buddhism when it was introduced,&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of the Temple Monastery was selected, according to legend, when the cart in which Wen Cheng was bringing the statue of Sakyamuni sank into the mud by Wotang Lake. Divination identified this as the site of the Dragon Palace, the malign influence of which could only be counteracted by the building of a monastery. The foundation stone was laid in 647 and the first major reconstruction took place in the early 11th century. During the century following the reunification of the Tibetan kingdom by the Sakya dynasty in the mid-13th century, a number of new developments took place. These included extension of the Hall of Buddha Sakyamuni and construction of a new entrance and the Hall of Buddha Dharmapala.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Temple Monastery is in the centre of the old town of Lhasa. It comprises essentially an entrance porch, a courtyard and a Buddhist hall, surrounded by accommodation for monks and storehouses on all four sides. The buildings are constructed of wood and stone. The 7th Dalai Lama is reported to have had health problems and he used to come here for a cure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of Norbulingka started in 1751 with the Uya Palace. Successive Dalai Lamas continued building pavilions, palaces and halls, making it their summer residence, and soon the site became another religious, political, and cultural centre of Tibet, after the Potala Palace. Norbulingka (treasure garden) is located at the bank of the Lhasa River about 2&amp;nbsp;km west of the Potala Palace. The site consists of a large garden with several palaces, halls, and pavilions, amounting to some 36&amp;nbsp;ha. The area is composed of five sections.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2000, 2001</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Potala Palace, winter palace of the Dalai Lama since the 7th century, symbolizes Tibetan Buddhism and its central role in the traditional administration of Tibet. The complex, comprising the White and Red Palaces with their ancillary buildings, is built on Red Mountain in the centre of Lhasa Valley, at an altitude of 3,700m. Also founded in the 7th century, the Jokhang Temple Monastery is an exceptional Buddhist religious complex. Norbulingka, the Dalai Lama's former summer palace, constructed in the 18th century, is a masterpiece of Tibetan art. The beauty and originality of the architecture of these three sites, their rich ornamentation and harmonious integration in a striking landscape, add to their historic and religious interest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace, Lhasa</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>837</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Human activities in Lushan date back to at least the Neolitnic period (c 4000 BQ. Its importance began in the Han Dynasty, beginning in the late 3rd century BC: Emperors of this and succeeding dynasties ordered the building of a long series of monumental structures and it became a centre for study and religion. The monk Hui Yang founded the influential Jingtu sect of oriental Buddhism the East Grove Temple, and it was from here that Jian Zhen Set out to carry Buddhism to Japan around 750.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Tang Dynasty (618-907) Lushan became the centre of Other SeCtS - the Linji, the Caodong, and the Huang Long. This identification as a spiritual centre resulted in other religions being attracted to Lushan. Lu Xiujing built the Simplicity and Tranquillity Temple as the repository of Taoist scriptures. Other great religions, such as Islam andChristianity, alS0 established centres at Lushan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its spiritual and political significance has endured to the present day. During the 1930s and 1940s it was the Official Summer Capital Of the Republic Of China, and with the establishment Of the People's Republic in 1949 it was the venue for meetings of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party under the chairmanship of Ma0 Tzedong on no fewer than three occasions.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/778</http_url><id_number>778</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_778.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of cultural cultural criteria (ii), (iii), (iv) and (vi) as a cultural landscape of outstanding aesthetic value and its powerful associations with Chinese spiritual and cultural life.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>29.4333333300</latitude><location>Jiujiang City,  Jiangxi Province</location><longitude>115.8666667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site consists of a cultural landscape of outstanding aesthetic value and with powerful associations with Chinese spiritual and cultural life. Lushan (Mount Lu) is an area of striking scenic beauty and interest from the point of view of the natural environment that has attracted spiritual leaders and scholars, and also artists and writers, for over two millennia. The mountains have been the inspiration for some of the finest Chinese classical poetry. It is a landscape that has inspired philosophy and art, and into which high-quality cultural properties have been selectively and sensitively integrated up to the present century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Human activities in Lushan date back to at least the Neolithic period (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 4000 BQ). [BP?] Its importance began in the Han dynasty, beginning in the late 3rd century BC. Emperors of this and succeeding dynasties ordered the building of a long series of monumental structures and it became a centre for study and religion. The monk Hui Yang founded the influential Jingtu Sect of oriental Buddhism in the East Grove Temple, and it was from here that Jian Zhen set out to carry Buddhism to Japan around 750.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Tang dynasty (618-907) Lushan became the centre of other sects - the Linji, the Caodong and the Huang Long. This identification as a spiritual centre resulted in other religions being attracted to Lushan. Lu Xiu Jing built the Simplicity and Tranquillity Temple as the repository of Taoist scriptures. Other great religions, such as Islam and Christianity, also established centres at Lushan. Its spiritual and political significance has endured to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural properties in Lushan National Park fall into four groups: archaeological sites; inscriptions; historic buildings; and Chinese and foreign villas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological sites include the large Neolithic village of Tingzi Dun (4th millennium BC), the farming, hunting and fishing settlement of the Shang and Zhou dynasties of Fanzhou Yan (1600-1000 BC), the residences of Tao Yuan-Ming, who moved several times during his lifetime (365-427), and the battlefield of Boyang Lake (Three Kingdoms Period, 220-65).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than 900 inscriptions on cliffs and stone tablets have been recorded in Lushan. The oldest of the cliff inscriptions is in the calligraphy of the great pastoral poet of the Jin dynasty (265-420), Tao Yuan-Ming. Others are the work of the famous Song dynasty (960-1279) poet Huang Ting-Jian, calligrapher Mi Fu and philosopher Zhu Xi. Equally famous are those from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the work of such notables as the philosopher Wang Shouren and the writers Li Mengyang and Wang Siren. The inscribed tablets range in date from around 1050 to as recently as 1938, when the Chinese words 'Reverence and Respect' were inscribed to encourage the army fighting the Japanese invaders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 200 historic buildings are scattered over Lushan National Park. The most celebrated is the East Grove Temple complex at the foot of Xianglu Peak, to the west of Lushan. Begun in AD 386, this ensemble was added to progressively over the centuries. The group of prayer halls is important for the study of Buddhism in China and relationships between China and Japan. It is considered to be the earliest garden temple in China. The White Deer Cave Academy at the foot of Five Old Man Peak was established in 940 but fell into disuse; it was revived towards the end of the Song dynasty (late 12th century) by Zhu Xi, who made it a renowned centre for academic research. It attracted many additional structures until the 19th century and is a complex of temples, study halls and libraries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The closing years of the 19th century and the early 20th century saw Lushan become a fashionable holiday area, and many villas were built by Chinese and foreign visitors. Their styles reflect various architectural fashions, and their siting is based on the US National Park model and English landscape design. Over 600 survive, of which three are under state protection as key cultural sites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mount Lushan, in Jiangxi, is one of the spiritual centres of Chinese civilization. Buddhist and Taoist temples, along with landmarks of Confucianism, where the most eminent masters taught, blend effortlessly into a strikingly beautiful landscape which has inspired countless artists who developed the aesthetic approach to nature found in Chinese culture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lushan National Park</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>921</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Buddhism was introduced into China in the 1st century AD via the Silk Road from India to Mount Emei. Pugong, a medicinal Plant farmer, built the Puguang Hall on the Golden Summit at this time. By the 3rd Century the Puxian doctrine of Buddhism was dominant on Mount Emei, and the Chinese monk Huichi built the Puxian Temple (now the Wannian Temple) at the foot of the Guanxinpo Terrace. Buddhism had moved its centre to China by the mid-6th Century and for a time Sichuan was the home of the Chan School of Chinese Buddhism; this period saw the building of more than a hundred temples in the province.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-9th Century/ the Song Emperor Zhao Kuangyin sent a Buddhist mission headed by Master Jiye to India. On his return he was authorized to build temples on Mount Emei, where he preached and translated the Indian Buddhist texts. He was also authorized to cast a Puxian bronze statue, 62 tonnes in weight and 7.85 m high, now in the Wannian Temple. Since that time Mount Emei has been one of the most holy places of Buddhism. Over the course of the centuries it has accumulated many cultural treasures. The most striking is the Giant Buddha: work began on carving it out of the mountainside in the early 8th century, and was not completed for ninety years.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/779</http_url><id_number>779</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_779.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property under cultural criteria (iv) and (vi) considering the area of Mt. Emei is of exceptional cultural significance, since it is the place where Buddhism first became established on Chinese territory and from where it spread widely throughout the east. It is also an area of natural beauty into which the human element has been integrated, and natural criterion (x) for its high plant species diversity with a large number of endemic species. It also underlined the importance of the link between the tangible and intangible, the natural and the cultural.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>29.5449000000</latitude><location>Eimeishan City, Sichuan Province</location><longitude>103.7692500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site is an area of natural beauty by virtue of its high plant species diversity, with a large number of endemic species. It also underlines the importance of the link between the tangible and intangible, the natural and the cultural. The Mount Emei (Emishan) area possesses exceptional cultural significance, as it is the place where Buddhism first became established on Chinese territory and from where it spread widely throughout the East.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located in central Sichuan Province, the nominated area includes Mount Emei Scenic and Historical Area, west of Emeishan City, and the Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area, south-east of Leshan City at the confluence of three rivers: Minjiang, Dadu and Qinqyi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mount Emei, with its characteristic three summits, rises 2,600&amp;nbsp;m from the western margin of the Chengdu Plain. Its diverse topography includes a range of undulating hills, valleys, deep gullies and high peaks. Sedimentary rocks from the late Precambrian contain a large number of fossils and are an important source of geological information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mount Emei contains both Sino-Japanese and Sino-Himalayan flora. Five vegetation belts are defined according to vertical zonation. In ascending height order they are: subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest (below 1,500&amp;nbsp;m), evergreen and deciduous broadleaved mixed forest, coniferous and broadleaved mixed forest, subalpine coniferous forest and subalpine shrubs above 2,800&amp;nbsp;m. Some 3,200 plant species in 242 families have been recorded, of which 31 are under national protection. There are some 1,600 species of medicinal plants and 600 species of commercial interest. More than 100 species are endemic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 2,300 animal species have been recorded, of which 29 are under national protection, 157 species being threatened or endemic animals to China. A number of type specimens have been taken from Mount Emei. A number of internationally threatened species are to be found, including lesser (red) panda, Asiatic black bear, mainland serow, Asiatic golden cat, Tibetan macaque, Chinese giant salamander and grey-hooded parrot bill. Archaeological evidence indicates that the area was inhabited as long as 10,000 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Both Mount Emei and the Leshan Giant Buddha are places of historical importance, constituting one of the four holy lands of Chinese Buddhism. Mount Emei's history has been documented and recorded for over 2,000 years, during which time a rich Buddhist cultural heritage has accumulated, including cultural relics, architectural heritage, collected calligraphy, paintings, tablet inscriptions and earthenware.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area, which covers 2,500&amp;nbsp;ha, includes a number of significant cultural artefacts. These include the sitting Giant Buddha Statue, carved on the Xiluo Peak of Mount Lingyun in the early 8th century and standing 71&amp;nbsp;m high, with its back against Mount Jiuding and facing the confluence of the Minjiang, Dadu and Qinqyi rivers. In addition there are more than 90 stone carvings, Buddhist shrines made during the Tang dynasty, the Lidui (a large rock cut in the centre of the river for irrigation purposes), tombs, Buddha statues, pagodas, temples and city walls.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The first Buddhist temple in China was built here in Sichuan Province in the 1st century A.D. in the beautiful surroundings of the summit Mount Emei. The addition of other temples turned the site into one of Buddhism's holiest sites. Over the centuries, the cultural treasures grew in number. The most remarkable is the Giant Buddha of Leshan, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century and looking down on the confluence of three rivers. At 71 m high, it is the largest Buddha in the world. Mount Emei is also notable for its exceptionally diverse vegetation, ranging from subtropical to subalpine pine forests. Some of the trees there are more than 1,000 years old.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>922</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ping Yao region has been settled by humankind since Neolithic times. There has been an urban settlement on the site of the nominated property since at least the Western Zhou Dynasty, since it was fortified with earthen ramparts during the reign of King Xuan (827-782 BC). With the implementation of the system of prefectures and counties in 221 BC, Ping Yao became the seat of a county administration, and continues to play that role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1370, during the reign of the Ming Emperor Hong Wu, the city was greatly extended. It was fortified with a massive new defensive wall in masonry and brick and the internal layout was greatly altered, reflecting the strict rules of planning of the Han peoples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since that time it has evolved steadily as a Han city during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It emerged as one of the leading commercial cities in northern China during the 16th century, and retained that status well into the present age. In the second half of the 19th century the banking community of Ping Yao dominated Chinese financial life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/812</http_url><id_number>812</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_812.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the Ancient City of Ping Yao is an outstanding example of a Han Chinese city of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (14th-20th centuries) that has retained all its features to an exceptional degree and in doing so provides a remarkably complete picture of cultural, social, economic, and religious development during one of the most seminal periods of Chinese history.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.2013900000</latitude><location>Ping Yao County, Shan Xi Province</location><longitude>112.1544400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ancient City of Ping Yao is an outstanding example of a Han Chinese city of the Ming and Qing dynasties (14th-20th centuries) that has retained all its features to an exceptional degree and, in doing so, provides a remarkably complete picture of cultural, social, economic and religious development during one of the most seminal periods of Chinese history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ping Yao region has been settled by humans since Neolithic times. There has been an urban settlement on the site since at least the Western Zhou dynasty, as it was fortified with earthen ramparts during the reign of King Xuan (827-782 BC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the implementation of the system of prefectures and counties in 221 BC, Ping Yao became the seat of a county administration, and continues to play that role. In 1370, during the reign of the Ming Emperor Hong Wu, the city was greatly extended. It was fortified with a massive new defensive wall and the internal layout was greatly altered, reflecting the strict rules of planning of the Han peoples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The circuit of walls built in the late 14th century measures 6&amp;nbsp;km in length, the precise dimension for a city of this grade according to Han prescriptions. There are six fortified gates and 72 massive bastions along its length. Since that time it has evolved steadily as a Han city during the Ming and Qing dynasties. It emerged as one of the leading commercial cities in northern China during the 16th century, and retained that status well into the present age. In the second half of the 19th century the banking community of Ping Yao dominated Chinese financial life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ping Yao City is located at the end of the alluvial fan resulting from the confluence of the Hui Ji and Liu Gen rivers. The area enclosed is 2.25&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , comprising six large temple complexes, administrative offices for county and municipal administrations, and other public buildings as well as office buildings. The internal street layout is symmetrical and rectilinear. The main cross-streets are lined with shops built in the 17th-19th centuries which effectively preserve the historic townscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ping Yao contains a number of cultural monuments protected by national, provincial, or county designation. The 10th-century Ten Thousand Buddha Hall of Zhen Guo Temple is a fundamental reference for the study of early Chinese painted statues, as well as for its architecture. The 12th-century Main Hall of the Confucian Temple is a classic example of this form of structure, where large oblique beams are used to bear the main roof timbers, instead of the more conventional technique using brackets. The Shuang Lm Temple, founded in the 6th century, is also renowned for its collection of over 2,000 decorated clay statues dating from the 12th-19th centuries. The Qing Xu Daoist Temple, founded in the 7th century, consists of 10 main buildings. Its Dragon Hall is noteworthy for the rare constructional technique used, a system of suspension beams and pendant columns. A group of more recent temples, include the 19th-century Temple of the Town God, the Auspicious Temple and the Temple to General Guan Yu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The County Administrative Building is a complex that contains elements from the 14th to the 19th centuries. The two-storey wooden City Tower is the highest structure within the historic city. It owes its present appearance to a reconstruction in 1688. From the same period comes the Hui Ji Bridge, built from stone with stone balustrades on either side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prosperity deriving from trade, and later from the draft banks, resulted in Ping Yao being endowed over the centuries with many high-quality, well built private houses, and these have survived to a large extent. They follow the feudal and hierarchical Han tradition closely, with distinguishing local features. They are built round four sides of an open courtyard, and fall into three main groups. The first are conventional single-storeyed structures in wood and brick, with tiled roofs. Next come the below-ground structures in brick with corridors lined with wood and extended eaves. The third group is two-storey buildings, in which the underground structure is surmounted by a wooden second storey.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ping Yao is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a traditional Han Chinese city, founded in the 14th century. Its urban fabric shows the evolution of architectural styles and town planning in Imperial China over five centuries. Of special interest are the imposing buildings associated with banking, for which Ping Yao was the major centre for the whole of China in the 19th and early 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Ping Yao</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>959</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Suzhou is situated in the Lower Y angtze Basin alongside Lake Tai. It was founded in 514 BC as the capital of the Wu Kingdom, and has remained the political, economic, and cultural centre of the region since that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest gardens in Suzhou date back to its foundation in the 6th century BC, but it was during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and in particular the 16th to 18th centuries, that the city's prosperity resulted in the creation of as many as two hundred gardens within its walls. Their quality and profusion earned Suzhou the title of the "Earthly Paradise."&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest of the four gardens that form this nomination is probably the Mountain Villa with Embracing Beauty, whose origins go back to the end of the 16th century, when it belonged to the Royal Academician Shen Shixing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Humble Adrninstrator's Garden has been the site of the residence of Suzhou notables since the 2nd century AD. It was the Ming Imperial Inspector Wang Xianchen who built the present complex, when he retired from public life in 1509 and returned to his native city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lingering Garden dates from the end of the 16th century and is the work of Xu Taishi, also a high Imperial official. Its present name was given to it in 1873 by the Zhengs, who paid a graceful tribute to the former owners, the Liu family, since the Chinese word for "lingering" is similar to the name of this fami1y. When Deputy Minister Shi Zhengzhi lived in Suzhou in the late 12th century he called his house "The Fisherman's Retreat," and this idea was picked up in late 18th century by Song Zongyuan when he created the Garden of the Master of the Nets.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/813</http_url><id_number>813</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_813.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v), considering that the four classical gardens of Suzhou are masterpieces of Chinese landscape garden design in which art, nature, and ideas are integrated perfectly to create ensembles of great beauty and peaceful harmony, and four gardens are integral to the entire historic urban plan.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>31.3166666700</latitude><location>Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province</location><longitude>120.4500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Classical Gardens of Suzhou are masterpieces of Chinese landscape garden design in which art, nature, and ideas are integrated perfectly to create ensembles of great beauty and peaceful harmony, and the gardens are integral to the entire historic urban plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Canglang Pavilion was built on the order of the Northern Song poet Su Sunqin in the early 11th century, on the site of an earlier, destroyed garden. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties (1279-1644) it became the Mystical Concealment Temple. Over succeeding centuries it was repeatedly restored, a tradition maintained by the People's Republic of China. It is reached across a zigzag stone bridge, when the mountains, covered with old trees and bamboo, suddenly become visible. The square pavilion stands on top of one of the mountains, inscribed with an appropriate text.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lion Forest Garden was created by a group of Zen Buddhist disciples of the famous Abbot Tianni in 1342, during the Yuan dynasty, as the Budhi Orthodox Monastery. The garden, which attracted scholars and artists, was detached from the temple in the 17th century. It features a series of man-made mountains with various buildings, disposed around the lake, together with an artificial waterfall on steep cliffs. The 14th-century mountains are still clearly visible. The woodland cover of the craggy mountains is pierced by winding paths and there are many caves and grotesque rocks. There are 22 buildings in the garden, the most impressive of which is the Hall of Peace and Happiness, a masterpiece of the Mandarin Duck style of hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Garden of Cultivation was laid out during the Ming dynasty, in the 16th century. A quarter of the total area is occupied by the central pond, which has a mountain landscape to the south and a group of buildings, to the north. The two sides are linked to east and west by roofed open galleries. It is very typical, both in its layout and in the design of its thirteen buildings, of the classical Ming dynasty garden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of the Couple's Garden Retreat date back to the Qing dynasty, in the early 18th century. The structures consist of four aligned buildings. The East Garden is dominated by a dramatically realistic mountain of yellow stone which rises from a pool flanked by several attractive Ming style buildings. The style of the West Garden is more subdued, its limestone hills pierced by interlinking caves and tunnels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Retreat and Reflection Garden is the work of the famous painter Yuan Long, who built it in 1885-87. The group of buildings is linked with the garden proper located to the east by a boat-shaped guesthouse. Once again, the central feature of the garden is the pool, surrounded by a series of elegant buildings, the most striking of which is the double-tiered Celestial Bridge. The Gathering Beauty Pavilion overlooks the entire garden from the north-west corner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest gardens are probably the Mountain Villa with Embracing Beauty, whose origins go back to the end of the 16th century. Although it covers less than 500 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; it is intensively detailed, with high peaks rising to 7 m, dells, paths, caves, stone houses, ravines, precipices, ridges and cliff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Humble Administrator's Garden has been the site of the residence of Suzhou notables since the 2nd century AD. Its central section is a recreation of the scenery of the Lower Yangtze. Rising from the lake are the tree covered east and West Hills, each crowned by a pavilion. The variety of plant species is great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lingering Garden dates from the end of the 16th century is occupied by buildings. The central part features mountain and lake scenery, encircled by buildings and visited by means of a narrow, winding path which gives unexpected views of great beauty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Garden of the Master of the Nest is entered from the south through a rare form of gateway flanked by enormous carved blocks of stone, which designate the court rank of the owner. Once again the central feature is a pool, encircle by a covered walkway. The layout of buildings and gardens is extremely subtle, so that a small area gives the impression of great size and variety.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2000</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Classical Chinese garden design, which seeks to recreate natural landscapes in miniature, is nowhere better illustrated than in the nine gardens in the historic city of Suzhou. They are generally acknowledged to be masterpieces of the genre. Dating from the 11th-19th century, the gardens reflect the profound metaphysical importance of natural beauty in Chinese culture in their meticulous design.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Classical Gardens of Suzhou</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>961</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;During the reigns of the Qing Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong (1663-1795) several imperial gardens were created around Beijing, the last of them being the Summer Palace, based on the Hill of Longevity and Kunming Lake in the north-western suburbs of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kunming Lake (known earlier as Wengshan Pond and Xihu Lake) had been used as a source of water for irrigation and for supplying the city for some 3500 years. It was developed as a reservoir for Yuan Dadu, capital of the Yuan Dynasty, by Guo Shoujing, a famous scientist of the period, in 1291. Between 1750 and 1764 Emperor Qianlong created the Garden of Clear Ripples, extending the area of the lake and carrying out other improvements based on the hill and its landscape. It was to serve as the imperial garden for him and for his successors, Jiaqing, Daoguang, and Xianfeng.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Second Opium War (1856-60) the garden and its buildings were destroyed by the allied forces. Between 1886 and 1895 it was reconstructed by Emperor Guangxu and renamed the Summer Palace, for use by Empress Dowager Cixi. It was badly damaged in 1900 by the international expeditionary force during the suppression of the Boxer Rising, in which Cixi had played a significant role, and restored two years later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Summer Palace became a public park in 1924 and has continued as such to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/880</http_url><id_number>880</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_880.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion i: The Summer Palace in Beijing is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole. Criterion ii: The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the East. Criterion iii: The imperial Chinese garden, illustrated by the Summer Palace, is a potent symbol of one of the major world civilizations.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.9105555600</latitude><location>10 km northwest of Beijing</location><longitude>116.1411111000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The imperial Chinese garden, illustrated by the Summer Palace, is a potent symbol of one of the major world civilizations. The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1750 and 1764 the Qing Emperor Qianlong created the Garden of Clear Ripples (Summer Palace), extending the area of the lake and carrying out other improvements based on the hill and its landscape. During the Second Opium War (1856-60) the garden and its buildings were destroyed by the allied forces. Between 1886 and 1895 it was reconstructed by Emperor Guangxu and renamed the Summer Palace, for use by Empress Dowager Cixi. It was damaged in 1900 by the international expeditionary force during the suppression of the Boxer Rising and restored two years later. It became a public park in 1924.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Summer Palace covers an area of 2.97&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , three-quarters of which is covered by water. The main framework is supplied by the Hill of Longevity and Kunming Lake, complemented by man-made features. It is designed on a grandiose scale, commensurate with its role as an imperial garden. It is divided into three areas, each with its particular function: political and administrative activities, residence, and recreation and sightseeing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The political area is reach by means of the monumental East Palace Gate. The central feature is the Hall of Benevolence and Longevity, an imposing structure with its own courtyard garden. This area connects directly with the residential area, which is made up of three complexes of buildings. The Hall of Happiness in Longevity was the palace of Cixi and the Hall of Jade Ripples that of Guangxu and his empress, whereas the Hall of Yiyun housed his concubines. These buildings are all built up against the Hill of Longevity, with fine views over the lake, and are connected to one another by means of roofed corridors. These communicate with the Great Stage to the east and the Long Corridor (728&amp;nbsp;m), with more than 10,000 paintings on its walls and ceilings, to the west. In front of the Hall of Happiness in Longevity there is a wooden quay giving access by water to their quarters for the imperial family. The remainder of the Summer Palace, some 90% of the total area, is given over to recreation and sightseeing. The steeper northern side of the Hill of Longevity is a tranquil area, through which a stream follows a winding course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are many halls and pavilions disposed within the overall frame provided by the lake and the low hills around them. The Tower of the Fragrance of Buddha forms the centre of the structures on the south side of the hill. It is octagonal in plan and its three storeys rise to a height of 41&amp;nbsp;m. It is supported on eight massive pillars of lignum vitae and roofed with a great variety of glazed tiles. East of the Tower is the Revolving Archive, a Buddhist structure with a pillar on which is carved an account of the creation of the garden. To the west are the Wu Fang Pavilion and the Baoyun Bronze Pavilion constructed entirely in bronze.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between the Tower and the lake is the complex known as the Hall that Dispels the Clouds. Other pavilions and halls cluster around these main features. Kunming Lake has many of the features of the natural scenery of the region south of the Yangtze River. It contains three large islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The South Lake Island is linked to the East Dyke by the stately Seventeen Arch Bridge. The West Dike consciously follows the style of the famous Sudi Dyke built in the West Lake at Hangzhou during the Song dynasty in the 13th century; six bridges in different styles along its length lend variety to the view as seen up against the background of the West Hill, which is an essential feature of the overall design of the garden.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Summer Palace in Beijing &amp;ndash; first built in 1750, largely destroyed in the war of 1860 and restored on its original foundations in 1886 &amp;ndash; is a masterpiece of Chinese landscape garden design. The natural landscape of hills and open water is combined with artificial features such as pavilions, halls, palaces, temples and bridges to form a harmonious ensemble of outstanding aesthetic value.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Summer Palace, an Imperial Garden in Beijing</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1032</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Altar of Heaven and Earth, together with the wall surrounding the garden, was completed in 1420, the eighteenth year of the reign of the Ming Emperor Yongle. The central building was a large rectangular sacrificial hall, where sacrifices were offered to heaven and earth, with the Fasting Palace to the south-west. Pines were planted in the precinct of the Temple to emphasize the relationship between humankind and nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the ninth year of the reign of Emperor Jiajing (1530) the decision was taken to offer separate sacrifices to heaven and to earth, and so the Circular Mound Altar was built to the south of the main hall, for sacrifices to heaven. The Altar of Heaven and Earth was renamed the Temple of Heaven. Concurrently, temples to the earth, the sun, and the moon were built in the north, east, and west of the city respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The large sacrificial hall was dismantled fifteen years later and replaced by the round Hall of Daxiang, used for offering prayers for abundant harvests. In 1553 an outer city, which included the Temple of Heaven, was created around Beijing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1749, the fourteenth year of the reign of the Qing Emperor Qianlong, the Circular Mound was enlarged, the original blue-glazed tiles being replaced with white marble. Two years later renovation work took place at the Hall of Daxiang, and it was given the new name of the Hall of Prayers for Abundant Harvests. This was the heyday of the Temple of Heaven, when it covered 273ha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ceremonial sacrifices to heaven were banned by the government of the Republic of China in 1911. By that date, 490 years after its foundation, the Temple of Heaven had witnessed 654 acts of worship to heaven by 22 Emperors of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It was opened as a public park in 1918 and has been so ever since.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/881</http_url><id_number>881</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_881.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion i: The Temple of Heaven is a masterpiece of architecture and landscape design which simply and graphically illustrates a cosmogony of great importance for the evolution of one of the world&amp;rsquo;s great civilizations. Criterion ii: The symbolic layout and design of the Temple of Heaven had a profound influence on architecture and planning in the Far East over many centuries. Criterion iii: For more than two thousand years China was ruled by a series of feudal dynasties, the legitimacy of which is symbolized by the design and layout of the Temple of Heaven.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.8455555600</latitude><location>Tiantan Park, Beijing</location><longitude>116.4447222000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Temple of Heaven is a masterpiece of architecture and landscape design which simply and graphically illustrates a cosmogony of great importance for the evolution of one of the world's great civilizations. Its symbolic layout and design had a profound influence on architecture and planning in the Far East over many centuries. Furthermore, the legitimacy of the feudal dynasties that for more than 2,000 years ruled over China is symbolized by the design and layout of the Temple of Heaven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Altar of Heaven and Earth, together with the wall surrounding the garden, was completed in 1420, the 18th year of the reign of the Ming Emperor Yongle. The central building was a large rectangular sacrificial hall, where sacrifices were offered to heaven and earth, with the Fasting Palace to the south-west. Pines were planted in the precinct of the Temple to emphasize the relationship between humankind and nature. In the ninth year of the reign of Emperor Jiajing (1530) the decision was taken to offer separate sacrifices to heaven and to earth, and so the Circular Mound Altar was built to the south of the main hall, for sacrifices to heaven. The Altar of Heaven and Earth was renamed the Temple of Heaven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1749, the fourteenth year of the reign of the Qing Emperor Qianlong, the Circular Mound was enlarged, the original blue-glazed tiles being replaced with white marble. Two years later renovation work took place at the Hall of Daxiang, and it was given the new name of the Hall of Prayers for Abundant Harvests. This was the heyday of the Temple of Heaven, when it covered 273ha. Ceremonial sacrifices to heaven were banned by the government of the Republic of China in 1911. By that date, 490 years after its foundation, the Temple of Heaven had witnessed 654 acts of worship to heaven by 22 emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties. It was opened as a public park in 1918 and has been so ever since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Temple of Heaven was built on a site 3.5&amp;nbsp;km south-east of the Zhengyang Gate of Beijing. The area that it occupies is almost square, the two southern corners being right-angled and those on the north rounded. This symbolizes the ancient Chinese belief that Heaven is round and the Earth square. It is a spatial representation of Chinese cosmogony on which the political power and legitimacy of the imperial dynasties was based for more than two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The three principal cult structures are disposed in a line on the central north-south axis. The sacrificial buildings are mainly in the Inner Altar, which is subdivided into two by a wall running east-west, the southern sector, known as the Circular Mound Altar, and the northern, the Altar of the God of Grain. The two altars are connected by an elevated brick path 360&amp;nbsp;m long, known as the Red Stairway Bridge. The main Temple of Heaven, the Circular Mound, repeats the symbolism of the walls, as the central round feature (Heaven) is inside a square enclosure (Earth). It consists of three circular platforms of white marble, decreasing in diameter, surrounded by balustrades in the same material. Entry to the enclosure is effected by means of a series of monumental gates. There are 360 pillars in the balustrades, representing the 360 days of the ancient Chinese lunar year. The imperial throne would have been set up in the centre of the uppermost platform, symbolizing the role of the Emperor as the Son of Heaven and hence the link between Heaven and Earth. To the north of the Circular Mound is the Imperial Vault of Heaven. It was here that the emperor made offerings before retiring to the Fasting Palace (Palace of Abstinence).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the north enclosure, the Altar of the God of Grain, the main feature is the Hall of Prayers for Abundant Harvests, which is linked with the Temple of Heaven by the Long Corridor, 440&amp;nbsp;m long and 25&amp;nbsp;m wide. In form and materials, the hall repeats the three-tiered circular structure in white marble of the Temple of Heaven. It is surmounted by the hall itself, once again circular in plan, and with three superimposed roofs in blue glazed tiles, from which the emperor offered up prayers for good harvests. It is supported on a massive wooden framework and its interior is richly decorated.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Temple of Heaven, founded in the first half of the 15th century, is a dignified complex of fine cult buildings set in gardens and surrounded by historic pine woods. In its overall layout and that of its individual buildings, it symbolizes the relationship between earth and heaven &amp;ndash; the human world and God's world &amp;ndash; which stands at the heart of Chinese cosmogony, and also the special role played by the emperors within that relationship.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1033</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest rock carvings in Dazu County date back to AD 650, in the early years of the Tang Dynasty, but the main period began in the late 9th century. In 892 Wei Junjing, Prefect of Changzhou, pioneered the carvings at Beishan, and his example was followed after the collapse of the Tang Dynasty by prefectural and county officials, local gentry, monks and nuns, and ordinary people in 907-65 (the Period of Five Dynasties and Ten States).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The creation of rock carvings ceased during the early years of the Song Dynasty, and was not to resume until 1078, in the reign of Emperor Yuan Feng of the Northern Song Dynasty; work began again at Beishan, continuing until 1146, and the groups at Nanshan and Shimenshan were carved. Between 1174 and 1252 the monk Zhao Zhifeng promoted Tantric Buddhism at Baodingshan and created the only large stone ritual site for this belief, attracting master craftsmen from all over the country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Widespread warfare caused work to cease again at the end of the 13th century, and was not to begin again until the late 15th century, during the Ming Dynasty. It was to continue, albeit at a much reduced scale, until the late Qing Dynasty (end of the 19th century).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/912</http_url><id_number>912</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_912.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (i): The Dazu carvings represent the pinnacle of Chinese rock art for their high aesthetic quality and their diversity of style and subject matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): Tantric Buddhism from India and the Chinese Taoist and Confucian beliefs came together at Dazu to create a highly original and influential manifestation of spiritual harmony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The eclectic nature of religious belief in later Imperial China is given material expression in the exceptional artistic heritage of the Dazu rock art.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>29.7011100000</latitude><location>Dazu County, Chongqing Municipality</location><longitude>105.7050000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The eclectic nature of religious belief in later imperial China is given material expression in the exceptional artistic heritage of the Dazu rock art. Tantric Buddhism from India and the Chinese Taoist and Confucian beliefs came together at Dazu to create a highly original and influential manifestation of spiritual harmony. The Dazu carvings represent the pinnacle of Chinese rock art for their high aesthetic quality and their diversity of style and subject matter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest rock carvings in Dazu County date back to AD 650, in the early years of the Tang dynasty, but the main period began in the late 9th century. In 892 Wei Junjing, Prefect of Changzhou, pioneered the carvings at Beishan, and his example was followed after the collapse of the Tang dynasty. The creation of rock carvings ceased during the early years of the Song dynasty, and was not to resume until 1078, in the reign of Emperor Yuan Feng of the Northern Song dynasty. Work began again at Beishan, continuing until 1146, and the groups at Nanshan and Shimenshan were carved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At Beishan the cliff that houses the carvings is divided into two sections: the north with 100 groups of carvings and the south with 190. There are 264 niches with statues, 1 intaglio painting, and 8 inscribed pillars; in all there are over 10,000 carvings at Beishan. More than half the carvings represent Tantric Buddhism and the remainder relate to the concepts of the Trinity and Sukhavati. Over one-third of the Beishan carvings date from the mid-10th century and are characterized by their small and pretty figures, varied postures, natural and unrestrained features, and delicate dress ornamentation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Statues from the Song dynasty (late 10th to mid-12th centuries), are more vivid and with clearly differentiated personalities, graceful postures, well-proportioned figures and splendid apparel. The seven inscriptions that survive are important for the study of history, religious beliefs, dating, and the identification of historical figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nanshan carvings, the best preserved of the five major Taoist groups in China, extend over 86&amp;nbsp;m. For the most part they depict Taoist subjects. By the 12th century, when these carvings were executed, Taoism had evolved from worship of the Supreme Master and the Three Officials into belief in the Pure Trinity and the Four Emperors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shimenshan carvings, from the first half of the 12th century, cover 72&amp;nbsp;m. They demonstrate the integration of Buddhist and Taoist subjects, the latter being the most characteristic. The 92 statues in the Cave of the Gods and Goddess of Mount Tai [Taishan] reflect the important role of the Taishan Family among the Taoist divinities between the 10th and 13th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1174 and 1252 the monk Zhao Zhifeng promoted Tantric Buddhism at Baodingshan and created the only large stone ritual site for this belief, attracting master craftsmen from all over the country. Widespread warfare caused work to cease again at the end of the 13th century, and would not begin again until the late 15th century, during the Ming dynasty. It would continue, albeit at a much reduced scale, until the late Qing dynasty (end of 19th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Baodingshan is a very impressive site 15&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Longgang Town, on the sides of a U-shaped gorge over 500m above sea level. There are two groups of carvings. The first and smaller group, known as Xiaofowan, is on top of the mountain and closely linked with the Holy Longevity Monastery, built at the same time but later destroyed by fire and rebuilt during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second (Daifowan), lies to the west of the monastery. The integration of the basic doctrines of Buddhism, the ethics of Confucianism, the tenets of rationalism, and Taoism. In many ways the Baodingshan carvings may be considered to represent the acme of Chinese rock sculpture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The late 11th-century Shizhuanshan carvings extend over 130&amp;nbsp;m and offer a rare example of a tripartite arrangement of Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The steep hillsides of the Dazu area contain an exceptional series of rock carvings dating from the 9th to the 13th century. They are remarkable for their aesthetic quality, their rich diversity of subject matter, both secular and religious, and the light that they shed on everyday life in China during this period. They provide outstanding evidence of the harmonious synthesis of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dazu Rock Carvings</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1065</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;- The Dujiangyan irrigation system&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 256 BCE Li Bing, Shu Kingdom magistrate of the Qin Dynasty, selected the mountain outlet of the Minjiang river, with its abundant water flow, as the site for an irrigation system. This involved cutting the Lidui platform, digging canals to avoid the risk of flooding, and opening up a navigation route; at the same time the neighbouring farmland would be irrigated, creating an "Land of Abundance." These works were extended in 141 BCE by the magistrate Wen Weng.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Tang Dynasty (618-907) large-scale waterconservancy and irrigation projects were carried out, including the Baizhang, Mizao, and Tongji embankments and the Wansui pool, providing the Chengdu plain with a network of weirs and canals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The system was rationalized during the Song Dynasty (960- 1279) into three main water-courses, three canals, and fourteen branches, with a coordinated programme of maintenance and water control. The system was extended and additional works were carried out (the Sili and Shabo embankments), providing irrigation to twelve counties.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Important experimental work took place during the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368): in particular the embankments were reinforced with iron bars. Additional construction projects were also carried out, and this process continued throughout the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), together with the introduction of a new control regime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Incessant warfare at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the early years of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1913) resulted in the system falling into disrepair, but this was eventually set to rights. The local people were involved in major rehabilitation and repair projects and the irrigated area was extended to cover some 180,000ha. Since that time the system has been carefully maintained and progressively extended, so that it now covers 668,700ha in 34 counties. The original system has been preserved, but modern building materials and technology have been utilized to enable this ancient system to conform with the requirements of the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Mount Qingcheng&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 142 CE the philosopher Zhang Ling founded the doctrine of Taoism on Mount Qingcheng, and in the following year he took up permanent residence in what became known as the Celestial Cave of the Tianshi (the name given to the spiritual head of the Taoist religion). During the Jin Dynasty (265-420) a number of Taoist temples were built on the mountain, and it became the centre from which the teachings of Taoism were disseminated widely throughout China. During the Tang Dynasty the works of Du Guangting, one of the most important figures in Chinese thought and science, were collected together there as what came to be known as the "Taoist Scriptures."&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The troubled period at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, in the 17th century, saw Taoist scholars and disciples converging on Qingcheng from all over China. Thereafter the sacred mountain resumed its role as the intellectual and spiritual centre of Taoism, which it has retained to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1001</http_url><id_number>1001</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1001.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The Dujiangyan Irrigation System, begun in the 2nd century BCE, is a major landmark in the development of water management and technology, and is still discharging its functions perfectly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iv): The immense advances in science and technology achieved in ancient China are graphically illustrated by the Dujiangyan Irrigation System.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (vi): The temples of Mount Qingcheng are closely associated with the foundation of Taoism, one of the most influential religions of East Asia over a long period of history.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>31.0016700000</latitude><location>Dujiangyan City, Sichuan Province</location><longitude>103.6052800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Dujiangyan Irrigation System, begun in the 2nd century BC, is a major landmark in the development of water management and technology, and is still discharging its functions perfectly. It graphically illustrates the immense advances in science and technology achieved in ancient China. The temples of Mount Qingcheng are closely associated with the foundation of Taoism, one of the most influential religions of East Asia over a long period of history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 256 BC Li Bing, Shu Kingdom magistrate of the Qin dynasty, selected the mountain outlet of the Minjiang River, with its abundant water flow, as the site for an irrigation system. This involved cutting the Lidui platform, digging canals to avoid the risk of flooding, and opening up a navigation route; at the same time the neighbouring farmland would be irrigated, creating a 'Land of Abundance'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Tang dynasty (618-907) large-scale water conservancy and irrigation projects were carried out. The system was rationalized during the Song dynasty (960-1279) into three main water-courses, three canals and fourteen branches, with coordinated maintenance and water control. During the Yuan dynasty (1206-1368) additional projects were carried out, and this process continued throughout the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Incessant warfare at the end of the Ming dynasty and the early years of the Qing dynasty (1644-1913) resulted in the system falling into disrepair, but this was eventually set to rights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In AD 142 the philosopher Zhang Ling founded the doctrine of Taoism on Mount Qingcheng, and in the following year he took up permanent residence in what became known as the Celestial Cave of the Tianshi (the name given to the spiritual head of the Taoist religion). During the Jin dynasty (265-420) a number of Taoist temples were built on the mountain, and it became the centre from which the teachings of Taoism were disseminated widely throughout China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The irrigation system consists of two principal components, the Weir Works and the irrigated area. The Weir Works form the heart of the system. It receives water from the upper valley of the Minjiang River. There are three main elements. The Yuzui Bypass Dyke is located at the outfall of the Minjiang River. Water from the upper valley is diverted into the Outer and Inner Canals: the former follows the course of the Minjiang River and the latter flows to the Chengdu plain through the Baopingkou Diversion Passage. It serves the essential function of bypassing the considerable amount of silt brought down by the river. It makes full use of the bend, directing surface water with low concentrations of silt into the Inner Canal and the heavily silted deeper water into the Outer Canal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Feiyashan Floodgate is situated between the lower end of the Yuzui Bypass Dyke and the V-Shaped Dyke. Its upper end is 710&amp;nbsp;m from the Bypass Dyke and 120&amp;nbsp;m from the Baopingkou Diversion Passage. The principal function of the Floodgate is to transfer overflow, together with silt and pebbles, from the Inner to the Outer Canal. When water flow in the Inner Canal is low, the Floodgate ceases its draining function and transfers water into the Weir Works to ensure the supply of irrigation water to the Chengdu Plains. The Baopingkou Diversion Passage lies between the Lidui Platform south of Dujiangyan City and the cliff facing it, an enormous engineering project that dates back to the beginning of the Irrigation System in the 3rd century BC. It is able to control and maintain the water flow to the Chengdu irrigated plains automatically, even in periods of drought or flooding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mount Qingcheng dominates the Chengdu plains. There are eleven temples on Mount Qingcheng of special significance in the field of Taoist architecture because, unlike Mount Wudang temples, they do not reproduce the features of imperial courts but the traditional architecture of western Sichuan. The Erwang Temple west of Dujiangyan City was considerably enlarged during the Song dynasty (960-1279) and substantially reconstructed in the 17th century. It is constructed of wood and is located on a commanding point of the mountain, overlooking the river. The carvings inside the temple record the history and achievements of water control.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Construction of the Dujiangyan irrigation system began in the 3rd century B.C. This system still controls the waters of the Minjiang River and distributes it to the fertile farmland of the Chengdu plains. Mount Qingcheng was the birthplace of Taoism, which is celebrated in a series of ancient temples.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Qingcheng and the Dujiangyan Irrigation System</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1167</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;- Xidi&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Xidi was originally called Xichuan (West River), because of the streams that pass through it, but its present name, which means &amp;quot;West Post,&amp;quot; comes from the ancient caravan posting station some 1.5km to the west of the village.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It owes its growth to the Hu family from Wuyuan (Xinan), who adopted a son of the Tang Emperor Zhaozong (888- 904) after the Emperor was forced from his throne in 904, naming him Hu Changyi. One of his descendants, Hu Shiliang, moved his family from Wuyuan to Xidi in 1047. From that time onwards the family lived and prospered at Xidi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The population began to rise sharply from 1465, when the Hu family began to act as merchants. The construction of a number of important private and public buildings, and in particular the Huiyuan and Gulai bridges, began at around that time. From the mid 17th century until around 1850 the Hu family was influential in both commerce and politics. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties members of the family became Imperial officials, whilst many also became graduates of the Imperial College. At its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries the village had more than six hundred residences. However, with the decline of the Anhui merchant community and the disintegration of the feudal clan system during the later Qing Dynasty and the Republic, Xidi ceased to expand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Hongcun&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hongcun was founded in 1131 by Wang Wen, a Han Dynasty General, and his kinsman Wang Yanji, who brought their families from Qisu village to the upper part of the stream near Leigang mountain and built 13 houses there. The village knew two periods of great prosperity, 1401- 1620 and 1796-1908. Like the Hu family in Xidi, the Wang family became officials and merchants and accumulated enormous wealth, which they used to endow their home village with many fine buildings. Around 1405, on the advice of geomancers, a channel was dug to bring fresh water to the village from the West Stream. Two hundred years later the water supply system of the village was completed with the creation of the South Lake. The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of a number of imposing public buildings, such as the South Lake Academy (1814), the Hall of Meritorious Deeds (1888), the Hall of Virtuousness (1890), and the Hall of Aspiration (1855, rebuilt 1911).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Somewhat later than Xidi, Hongcun fell into a decline with the birth of the Republic, but it still retains many of its fine buildings and its exceptional water system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1002</http_url><id_number>1002</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1002.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The villages of Xidi and Hongcun are graphic illustrations of a type of human settlement created during a feudal period and based on a prosperous trading economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iv): In their buildings and their street patterns, the two villages of southern Anhui reflect the socio-economic structure of a long-lived settled period of Chinese history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (v): The traditional non-urban settlements of China, which have to a very large extent disappeared during the past century, are exceptionally well preserved in the villages of Xidi and Hongcun.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>29.9044444400</latitude><location>Yi county, Huangshan city, Anhui Province</location><longitude>117.9875000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The traditional non-urban settlements of China, which have to a very large extent disappeared during the twentieth century, are exceptionally well preserved in the villages of Xidi and Hongcun. The two villages are graphic illustrations of a type of human settlement created during a feudal period and based on a prosperous trading economy. In their buildings and their street patterns, they reflect the socio-economic structure of a long-lived settled period of Chinese history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Xidi was originally called Xichuan (West River), because of the streams that pass through it. It owes its growth to the Hu family from Wuyuan (Xinan), who adopted a son of the Tang Emperor Zhaozong (888-904) after the Emperor was forced from his throne in 904, naming him Hu Changyi. One of his descendants moved his family from Wuyuan to Xidi in 1047. The construction of a number of important private and public buildings began at around that time. From the mid-17th century until around 1850, the Hu family was influential in both commerce and politics. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, members of the family became imperial officials, while many also became graduates of the Imperial College.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Xidi is located in an area surrounded by mountains. Streams enter from the north and east respectively, converging at the Huiyuan Bridge in the south of the village. The streets are all paved with granite from Yi County. Narrow alleys join the streets and there are small open spaces in front of the main public buildings, such as the Hall of Respect, the Hall of Reminiscence and the Memorial Archway of the Governor. The buildings, which are widely spaced, are timber-framed with brick walls and elegantly carved decoration. Most of them are built alongside the three streams, the Front Stream, the Back Stream and the Golden Stream, which give a special character to the village.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The more grandiose residential buildings, dignified with the title of 'hall', have complex ground plans, but they are all variants of the basic pattern and conform to the characteristic use of materials and decoration. The outer walls have very small windows, for reasons of security, carved out of granite and decorated with floral and geometric motifs. Many have small private gardens, usually in the front courtyard, where ingenious use is made of limited space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hongcun was founded in 1131 by Wang Wen, a Han dynasty general, and his kinsman Wang Yanji, who brought their families from Qisu village to the upper part of the stream near Leigang Mountain and built 13 houses there. The village knew two periods of great prosperity, 1401-1620 and 1796-1908. The Wang family became officials and merchants and accumulated enormous wealth, which they used to endow their home village with many fine buildings. Around 1405, on the advice of geomancers, a channel was dug to bring fresh water to the village from the West Stream. Some 200 years later, the water supply system of the village was completed with the creation of the South Lake. The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of a number of imposing public buildings, such as the South Lake Academy (1814), the Hall of Meritorious Deeds (1888), the Hall of Virtuousness (1890) and the Hall of Aspiration (1855, rebuilt 1911). Somewhat later than Xidi, Hongcun fell into decline with the birth of the Republic, but it still retains many of its fine buildings and its exceptional water system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hongcun lies at the foot of Leigang Mountain. The village faces south, with its central part lying at a point central to the flanking mountains and rivers. The open watercourse runs through all the houses in the entire village and forms two ponds, one in the centre (Moon Pond) and the other to the south of the village (South Lake). The chequerboard pattern of streets and lanes follow the watercourse, giving the village a unique overall appearance.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The two traditional villages of Xidi and Hongcun preserve to a remarkable extent the appearance of non-urban settlements of a type that largely disappeared or was transformed during the last century. Their street plan, their architecture and decoration, and the integration of houses with comprehensive water systems are unique surviving examples.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient Villages in Southern Anhui – Xidi and Hongcun</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1168</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Work began on the Longmen Grottoes in 493, when Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty moved his capital to Luoyang. Over the next four centuries this work continued; it can be divided into four distinct phases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period between 493 and 534 was the first phase of intensive cutting of grottoes. The first cave to be carved was Guyangdong (also known as the Shiku Temple); records show that more than two hundred people were involved in the work. This marked the beginning of a major programme of grotto carving by the Northern Wei rulers. Emperor Xuanwu cut three, two in memory of his father, Xiaowen and one for his mother, Wenzhao. These are the three caves now known as the Three Binyang Caves (Binyangsandong), and the work took more than 24 years to complete. A number of other caves of all sizes were cut during this period on the West Hill: they account for some 30% of the total.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This phase of intense activity was followed by a period between 524 and 626 when very few caves, and those all relatively small, were cut. This is attributable principally to the civil strife between different regions of China that persisted through the Sui Dynasty (581-618) and the early part of the Tang Dynasty (618-907).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until 626 that the third phase began, during the height of the Tang Dynasty, when Chinese Buddhism had begun to flourish again. This was once again a period of intensive cutting of grottoes; it was the highpoint artistically of Longmen, especially during the reigns of Emperor Gaozang and Empress Wuzetian, who lived permanently at Luoyang. The group of giant statues in Fengxiansi Cave are most fully representative of this phase of Chinese art at Longmen; they are generally acknowledged to be artistic masterpieces of truly global significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many other grottoes of all sizes were cut at this period on both the West Hill and the East Hill. They make up some 60% of the grottoes at Longmen. In addition, a number of fine Buddhist temples were built there during the Tang Dynasty against the magnificent natural landscape. Most of these only exist now in the form of ruins, but they are still an important component of the overall Longmen cultural complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The final phase, from 755 to 1127, during the later Tang through to the Northern Song Dynasty, saw a steep decline in the carving of grottoes at Longmen. This began with the capture of Luoyang in the mid-8th century during a rebellion, an event from which the area never recovered. It was the outbreak of warfare during the Jin and Yuan Dynasties that brought grotto carving to an end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) Dynasties, the great artistic and cultural achievement represented by the Longmen grottoes gradually received national and then international recognition, and were the subject of much scholarly study. During the 1940s some of the stone carvings were stolen and sold abroad, but since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 they have been protected and conserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1003</http_url><id_number>1003</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1003.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (i): The sculptures of the Longmen Grottoes are an outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The Longmen Grottoes illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang Dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.4666666700</latitude><location>Luoyang City, Henan Province</location><longitude>112.4666667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The high cultural level and sophisticated society of Tang dynasty China is encapsulated in the exceptional stone carvings of the Longmen Grottoes, which illustrate the perfection of a long-established art form which was to play a highly significant role in the cultural evolution of this region of Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began on the Longmen Grottoes in 493, when Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei dynasty moved his capital to Luoyang. Over the next four centuries this work continued; it can be divided into four distinct phases. The period between 493 and 534 was the first phase of intensive cutting of grottoes: the first cave to be carved was Guyangdong (also known as the Shiku Temple). This phase of intense activity was followed by a period between 524 and 626 when very few caves, and those all relatively small, were cut. This is attributable principally to the civil strife between different regions of China that persisted throughout the Sui dynasty (581-618) and the early part of the Tang dynasty (618-907).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until 626 that the third phase began, during the height of the Tang dynasty, when Chinese Buddhism had begun to flourish again. This was once again a period of intensive cutting of grottoes; it was the highpoint artistically of Longmen, especially during the reigns of Emperor Gaozang and Empress Wuzetian, who lived permanently at Luoyang. The group of giant statues in Fengxiansi Cave is most fully representative of this phase of Chinese art at Longmen; they are generally acknowledged to be artistic masterpieces of truly global significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The final phase, from 755 to 1127, during the later Tang through to the Northern Song dynasty, saw a steep decline in the carving of grottoes at Longmen. This began with the capture of Luoyang in the mid-8th century during a rebellion, an event from which the area never recovered. It was the outbreak of warfare during the Jin and Yuan dynasties that brought grotto carving to an end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Longmen Grottoes lie 12&amp;nbsp;km south of the historic Chinese city of Luoyang. Two hills flank the Yishui River at a place that combines considerable strategic importance and great natural beauty. The slopes of the West and East Hills become very steep and cliff-like as they approach the river valley, and it is here that the easily worked limestone was carved to produce the Longmen Caves. In total 2,345 niches or grottoes have been recorded on the two sides of the river. They house more than 100,000 Buddhist statues, about 2,500 stelae and inscriptions, and over 60 Buddhist pagodas. On the West Hill cliffs there are more than 50 large and medium-sized caves cut in the Northern, Sui and Tang dynasties (316-907); the caves on the East Hill cliffs are exclusively from the Tang dynasty (618-907).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest and largest of the Longmen Caves is Guyangdong, in the middle of the southern floor of the West Hill. The work of Emperor Xiaowen, it attracted carvings sponsored by many of his nobles and officials and religious dignitaries, who approved of his reforming policies. On the main wall there are three over-life-sized statues erected by the emperor. In the centre is the Buddhist patriarch Sakyamuni, flanked by two bodhisattvas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Huangfugong (also known as Shikusi), one of the best preserved of the major caves at Longmen, is located to the south of the West Hill. An inscription shows it to have been completed in 527. In front of the cave a roof has been carved imitating wooden construction, with seven Buddhas inside the lintel. The main wall is decorated with seven larger than life-size statues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Li Zhi of the Tang dynasty cut Fengxiansi Cave, on the southern floor of the West Hill. Completed in 675, it is the largest and most typical example of Tang stone sculpture at Longmen. There are nine colossal statues in the cave, dominated by that of Buddha Vairocana, with plump features and a compassionate expression. This form of naturalistic representation is shared by the other large statues, the expression of each being clearly differentiated according to the characteristics of the subjects.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The grottoes and niches of Longmen contain the largest and most impressive collection of Chinese art of the late Northern Wei and Tang Dynasties (316-907). These works, entirely devoted to the Buddhist religion, represent the high point of Chinese stone carving.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Longmen Grottoes</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1169</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Qing dynasty was established in 1636 by the Manchus to designate their regime in Manchuria. The three Imperial Tombs were built in the period when their capital was in Shenyang. In 1644, the capital was transferred to Beijing and the Manchus established their dynasty for China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first phase of building the Yongling Tomb was in the late years of the Ming dynasty; it was used as family graveyard of Emperor Fuman. In 1636, Emperor Huangtaiji of the Qing dynasty conferred the title of Xingjing Tomb on this graveyard. In 1648, emperor Fulin conferred the posthumous title of emperor on the four ancestors and in 1651 named the mountains where the tombs are situated: the Qiyun Mountains. Fuling Tomb was first built starting from 1629 (during the reign of Tiancong in late Jin) to 1644 (reign of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing dynasty). The site was expanded and rebuilt from 1645 (Emperor Shunzhi) to 1688.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zhaoling Tomb was first built from 1643 to 1651. It was subject to expansion and reconstruction during the reigns from Emperor Kangxi to Emperor Qianlong, in the second half of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1004</http_url><id_number>1004</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1004.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The harmonious integration of remarkable architectural groups in a natural environment chosen to meet the criteria of geomancy (Fengshui) makes the Ming and Qing Imperial Tombs masterpieces of human creative genius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The imperial mausolea are outstanding testimony to a cultural and architectural tradition that for over five hundred years dominated this part of the world; by reason of their integration into the natural environment, they make up a unique ensemble of cultural landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Ming and Qing Tombs are dazzling illustrations of the beliefs, world view, and geomantic theories of Fengshui prevalent in feudal China. They have served as burial edifices for illustrious personages and as the theatre for major events that have marked the history of China.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.7072222200</latitude><location>Nanjing City, Jiangsu Province (Xiaoling Tomb); Changping District, Beijing (Ming Tombs)</location><longitude>124.7938889000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ming and Qing imperial tombs are outstanding testimony to a cultural and architectural tradition that for over 500 years dominated this part of the world. By reason of their integration into the natural environment, they make up a unique ensemble of cultural landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From time immemorial, the rulers of China attached great importance to the building of imposing mausolea, reflecting not only the general belief in an afterlife but also an affirmation of authority. When the Ming dynasty came to power (1368), an overall design was adopted. This was characterized by the attempt to achieve great harmony between a natural site meeting certain precise selection criteria and a complex of buildings fulfilling codified functions. The natural site, a plain or broad valley, must offer the perspective of a mountain range to the north, against which the tombs would be built, with a lower elevation to the south. It must be framed on the east and west by chains of hills, and feature at least one waterway. In order to harmonize with the natural setting, a number of buildings are constructed along a main access road several kilometres in length, known as the Way of the Spirits, which may branch off into secondary Ways leading to other mausolea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An entrance portico with up to five doors marks the beginning of the Way of the Spirits, which subsequently passes through or alongside a number of buildings, in particular a reception pavilion, a pavilion housing the stele of Divine Merits, stone columns and sculptures representing animals, generals and ministers, in pairs. After one or more stone bridges and a Portico of the Dragon and the Phoenix, the sacred way arrives at a complex of buildings that includes a hall of meditation flanked by side pavilions and a Memorial Tower leading to the walled tumulus under which lie the burial chambers. This cultural landscape is imbued with a form of cosmogony that invests it with sacred status.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Xianling tombs of the Ming dynasty are situated near the town of Zhongxiang, in Hubei Province, over 1,000&amp;nbsp;km from Beijing. The first work on the mausoleum was carried out by Xing, who planned to be buried there. On genealogical grounds, he was declared Emperor posthumously in 1519. Further work was then undertaken to bring the tomb into harmony with the standards of the Ming dynasty and to create a second tumulus to house the burial chambers of his family, including the empress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The western Qing tomb contains fourteen imperial tombs and two building complexes: the Yongfu Tibetan Buddhist temple and the temporary palace where the imperial family resided when it came to honour its ancestors. The natural setting is extremely beautiful, in large part owing to the forest of elegant centuries-old pines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of eastern Qing tombs contains 15 mausolea in which 161 bodies were buried - emperors, empresses, concubines and princesses. Among them are the emperors Kangxi and Qianlong, remembered as great sovereigns who actively promoted the development of China, and the Dowager Empress Cixi, who ruled the empire through intermediaries throughout the second half of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2003, 2004</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;It represents the addition of three Imperial Tombs of the Qing Dynasty in Liaoning to the Ming tombs inscribed in 2000 and 2003. The Three Imperial Tombs of the Qing Dynasty in Liaoning Province include the Yongling Tomb, the Fuling Tomb, and the Zhaoling Tomb, all built in the 17th century. Constructed for the founding emperors of the Qing Dynasty and their ancestors, the tombs follow the precepts of traditional Chinese geomancy and fengshui theory. They feature rich decoration of stone statues and carvings and tiles with dragon motifs, illustrating the development of the funerary architecture of the Qing Dynasty. The three tomb complexes, and their numerous edifices, combine traditions inherited from previous dynasties and new features of Manchu civilization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1172</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Datong, known as Pingcheng in ancient times, became the capital of the Northern Wei Dynasty between 398 and 494 CE, and thus the political, economic, and cultural centre of their kingdom. It kept its importance up to 523, when it was deserted following a revolt. The statues of the Yungang Grottoes were completed in sixty years (460-525 CE); this period marks the peak of development in Buddhist cave art of the Northern Wei Dynasty. When the first emperor assumed the throne, Buddhism flourished and in 460 the monk Tan Yao started the carving of the Five Caves; since then, these grottoes have become the centre of Buddhist art in North China. Between 471 and 494 the worship of Buddha was diffused among the imperial members and nobles. Thus, as many as twelve large caves and as many as 70% of the total number of the big caves were dug and Chongfu Temple was built. By 525 CE the initial project, sponsored by the court, was mostly completed, but lowranking officials and monks continued to dig more caves and carve statues. These caves number more than 200; although they are relatively small, some are of excellent quality. During the Liao Dynasty, wooden shelter structures were built in front of the caves, turning the grottoes into temple buildings, such as the Ten Famous Temples. In 1122 CE, these temples were destroyed in a war. Four-storeyed wooden-structured garrets, each with five rooms, were constructed in front of Caves 5 and 6, and three-storeyed structures with three rooms each were in front of Cave 7 in1651 CE. Since the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the major caves and the wooden structures in front of them (caves 5, 6, and 7) have all been conserved. The grottoes are protected and are open to the public.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1039</http_url><id_number>1039</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1039.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (i): The assemblage of statuary of the Yungang Grottoes is a masterpiece of early Chinese Buddhist cave art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The Yungang cave art represent the successful fusion of Buddhist religious symbolic art from south and central Asia with Chinese cultural traditions, starting in the 5th century CE under Imperial auspices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The power and endurance of Buddhist belief in China are vividly illustrated by the Yungang grottoes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iv): The Buddhist tradition of religious cave art achieved its first major impact at Yungang, where it developed its own distinct character and artistic power.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.1097200000</latitude><location>Datong City, Shanxi Province</location><longitude>113.1222200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist tradition of religious cave art achieved its first major impact at Yungang, where it developed its own distinct character and artistic power. The Yungang cave art represents the successful fusion of Buddhist religious symbolic art from south and central Asia with Chinese cultural traditions, starting in the 5th century AD under imperial auspices. At the same time it vividly illustrates the power and endurance of Buddhist belief in China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Datong, known as Pingcheng in ancient times, became the capital of the Northern Wei dynasty between 398 and 494, and thus the political, economic and cultural centre of their kingdom. It kept its importance until 523, when it was deserted following a revolt. The statues of the Yungang Grottoes were completed in sixty years (460-525); this period marks the peak of development in Buddhist cave art of the Northern Wei dynasty. When the first emperor assumed the throne, Buddhism flourished and in 460 the monk Tan Yao started the carving of the Five Caves; since then, these grottoes have become the centre of Buddhist art in North China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 525 the initial project, sponsored by the court, was mostly completed, but low ranking officials and monks continued to dig more caves and carve statues. During the Liao dynasty, wooden shelter structures were built in front of the caves, turning the grottoes into temple buildings, such as the Ten Famous Temples. In 1122 these temples were destroyed in a war.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Yungang Grottoes, known as Wuzhoushan Grottoes in ancient times, are located on the southern foot of the Wuzhou Mountains, in the Shi Li River valley, 16&amp;nbsp;km west of Datong City. They consist of 252 caves of various sizes housing more than 51,000 statues; the site extends much as 1&amp;nbsp;km east-west. Three main periods can be identified in the construction: the Early Period (460-65), the Middle Period (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 471-94) and the Late Period (494-525). Apart from the grottoes, the nominated core area includes the remains of a castle, a defence wall, and a beacon tower of the Ming dynasty on the plain above the grottoes. The grottoes of the early period (460-65) are composed of five main caves; these magnificent and simple caves were dug under the direction of the monk Tan Yao and are named after him. For the layout of the grottoes, large caves were dug to house the giant statues, 13-15m tall. They have a U-shaped plan and arched roofs, imitating the thatched sheds in ancient India. Each cave has a door and a window. The central images have tall bodies and occupy the major part of the caves, while on the outer walls 1,000 Buddhist statues are carved, a feature rarely seen in the tradition of Chinese history of grotto carving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They form the essence of the Yungang Grottoes, consisting of large caves, including four groups of twin caves and one group of triple caves. In this period there was a rapid development of the Han style and many new subject matters and combinations of statues were introduced, shifting the attention to the creation of law-enforcing images and various kinds of adornment. These caves are square in plan, usually with chambers both in front and in the rear; carvings on the walls are divided into upper and lower bands and right and left sections. Level caisson ceilings are carved on the roofs in most cases. On both sides of the outer walls there are high double-floored attics, and monuments stand high in the centre of the courtyard. The shelters in the style of wooden structures are supported by octagonal pillars, each carved with 1,000 Buddhas. The walls inside the caves are covered by long rolls of paintings divided into different layers and columns. All these reflect the layouts and traditional arrangements of halls in vogue in China during the Han dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grottoes of the late period (494-525) are located in the west of the grotto area, in the Dragon King Temple Valley. In total, over 200 caves and niches were cut in this period. These caves are of medium and small size with varied and complicated irregular shapes. Decorations were also carved on the cliff around the door of the caves. There is a tendency towards simplification of the contents of the statuary and stylizing the forms, but with a new look of delicacy and gracefulness.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Yungang Grottoes, in Datong city, Shanxi Province, with their 252 caves and 51,000 statues, represent the outstanding achievement of Buddhist cave art in China in the 5th and 6th centuries. The Five Caves created by Tan Yao, with their strict unity of layout and design, constitute a classical masterpiece of the first peak of Chinese Buddhist art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Yungang Grottoes</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1213</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of Macao was settled by fishing people long before the arrival of foreigners. It was a sheltered bay on the peninsula and a stopping point for seafarers sailing down the Chinese coast from Fujian province. The temple for the Goddess A-Ma, built in the late 15th century, is testimony to their faith. The Portuguese first arrived to China in 1513, visiting the famous market of Canton. In 1557, they arrived in Macao, which became the oldest permanent European settlement in East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The name of Macao derives from the Ma Kwok temple, built in the 14th century. At the time, the native inhabitants were scattered in small villages. Barra village and Patane village were small settlements of seafaring merchants, while the other villagers were farmers. When the Portuguese arrived, they built simple timber-clay houses in the Inner Harbour area. Several catholic churches and chapels gave the character for the settlement, becoming the focal points for road patterns. In the early 17th century, the Portuguese built a series of forts against other Western powers, e.g. the Dutch. In mid-17th century, the settlement was divided into two parts: the Portuguese in the south and the Chinese in the north. There was relatively little development in the 18th century due to restrictive legislation by the Chinese authorities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1849, Portugal proclaimed Macao a free port, which was confirmed in a protocol in 1887. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Catholic Church increased its power constructing new or renovating major churches. Due to Macao's role as a trading base, and due to lucrative opium trade, foreign companies established a base in an enclave prior to heading further up the Pearly River to Canton. This increased the quality of the building construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 19th century, not being able to compete with Hong-Kong, Macao's main finances were based on offering a popular sojourn spot for foreigners. As a result, many luxurious villas were built here, including new functions and buildings, such as Dom Pedro V Theatre, the Military Club, the Moorish Barracks, and Bela Vista Hotel. At the same time, the Chinese continued building in their own style, including Earth God Temple, the God of Justice Temple, Na Tcha Temple, and A-Ma Temple. From this period, there also started the process of land reclaim, which continued through the 20th century, providing a substantial extension to urbanised area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After 1949 the population grew especially by an influx of Chinese refugees from the mainland. In 1974, Macao was established as a Chinese territory under Portuguese administration. Under the terms of the 1987 agreement, Macao became a special administrative region under Chinese sovereignty in December 1999. In the 1990s, there has been a real-estate boom, resulting in a large number of high-rise buildings in the city centre area, though principally outside the defined buffer zones. At the same time, there have been campaigns for the restoration of the historic monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1110</http_url><id_number>1110</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1110.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The strategic location of Macao on the Chinese territory, and the special relationship established between the Chinese and Portuguese authorities favoured an important interchange of human values in the various fields of culture, sciences, technology, art and architecture over several centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt; Macao bears a unique testimony to the first and longest-lasting encounter between the West and China. From the 16th to the 20th centuries, it was the focal point for traders and missionaries, and the different fields of learning. The impact of this encounter can be traced in the fusion of different cultures that characterise the historic core zone of Macao.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt; Macao represents an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble that illustrates the development of the encounter between the Western and Chinese civilisations over some four and half centuries, represented in the historical route, with a series of urban spaces and architectural ensembles, that links the ancient Chinese port with the Portuguese city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt; Macao has been associated with the exchange of a variety of cultural, spiritual, scientific and technical influences between the Western and Chinese civilisations. These ideas directly motivated the introduction of crucial changes in China, ultimately ending the era of imperial feudal system and establishing the modern republic.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>22.1912919444</latitude><location>Macao Special Administrative Region</location><longitude>113.5364611111</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Macao is intimately associated with the development of world-wide trading routes. Its strategic location on Chinese territory and the special relationship that was established between the Chinese and Portuguese authorities gave Macao a strategic position for the important interchange of influences and human values in the various fields of culture, sciences, technology, art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Macao represents an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble that illustrates the development of the encounter between the Western and Chinese civilizations over some four and half centuries. The historical route, with a series of urban spaces and mixture of vernacular architectural ensembles, linking the ancient Chinese port with the Portuguese city, has evolved over time into a unique combination of buildings and structures that testimony to the different phases of the cultural encounter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site of Macao, located on the south-east coast of China to the west of the Pearl River Delta, consists of the Macao peninsula and the two islands of Taipa and Coloane. It was settled by fishing people long before the arrival of foreigners. The Portuguese first arrived in China in 1513, visiting the famous market of Canton. In 1557, they created in what was to become the oldest permanent European settlement in East Asia. The name of Macao derives from the Ma Kwok temple, built in the 14th century. At the time, the native inhabitants were scattered in small villages. Barra village and Patane village were small settlements of seafaring merchants, whereas the other villagers were farmers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first core zone consists of the central area of the historic settlement of Macao. It includes a series of urban spaces and buildings representing the integration of Portuguese and Chinese elements along the city's primary urban route, Rua Direita, which leads from the ancient Chinese harbour in the south to the old Christian city in the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Barra Square with the A-Ma Temple (15th century) is an example of Chinese culture inspired by Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and folk beliefs. The temple is used especially during Chinese Spring Festival, and consists of the Gate Pavilion, the Memorial Arch, the Prayer Hall, the Hall of Benevolence, the Hall of Guanyin and a Buddhist pavilion. North of the temple there is the neoclassical Moorish Barracks (1874) with its wide verandas raised on a granite platform. It was built to house police forces recruited from Goa. Lilau Square is one of the first residential quarters of the Portuguese in Macao, with the Mandarin's House, a traditional Chinese residence belonging to a prominent Chinese literary figure. St Augustine's Square was established by Spanish Augustinian priests in 1591, and still maintains the tradition of the Easter Procession. Dom Pedro V Theatre (1860), the first Western-style theatre in China, is a neoclassical brick building. The Baroque St Joseph's Seminary Building and Church was the principal basis for the missionary work in China, Japan and the region. Leal Senado Square is the main public square of the town with the Leal Senado Building, a two-storeyed neoclassical structure. Close by there is the Cathedral Square with the Cathedral Church (rebuilt in 1850), and the headquarters of Macao's Diocese. Further north is St Dominic's Square with St Dominic's Church (founded in 1587) and the old Chinese bazaar area. Here there is the Sam Kai Vui Kun Temple, testimony to Macao's enduring respect for Chinese and Portuguese communities as equals. Company of Jesus Square has the Ruins of St Paul's, which represent the remaining front elevation of the Church of Mater Dei and Na Tcha Temple. The Section of the Old City Walls (1569) is built from &lt;em&gt;chunambo&lt;/em&gt; , a local material made from a mixture of clay, sand, rice straw, ground rocks and oyster shells compacted in layers. East of the there is the Mount Fortress, which stands on the Mount Hill. It was built against attacks from the sea. Cam&amp;otilde;es Garden area has St Anthony's church, the old headquarters of the British East Indies Company, and the Protestant Cemetery with the tombs of renowned personalities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second core zone consists of the Guia Fortress, located on the Guia Hill and incorporating Guia Chapel (1622) and Guia Lighthouse (1885), the oldest lighthouse in the South China seas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Macao, a lucrative port of strategic importance in the development of international trade, was under Portuguese administration from the mid-16th century until 1999, when it came under Chinese sovereignty. With its historic street, residential, religious and public Portuguese and Chinese buildings, the historic centre of Macao provides a unique testimony to the meeting of aesthetic, cultural, architectural and technological influences from East and West. The site also contains a fortress and a lighthouse, the oldest in China. It bears witness to one of the earliest and longest-lasting encounters between China and the West, based on the vibrancy of international trade.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Macao</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1289</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Yin Xu is an ancient capital city that rose in the late Shang Dynasty, a time of prosperity of Chinese Bronze Age. Around the 17th century BC, the Shang tribe, an important branch of the Chinese nation, beat the Xia Dynasty and established a slave dynasty in central China, the second of its kind in Chinese history. The territory of this new dynasty extended to the great ocean in the east, the present-day Sichuan in the west, the Liaohe River Basin in the north, and the Dongtinghu Lake in the south. It was one of the most powerful states in the East Asia during the Bronze Age. &lt;br /&gt; In about 1300 BC, Pan Geng, the king of the Shang Dynasty, removed his capital from Yan to Yin Xu and built the latter into a magnificent capital city. Since then, this capital city continued being built by 12 kings in eight generations of the Shang Dynasty during 255 years. It remained the political, economic, military and cultural centre of China during the prime of its bronze age. Around the year 1046 BC, King Wu sent a punitive expedition against King Zhou, the last ruler of the Shang Dynasty. Yin was deserted and the city was turned into ruins, hence the name Yin Xu (the ruins of Yin) in historical sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; During the Qin and Han dynasties (221 B.C. to AD 23), references to Yin Xu were made frequently in history books. Epigraphy became popular during the Song and the Yuan Dynasties (AD 10th to 14th century). The frequent unearthing of bronzes around Xiaotun village aroused the attention of educated people. This city was then thought to be Xiang, the residence of the 12th king of the Shang Dynasty. In 1899, Wang Yirong, an epigrapher of the last years of the Qing Dynasty, discovered and proved that oracle bone inscription was the language used in the Shang Dynasty. After verification and exploration by many other scholars, Xiaotun of Anyang where oracle bone inscriptions were unearthed came to be established as the site of Yin Xu as recorded in Chinese classics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Between 1928 and 1937, the Institute of History and Philology of the then Academia Sinica carried out 15 large-scale excavations at Yin Xu, and discovered the Palace and Ancestral Shrines Area, the Royal Tombs Area and large numbers of other cultural remains. As a result, this capital city of the Shang Dynasty has gradually come to be known, and its position as China's first ancient capital, proven by written documents, has been firmly established. The excavations were completed after the Second World War. In 1995, Anyang City established the Yin Xu Management Department to take charge of conservation and daily management of Yin Xu.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1114</http_url><id_number>1114</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1114.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.1266666666</latitude><location>Henan Province</location><longitude>114.3138888888</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Yin Xu, close to Anyang City, some 500 km south of Beijing, is an ancient capital city of the late Shang Dynasty (1300 - 1046 BC). It testifies to the golden age of early Chinese culture, crafts and sciences, a time of great prosperity of the Chinese Bronze Age. A number of royal tombs and palaces, prototypes of later Chinese architecture, have been unearthed on the site, including the Palace and Royal Ancestral Shrines Area, with more than 80 house foundations, and the only tomb of a member of the royal family of the Shang Dynasty to have remained intact, the Tomb of Fu Hao. The large number and superb craftsmanship of the burial accessories found there bear testimony to the advanced level of Shang crafts industry. Inscriptions on oracle bones found in Yin Xu bear invaluable testimony to the development of one of the world&amp;rsquo;s oldest writing systems, ancient beliefs and social systems.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Yin Xu</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1293</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Koguryo kingdom starts as a regional power and ethnic group in the year 37BC, when its first capital city, Wunu Mountain City was built. 30 years later the capital moved to Guonei city. The capital moved again in 427 AD to Pyonyang, nowadays the capital of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City were the economic, political and cultural centers of the Koguryo for hundreds of years. Guonei City was destroyed in the year 197 AD when Koguryo were defeated by another power. Wandu Mountain City was built in 209 AD. Both cities were damaged in wars and rebuilt several times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After moving the capital to Pyongyang, Guonei city was considered as a &amp;quot;supporting capital&amp;quot;. It was then deserted for long period and repaired again after the founding of modern Ji'an in 1902.The remains of Wunu city were repaired in the years 1999 and 2002.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sites of the historic towns were declared as protected monuments since the second half of the 20th century and in 1983 all the residents of newly built Wandu city moved out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thousands of Koguryo tombs are known. Their first excavations date to the period of the Japanese occupation, during World War II. The People's Republic of China attached great importance to their protection, study and conservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1135</http_url><id_number>1135</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1135.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The tombs represent a masterpiece of the human creative genius in their wall paintings and structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Capital Cities of the Koguryo Kingdom are an early example of mountain cities, later imitated by neighbouring cultures. The tombs, particularly the important stele and a long inscription in one of the tombs, show the impact of Chinese culture on the Koguryo (who did not develop their own writing). The paintings in the tombs, while showing artistic skills and specific style, are also an example for strong impact from other cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom represent exceptional testimony to the vanished Koguryo civilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The system of capital cities represented by Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City also influenced the construction of later capitals built by the Koguryo regime; the Koguryo tombs provide outstanding examples of the evolution of piled-stone and earthen tomb construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The capital cities of the Koguryo Kingdom represent a perfect blending of human creation and nature whether with the rocks or with forests and rivers.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.1569444400</latitude><location>Huanren County, Liaoning Province and Ji’an, Jilin Province</location><longitude>126.1872222000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site represents exceptional testimony to the vanished Koguryo civilization. The Capital Cities of the Koguryo Kingdom are an early example of mountain cities, later to be imitated by neighbouring cultures. The tombs, particularly the important stele and a long inscription in one of the tombs, show the impact of Chinese culture on the Koguryo (who did not develop their own form of writing). The paintings in the tombs, while showing artistic skills and specific style, are also an example of the strong impact from other cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The system of capital cities represented by Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City also influenced the construction of later capitals built by the Koguryo regime. The Koguryo tombs provide outstanding examples of the evolution of piled-stone and earthen tomb construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site includes archaeological remains of three cities (Wunu Mountain City (only partly excavated), Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City) and 40 tombs, 14 of which are imperial and 26 of nobles. All belong to the Koguryo culture, named after the dynasty that ruled over parts of northern China and the northern half of the Korean Peninsula from 37 BC to AD 668.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the medieval cities in north-east Asia, Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City are both masterpieces of capital city layout and construction. They witnessed the splendid civilization that was created by Koguryo and submerged in the long process of history. They were the capitals of the Early and Middle Koguryo (1st-5th centuries AD), noteworthy for the fact that the plains city and the mountain city were supporting each other and jointly functioning as the capital. Guonei City played the role of a supporting capital after the main Koguryo capital moved to Pyongyang; it is one of the few plains city sites with stone city walls still standing on the ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wandu Mountain City contains many remains, including a large palace and 37 tombs. Some of the latter have elaborate ceilings, designed to roof wide spaces without columns and carry the heavy load of a stone or earth mound that was placed above them. The city, built along the terrain of the mountain and rationally designed, perfectly realizes the harmonious blending of natural environment and human creation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City, there are some 7,000 tombs of the Koguryo period (Donggou Ancient Tombs) in the Tonggou Plain surrounded by mountains. Among the tombs, the ten large-scale Koguryo imperial tombs represented by the General's Tomb and Taiwang Tomb, along with a large number of aristocratic wall-painting tombs, are the epitome of Koguryo's high architectural and artistic achievements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Haotaiwang stele on the east of Taiwang Tomb has an inscription with Chinese characters. This is the longest Koguryo written text so far known. What is especially important is that the blending of a local culture with its neighbouring culture, in particular the cultural elements from China's central plains, is amply illustrated by this World Heritage site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site includes archaeological remains of three cities and 40 tombs: Wunu Mountain City, Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City, 14 tombs are imperial, 26 of nobles. All belong to the Koguryo culture, named after the dynasty that ruled over parts of northern China and the northern half of the Korean Peninsula from 277 BC to AD 668. Wunu Mountain City is only partly excavated. Guonei City, within the modern city of Ji&amp;rsquo;an, played the role of a &amp;lsquo;supporting capital&amp;rsquo; after the main Koguryo capital moved to Pyongyang. Wandu Mountain City, one of the capitals of the Koguryo Kingdom, contains many vestiges including a large palace and 37 tombs. Some of the tombs show great ingenuity in their elaborate ceilings, designed to roof wide spaces without columns and carry the heavy load of a stone or earth tumulus (mound), which was placed above them.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1315</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1213</http_url><id_number>1213</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1213.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.8333333333</latitude><location>Sichuan Province</location><longitude>103.0000000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, home to more than 30% of the world's pandas which are classed as highly endangered, covers 924,500 ha with seven nature reserves and nine scenic parks in the Qionglai and Jiajin Mountains. The sanctuaries constitute the largest remaining contiguous habitat of the giant panda, a relict from the paleo-tropic forests of the Tertiary Era. It is also the species' most important site for captive breeding. The sanctuaries are home to other globally endangered animals such as the red panda, the snow leopard and clouded leopard. They are among the botanically richest sites of any region in the world outside the tropical rainforests, with between 5,000 and 6,000 species of flora in over 1,000 genera.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries - Wolong, Mt Siguniang and Jiajin Mountains </site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1390</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the Han period (255BC-220AD) Han people from the Central Plains of China began to move into the area and intermingled with the Yue people, who cultivated rice and fished. Settlements based on clan groupings emerged laid out according to Feng Shui principles and with houses built of mud bricks or fired bricks and timber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century, in response to increasing raids by bandits from the north coming into the area along the rivers, and to frequent heavy floods, villagers begun to construct fortified towers, known as Diaolou. An example is Yinglong Lou in Sanmenli Village. Following the creation of the Kaiping County in 1649, the security of the area greatly improved and few Diaolou were constructed in the Qing Dynasty: Kaiping means &amp;lsquo;Beginning of Peace'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the mid 16th century, many villagers began to trade from the nearby coast, sailing in wooden junks to south-east Asia. In 1839 a poor farmer left his village and travelled to America. This was the start of a large migration of people drawn on the one hand by work on gold-fields and railroads, and prompted on the other by an increasingly difficult situation at home, brought about by warfare against Hakka migrants from the north and an increase in population which had led to food shortages. Many thousands of Kaiping villagers left the area, travelling to Macao and Hong Kong and then on to USA, Canada or Australia. In North America the immigrants had to take jobs involving hard manual labour. Nevertheless by the end of the 19th century the Chinese community had begun to amass savings, and after the first World War, with rapid economic expansion in many countries, the fortunes of the overseas Chinese steadily improved. What they did not believe they had achieved however, was social recognition for their input into the expansion of the countries they had chosen to live in. Their dreams came to be associated with contributing to the wellbeing of their ancestral villages or returning to live there, and many did just that building conspicuous tower houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The influx of wealthy people attracted the attention of the bandits from the north who raided, robbed and kidnapped. Between 1912 and 1930, 71 incidents of banditry were recorded. The new houses needed to be built as defensive towers. The overseas Chinese also contributed to the construction of communal towers and watchtowers in most of the villages. Of the 1833 Diaolou in Kaiping, 1648 were built between 1900 and 1931, just under 90% of the total. In the same period most of the villages were built or rebuilt. In the short space of 30 years the rural landscape of Kaiping was completely transformed with funds from overseas Chinese.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Depression of the 1930s, and the war against Japan and the Pacific war of the 1940s brought development to a halt. Between 1943 and 1947 immigration control in the USA and Canada was abolished with the result that many Chinese moved back to North America. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, banditry was halted and flood mitigation measures were introduced: the role of the Diaolou disappeared. In the 1980s following the re-opening of China, many villagers moved away. Now many Diaolou are empty, cared for by caretakers, but still regarded by overseas Chinese as their spiritual home to which they return on family occasions or remit money for prayers to be said to their ancestors. Some still contain all their original furniture and fittings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The surrounding villages and farmland are still part of an active rural economy, The village houses, rice fields, bamboo groves and surrounding grazed hills reflecting rural landscape patterns and practices that may have persisted for over a millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1112</http_url><id_number>1112</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1112.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.2855194444</latitude><location>Guangdong Province</location><longitude>112.5658611111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kaiping Diaolou and Villages feature the Diaolou, multi-storeyed defensive village houses in Kaiping, which display a complex and flamboyant fusion of Chinese and Western structural and decorative forms. They reflect the significant role of &amp;eacute;migr&amp;eacute; Kaiping people in the development of several countries in South Asia, Australasia and North America, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There are four groups of Diaolou and twenty of the most symbolic ones are inscribed on the List. These buildings take three forms: communal towers built by several families and used as temporary refuge, residential towers built by individual rich families and used as fortified residences, and watch towers. Built of stone, &lt;em&gt;pise&lt;/em&gt; , brick or concrete, these buildings represent a complex and confident fusion between Chinese and Western architectural styles. Retaining a harmonious relationship with the surrounding landscape, the Diaolou testify to the final flowering of local building traditions that started in the Ming period in response to local banditry.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kaiping Diaolou and Villages</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1459</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological research has revealed that there have been communal houses built of rammed earth in China, Central Asia, and East Asia since the Neolithic period (6,000 years ago). Over a long period social, economic, and cultural developments in south-eastern China were closely associated with the mass immigration of northern people. During the Western Jin Dynasty (307-12 CE), because of continual warfare and serious drought, people from central China began to migrate southward, many of them reaching Fujian, bringing with them the advanced cultures of central China, and Fujian began to thrive. In the late Tang dynasty (7th-8th century), people in central China once again moved southward on a large scale to escape the wars, many going to Quanzhou and Fuzhou along the coast of Fujian and Jianzhou in the north. Those who settled in south-eastern Fujian (Zhangzhou and Quangzhou) became the Fulao people, who spoke the Minnan (south Fujian) dialect during the course of merging with local people. Some of their descendants went even further, to overseas countries. During the later years of the Northern Song Dynasty and the Southern Song dynasty in particular (1127-1279), the conquest of northern China by Jin ethnic people forced many people in central China once again to move southward, bringing with them the language and culture of central China to form the Hakka group, now mainly distributed in Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong, and Hainan Provinces and Taiwan, together with millions of overseas Chinese worldwide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fujian tulou seem first to have appeared in the Song and Yuan Dynasties (11th-13th centuries) and developed from the 14th and 16th centuries (Early and Middle Ming Dynasty), reaching their peak between the 17th century and the first half of the 20th century (the Late Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Republic of China period).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first tulou buildings were comparatively small, rectangular or square, plainly decorated, and without stone foundations. From the end of the 14th century to the early 17th century (Ming Dynasty), in response to improved agricultural development in Fujian, and frequent bandit raids (attracted by the prosperity of the area) much larger tulou were constructed. As a result of an increase in the processing of tobacco and tea between the mid 17th and the first half of the 20th centuries, tulou were further developed that reflected in their size and decoration the wealth created from industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many of the tulou are extremely well documented and the names of founders of the clans and the builders of the tulou are known from as early as the 13th century and in many areas the same family persisted until the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tulou, although providing communal housing and reinforcing the structure of clans, were until the 20th century, mostly built and owned by one powerful individual. In the early buildings these would be people who derived their wealth from land and agriculture, (such as rearing ducks or cattle) for the later buildings trade and industry, in the 17th century shipping and tea, and later processing tobacco. For instance, the building of the early tulou in the Hongkeng cluster is attributed to Lin Yongsong, descendent of two brothers who had moved into the area around 1290, while Zhencheng Lou constructed in 1912 was built by Lin's 21st generation descendents, two brothers who had made large sums from the Sunrise cigarette cutter factory, and spent 80,000 silver dollars on building the tulou.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tulou built in the 20th century were often funded by overseas Chinese such as one of the tulou in Gaobei cluster where local clansmen constructed the building jointly with money provided by their overseas relative, after whom the building was named.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1113</http_url><id_number>1113</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1113.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.0230555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>117.6858333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Fujian &lt;em&gt;Tulou&lt;/em&gt; is a property of 46 buildings constructed between the 15th and 20th centuries over 120 km in south-west of Fujian province, inland from the Taiwan Strait. Set amongst rice, tea and tobacco fields the Tulou are earthen houses. Several storeys high, they are built along an inward-looking, circular or square floor plan as housing for up to 800 people each. They were built for defence purposes around a central open courtyard with only one entrance and windows to the outside only above the first floor. Housing a whole clan, the houses functioned as village units and were known as “a little kingdom for the family” or “bustling small city.” They feature tall fortified mud walls capped by tiled roofs with wide over-hanging eaves. The most elaborate structures date back to the 17th and 18th centuries. The buildings were divided vertically between families with each disposing of two or three rooms on each floor. In contrast with their plain exterior, the inside of the tulou were built for comfort and were often highly decorated. They are inscribed as exceptional examples of a building tradition and function exemplifying a particular type of communal living and defensive organization, and, in terms of their harmonious relationship with their environment, an outstanding example of human settlement.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fujian &lt;em&gt;Tulou&lt;/em&gt;</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1505</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1292</http_url><id_number>1292</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1292.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.9158333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>118.0644444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mount Sanqingshan National Park, a 22,950 ha property located in the west of the Huyaiyu mountain range in the northeast of Jiangxi Province (in the east of central China) has been inscribed for its exceptional scenic quality, marked by the concentration of fantastically shaped pillars and peaks: 48 granite peaks and 89 granite pillars, many of which resemble human or animal silhouettes. The natural beauty of the 1,817 metre high Mount Huaiyu is further enhanced by the juxtaposition of granite features with the vegetation and particular meteorological conditions which make for an ever-changing and arresting landscape with bright halos on clouds and white rainbows. The area is subject to a combination of subtropical monsoonal and maritime influences and forms an island of temperate forest above the surrounding subtropical landscape. It also features forests and numerous waterfalls, some of them 60 metres in height, lakes and springs.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Sanqingshan National Park</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1523</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;According to the Records of Mount Qingliang, written by Buddhist master Zhencheng in the Ming Dynasty, the first temple built on Mount Wutai was created by the order of the Han Emperor in AD 68. This was at the time when India Buddhist masters visited China to promote Buddhism. They considered that in terms of topography Mount Wutai was identical to the Vulture Peak (Rajgir, India), where Sakyamuni lectured on the Lotus sutra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the North and South Dynasties, through the patronage of Emperors who started the pilgrimages to the five peaks, Mount Wutai flourished with over 200 temples and monasteries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From an early date a link was established between Mount Wutai and the worship of Manjusri, a bodhisattva associated with wisdom. A sutra dating from AD 418, the Residence of Bodhisattva, Scroll 45, identifies Qingliang Mountain as the dwelling place of Manjusri and this mountain is usually taken as being Mount Wutai.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was during the Sui and Tang dynasties that Mount Wutai reached the peak of its prosperity. All the Tang Emperors awarded imperial edicts for such matters as building, exempting from taxation, drawing up maps or putting the monks and nuns from the entire nation under the control of the monasteries at Wutai, thus making it the centre of Han Buddhism. The number of temples rose to 360 and attracted monks from India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma, Vietnam, Korea and Japan who then spread the Manjusri faith all over south-east Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Song and Yuan Dynasties the number of temples declined to around 70 but new halls were built including the Manjusri Hall of Foguang Temple. Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mount Wutai and coexisted harmoniously with Han Buddhism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Buddhism flourished once more in the Ming dynasties and many temples were rebuilt, including the Great White pagoda and a public Sukhavati monastery. The number of temples increased once more to 104. The Qing Emperors undertook many pilgrimages to Mount Wutai as part of their policy to show ethnic solidarity with neighbouring Mongolians, to strengthen the borders, and to foster social stability. By this time there were 25 Tibetan lamaseries and 97 Han Buddhist communities working side by side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the late Qing dynasty to the early years of the Republic of China, Mount Wutai declined through social instability. Since 1949 and the founding of the People's Republic of China, efforts have been directed at reviving and protecting the buildings. There are now 68 temples on the mountain: 21 outside and 47 inside the circle of the five terraces; 7 Tibetan lamaseries and 40 Han Buddhist monasteries; 5 nunneries and 1 public monastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until the 1950s, the temples had as a backdrop to the northwest the mountain slopes afforested with Wutai small poplar, Chinese pine, spruce and small wild shrubs. In the east was the Qingshui River and to the south arable land worked in terraces to support the monks and local residents. With the sudden increase in population in the 1950s, much of the forested land to the northwest was cleared and turned into agricultural terraces, although because of the comparatively high altitude the output was low. In the 1990s with fewer people engaged in agriculture, a large part of this arable land was abandoned, causing soil erosion. At the end of 1990s, in order to protect the ecological environment, and under a national policy to return farmland to forest, the government has started a five year programme of afforestation, planting pines, including the local Chinese pine, and spruce, supplemented by local small shrub.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the past five years many residents living in Taihuai town have been moved to a new Jingangku Township, 16 kms away where new dwellings and tourist facilities have been built. When the project is complete in 2020, 395 households will have been moved from six villages as well as from the settlements of Dongzhuang and Guizicun and 36 hotels and 108 shops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1279</http_url><id_number>1279</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1279.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.0305555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>113.5633333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;With its five flat peaks, Mount Wutai is a sacred Buddhist mountain. The cultural landscape is home to forty-one monasteries and includes the East Main Hall of Foguang Temple, the highest surviving timber building of the Tang dynasty, with life-size clay sculptures. It also features the Ming dynasty Shuxiang Temple with a huge complex of 500 statues representing Buddhist stories woven into three-dimensional pictures of mountains and water. Overall, the buildings on the site catalogue the way in which Buddhist architecture developed and influenced palace building in China for over a millennium. Mount Wutai, literally, 'the five terrace mountain', is the highest in Northern China and is remarkable for its morphology of precipitous slopes with five open treeless peaks. Temples have been built on this site from the 1st century AD to the early 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Wutai</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1587</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1335</http_url><id_number>1335</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1335.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.4219444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>106.0425000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;China Danxia is the name given in China to landscapes developed on continental red terrigenous sedimentary beds influenced by endogenous forces (including uplift) and exogenous forces (including weathering and erosion). The inscribed site comprises six areas found in the sub-tropical zone of south-west China. They are characterized by spectacular red cliffs and a range of erosional landforms, including dramatic natural pillars, towers, ravines, valleys and waterfalls. These rugged landscapes have helped to conserve sub-tropical broad-leaved evergreen forests, and host many species of flora and fauna, about 400 of which are considered rare or threatened.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>China Danxia</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1676</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Evidence for human occupation around the mountain dates back to Palaeolithic times with rich finds in, for instance, the Zhiji cave. During the Neolithic period, the mountain had one of the most advanced cultures in China, as demonstrated by finds related to the Longshan culture at Wangchenggang in Dengfeng. This evolved into the beginnings of what are seen as the earliest states in China and the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties - some of whose capitals, including Yangcheng, were around Mount Songshan. One of the two capitals of the Xia Dynasty was at Wangchenggang.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the first few centuries after Buddhism was introduced into China in the Han Dynasty, many Buddhist temples were established around Mount Songshan, including Songyue, Shaolin and Huishan, and the Chan sect was spread from the Shaolin temple. The Region also played an important role in the development of Taoism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist temples as well as being associated with the dissemination of Buddhism are said to have had their historical significance heightened by their proximity to the centre of heaven and earth and to one of the later capitals, the city of Luoyi and to the beautiful landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), Empress Wu decreed the god of Mount Songshan to be the &amp;lsquo;Emperor of Central Heaven', whilst Emperor Xuanzong nominated the god as &amp;lsquo;King of Central Heaven' and expanded the Zhongyue temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Song (960-1279) and Jin dynasties (1115-1234) there was further imperial support that led to rapid development of religions and temples and also the creation of the Academy of Classical Learning. The Yuan Dynasty saw the creation of 44 pagodas as well as the building of the Observatory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Ming Dynasty (1365-1644) the religious structures reached their greatest extent and prosperity and nine halls and 143 pagodas still survive from this period. It was in this period that the concept of the centre of earth was abandoned as western ideas about a spherical earth were adopted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), buildings were renovated or rebuilt and there are now more Qing structures than from any other dynasty, including 34 temple buildings. Construction came to an end during the Republic of China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For around 2,000 years the process of building and rebuilding temples continued, even though the capitals of the dynasties since the 3rd century BCE had not been around Mount Songshan. Sixty-eight rulers visited the mountain, or sent their deputies to offer sacrifices, and men of letters, scholars and eminent monks were attracted to live in the religious establishments and in some cases commissioned buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area thus retained its influence not just for its association with a sacred mountain or for its association with the concept of the centre of heaven and earth in astronomical terms, but also due to Dengfeng being at the heart of the country and thus associated with the soul of China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1305</http_url><id_number>1305</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1305.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.4587472222</latitude><location></location><longitude>113.0677194444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mount Songshang is considered to be the central sacred mountain of China. At the foot of this 1500 metre high mountain, close to the city of Dengfeng in Henan province and spread over a 40 square-kilometre circle, stand eight clusters of buildings and sites, including three Han Que gates - remains of the oldest religious edifices in China -, temples, the Zhougong Sundial Platform and the Dengfeng Observatory. Constructed over the course of nine dynasties, these buildings are reflections of different ways of perceiving the centre of heaven and earth and the power of the mountain as a centre for religious devotion. The historical monuments of Dengfeng include some of the best examples of ancient Chinese buildings devoted to ritual, science, technology and education.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments of Dengfeng in “The Centre of Heaven and Earth”</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1726</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1083</http_url><id_number>1083</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1083.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (vii): Superlative natural phenomena or natural beauty and aesthetic importance The deep, parallel gorges of the Jinsha, Lancang and Nu Jiang are the outstanding natural feature of the site; while large sections of the three rivers lie just outside the site boundaries, the river gorges are nevertheless the dominant scenic element in the area. High mountains are everywhere, with the glaciated peaks of the Meili, Baima and Haba Snow Mountains providing a spectacular scenic skyline. The Mingyongqia Glacier is a notable natural phemonenon, descending to 2700 m altitude from Mt Kawagebo (6740 m), and is claimed to be the gla cier descending to the lowest altitude for such a low latitude (28Â° N) in the northern hemisphere. Other outstanding scenic landforms are the alpine karst (especially the 'stone moon' in the Moon Mountain Scenic Area above the Nu Jiang Gorge) and the 'tortoise shell' weathering of the alpine Danxia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (viii): The property is of outstanding value for displaying the geological history of the last 50 million years associated with the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate, the closure of the ancient Tethys Sea, and the uplifting of the Himalaya Range and the Tibetan Plateau. These were major geological events in the evolution of the land surface of Asia and they are on-going. The diverse rock types within the site record this history and, in addition, the range of karst, granite monolith, and Danxia sandstone landforms in the alpine zone include some of the best of their type in the mountains of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Â Criterion (ix): The dramatic expression of ecological processes in the Three Parallel Rivers site has resulted from a mix of geological, climatic and topographical effects. First, the location of the area within an active orographic belt has resulted in a wide range of rock substrates from igneous (four types) through to various sedimentary types including limestones, sandstones and conglomerates. An exceptional range of topographical features - from gorges to karst to glaciated peaks -- is associated with the site being at a â€œcollision pointâ€ of tectonic plates. Add the fact that the area was a Pleistocene refugium and is located at a biogeographical convergence zone (i.e. with temperate and tropical elements) and the physical foundations for evolution of its high biodiversity are all present. Along with the landscape diversity with a steep gradient of almost 6000m vertical, a monsoon climate affects most of the area and provides another favourable ecological stimulus that has allowed the full range of temperate Palearctic biomes to develop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (x): Biodiversity and threatened species Northwest Yunnan is the area of richest biodiversity in China and may be the most biologically diverse temperate region on earth. The site encompasses most of the natural habitats in the Hengduan Mountains, one of the world's most important remaining areas for the conservation of the earth's biodiversity. The outstanding topographic and climatic diversity of the site, coupled with its location at the juncture of the East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Tibetan Plateau biogeographical realms and its function as a N-S corridor for the movement of plants and animals (especially during the ice ages), marks it as a truly unique landscape, which still retains a high degree of natural character despite thousands of years of human habitation. As the last remaining stronghold for an extensive suite of rare and endangered plants and animals, the site is of outstanding universal value.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>27.8950000000</latitude><location>Lijiang Prefecture, Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province</location><longitude>98.4063888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas is situated in south-west China. The site consists of 15 protected areas (in eight geographical clusters) in the mountainous north-west of Yunnan Province.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Extending 310&amp;nbsp;km from north to south and 180&amp;nbsp;km from east to west, the site encompasses large sections of three of the great rivers of Asia, the Yangtse (Jinsha), Mekong (Lacang) and Salween (Nu Jiang), which run parallel from north to south through the nominated area for over 300&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The world heritage area lies over four parallel north-south trending mountain ranges that reach a height in excess of 4,000&amp;nbsp;m above sea level in altitude. These ranges are part of the Hengduan Mountains located beyond the eastern end of the Himalayas, which have been corrugated and uplifted by the pressures of crustal folding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is dominated by a huge composite orogenic belt that shows the signs of powerful crustal movements in the past. Notably is the compression of the edge of the Eurasian plate by the underlying Indian plate which is being subducted along the line of the Lancang River fault. The resulting squeeze created vast thrust-nappes; violent shearing and uplift into high mountains, through which pre-existing rivers continue to cut, resulting in the extreme vertical relief which characterizes the area. Some of the results are visible in complex patterns of folded rock and unusual mineral formations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is also an excellent representative of alpine landscapes and their evolution. The eastern mountains, plateaus and valleys are covered with meadows, waterfalls and streams and hundreds of small glacial lakes left by glacial erosion processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The land area encompassed by Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas is one of the world's least-disturbed temperate ecological areas, an epicentre of Chinese endemic species and a natural gene pool of great richness. It supports the richest diversity of higher plants of China, owing to its altitudinal range and its position in a climatic corridor between north and south, it includes the equivalents of seven climatic zones: southern, central and northern subtropical with dry hot valleys, warm, cool and cold temperate, and cold zones. Owing to its function as a refuge during the last Ice Age and its location near the boundaries of three major biogeographic realms, East Asia, South-East Asia and the Tibetan plateau, the park has 22 vegetation subtypes and 6,000 plant species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna is a complex mosaic of Palaearctic, oriental and local endemic species adapted to almost all the inland climates from southern subtropical to frigid, except for desert, although there are hot dry valleys. The area is believed to support over 25% of the world's animal species, many being relict and endangered. There is a concentration of the country's rare and endangered animals within the nominated area. Being near the boundaries of the East Asian, South-East Asian and Tibetan biogeographic realms, the nominated area also acts as a corridor where several species from each realm meet and reach their limits of distribution. In addition there are numerous primitive animals that are relics of the ecological past, alongside animals that have recently adapted to colder conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Consisting of eight geographical clusters of protected areas within the boundaries of the Three Parallel Rivers National Park, in the mountainous north-west of Yunnan Province, the 1.7 million hectare site features sections of the upper reaches of three of the great rivers of Asia: the Yangtze (Jinsha), Mekong and Salween run roughly parallel, north to south, through steep gorges which, in places, are 3,000 m deep and are bordered by glaciated peaks more than 6,000 m high. The site is an epicentre of Chinese biodiversity. It is also one of the richest temperate regions of the world in terms of biodiversity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1731</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1334</http_url><id_number>1334</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1334.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.2375000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>120.1408333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou, comprising the West Lake and the hills surrounding its three sides, has inspired famous poets, scholars and artists since the 9th century. It comprises numerous temples, pagodas, pavilions, gardens and ornamental trees, as well as causeways and artificial islands. These additions have been made to improve the landscape west of the city of Hangzhou to the south of the Yangtze river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The West Lake has influenced garden design in the rest of China as well as Japan and Korea over the centuries and bears an exceptional testimony to the cultural tradition of improving landscapes to create a series of vistas reflecting an idealised fusion between humans and nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>West Lake Cultural Landscape of Hangzhou</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1765</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1388</http_url><id_number>1388</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1388.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.6688888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>102.9772222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A hilly 512&amp;nbsp;ha site in Yunnan province, Chengjiang&amp;rsquo;s fossils present the most complete record of an early Cambrian marine community with exceptionally preserved biota, displaying the anatomy of hard and soft tissues in a very wide variety of organisms, invertebrate and vertebrate. They record the early establishment of a complex marine ecosystem. The site documents at least sixteen phyla and a variety of enigmatic groups as well as about 196 species, presenting exceptional testimony to the rapid diversification of life on Earth 530&amp;nbsp;million years ago, when almost all of today&amp;rsquo;s major animal groups emerged. It opens a palaeobiological window of great significance to scholarship.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chengjiang Fossil Site</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1803</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1389</http_url><id_number>1389</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1389.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.3580000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>116.1851277778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;North of the Great Wall, the Site of Xanadu encompasses the remains of Kublai Khan&amp;rsquo;s legendary capital city, designed by the Mongol ruler&amp;rsquo;s Chinese advisor Liu Bingzhdong in 1256. Over a surface area of 25,000&amp;nbsp;ha, the site was a unique attempt to assimilate the nomadic Mongolian and Han Chinese cultures. From this base, Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty that ruled China over a century, extending its boundaries across Asia. The religious debate that took place here resulted in the dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism over north-east Asia, a cultural and religious tradition still practised in many areas today. The site was planned according to traditional Chinese &lt;em&gt;feng shui&lt;/em&gt; in relation to the nearby mountains and river. It features the remains of the city, including temples, palaces, tombs, nomadic encampments and the Tiefan&amp;rsquo;gang Canal, along with other waterworks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Site of Xanadu</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1804</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1414</http_url><id_number>1414</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1414.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.9683333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>80.3541666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Xinjiang Tianshan&amp;nbsp;comprises four components&amp;mdash;Tomur, Kalajun-Kuerdening, Bayinbukuke and Bogda&amp;mdash; that total 606,833 hectares. They are part of the Tianshan mountain system of Central Asia, one of the largest mountain ranges in the world. Xinjiang Tianshan presents unique physical geographic features and scenically beautiful areas including spectacular snow and snowy mountains glacier-capped peaks, undisturbed forests and meadows, clear rivers and lakes and red bed canyons. These landscapes contrast with the vast adjacent desert landscapes, creating a striking visual contrast between hot and cold environments, dry and wet, desolate and luxuriant. The landforms and ecosystems of the site have been preserved since the Pliocene epoch and present an outstanding example of ongoing biological and ecological evolutionary processes. The site also extends into the Taklimakan Desert, one of the world&amp;rsquo;s largest and highest deserts, known for its large dune forms and great dust storms. Xinjiang Tianshan is moreover an important habitat for endemic and relic flora species, some rare and endangered.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Xinjiang Tianshan</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1876</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1111</http_url><id_number>1111</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1111.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>23.0932777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>102.7799805556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cultural Landscape of Honghe Hani Rice Terraces, China covers 16,603-hectares in Southern Yunnan. It is marked by spectacular terraces that cascade down the slopes of the towering Ailao Mountains to the banks of the Hong River. Over the past 1,300 years, the Hani people have developed a complex system of channels to bring water from the forested mountaintops to the terraces. They have also created an integrated farming system that involves buffalos, cattle, ducks, fish and eel and supports the production of red rice, the area&amp;rsquo;s primary crop. The inhabitants worship the sun, moon, mountains, rivers, forests and other natural phenomena including fire. They live in 82 villages situated between the mountaintop forests and the terraces. The villages feature traditional thatched &amp;ldquo;mushroom&amp;rdquo; houses. The resilient land management system of the rice terraces demonstrates extraordinary harmony between people and their environment, both visually and ecologically, based on exceptional and long-standing social and religious structures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Landscape of Honghe Hani Rice Terraces </site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1877</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Proclaimed a site of scenic beauty and historic interest by the State Council of the People's Republic of China in 1982. Protection measures date back to 1935 when the administrative area of Mount Huangshan was delimited, the boundaries providing the basis to the configuration of the existing scenic beauty and historic interest site.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/547</http_url><id_number>547</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_547.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.1666700000</latitude><location></location><longitude>118.1833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Huangshan is the mountain best renowned for its scenery in China, and has an interesting but complex geological history. It features numerous imposing peaks, whose formation dates back some 100&amp;nbsp;million years to the Mesozoic era, when the ancient Yangtse Sea disappeared as a result of crustal movements and subsequent uplift. The geology and geomorphology of the region is undoubtedly of great interest; of particular note are the features resulting from glaciation, the folds and faults which have resulted from tectonic activity and the high altitude karst features including calcareous tufa shoals, waterfalls and stepped lakes. Aesthetically, the site presents an almost unique spectacle, with its combined attraction of high mountains, forests, lakes, stepped lakes, waterfalls and calcareous shoals. The rich variety of colours is also notable, many of the lakes having clear blue, turquoise or green waters, while in autumn many of the leaves turn a range of rich colours. The site supports a high diversity of plant and animal species, including a number of that are threatened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;U-shaped valleys, striations and boulders are evidence of later glaciation during the Quaternary period. Forests of stone pillars are numerous; other features include grotesquely shaped rocks, waterfalls, lakes and hot springs. The oldest rocks are the sedimentary deposits and metamorphic rocks from the Yangtse Sea, formed over 570&amp;nbsp;million years ago during the Proterozoic era and outcropping at the southern foot of Mount Huangshan and south of the Xiaoyaoxi fault. Granite formations, formed during periods of orogenic activity, are characterized by well advanced longitudinal joints, responsible for the many impressive caves, ridges and gorges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Forests, characterized by Masson pine below 800&amp;nbsp;m and Huangshan pine from 800&amp;nbsp;m to 1,800&amp;nbsp;m, cover more than half the site. Predominantly evergreen moist forest occurs between 600&amp;nbsp;m and 1,100&amp;nbsp;m. Deciduous forest occurs from 1,100&amp;nbsp;m to 1,800&amp;nbsp;m, and alpine grassland above the tree line. Some 1,650 plant species have been recorded, of which about 1,450 are native and the rest have been introduced over the last twenty years. A number of trees are celebrated on account of their age, grotesque shape or precipitously perched position, including 1,000-year-old specimens of Huangshan pine, maidenhair tree (&lt;em&gt;Ginkgo biloba&lt;/em&gt; ) and alpine juniper &lt;em&gt;Sabina squamata&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vertebrate fauna comprises 300 species and includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes. A total of thirteen species is under state protection. Large mammals include rhesus and stump-tailed macaques, Asiatic black bear, wild dog, civet, Chinese ferret-badger, clouded leopard, wild boar, sika deer, mainland serow, red-bellied and spotted squirrels, and pangolin. Notable among the avifauna is the Oriental white stork.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The high esteem accredited to Huangshan throughout much of Chinese history has given rise to the Huangshan culture. Generation after generation, people have come to eulogize the mountain, resulting in a rich legacy of art and literature. Huangshan is considered to be a prime example of classic Chinese scenery, as typified in Chinese landscape paintings. On 17 June 747, during the Tang dynasty, an imperial order was issued to name it Huangshan (Yellow Mountain). Until that time, however, the mountain had remained largely inaccessible from the outside world. Thereafter, poets, literary scholars and numerous other celebrities were among the many visitors, and by the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) 64 temples had been constructed on the mountain. During the Ming dynasty, in 1606, Monk Pumen came to Huangshan and built Fahai Meditation Temple and Wonshu Temple, connecting them by steps cut into the mountain. Paintings and drawings of the mountain appeared as early as the mid-16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The inclusion of a number of Tibetan villages in the buffer zone adds to the cultural interest of the area.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Huangshan, known as 'the loveliest mountain of China', was acclaimed through art and literature during a good part of Chinese history (e.g. the Shanshui 'mountain and water' style of the mid-16th century). Today it holds the same fascination for visitors, poets, painters and photographers who come on pilgrimage to the site, which is renowned for its magnificent scenery made up of many granite peaks and rocks emerging out of a sea of clouds.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Huangshan</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1933</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been continuous human occupation of the Lijiang region since the Palaeolithic period. During the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) it was under the jurisdiction of the Shu region of the Qin State. In the Western and Eastern Han Dynasties it was established as Suijiu County.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century AD, during the later Southern Song Dynasty, the ancestors of the ruling Mu family moved their main centre from Baisha to the foot of the Shizi Mountains, to a new town known as Dayechang (later Dayan), where they began building houses surrounded by a city wall and moat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Azong Aliang submitted in the 1250s to the authority of the Yuan Emperor Hubilie, Dayechang became an administrative centre. The Lijiang Junmin prefecture was established when the region came under Ming rule in 1382. The prefect of the tune, Ajia Ade, was awarded the honorific surname &amp;quot;Mu&amp;quot; and made an hereditary prefect, a title that was confirmed by the Qmg Dynasty rulers in 1660. The successive Mu prefects were responsible for enlarging and embellishing their centre throughout this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1723 the Imperial court changed its policy and the native prefect was replaced by an Imperial appointee. The first non-native prefect, Yang Bi, arrived the following year and began building prefectural offices, barracks, and educational facilities at the foot of the Jinhong Mountain. Lijiang County was created as part of Lijiang Junmin Prefecture in 1770, and survived when the prefecture was abolished by the Republic in 1912. Lijiang has continued to fimction as an administrative centre ever since, now for the Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region is subject to earthquakes, and the town suffered on several occasions - 1481, 1515, 1624, 1751, 1895, 1933, 1951, 1961, 1977, and most recently on 3 February 1996. Damage to property and loss of life has been severe, particularly in the 1951 quake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/811</http_url><id_number>811</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_811.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of cultural criteria (ii), (iv) and (v). Lijiang is an exceptional ancient town set in a dramatic landscape which represents the harmonious fusion of different cultural traditions to produce an urban landscape of outstanding quality.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>26.8666700000</latitude><location>Lijiang's old town  (including the Dayan old town, Basha housing cluster and Shuhe housing cluster)</location><longitude>100.2333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lijiang is an exceptional ancient town set in a dramatic landscape which represents the harmonious fusion of different cultural traditions to produce an urban landscape of outstanding quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century AD, during the later Southern Song dynasty, the ancestors of the ruling Mu family moved their main centre from Baisha to the foot of the Shizi Mountains to a new town known as Dayechang (later Dayan), where they began building houses surrounded by a city wall and moat. After Azong Aliang submitted in the 1250s to the authority of the Yuan Emperor Hubilie, Dayechang became an administrative centre. The Lijiang Junmin prefecture was established when the region came under Ming rule in 1382.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1724 the first non-native prefect began building prefectural offices, barracks and educational facilities at the foot of the Jinhong Mountain. Lijiang County was created as part of Lijiang Junmin Prefecture in 1770. The old town of Lijiang is built on a mountain slope running from north-west to south-east, facing a deep river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The northern part of the city was a commercial district. The main streets in this part of the old town radiate from the broad street known as Sifangjie, which has traditionally been the commercial and trading centre of the north-western part of Yunnan Province. On the west side of the Sifangjie is the imposing three-storeyed Kegongfang (Imperial Examination Archway), which is flanked by the Western and Central rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A sluice on the former uses the different levels of the two waterways to wash the streets, a unique form of municipal sanitation. The streets are paved with slabs of a fine-grained red breccia. Water flows from here to the Shuangshi Bridge, where it branches into three tributaries. These subdivide into a network of channels and culverts to supply every house in the town. This water supply is supplemented by many springs and wells within the town itself. A system of watercourses of this complexity necessitates a large number of bridges of varying sizes. There are 354 bridges altogether; they take several forms. It is from these structures that Lijiang derives its name, the 'City of Bridges'. The feature of Lijiang that is most representative of the Naxi minority culture is its wealth of domestic dwellings. The basic timber-framed structure developed into a unique architectural style with the absorption of elements of Han and Zang architecture. Most of the houses are two-storeyed. The chuandoushi wooden frames are walled with adobe on the ground floor and planks on the upper floors; the walls have stone foundation courses. The exteriors of the walls are plastered and lime-washed, and there are often brick panels at the corners. The houses have tiled roofs and an external corridor or veranda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Special attention is paid to the decoration of the houses, especially in the arches over gateways, the screen walls, the external corridors, the doors and windows, the courtyards and the roof beams. Wooden elements are elaborately carved with domestic and cultural elements - pottery, musical instruments, flowers, birds, etc. - and gate arches take several elegant forms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lijiang Junmin Prefectural Government Office and Mujia Compound were established in 1368, during the Ming dynasty, in the eastern part of the city. The 286&amp;nbsp;m long government office was a complex of halls, towers, bridges, terraces, pavilions and palaces. To the north was the official residence, known as the Mujia Compound. It was largely destroyed by war during the Qing dynasty and only the Yizi Pavilion, the Guagbi Tower, and a stone archway survive. The group known as the Yuquan architectural structures is in the Heilongtan Park and date from the Ming and Qing dynasties. Most notable is the Wufeng Tower (1601), moved from the Fugue Temple, of which it formed part, and now designated as one of the major historical sites in Yunnan Province. In addition to the Dayan old town, established in the Ming dynasty, the earlier Baisha quarter, the centre during the preceding Song and Yuan dynasties, survives 8&amp;nbsp;km to the north.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Old Town of Lijiang, which is perfectly adapted to the uneven topography of this key commercial and strategic site, has retained a historic townscape of high quality and authenticity. Its architecture is noteworthy for the blending of elements from several cultures that have come together over many centuries. Lijiang also possesses an ancient water-supply system of great complexity and ingenuity that still functions effectively today.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Lijiang</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1934</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1248</http_url><id_number>1248</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1248.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.9233333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>110.3544444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2014</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;South China Karst is one of the world’s most spectacular examples of humid tropical to subtropical karst landscapes. It is a serial site spread over the provinces of Guizhou, Guangxi, Yunnan and Chongqing and covers 176,228 hectares. It contains the most significant types of karst landforms, including tower karst, pinnacle karst and cone karst formations, along with other spectacular characteristics such as natural bridges, gorges and large cave systems. The stone forests of Shilin are considered superlative natural phenomena and a world reference. The cone and tower karsts of Libo, also considered the world reference site for these types of karst, form a distinctive and beautiful landscape. Wulong Karst has been inscribed for its giant dolines (sinkholes), natural bridges and caves.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>South China Karst</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1965</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1474</http_url><id_number>1474</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1474.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.9986111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>109.9669444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the mountainous areas of south-west China, this property encompasses remains of several tribal domains whose chiefs were appointed by the central government as ‘Tusi’, hereditary rulers from the 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; to the early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;century. The Tusi system arose from the ethnic minorities’ dynastic systems of government dating back to the 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; century BCE. Its purpose was to unify national administration, while allowing ethnic minorities to retain their customs and way of life. The sites of Laosicheng, Tangya and Hailongtun Fortress that make up the site bear exceptional testimony to this form of governance, which derived from the Chinese civilization of the Yuan and Ming periods.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tusi Sites</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2035</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1508</http_url><id_number>1508</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1508.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.2555555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>107.0230555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the steep cliffs in the border regions of southwest China, these 38 sites of rock art illustrate the life and rituals of the Luoyue people. They date from the period around the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. In a surrounding landscape of karst, rivers and plateaux, they depict ceremonies that have been interpreted as portraying the bronze drum culture once prevalent across southern China. This cultural landscape is the only remains of this culture today.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Zuojiang Huashan Rock Art Cultural Landscape</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2100</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1509</http_url><id_number>1509</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1509.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.4697222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>110.2438888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in Hubei Province, in central-eastern China, the site consists of two components: Shennongding/Badong to the west and Laojunshan to the east. It protects the largest primary forests remaining in Central China and provides habitat for many rare animal species, such as the Chinese Giant Salamander, the Golden or Sichuan Snub-nosed Monkey, the Clouded Leopard, Common Leopard and the Asian Black Bear. Hubei Shennongjia is one of three centres of biodiversity in China. The site features prominently in the history of botanical research and was the object of international plant collecting expeditions in the 19th and 20th centuries. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hubei Shennongjia</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2101</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1540</http_url><id_number>1540</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1540.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.3802777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>92.4391666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p style="text-align: left;"&gt;Qinghai Hoh Xil, located in the northeastern extremity of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, is the largest and highest plateau in the world. This extensive area of alpine mountains and steppe systems is situated more than 4,500 m above sea level, where sub-zero average temperatures prevail all year-round. The site’s geographical and climatic conditions have nurtured a unique biodiversity. More than one third of the plant species, and all the herbivorous mammals are endemic to the plateau. The property secures the complete migratory route of the Tibetan antelope, one of the endangered large mammals that are endemic to the plateau.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Qinghai Hoh Xil</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2141</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1541</http_url><id_number>1541</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1541.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.4475000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>118.0619444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kulangsu is a tiny island located on the estuary of the Chiu-lung River, facing the city of Xiamen. With the opening of a commercial port at Xiamen in 1843, and the establishment of the island as an international settlement in 1903, this island off the southern coast of the Chinese empire suddenly became an important window for Sino-foreign exchanges. Kulangsu is an exceptional example of the cultural fusion that emerged from these exchanges, which remain legible in its urban fabric. There is a mixture of different architectural styles including Traditional Southern Fujian Style, Western Classical Revival Style and Veranda Colonial Style. The most exceptional testimony of the fusion of various stylistic influences is a new architectural movement, the Amoy Deco Style, which is a synthesis of the Modernist style of the early 20th century and Art Deco.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kulangsu, a Historic International Settlement</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2142</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1443</http_url><id_number>1443</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1443.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.6938888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>112.4683333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Grand Canal is a vast waterway system in the north-eastern and central-eastern plains of China, running from Beijing in the north to Zhejiang province in the south. Constructed in sections from the 5th century BC onwards, it was conceived as a unified means of communication for the Empire for the first time in the 7th century AD (Sui dynasty). This led to a series of gigantic construction sites, creating the world’s largest and most extensive civil engineering project prior to the Industrial Revolution. It formed the backbone of the Empire’s inland communication system, transporting grain and strategic raw materials, and supplying rice to feed the population. By the 13th century it consisted of more than 2,000 km of artificial waterways, linking five of China’s main river basins. It has played an important role in ensuring the country’s economic prosperity and stability and is still in use today as a major means of communication.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Grand Canal</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2181</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1559</http_url><id_number>1559</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1559.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.8955555556</latitude><location>     </location><longitude>108.6800000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located within the Wuling mountain range in Guizhou Province (south-west China), Fanjingshan ranges in altitude between 500 metres and 2,570 metres above sea level, favouring highly diverse types of vegetation and relief. It is an island of metamorphic rock in a sea of karst, home to many plant and animal species that originated in the Tertiary period, between 65 million and 2 million years ago. The property’s isolation has led to a high degree of biodiversity with endemic species, such as the Fanjingshan Fir (&lt;em&gt;Abies fanjingshanensis&lt;/em&gt;) and the Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey (&lt;em&gt;Rhinopithecus brelichi&lt;/em&gt;), and endangered species, such as the Chinese Giant Salamander (&lt;em&gt;Andrias davidianus&lt;/em&gt;), the Forest Musk Deer (&lt;em&gt;Moschus berezovskii&lt;/em&gt;) and Reeve’s Pheasant (&lt;em&gt;Syrmaticus reevesii&lt;/em&gt;). Fanjingshan has the largest and most contiguous primeval beech forest in the subtropical region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fanjingshan</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2224</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest human occupation in the Mount Wuyi region antedates the Xia Dynasty (late 3rd millennium BC). During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (16th to 3rd centuries BC) it came within the region of minority aboriginal tribes. During the Qin Dynasty (late 3rd century BC) there was considerable migration of tribal groups into the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the consolidation of the Chinese Empire by the Han Dynasty (late 3rd century BC to early 3rd century AD) Wuyi was fully incorporated into the state system, its ruler becoming a vassal of the Han Emperor. A large town was built nearby in the 1st century BC, which served as the capital and administrative centre of the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was at this time that Mount Wuyi (Wuyishan) acquired its status as a sacred mountain. In the centuries that followed many holy men and scholars were attracted to it, and monasteries and academies were established in beautiful natural surroundings conducive to study and contemplation. To ensure that the beauty of the environment was not degraded, Tang Emperor Xuan Zong issued a decree in AD 748 forbidding fishing and the felling of trees, a sanction that survives to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mount Wuyi was first a centre of Taoism, when many temples and study centres were established, but Buddhism also developed alongside, and by the 17th century had largely superseded Taoism. It was in the Song Dynasty that Zhu Xi evolved the doctrines of Neo-Confucianism, from his famous Wuyi Jingshe Academy, work on which began in 1183. The intellectual renown of Mount Wuyi has continued to attract scholars, sages, artists, and writers throughout subsequent ages.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/911</http_url><id_number>911</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_911.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Natural criteria (vii) and (x): Mount Wuyi is one of the most outstanding subtropical forests in the world. It is the largest, most representative example of a largely intact forest encompassing the diversity of the Chinese Subtropical Forest and the South Chinese Rainforest. It acts as a refuge for a large number of ancient, relict plant species, many of them endemic to China and contains large numbers of reptile, amphibian and insect species. The riverine landscape of Nine-Bend Stream (lower gorge) is also of exceptional scenic quality in its juxtaposition of smooth rock cliffs with clear, deep water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cultural criteria (iii): Mount Wuyi is a landscape of great beauty that has been protected for more than twelve centuries. It contains a series of exceptional archaeological sites, including the Han City established in the 1st century BC and a number of temples and study centres associated with the birth of Neo-Confucianism in the 11th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cultural Criterion (vi): Mount Wuyi was the cradle of Neo-Confucianism, a doctrine that played a dominant role in the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Asia for many centuries and influenced philosophy and government over much of the world.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>27.7166700000</latitude><location>Wuyishan City, Fujian Province</location><longitude>117.6833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Mount Wuyi is one of the most outstanding subtropical forests in the world. It is the largest, most representative example of a largely intact forest encompassing the diversity of the Chinese Subtropical Forest and the South Chinese Rainforest. The riverine landscape of the Nine Bend River (lower gorge) is also of exceptional scenic quality in its juxtaposition of smooth rock cliffs with clear, deep water. The Mount Wuyi landscape has been protected for more than twelve centuries. It contains a series of exceptional archaeological sites. Mount Wuyi was the cradle of neo-Confucianism, a doctrine that played a dominant role in the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Asia for many centuries and influenced philosophy and government over much of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site contains what is probably the largest and best preserved areas of humid subtropical forest in the world. It includes a range of vegetation types, with differences largely associated with elevation. Probably the most extensive and important vegetation types are the evergreen broadleaved forests, which include some of the largest tracts of humid subtropical forests in the world. Eleven broad vegetation patterns have been described, including shrub forest, brushwood and meadow steppe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The known fauna of Mount Wuyi has received international recognition for its high diversity and large numbers of rare and unusual species. Among the vertebrates are 49 species which are endemic to China and three that are endemic to this locality: a bird called David's parrot bill, and two amphibians. Other rare and important species in the area of Mount Wuyi include Chinese tiger, clouded leopard, leopard, black muntjac, mainland serow, Chinese black-backed pheasant and Chinese giant salamander.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is one of considerable geological and geomorphological interest. It has been one of intensive volcanic activity and large fault structures, further influenced by water erosion, weathering and collapse. These have ked to the formation of a landscape with characteristic features such as winding streams, columnar and dome-shaped cliffs, and systems of caves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest human occupation in the Mount Wuyi region antedates the Xia dynasty (late 3rd millennium BC). With the consolidation of the Chinese Empire by the Han dynasty (late 3rd century BC to early 3rd century AD) Wuyi was fully incorporated into the state system, its ruler becoming a vassal of the Han Emperor. It was at this time that Mount Wuyi acquired its status as a sacred mountain. Mount Wuyi was first a centre of Taoism, when many temples and study centres were established, but Buddhism also developed alongside, and by the 17th century had largely superseded Taoism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural elements are concentrated in two areas in the extreme east of the nominated property. In the lower stretches of the Nine Bend River and the mountainous area to the north, the 18 wooden boat coffins in rock shelters high on the steep cliffs, supported on so-called Hongqiao boards, which have been dated to the 2nd millennium BC, are extraordinarily well preserved. This area contains the remains of 35 ancient academies dating from the Northern Song to Qing dynasties (10th-19th centuries). Closely integrated into the natural landscape, little remains of most of them. Similarly, few of the 60 Taoist temples and monasteries that have been located survive to any degree of completeness. There is also a number of tombs, the oldest dating back to the Shang dynasty (late 2nd millennium BC), and inscriptions in this area. Also of interest is evidence of the tea culture: in the 11th to 16th centuries there was an imperial tea farm here, producing tea for the imperial court.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second area is the archaeological site of the Han city of Chengcun. Discovered in 1958, this is a walled city. The circuit of walls survives intact; the layout of the town is in accordance with the principle of urban design characteristic of southern China at this period. Four large building complexes have been located in the interior, tentatively identified as palaces or administrative centres.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mount Wuyi is the most outstanding area for biodiversity conservation in south-east China and a refuge for a large number of ancient, relict species, many of them endemic to China. The serene beauty of the dramatic gorges of the Nine Bend River, with its numerous temples and monasteries, many now in ruins, provided the setting for the development and spread of neo-Confucianism, which has been influential in the cultures of East Asia since the 11th century. In the 1st century B.C. a large administrative capital was built at nearby Chengcun by the Han dynasty rulers. Its massive walls enclose an archaeological site of great significance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Wuyi</site><states>China</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2245</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/285</http_url><id_number>285</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_285.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>10.4166666700</latitude><location>Bolivar Department</location><longitude>-75.5333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cartagena, together with La Habana and San Juan de Puerto Rico, was one of the three most important ports in the West Indies. It is an outstanding example of the military architecture of the 16th-18th centuries - the most extensive in the New World and one of the most complete.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;On 1 June 1533 the Madrile&amp;ntilde;o Don Pedro de Heredia founded Cartagena de Indias on a tiny coastal archipelago in the Caribbean. Located in the Gulf of Darien, 100&amp;nbsp;km west of the mouth of the Rio Magdalena, Cartagena used the advantages both of its position and of its site: a narrow band of land cut off from the continent by a succession of bays offering good anchorage and by narrow channels which constituted an excellent natural defence. A century later, this was where all the stolen treasures from the Indians of New Granada were stored before being moved to Spain. Cartagena grew rich on palaces, gardens, convents and churches, adopting the Catalan and Andalusian styles.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1586, the most famous military engineer of the Crown of Spain, Bautista Antonelli, was charged with the fortification of the city. His work, finally completed in the 17th century, made Cartagena an impregnable stronghold, which successfully resisted the attacks of Baron Pontis until 1697. In the 18th century, new additions gave the fortified ensemble its present spaciousness. The initial system of fortification included only the urban enclosure, the bastioned harbour of San Matias at the entry to the pass of Bocagrande, and the tower of San Felipe del Boqueron which controlled the Bahia de las Animas. Little by little, all of the passes were dominated by forts: San Luis, San Jos&amp;eacute; and San Fernando in Bocachica, San Rafael and Santa Barbara in Pochachica (the south-west pass); Santa Cruz, San Juan de Manzanillo and San Sebasi de Pastellilo around the interior Bahia; San Felipe de Barajas, on the rocky crag which dominated the city to the east and protected the access to the isthmus of Cebrero. The fortifications of San Felipe de Barajas protected Cartagena during numerous sieges, giving the city its unconquerable character and reputation. They are described as the masterpiece of Spanish military engineering in America.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Within the shelter of the formidable defences, the city continued to grow. The plan, characteristic of colonial foundations of the 16th century, illustrates a rigorous zoning system, divided into three quarters corresponding to the major social categories: San Pedro, San Diego and Gethsemani.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The old city conserves all the enchantment of the colonial period, with its narrow streets flanked by beautiful inner doors and projecting balconies. Entry by the Puerta del Reloj, the main entrance of the walled enclosure, gives access to the Plaza de los Coches, where long ago the slave market was held. The quarter of San Pedro, where the nobles and the notables resided, still preserves monuments of high quality such as the cathedral (1575-1612), the church and convent of San Pedro Claver, the church of Santo Domingo, and the building that once was the monastery of San Diego. In the Palace of the Inquisition, a beautiful structure with a magnificent inner door in Baroque style, the Court of the Holy Office carried out its functions, judging witchcraft and heretical cases. Today it houses a historical and archaeological museum; the Palace of the Government, and the home of Marquia de Valdehoyos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The quarter of San Diego, to the north-east, was where the merchants and middle-class craftsmen resided; to the south-west, on a small island which slowly became attached to the mainland, was Gethsemani, the popular quarter. In the north sector of the walled city is the Plaza de los Coches, under whose arches ammunition and military equipments were stored and where troops were stationed during the colonial period. Outside the perimeters of the walls the Monasterio de la Popa, built on the summit of a hill that dominates the whole city.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in a bay in the Caribbean Sea, Cartagena has the most extensive fortifications in South America. A system of zones divides the city into three neighbourhoods: San Pedro, with the cathedral and many Andalusian-style palaces; San Diego, where merchants and the middle class lived; and Gethsemani, the 'popular quarter'.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>319</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>1</danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Los Katros was created under Executive Decree No. 172 of 6 August 1974. Originally comprising 52,000ha, it was extended to its present size under Executive Decree No. 91 of 21 April 1980. Decree 2811 of 1974 and Reglamentary Decree 622 of 1 977 regulates national parks.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/711</http_url><id_number>711</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_711.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.6666666670</latitude><location>Provinces of Antioquia and Choco’</location><longitude>-77.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Extending over 72,000 ha in north-western Colombia, the park comprises two main regions: the mountains of the Serranía del Darién in the west and in the east the floodplain of the Atrato River, the fastest-flowing in the world, emptying 4,900 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of water into the Caribbean every second. The area is composed of alluvial plains with regularly flooded terraces, alluvial plains with rarely flooded high terraces, low hills up to 250 m high, hills up to 600 m high and marshes. Within the sites there are the cascades of Tilupo and Tendal, the Stops of Guillermina and Limo'n.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lowland swamp forests cover approximately half of the park, whereas the remainder is lowland through to montane tropical rainforest. The wetlands of the Atrato floodplain are of special interest, and cativo is one of the typical species: it can reach 50 m and gives its name to a formation called 'catival' which is only found in Colombia, south Central America and Jamaica. The tropical rainforests are characterized by caracolí, guaco and palma mil pesos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Los Katíos supports a number of species which are characteristic of Central America and are only found in this part of South America, such as the mouse and grey-headed chachalaca. The Serranía del Darién is home to many endemic species such as the rufous-cheeked hummingbird and violet-capped hummingbird and the frog. More than 450 species of bird (representing respectively 25% and 50% of the avifauna of Colombia and Panama) have been recorded within the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 550 species of vertebrate (excluding fish) have been found in the park. The manatee has recently been found in the Ciénaga de Tumuradó and the American crocodile occurs in the Ciénaga de Cacarica. Other threatened mammals include bush dog, giant anteater and Central American tapir.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region was previously inhabited by the Kuna, an indigenous group forced to migrate to Panama because of intertribal fighting with the Katío-Embera group, from which the park took its name, which is now established throughout Colombia's Chocó region. The Darién region, including Los Katíos, was historically important for the crossing of the first colonizers from North America some 20,000 years ago, as has been confirmed by the discovery of archaeological remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The expeditions of the Spanish conquerors Rodrigo de Bastidas, Alonso de Ojeda and Vasco Nuñez de Balboa arrived in the zone in 1501. Santa Maria of the Darién, the first Spanish mainland city, was founded on 1510 by Francisco Pizarro and Martín Fernandez de Enciso. The legend of the Dabeiba cacique treasure comes from this time, when Balboa told the King of Spain that many rich gold mines had been discovered in Darién Province.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Extending over 72,000 ha in north-western Colombia, Los Katios National Park comprises low hills, forests and humid plains. An exceptional biological diversity is found in the park, which is home to many threatened animal species, as well as many endemic plants.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Los Katíos National Park</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>841</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Mompox was founded in 1540 by Juan de Santa Cruz, Governor of Cartagena, who gave his name to the site. This occurred only seven years after the foundation of Cartagena and two years after that of the capital of the New Kingdom Of Granada, Santa Fe de Bogota. Its history forms an integral part of the processes of colonial penetration and dominion during the Spanish conquest and of the growth of communications and commerce during the 17th to early 19th centuries. It is a riverside settlement on the country's main waterway into the interior highlands, the Magdalena river, close to its confluence with the Cauca river, the other main communication waterway. The town was sited on one of the few areas of higher ground (33 m above sea-level&amp;gt; in a flat, swampy region subject to flooding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town grew along the banks of the river, on which walls were built to protect it during periods of high water. Instead of a central square or plaza to serve as a site for government, it had three plazas in line, each with its own church, and corresponding with a former Indian settlement. Mompox was of great logistic and commercial importance: traffic between the port of Cartagena and the interior travelled down the rivers, whilst overland routes also converged upon the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growth of Mompox was favoured by the appearance of a ruling social class of colonists, often employed by the colonial regimes and granted the privilege of possessing land and taking Indians as virtual slaves to work its (the encomienda system&amp;gt;. The Indians were deprived of their lands and pushed into small reservations. However, this, coupled with the harsh climatic and geographical conditions, made farming and ranching difficult,with the result that there was no solid socio-economic basis for the town, which grew only slowly. It also attracted a motley population, among whom smuggling was a profitable way of life. Such growth as there was during the Colonial period was due to the relatively small number of more affluent burgesses, whose wealth came from farming and trade. A number came to Mompox from Cartagena, bringing with them craftsmen and artisans to supply their more luxurious needs. The clerics and members of the religious orders formed the other element of the ruling class in the town, and the Churches and convents Of the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and, later, Jesuits came to dominate its monumental appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The slow development of Mompox during the Colonial period is reflected in its urban consolidation. During the course of the 17th century it changed from a narrow linear settlement to a more two-dimensional arrangement of streets, linking lanes, and varied facades. It was the streets that determined the evolution of the urban fabric of the town, their roles being demonstrated by their names - La Calle Real del Medio (The Royal Central Street&amp;gt;, La Calle de Atras (The Street Behind&amp;gt;, and Calle de la Albarrada (The Street of the Retaining Wall&amp;gt;. Further growth was limited by the flood plain lying immediately behind La Albarrada. The progress that was made by Mompox is well illustrated by the mid-18th century historian Pedro Salzedo del Villas, who noted in his Apuntamientos Historiales that "the city contained six hundred houses and stores with brick walls and tile roofs on most of them, all large and comfortable and well built; they are solid, generally one or two storeys, and have ample vestibules and gardens. There are nearly 1800 thatch-roofed houses and cottages altogether ... "&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the early wars for independence and the ensuing civil wars in the first half of the 19th century Mompox began to fall into decline, as its upper-class citizens died or went into exile and farming was abandoned under the pressure of hostilities. The insecurity led to both the town and its region losing their socio-economic dynamism, and this was made worse by the gradual change of course by the Magdalena river, which left the town's river frontage stranded and deprived it of its identity as a river port. The result was economic stagnation, which lasted until the last decade Of the 20th century, when tourism has led to some degree of revival.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/742</http_url><id_number>742</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_742.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>9.2333333330</latitude><location>Bolívar Department</location><longitude>-74.4333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox is an outstanding example of a Spanish colonial settlement established on the banks of a major river and serving in an important strategic and commercial role which has survived remarkably intact to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mompox was founded in 1540 by Juan de Santa Cruz, Governor of Cartagena, who gave his name to the site. Its history forms an integral part of the processes of colonial penetration and dominion during the Spanish conquest and of the growth of communications and commerce during the 17th to early 19th centuries. It is a riverside settlement on the country's main waterway into the interior highlands, the Magoarena River, close to its confluence with the Cauca River, the other main communication waterway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town grew along the banks of the river, on which walls were built to protect it during periods of high water. Instead of a central square or plaza to serve as the site of government, it had three plazas in line, each with its own church, and corresponding with a former Indian settlement. Mompox was of great logistic and commercial importance: traffic between the port of Cartagena and the interior travelled down the rivers, while overland routes also converged upon the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growth of Mompox was favoured by the appearance of a ruling social class of colonists, often employed by the colonial regimes and granted the privilege of possessing land and taking Indians, deprived of their lands and pushed into small reservations, as virtual slaves to work its. [something missing here] The clerics and members of the religious orders formed the other element of the ruling class in the town, and the churches and convents of the Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and later the Jesuits came to dominate its monumental appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The slow development of Mompox during the colonial period is reflected in its urban consolidation: during the course of the 17th century it changed from a narrow linear settlement to a more two-dimensional arrangement of streets, connecting lanes and varied facades. It was the streets that determined the evolution of the urban fabric of the town. Further growth was limited by the flood plain lying immediately behind La Albarada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the early wars of independence and the ensuring civil wars Mompox began to fall into a decline, and this was made worse by the gradual change of course of the Magdalena River, which left the town's river frontage stranded and deprived it of its identity as a river port. The result was economic stagnation, which lasted until the last decade of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban design of Mompox grew from its relationship with the river. Each square has its own churches, and these churches served as forts in the early years of the settlements. The most interesting one is probably the church of Santa Barbara, dating from the late 16th century, whose delicate structure and spacious interior are complemented by its tower, the most outstanding architectural feature of the town. From the 17th century onwards, houses were built on the Calle de La Albarada with the ground floors given over to small shops. These 'house-store' buildings, which began to appear in the 17th century, are built in rows of between three and ten units. Significant in their contribution to the townscape is the fact that the open hallways across the front share a common roof. Many have now been adapted to residential use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The private houses of the 17th to early 19th centuries are laid out round a central or lateral open space, creating linked environments adapted to the climate and local customs. The earliest type of house for merchants or Crown servants is that with a central patio; there is often a secondary patio for services attached at the back of the building. The house round the lateral patio is later and usually applied as smaller building plots or after the division of a central patio building. A subgroup results from the separation of part of a large central-patio house: single long buildings divided up into smaller dwellings survive from the early period and retain important features such as decorated portals and interiors, balconies and galleries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1540 on the banks of the River Magdalena, Mompox played a key role in the Spanish colonization of northern South America. From the 16th to the 19th century the city developed parallel to the river, with the main street acting as a dyke. The historic centre has preserved the harmony and unity of the urban landscape. Most of the buildings are still used for their original purposes, providing an exceptional picture of what a Spanish colonial city was like.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Santa Cruz de Mompox</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>876</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The present state of archaeological and anthropological knowledge suggests that the builders of the hypogea (underground tombs), in the period AD 500-900, lived on the mountain Slopes and valleys in the area. In the valleys they established small settlements whilst on the hillsides the settlement was dispersed, close to the fields. The oval-plan buildings were built on artificial terraces, with rammed earth floors. The wooden frames were filled with wattle-and-daub (using maize canes) and the roofs were thatched. There were no internal divisions and a single centrally located hearth, with wooden benches for sleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basis of the economy was agriculture, especially maize, pumpkin, and beans, with yucca in the warmer regions and potatoes in the colder; coca was planted for use in certain communal activities, as is the custom in latter-day Paez communities. This diet was supplemented with fish, wild fruits, deer, rabbits, armadillos, and birds. salt was obtained by evaporation of saline spring water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economy must have produced surpluses to enable some of the population to be specialized in the construction of hypogea and the production of specialized artefacts, used for trade with neighbouring communities for luxury goods in gold and sea-shells. There is archaeological evidence for the manufacture of textiles, and the pottery was very varied in form and decoration. Tools such as axes, hatchets, and hoes were made of hard stone and hafted in wood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The magnitude of the underground works and the way in which human remains were disposed inside the hypogea indicate the existence Of a hierarchical social and political structure, based on chiefs with priestly functions. Burial rites involved two stages. primary burial in simple graves was followed by secondary deposition of the bones, often after cremation, or mixed with red earth, inside the hypogea, either in elaborately decorated urns or in graves on the floor of the burial chamber.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/743</http_url><id_number>743</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_743.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>2.5833333330</latitude><location>Department of Cauca, in the jurisdiction of the municipality of Inza, in the “corregimiento” of San Andres de Pisimbalá</location><longitude>-76.0333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The hypogea of the Tierradentro complex are unique testimony to the everyday life, ritual and burial customs of a developed and stable pre-Hispanic society in the northern Andean region of South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present state of archaeological and anthropological knowledge suggests that the builders of the &lt;em&gt;hypogea&lt;/em&gt; (underground tombs) in the period AD 500-900 lived in the mountain slopes and valleys in the area. In the valleys they established small settlements whereas on the hillsides settlement was dispersed, close to the fields. The oval-plan buildings were built on artificial terraces, with rammed earth floors. The wooden frames were filled with wattle-and-daub and the roofs were thatched. There were no internal divisions and there was a single centrally located hearth, with wooden benches for sleeping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economy must have produced surpluses to enable some of the population to be specialized in the construction of hypogea and the production of specialized artefacts, used for trade with neighbouring communities for luxury goods in gold and seashells. There is archaeological evidence for the manufacture of textiles, and the pottery was very varied in form and decoration. Tools such as axes, hatchets and hoes were made from hard stone and hafted in wood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park comprises several zones of pre-Hispanic underground tombs: Alto del Aguacate, loma de San Andres, Alto de Segovia and Alto de Buende. Underground tombs with side chambers have been found over the whole of America, from Mexico to north-western Argentina, but the largest concentration is in Colombia. However, it is not only the number and concentration of these tombs at Tierradentro that is unique: they are exceptional testimony to a pre-Hispanic society that has disappeared. These hypogea comprising a vertical shaft, helicoidal stairs, entrance hall and side chamber with central and surrounding columns on a large oval floor-plan, and in particular, carved anthropomorphic representations and polychrome paintings, are unique in America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hypogea were excavated below mountains ridges or into flattened hills on rocky subsoil. Their uniqueness lies in their large size and the staircases which in some cases gives access to a hall. The vaulted ceilings, walls and columns of the burial chambers are often decorated with geometric zoomorphic and anthropomorphic linear designs, painted in red and black mineral pigments on a white background. The smaller hypogea vary from 2.5&amp;nbsp;m to 7&amp;nbsp;m in depth, with oval floors 2.5-3&amp;nbsp;m wide, while the chambers of the largest examples may be 10-12&amp;nbsp;m wide. Most impressive of the latter are those with two or three free-standing central columns and several decorated pilasters along the walls with niches between them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The symbolic symmetry achieved between the houses of the living above ground and the underground hypogea for the dead, by means of a limited but elegant number of elements, not only conveys a pleasant aesthetic sensation but also evokes a powerful image of the importance of a new stage into which the deceased has entered and the continuity between life and death, between the living and the ancestors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The magnitude of the underground works and the way in which human remains were disposed inside the hypogea indicate the existence of a hierarchical social and political structure based on chiefs with priestly functions. Burial rites involved two stages. Primary burial in simple graves was followed by secondary deposition of the bones, often after cremation, or mixed with red hearth, inside the hypogea, either in elaborately decorated urns or in graves on the floor of the burial chamber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The stone statues of the Tierradentro region are of great importance. They are carved from stone of volcanic origin and represent standing human figures, with their upper limbs placed on their chests. Masculine figures have banded head-dresses, long cloths and various adornments whereas female figures wear turbans, sleeveless blouses and skirts. This statuary is very similar to that of San Agust&amp;iacute;n Archeological Park (another World Heritage property) in form and technique.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Several monumental statues of human figures can be seen in the park, which also contains many hypogea dating from the 6th to the 10th century. These huge underground tombs (some burial chambers are up to 12 m wide) are decorated with motifs that reproduce the internal decor of homes of the period. They reveal the social complexity and cultural wealth of a pre-Hispanic society in the northern Andes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>National Archeological Park of Tierradentro</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>877</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;ln the pre-agricultural period, from c 3300 to c 600 BC, san Agustin was occupied by a society with a rudimentary stone technology using unretouched basalt chips; their principal food was wild fruits, but hunting cannot be ruled out. Nothing is known of their political or social structures, but it is assumed that they were kinship-based:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new society that was agricultural and pottery-using, appeared in the region in the 7th century BC, at the start of what is known as the Early Period. The people cultivated maize on flat land or gentle slopes: no terraces or drainage are associated with this period. They lived in dispersed no uses near the main rivers, possibly in simple groups headed by chiefs. There appears to have been a tradition of carving in wood, but not stone. The extended burials were in vertical shaft tombs, with simple grave-goods. This period probably lasted until the 3rd or even 2nd century BC. The culture is linked with that of the Colombian south-west, a link which lasted well into the Christian era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gold working is attested by radiocarbon dating from at least the 1st century BC, and increased substantially in the following period. Around the 1st centurv AD there were profound cultural changes in the san Agustin area. This was the period of the great flowering of monumental lithic art, the so-called Augustinian Culture. Links with other regions of the south-west increased, with the consequent evolution over the whole region of societies known as Regional Classic. Population density increased markedly, and earlier settlements were reoccupied. New house sites on hilltops were also settled and occupied over long periods. The economy was still based on maize cultivation, and population pressures led to the opening up of new agricultural lands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was considerable social consolidation, and the concentration of substantial power in the hands of the chiefs made possible the production of gigantic work5 by the use of large bodies of men to carry out massive earth movements. Hundreds of elaborate stone statues were carved, some in complex relief and large in size. The huge monumental platforms, terraces, and mounds and the temple-like architecture reflect a complex system of religious and magical belief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This lntermediate Period came to an end in the 8th century AD, as shown by the abandonment of monumental construction and the carving of stone statues. A similar phenomenon of decline is perceptible in other parts of the Colombian south-west at the same time, when the cultural unity of the region disintegrated. New peoples, possibly from the Upper Caquet&amp;aacute; river basin of the Amazon region, seem to have settled in the San Agustin area around AD 1000, bringing with them new agricultural practices, such as the cultivation of manioc, a new house type, and new pottery styles. This Late Period, which lasted until the Spanish conquest, is characterized by a considerably less complex craft tradition, suggesting a measure of cultural retrogression, despite the improved agriculture, which allowed an increased population to be supported. Both settlement and agriculture moved to the hillsides, with the introduction of terracing for both housing and cultivation and low-gradient drainage. The social structure seems to have been less complex and hierarchical than that in the preceding period: small communities were linked by kinship and temporary larger units were only created in times of war, to be disbanded afterwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last settlers in the area, identified by the Spaniards as Andakis (of Amazonian origin) and Yalcones, survived into the 17th century, but many eventually returned to the rain forest. The social and agricultural structures of the region were unable to resist Spanish religious and commercial pressure, giving way to the colonial encomienda system. The colonial settlement of san Agustin began in 1608-12 with the foundation of a centre for religious in doctrination of the indigenous peoples. lt was eventually occupied by Spanish homesteaders and mixed-race peoples, becoming a crossing point for routes to Popayan and the jungles of Putumayo.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/744</http_url><id_number>744</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_744.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>1.9166666670</latitude><location>Department of Huila: Municipalities of San Augustin and San José de Isnos</location><longitude>-76.2333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The wealth of megalithic statuary from the archaeological site in San Agust&amp;iacute;n Archeological Park bears vivid witness to the artistic creativity and imagination of the pre-Hispanic culture that flowered in the hostile tropical environment of the northern Andes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Agust&amp;iacute;n, where the most important monuments are to be found, lies 2&amp;nbsp;km from the town of the same name. The archaeological site extends over a territory of 2,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , at an altitude of only 1,800&amp;nbsp;m, with snow covering the top. In the pre-agricultural period, from 3300 BC to 600 BC, San Agust&amp;iacute;n was occupied by a society with a rudimentary stone technology using basalt chips. Nothing is known of their political or social structure, but it is assumed that they were kinship-based.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Alto de Los Idolos is on the right bank of the Magdalena River and the smaller Alto de las Piedras lies further north: both are in the municipality of San Jos&amp;eacute; de Isnos, like the main San Agust&amp;iacute;n area, they are rich in monuments of all kinds. Much of the area is a rich archaeological landscape, with evidence of ancient tracks, field boundaries, drainage ditches and artificial platforms, as well as funerary monuments. This was a sacred land, a place of pilgrimage and ancestors worship. These hieratic guards, some more than 4&amp;nbsp;m high weighing several tonnes, are carved in blocks of tuff and volcanic rock. They protected the funeral rooms, the monolithic sarcophagus and the burial sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main archaeological monuments are Las Mesitas, containing artificial mounds, terraces, funerary structures and stone statuary; the Fuente de Lavapatas, a religious monument carved in the stone bed of a stream; and the Bosque de Las Estatuas, where there are examples of stone statues from the whole region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new society appeared in the region in the 7th century BC: the people cultivated maize on the flat land or gentle slopes and lived in dispersed houses near the main rivers, possibly in simple groups headed by chiefs. The extended burials were in vertical shaft tombs, with simple grave-goods. The period probably lasted until the 3rd or even the 2nd century BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around the 1st century AD there were profound cultural changes in the area: this was a time of a great flowering of monumental lithic art and the so-called Agustinian Culture. Links with other region of south-west grew, population density increased markedly, and earlier settlements were reoccupied. New house sites on the hilltops were also settled and occupied over long periods. There was considerable social consolidation and the concentration of substantial power in the hands of the chiefs made possible the production of gigantic works: hundreds of elaborate stone statues were carved, some in complex relief and large in size. The huge monumental platforms, terraces and mounds and the temple-like architecture reflect a complex system of religious and magical belief. Some 300 enormous sculptures (divinities with threatening faces, warriors armed with clubs, round eyes and jaguars' teeth of mythical heroes) stand in the region of San Agust&amp;iacute;n, in the heart of the Andes, El Huila Province.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This intermediate period came to an end in the 8th century AD, as shown by the abandonment of monumental construction and the carving of stone statues. New peoples, possibly from the Upper Caqueta river basin of the Amazon region, seem to have settled in the area around AD 1000, bringing with them new agricultural practices. This late period, which lasted until the Spanish conquest, is characterized by a considerably less complex craft tradition, suggesting a measure of cultural retrogression, despite the improved agriculture, which allowed an increased population to be supported.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The largest group of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America stands in a wild, spectacular landscape. Gods and mythical animals are skilfully represented in styles ranging from abstract to realist. These works of art display the creativity and imagination of a northern Andean culture that flourished from the 1st to the 8th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>San Agustín Archaeological Park</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>878</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1216</http_url><id_number>1216</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1216.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>3.9666666667</latitude><location>Valle del Cauca Region</location><longitude>-81.6166666666</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located some 506 km off the coast of Colombia, the site includes Malpelo island (350 ha) and the surrounding marine environment (857,150 ha). This vast marine park, the largest no-fishing zone in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, provides a critical habitat for internationally threatened marine species, and is a major source of nutrients resulting in large aggregations of marine biodiversity. It is in particular a ‘reservoir' for sharks, giant grouper and billfish and is one of the few places in the world where sightings of the short-nosed ragged-toothed shark, a deepwater shark, have been confirmed. Widely recognized as one of the top diving sites in the world, due to the presence of steep walls and caves of outstanding natural beauty, these deep waters support important populations of large predators and pelagic species (e.g. aggregations of over 200 hammerhead sharks and over 1,000 silky sharks, whale sharks and tuna have been recorded) in an undisturbed environment where they maintain natural behavioural patterns.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1393</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1121</http_url><id_number>1121</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1121.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.4716666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>-75.6816666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;An exceptional example of a sustainable and productive cultural landscape that is unique and representative of a tradition that is a strong symbol for coffee growing areas worldwide - encompasses six farming landscapes, which include 18 urban centres on the foothills of the western and central ranges of the Cordillera de los Andes in the west of the country. It reflects a centennial tradition of coffee growing in small plots in the high forest and the way farmers have adapted cultivation to difficult mountain conditions. The urban areas, mainly situated on the relatively flat tops of hills above sloping coffee fields, are characterized by the architecture of the Antioquian colonization with Spanish influence. Building materials were, and remain in some areas, cob and pleated cane for the walls with clay tiles for the roofs.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Coffee Cultural Landscape of Colombia</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1787</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1174</http_url><id_number>1174</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1174.jpg</image_url><iso_code>co</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>0.5252777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>-72.7972222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Chiribiquete National Park, the largest protected area in Colombia, is the confluence point of four biogeographical provinces: Orinoquia, Guyana, Amazonia, and North Andes. As such, the National Park guarantees the connectivity and preservation of the biodiversity of these provinces, constituting itself as an interaction scenario in which flora and fauna diversity and endemism have flourished. One of the defining features of Chiribiquete is the presence of tepuis (table-top mountains), sheer-sided sandstone plateaux that outstand in the forest and result in dramatic scenery that is reinforced by its remoteness, inaccessibility and exceptional conservation. Over 75,000 figures have been made by indigenous people on the walls of the 60 rock shelters from 20,000 BCE, and are still made nowadays by the uncontacted peoples protected by the National Park. These paintings depict hunting scenes, battles, dances and ceremonies, as well as fauna and flora species, with a particular the worship of the jaguar, a symbol of power and fertility. The indigenous communities, which are not directly present on the site, consider Chiribiquete as a sacred place that cannot be visited and that should be preserved unaltered.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chiribiquete National Park – “The Maloca of the Jaguar”</site><states>Colombia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2213</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/820</http_url><id_number>820</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_820.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed Cocos Island National Park under natural criteria (ix) and (x) because of the critical habitats the site provides for marine wildlife including large pelagic species, especially sharks.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>5.5333333330</latitude><location>Province of Puntarenas, South Eastern Tropical Pacific</location><longitude>-87.0666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cocos Island National Park, located 550&amp;nbsp;km off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, includes the entire Isla del Coco and the marine ecosystems up to a distance of 15&amp;nbsp;km around the island. Is the only island in the tropical Eastern Pacific with a tropical rainforest. Its position as the first point of contact with the northern equatorial counter-current, and the myriad interactions between the island and the surrounding marine ecosystem, make the area an ideal laboratory for the study of biological processes. The underwater world of the national park has become famous due to the attraction it holds for divers, who rate it as one of the best places in the world to view large pelagic species such as sharks, rays, tuna and dolphins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island is of volcanic origin consisting of basaltic rock which presents a rugged relief characterized by an irregular coastline with cliffs rising almost vertically from a narrow shore to heights of 200m. There are two bays (Bah&amp;iacute;a Wafer and Bah&amp;iacute;a Chatham) with sandy beaches. Inland, the terrain is mountainous with numerous rivers and streams, many of which plunge over the peripheral cliffs in spectacular waterfalls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The underwater profile of the island consists of stepwise shelves with almost no intertidal zone and a shallow submerged fringing reef, culminating in sand and Porites rubble at the edge of a several hundred metres deep trench. The most important reefs are located in Punta Mar&amp;iacute;a, Punta Presidio, Punta Pacheco and some areas of the Iglesias, Chatham and Wafer Bays. The southern and south-western sectors show the greatest bathymetric variation in the area, with emergent small islands (such as Dos Amigos, Rafael and Juan Bautista), and a great number of submerged rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As other oceanic islands, Isla del Coco presents an impoverished flora with respect to that of the continent, but with a high number of endemic species (at least 70 species of vascular plant). The vegetation is exuberant and owes its lushness to the heavy rainfalls and rugged relief, which favours condensation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a rather low diversity of terrestrial fauna. Some 87 bird species have been recorded in the nominated site including three endemics: Cocos Island cuckoo; Cocos Island flycatcher and Cocos Island finch. Red-footed booby and brown booby, great frigate bird, white tern, and common noddy form breeding colonies on the surrounding small islands and rocks. Two species of endemic reptiles have also been identified, anolis lizard and gecko. Except for introduced pigs, goats and cats, there are no terrestrial mammals on the island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Marine mammals include bottlenose dolphin and California sea lion. Hawksbill, green and olive ridley turtles inhabit the surrounding waters and use the beaches occasionally. The fish fauna is exceptionally rich and is moderately diverse, 300 fish species having been recorded. Vast migrations of hammerhead shark, and white-tip shark and fish pass close to the island. Whale shark and manta ray are also abundant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence indicating that Isla del Coco was occupied during pre-Columbian times. The island has been known to mariners and cartographers since the first half of the 16th century. However, its position was vaguely indicated and therefore, could only be located by experienced sailors. Fishermen, pirates, commercial sailors and scientific expeditions arrived at the island searching for fresh water and shelter.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2002</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Cocos Island National Park, located 550 km off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, is the only island in the tropical eastern Pacific with a tropical rainforest. Its position as the first point of contact with the northern equatorial counter-current, and the myriad interactions between the island and the surrounding marine ecosystem, make the area an ideal laboratory for the study of biological processes. The underwater world of the national park has become famous due to the attraction it holds for divers, who rate it as one of the best places in the world to view large pelagic species such as sharks, rays, tuna and dolphins.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cocos Island National Park</site><states>Costa Rica</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>969</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/928</http_url><id_number>928</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_928.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>10.8500000000</latitude><location>Guanacaste and Alajuela provinces</location><longitude>-85.6166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Guanacaste is located in north-western Costa Rica. It stretches 105&amp;nbsp;km from the Pacific, across the Pacific coastal lowlands, over three tall volcanoes and down into the Atlantic coastal lowlands. It includes the Guanacaste Cordillera and surrounding flatlands and coastal areas. The most notable volcano is Rincon de la Vieja, which has three craters and one lagoon. Its last eruption was observed in the 1970s, but some fumarole activity still occurs in one of the craters. At the base of the volcano are several minor craters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At least 32 rivers and 16 intermittent streams originate in the vicinity of the volcano, and flow into the Tempisque, a river of enormous importance for irrigation of agricultural land in the Guanacaste Province. The marine area includes various near shore islands and islets (mostly uninhabited), open ocean marine zones, beaches, rocky coasts, and approximately 20&amp;nbsp;km of sea turtle nesting beaches and a high diversity of wetland ecosystems (37 wetlands). The wetland forests are considered to be among the most pristine in Central America and worldwide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the Naranjo and Nancite beaches during the breeding and mating season (August to December), over 250,000 turtles nest. The majority of them are olive ridley turtles. The green, leatherback and hawksbill turtles also use the beaches quite extensively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Guanacaste's beaches are of global importance for the protection of Olive ridley sea turtles and leatherback sea turtles, both endangered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main vegetation types include mixed deciduous forest with fig trees and rosewood; evergreen gallery forests along streams and behind the occasionally flooded zone; savannahs with exotic jaragua grass; oak forests and savannahs; and mangroves. There is also beach vegetation, and areas of calabash forest. The intact altitudinal transect contained within the site protects an entire elevational and east-west seasonal migratory route from the Pacific coast to 2,000&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, from dry forest to cloud forest and down to Atlantic rainforest, which is critical for the range and life histories of many species of animal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the area of Volcan Rincon de la Vieja, four different forest types are present: tropical wet; premontane moist; premontane rain; and lower montane rain; this forest is covered by clouds all year and the trees are dwarfed because of prevailing strong winds and sandy soils.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area contains a very diverse fauna with several species of conservation concern. Some notable mammals are white-tailed deer, white-lipped peccary, collared peccary, Central American tapir, white-face monkey and spider monkey, howler monkey, collared anteater, jaguar, margay, jaguarundi and ocelot.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The avifauna is well represented in the area with more 500 species. Among the bird species the following are the most common: military macaw, rufescent tinamu, spot-bellied bobwhite, great curassow, crested guan, blue-winged teal, roseate spoonbill, thick knee, jabiru, ibis and laughing falcon&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2004</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Area de Conservación Guanacaste (inscribed in 1999), was extended with the addition of a 15,000 ha private property, St Elena. It contains important natural habitats for the conservation of biological diversity, including the best dry forest habitats from Central America to northern Mexico and key habitats for endangered or rare plant and animal species. The site demonstrates significant ecological processes in both its terrestrial and marine-coastal environments.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Area de Conservación Guanacaste</site><states>Costa Rica</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1083</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1453</http_url><id_number>1453</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1453.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>8.9113888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>-83.4775000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property includes four archaeological sites located in the Diqu&amp;iacute;s Delta in southern Costa Rica, which are considered unique examples of the complex social, economic and political systems of the period AD&amp;nbsp;500&amp;ndash;1500. They contain artificial mounds, paved areas, burial sites and, most significantly, a collection of stone spheres, between 0.7&amp;nbsp;m and 2.57&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, whose meaning, use and production remain largely a mystery. The spheres are distinctive for their perfection, number, size and density, and placement in original locations. Their preservation from the looting that befell the vast majority of archaeological sites in Costa Rica has been attributed to the thick layers of sediment that kept them buried for centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Precolumbian Chiefdom Settlements with Stone Spheres of the Diquís</site><states>Costa Rica</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1997</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Declared as a 'Forest and Wildlife Refuge' in 1926 by the French administration. National park status on 28 August 1972 by Presidential Decree 75-545. Reduced by 20,000ha ('Reserve de faune du N'Zo') on 21 March 1973 by Decree 73-132. Redefined by Special Decree 77-348 of 3 June 1977, which added a 20,000ha buffer zone around the park. The area was part of a &amp;lsquo;for&amp;ecirc;t class&amp;eacute;e' under a decree of 16 April 1926, then part of a 425,000ha r&amp;eacute;serve de faune under a decree of 7 August 1956. Accepted in April 1978 as a biosphere reserve and in 1982 as a World Heritage site. In November 1984 it was included in the IUCN list of eleven most threatened areas.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/195</http_url><id_number>195</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_195.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ci</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.7500000000</latitude><location>Southwest region, Guiglo and Sassandra Districts</location><longitude>-7.6666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This park is one of the last major remnants of the primary tropical forest of West Africa. Its rich natural flora, and threatened mammal species such as the pygmy hippopotamus and 11 species of monkey, are of great scientific interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park lies in south-west C&amp;ocirc;te d'Ivoire about 200&amp;nbsp;km south of Man and 100&amp;nbsp;km from the coast, between the Cavally River (which marks the western border with Liberia) and the Sassandra River on the east. It comprises an ancient sloping granitic peneplain. This is broken by several inselbergs formed from volcanic intrusions, including the Ni&amp;eacute;nkou&amp;eacute; Hills in the south. The park is one of the last remaining portions of the vast primary forest that once stretched across present-day Ghana, C&amp;ocirc;te d'Ivoire, Liberia and Sierra Leone, and is the largest island of forest remaining in West Africa. There is a gradation from north to south, with the southern third of the park being the moistest and richest area, especially of leguminous trees. This humid tropical forest has a high level of endemism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains some 1,300 species of higher plants of which 54% occur only in the Guinea zone. Vegetation is predominantly dense evergreen ombrophilous forest of a Guinean type characterized by tall trees (40-60&amp;nbsp;m) with massive trunks and sometimes large buttresses or stilt roots. Large numbers of epiphytes and lianes form an important element in the lower horizons. Two types of forest can be recognized: the poorer soils of the north and south-east; and the 'Sassandrian' forest in the south-west, dominated by water-demanding species with numerous endemic species, especially in the lower Cavally Valley and the Meno and Hana depressions near Mont Ni&amp;eacute;nokou&amp;eacute;. Plants thought to be extinct, such as &lt;em&gt;Amorphophallus staudtii&lt;/em&gt; , have been discovered in the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna is fairly typical of West African forests and the park contains 47 of the 54 species of large mammal known to occur in Guinean rainforest including five threatened species. Mammals include the mona monkey, white-nosed monkey and diana monkey, black and white colobus, red colobus and green colobus, sooty mangabey, chimpanzee, of which there are 2,000-2,800 in Ta&amp;iuml;, giant pangolin, tree pangolin and long-tailed pangolin, golden cat, leopard, elephant, bushpig, giant forest hog, pygmy hippopotamus, water chevrotain, bongo, buffalo and an exceptional variety of forest duikers. Over 230 bird species have been recorded, 143 typical of primary forest.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This park is one of the last major remnants of the primary tropical forest of West Africa. Its rich natural flora, and threatened mammal species such as the pygmy hippopotamus and 11 species of monkeys, are of great scientific interest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Taï National Park</site><states>Côte d'Ivoire</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>216</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2003</danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;8 February 1968 by Decree No. 68-81. Originally protected as the 'reserve de faune de Bouna-Komoe' by Decree 1605 of 4 March 1953 though rudimentary protection existed since 1926. Accepted as a biosphere reserve and a World Heritage site in 1983.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/227</http_url><id_number>227</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_227.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ci</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>9.0000000000</latitude><location>Northeast region, Bouna and Ferkessedougou prefectures, Bouna, Kong, Nassian and Tehin sub-prefectures</location><longitude>-4.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;One of the largest protected areas in West Africa, this park is characterized by its great plant diversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is one of the few remaining natural areas in the region that is large enough to ensure the ecological integrity of the species contained within the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park comprises the land between the Como&amp;eacute; and Volta rivers, with mean altitude of 250-300&amp;nbsp;m and a series of ridges and granite inselbergs rising to 600&amp;nbsp;m. The River Como&amp;eacute; and its tributaries form the principal drainage and the Como&amp;eacute; runs through the park for 230&amp;nbsp;km. Watercourses also drain to the Volta in the east. Permanent and semi-permanent water occurs in many places. The soils are infertile and unsuitable for cultivation in some areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains a remarkable variety of habitats and plant associations found, more often, further south, including savannah, patches of thick rainforest and riparian grasslands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;It provides an outstanding example of an area of transitional habitat from forest to savannah. All types of savannah occur. The forest is composed of many leguminous trees. The gallery forests are dominated by &lt;em&gt;Cynometra vogelii&lt;/em&gt; ; the patches of dense dry forest by &lt;em&gt;Isoberlinia doka&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Anogeissus leiocarpus&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Cola cordifolia&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Antiaris africana&lt;/em&gt; , nationally threatened &lt;em&gt;Chlorophora excels&lt;/em&gt; , and the edible 'akee'; and the flood plains by &lt;em&gt;Hyparrhenia rufa&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Areas of specialized vegetation occur on the rocky inselbergs and in aquatic habitats. Como&amp;eacute; forms the northerly limit for some species including yellow-backed duiker and bongo. There are a large number of mammal species with 11 species of monkey including anubis baboon, green monkey, diana monkey, mona monkey, lesser white-nosed monkey, white collared mangabey, black and white colobus and chimpanzee; 17 species of carnivore including lion and leopard; giant pangolin, aardvark and rock hyrax; and 21 species of artiodactyl including bushpig, warthog, hippopotamus, bushbuck, sitatunga, buffalo, red-flanked duiker, waterbuck, kob, roan antelope and oribi. Birds include 10 species of heron, ducks, raptors, plovers and francolins, hammerkop, black-winged stilt, four of the six West African stork species, and five of the six West African vulture species.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;One of the largest protected areas in West Africa, this park is characterized by its great plant diversity. Due to the presence of the Comoé river, it contains plants which are normally only found much farther south, such as shrub savannahs and patches of thick rainforest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Comoé National Park</site><states>Côte d'Ivoire</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>252</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1322</http_url><id_number>1322</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1322.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ci</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.1958333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.7363888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The first capital of C&amp;ocirc;te d&amp;rsquo;Ivoire, the Historic Town of Grand-Bassam, is an example of a late 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;- and early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;-century colonial town planned with quarters specializing in commerce, administration, housing for Europeans and for Africans. The site includes the N&amp;rsquo;zima African fishing village alongside colonial architecture marked by functional houses with galleries, verandas and gardens. Grand-Bassam was the most important port, economic and judicial centre of C&amp;ocirc;te d&amp;rsquo;Ivoire. It bears witness to the complex social relations between Europeans and Africans, and to the subsequent independence movement. As a vibrant centre of the territory of French trading posts in the Gulf of Guinea, which preceded modern C&amp;ocirc;te d&amp;rsquo;Ivoire, it attracted populations from all parts of Africa, Europe and the Mediterranean Levant.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of Grand-Bassam</site><states>Côte d'Ivoire</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1919</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/97</http_url><id_number>97</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_97.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.5094400000</latitude><location>County of Split-Dalmatia </location><longitude>16.4433300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The importance of Diocletian's Palace far transcends local significance because of its level of preservation and the buildings of succeeding historical periods, starting in the Roman period, which form the very tissue of old Split. The palace is one of the most famous and integral architectural and cultural buildings on the Croatian Adriatic coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Diocletian's Palace, built between the late 3rd and the early 4th centuries AD, can be found throughout the city. The Roman Emperor Diocletian spent his declining years in an enormous palace that he had built near his birthplace, Aspalthos, in Dalmatia. The palace represents the most valuable example of Roman architecture on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Its form and the arrangement of the buildings within the palace represent a transitional style of imperial villa, Hellenistic town and Roman camp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the eastern side of the palace lies the Porta Argentea (Silver Gate) with the church of St Dominic on the opposite side, it was reconstructed between 1932 and 1934. The Silver Gate gives access to the Plain of King Tomislav and thence to the Peristil (peristyle), the central open-air area of the palace. Its longitudinal sides are surrounded by an arched colonnade; the arches in the west are closed by Gothic and Renaissance houses. monumental port with four columns carrying a gable closes the Peristyle in the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Diocletian (today's Cathedral of St Doimus dedicated to St Mary) lies in the eastern part of the peristyle. The mausoleum has almost completely preserved its original octagonal form, encircled by 24 columns which supported the roof; the interior is round, with two rows of Corinthian columns and a frieze. A dome, once covered with mosaics, roofs the mausoleum. The monumental wooden gateposts and the stone pulpit from the 13th century represent the oldest monuments in the cathedral. The choir, constructed in the 18th century, is furnished with Romanesque seating from the 13th century and ornamented with a painting representing the Mother of God with the saints and donors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A small temple opposite the mausoleum, probably dedicated to Jupiter, became the baptistry in the early Middle Ages. Only the closed part of the temple (&lt;em&gt;cella&lt;/em&gt;) with a richly decorated portal has been preserved; the interior is roofed with a barrel-coffered vault.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Diocletian Street runs from the Peristyle to the north at the Porta Aurea (Golden Gate); Agubio Palace, with a Gothic portal and inner yard is to the left. To the right, in Papaliceva Street, is the Papalic Palace (15th century), the most important example of Gothic architecture in Split.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kresimir Street leads from the Peristyle to the Porta Ferrea (Iron Gate) in the west; Cindro Palace (17th century), the most beautiful Baroque palace in Split, lies on the right. Beyond the Iron Gate is the square Narodni Trg (Piaca), centre of the medieval commune and the liveliest square of the modern city. Of the Gothic houses which used to close the northern end of the square, only the Town Hall (1443), with a loggia in the ground floor, has survived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early Middle Ages the town was built within the palace. Commercial prosperity of the 13th and the 14th centuries inspired more intensive building. The town spread outside the palace, and a new centre developed along the western walls of the palace, which was fortified in the 14th century; in the 17th century a new defence system with projecting bastions was erected.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Diocletian's Palace, built between the late 3rd and the early 4th centuries A.D., can be found throughout the city. The cathedral was built in the Middle Ages, reusing materials from the ancient mausoleum. Twelfth- and 13th-century Romanesque churches, medieval fortifications, 15th-century Gothic palaces and other palaces in Renaissance and Baroque style make up the rest of the protected area.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historical Complex of Split with the Palace of Diocletian</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>105</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1992-1997</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Plitvice Lakes were declared public property by the law of 8 April 1949, and a national park in the Official Journal (Narodne novine) NO.29 1949. Accepted as a World Heritage site in 1979 .&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/98</http_url><id_number>98</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_98.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.8777800000</latitude><location></location><longitude>15.6144400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Plitvice Lakes National Park contains a series of beautiful lakes, caves and waterfalls. These have been formed by processes typical of karst landscapes such as the deposition of travertine barriers, creating natural dams. These geological processes continue today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Plitvice Lakes basin is a geomorphologic formation of biological origin, a karst river basin of limestone and dolomite, with approximately 20 lakes, created by the deposition of calcium carbonate precipitated in water through the agency of moss, algae and aquatic bacteria. These create strange, characteristic shapes and contain travertine-roofed and vaulted caves. The carbonates date from the Upper Trias, Juras and Cretaceous Ages and are up to 4,000 m thick. In order to maintain and preserve the natural characteristics of the lakes, the whole of surface and most of the subterranean drainage system has to be embraced by extending the original borders of the park. The new areas comprise layers of karstified limestone with dolomites of Jurassic age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 16 interlinked lakes between Mala Kapela Mountain and Pljesevica Mountain. The lake system is divided into the upper and lower lakes: the upper lakes lie in a dolomite valley and are surrounded by thick forests and interlinked by numerous waterfalls; the lower lakes, smaller and shallower, lie on the limestone bedrock and are surrounded only by sparse underbrush. The upper lakes are separated by dolomite barriers, which grow with the formation of travertine, forming thus travertine barriers. Travertine is mostly formed on the spots where water falls from an elevation, by the incrustation of algae and moss with calcium carbonate. The lower lakes were formed by crumbling and caving-in of the vaults above subterranean cavities through which water of the upper lakes disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The forest, that comprises pure stands of beech at lower altitudes and mixed stands of beech and fir at higher levels, can also be classified in terms of underlying strata of dolomite and limestone complexes. The dolomite communities comprise tertiary pine, hornbeam, spruce and beech-fir forests. The limestone communities have a smaller number of forest types but cover a larger area with communities of spruce and fern, spruce in beech, coppiced hornbeam with sumac, maple and heather. Hydrophytic communities of black alder, grey ivy, willow, reeds and bulrush communities are found. There are a large mosaic of meadow communities, depending on altitude, geology soils and other ecological factors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is fauna-rich, including European brown bear, wolf, eagle owl and capercaillie. There are records of 126 species of bird, of which 70 breed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area was the cradle of the prehistoric Illyrian tribe of Japuds dating from 1000 BC. The Japudic culture was followed by the Romans and from the 8th century AD was occupied by Slavs. Archaeological remains include a prehistoric settlement on the site of the current Plitvice village, fortifications, Bronze Age tools and ceramics.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2000</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The waters flowing over the limestone and chalk have, over thousands of years, deposited travertine barriers, creating natural dams which in turn have created a series of beautiful lakes, caves and waterfalls. These geological processes continue today. The forests in the park are home to bears, wolves and many rare bird species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Plitvice Lakes National Park</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>106</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Churches were established in Porec (the Municipium Parentium of the Roman province of Histria) between the early 4th and mid-6th centuries. No fewer than four were built in succession on the north coast of the low peninsula where the town was situated; only the latest of these, the basilica of Euphrasius, has survived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest phase, a simple oratory within a large Roman private house in which the bones of the local martyr, Maurus, were placed, is dated to around 313.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was restored and enlarged with the addition of a second hall (the basihcae geminae) later in the 4th century, but remained a simple structure with a rectangular plan. In the 5th century a new church was built on the site. It took the form of a three-aisled basilica without an apse, characteristic for Istria and Noricum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present church was built in the mid-6th century to the orders of the bishop whose name it retains, Euphrasius. In his dedicatory inscription in the apse mosaic, Euphrasius comments that the church that he found on this site was ruinous and devoid of ornamentation; however, recent studies have established that this was a somewhat exaggerated statement, since the new building incorporated three of the perimeter walls of the earlier structure and traces of mosaics from this phase have been discovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to his new basilica, Euphrasius erected a complex of associated buildings - an atrium beyond the narrow narthex of the basilica, a baptistery at the end of the atrium, a monumental episcopal palace between the atrium and the sea, and a small memorial chapel to the north-east of the basilica. All these buildings were richly ornamented with mosaics, alabaster, marble, mother-of-pearl, and stucco, in the lavish tradition of the Byzantine "Golden Age" during the reign of Justinian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Later additions to the complex were the "Kanonika" (Canon's House) of 1257, the 16th century belltower, and some minor buildings such as the sacristy (15th century) and two chapels (17th and 19th centuries respectively).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/809</http_url><id_number>809</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_809.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the Episcopal complex of the Euphrasian Basilica in the historic centre of Porec is an outstanding example of an early Christian episcopal ensemble that is exceptional by virtue of its completeness and its unique Basilican cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.2291700000</latitude><location>County of Istria</location><longitude>13.5944400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Euphrasian Basilica in Poreč is the most integrally preserved early Christian cathedral complex in the region and unique by virtue of the fact that all the basic components - church, memorial chapel, atrium, baptistry and episcopal palace - are preserved. The Basilica, including its earlier phases (oratory, basilica gemina and basilica proper), is a characteristic example of 5th- and 6th-century religious architecture, showing significant Byzantine influence&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Churches were established in Poreč (the Municipium Parentium of the Roman province of Histria) between the early 4th and mid-6th centuries. No fewer than four churches were built in succession on the north coast of the low peninsula where the town was situated; only the latest of these, the Basilica of Euphrasius, has survived. The Euphrasian Basilica in Poreč is the most integrally preserved early Christian cathedral complex and unique by virtue of the fact that all the basic components - church, memorial chapel, atrium, baptistry and episcopal palace - are preserved. The earliest phase, a simple oratory within a large Roman private house in which the bones of the local martyr, Maurus, were placed, is dated to around 313. This was restored and enlarged with the addition of a second hall (&lt;em&gt;basilicae geminae&lt;/em&gt; ) later in the 4th century, but remained a simple structure with a rectangular plan. In the 5th century a new church was built on the site. It took the characteristic form for Istria and Noricum. The present church was built in the mid-6th century to the orders of the bishop whose name it retains, Euphrasius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basilica built by Euphrasius in the 6th century is three-aisled, with a large central apse flanked by two shallower side apses. The walls on the northern, western and southern sides are those of the earlier basilica on the site, and the bases of the two rows of nine columns that divide up the interior are also from that structure. The plain columns are surmounted by capitals with different forms of carved ornamentation (the Byzantine version of Corinthian capitals: inverted basket capitals; fretted capitals with animal and vegetable motifs above), but identical in opposite pairs. They are linked by arcading with stucco ornamentation, which survives intact on the north side, where traces of the original polychrome paint are still discernible. The 15th-century frescoes are also still visible on the western wall and in the lunette over the southern apse. The lower part of the wall is decorated with coloured stone and mother-of-pearl. Above there is a stucco band, below the mosaics, which occupy the spaces around the four windows, the interior of the semi-dome and the front wall. The central feature inside the dome is a representation of the Virgin Mary, holding the Christ Child and flanked by angels, local martyrs and Bishop Euphrasius. Only a small portion of the original floor mosaics survive, in the south apse. The exteriors of the walls are plastered and divided by pilaster strips, connected by blind arcades. The whole of the top section of the west front of the building, above the cloistered narthex, was originally covered with mosaics, but much of this decoration has disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to his new basilica, Euphrasius erected a complex of associated buildings - an atrium beyond the narrow narthex of the basilica, a baptistry at the end of the atrium, a monumental episcopal palace between the atrium and the sea, and a small memorial chapel to the north-east of the basilica. All these buildings were richly ornamented with mosaics, alabaster, marble, mother-of-pearl and stucco, in the lavish tradition of the Byzantine 'Golden Age' during the reign of Justinian. Later additions to the complex were the Kanonika (Canon's House) of 1257, the 16th-century bell tower, and some minor buildings such as the sacristy (15th century) and two chapels (17th and 19th centuries respectively).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Episcopal Complex is an integral part of the historic centre of Poreč, which has preserved its Roman street pattern to a considerable extent.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The group of religious monuments in Porec, where Christianity was established as early as the 4th century, constitutes the most complete surviving complex of its type. The basilica, atrium, baptistery and episcopal palace are outstanding examples of religious architecture, while the basilica itself combines classical and Byzantine elements in an exceptional manner.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Episcopal Complex of the Euphrasian Basilica in the Historic Centre of Poreč</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>956</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The ancient town of Tragurion ("island of goats") was founded as a trading settlement by Greek colonists from the island of Vis (Zssa) in the 3rd century BC on an islet at the western end of the bay of Manios, in a strait between the mainland and one of the Adriatic islands, where there was already a small settlement. The Hellenistic town was enclosed by megalithic walls and its streets were laid out on a "Hippodamian" grid plan: the line of the ancient cardo maximus is that of the modem main street.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town flourished in the Roman period as an oppidum civium romanowm, linked with the neighbouring cities of Salona, capital of the Roman province of Dahnatia, and Siculi. a colony for Roman military veterans. During the Late Roman period it was extended and refortified. Extensive Roman cemeteries have been discovered, outside the town, as was customary, and a basilica was erected in one of these in Late Roman times. Although it was not made a bishopric in the early Christian period, Trogir was endowed with two large aisled basilicas, sited where the latter-day Cathedral and Benedictine Church of St John the Baptist now stand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the second half of the 9th century Trogir became part of the Byzantine theme of Dalmatia, with its capital at Zadar, and it was occupied by Venice at the end of the 10th century. Early medieval Trogir expanded to the south and new fortifications were constructed. At the beginning of the 12th century Trogir accepted Hungarian rule when the theme of Dalmatia was overrun. There was a short period of Venetian rule in the early 14th century, but it was not until 1420 that the town became part of the Venetian empire. Between the 13th and 15th centuries much new building took place, this period seeing the construction of the Cathedral and the Camerlengo fortress, a radical remodelling of the main square, and two campaigns of reconstruction and strengthening of the fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Treaty of Campoformio handed Trogir over to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to which it belonged, apart from a short period under French rule (1806-lo), as part of the Illyrian Provinces until 1918.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/810</http_url><id_number>810</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_810.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii) and (iv), considering that Trogir is an excellent example of a medieval town built on and conforming with the layout of a Hellenistic and Roman city that has conserved its urban fabric to an exceptional degree and with the minimum of modern interventions, in which the trajectory of social and cultural development is clearly visible in every aspect of the townscape.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.5125000000</latitude><location>County of Split-Dalmatia</location><longitude>16.2516700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Trogir is an excellent example of a medieval town built on and conforming with the layout of a Hellenistic and Roman city that has conserved its urban fabric to an exceptional degree and with the minimum of modern interventions, in which the trajectory of social and cultural development is clearly visible in every aspect of the townscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Trogir is a remarkable example of urban continuity. The orthogonal street plan of this island settlement dates back to the Hellenistic period and it was embellished by successive rulers with many fine public and domestic buildings and fortifications. Its beautiful Romanesque churches are complemented by the outstanding Renaissance and Baroque buildings from the Venetian period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient town of Tragurion (island of goats) was founded as a trading settlement by Greek colonists from the island of Vis in the 3rd century BC on an islet at the western end of the bay of Manios, in a strait between the mainland and one of the Adriatic islands, where there was already a small settlement. The Hellenistic town was enclosed by megalithic walls and its streets were laid out on a Hippodamian grid plan: the line of the ancient &lt;em&gt;cardo maximus&lt;/em&gt; is that of the modern main street. The town flourished in the Roman period as an &lt;em&gt;oppidum civium romanorum&lt;/em&gt; ; during the late Roman period it was extended and refortified. Extensive Roman cemeteries have been discovered, and a basilica was erected in one of these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although it was not made a bishopric in the early Christian period, Trogir was endowed with two large aisled basilicas, sited where the latter-day Cathedral and Benedictine Church of St John the Baptist now stand. In the second half of the 9th century, Trogir became part of the Byzantine theme of Dalmatia, with its capital at Zadar, and it was occupied by Venice at the end of the 10th century. Early medieval Trogir expanded to the south and new fortifications were constructed. At the beginning of the 12th century, Trogir accepted Hungarian rule when the theme of Dalmatia was overrun. There was a short period of Venetian rule in the early 14th century, but it was not until 1420 that the town became part of the Venetian empire. Between the 13th and 15th centuries much new building took place, this period seeing the construction of the cathedral and the Camerlengo fortress, a radical remodelling of the main square, and two campaigns of reconstruction and strengthening of the fortifications. The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) handed Trogir over to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to which it belonged, apart from a short period under French rule, as part of the Illyrian provinces until 1918.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plan of contemporary Trogir reflects the Hellenistic layout in the location, dimensions, and shapes of its residential blocks. The two ancient main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, are still in use, and paving of the forum has been located by excavation at their intersection. Ancient Tragurion lies at the eastern end of the islet; this spread out in the earlier medieval period. The medieval suburb of Pasike developed to the west on a different alignment, and was enclosed by the later fortifications. The port was located on the south side. Finally, the massive Venetian fortifications incorporated the Genoese fortress known as the Camerlengo. Construction of the Cathedral of St Lawrence, built on the site of an earlier basilica and dominating the main square, began around 1200 and was added in the late 16th century. This relatively protracted period of construction has meant that successive architectural styles - Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance - are all represented. It is a three-aisled basilica, each of the aisles terminating in an apse. Inside the porch at the west end is the baptistry. Of the numerous aristocratic palaces the Cipico Palace, facing the west end of the cathedral, is the most outstanding: it consists of a complex of structures covering an entire town block. Most of it dates back to the 13th century, but some elements of buildings from the late Roman period are incorporated in it. During the 15th century the owner brought in the three most celebrated artists of the period to embellish its facade and interior. Throughout the town, and in particular round the ramparts, are the palaces of other leading families. Many of these rise directly from the foundations of late classical or Romanesque structures and are in all styles from Gothic to Baroque.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Trogir is a remarkable example of urban continuity. The orthogonal street plan of this island settlement dates back to the Hellenistic period and it was embellished by successive rulers with many fine public and domestic buildings and fortifications. Its beautiful Romanesque churches are complemented by the outstanding Renaissance and Baroque buildings from the Venetian period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Trogir</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>957</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;&amp;Scaron;ibenik is a small town on the Dalmatian coast, opening out on a bay separated from the Adriatic by the Sveti Ante (St Anthony) channel and a multitude of tiny islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was founded in the 10th century by the Subic family, who were very influential in Croatia at this period. Early in the 12th century it came under the sway of the Kings of Hungary, who granted its independence. In 1116 and 1378 &amp;Scaron;ibenik suffered at the hands of the Venetians, who were vying with the kingdom of Hungary for control of the Dalmatian coast. In 1298 a papal bull issued by Boniface VIII created the Diocese of &amp;Scaron;ibenik. The Venetians took the town in 1412, renaming it Sebenico and holding it until the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral of St James owes its present appearance to three successive periods of construction between 9 April 1431, when the first stone was laid, and 1535. The first phase (1431-41) was carried out under the supervision of master mason Francesco di Giacomo and his journeymen Pincino and Busato, who began raising the west front and the walls of the nave and aisles as far as the first cornice. This first phase of construction in the Gothic style of northern Italy was completed by the west and north doors, the work of Lombard sculptor Bonino da Milano.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1441 Dalmatian architect and sculptor Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus (Juraj Matejev Dalmatinac) was charged with the resumption of work, which he continued until just before his death in 1473. In order to transform the simple basilica into a more imposing edifice, he drew up new plans for a more ornate east section (transept, three apses, a baptistery, and a sacristy) and thought of raising a dome over the transept crossing. His projects were only partially executed, however, and came to a halt once the apses were complete. This period also saw the completion of the nave and the vaulting over the aisles. Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus mingled the forms of late Gothic with those of the early Renaissance. Many artists came to join him in working on the Cathedral, the most famous being the architect Andrija Ale&amp;scaron;i, originally from Durr&amp;euml;s (Albania), who worked with the successor to Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus on the third phase of the cathedral's construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This final phase was directed between 1475 and 1505 by Niccol&amp;ograve; di Giovanni Fiorentino, an Italian architect and sculptor (active from 1467 to 1506) who retained the overall conception of the structure, the use of stone as the only material, and the method of joining the slabs of stone developed by his predecessor. He raised the wall studded with windows and the vaults of the nave, the vaulting over the galleries on the aisles, choir, and transept, the octagonal drum, and the dome in the early Renaissance style. He completed the trefoil of the west front (1475-1505), to which a rose window was added in 1555. The Cathedral was consecrated in 1555.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/963</http_url><id_number>963</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_963.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/strong&gt; The structural characteristics of the Cathedral of St James in &amp;Scaron;ibenik make it a unique and outstanding building in which Gothic and Renaissance forms have been successfully blended. Criterion ii The Cathedral of St James is the fruitful outcome of considerable interchanges of influences between the three culturally different regions of Northern Italy, Dalmatia, and Tuscany in the 15th and 16th centuries. These interchanges created the conditions for unique and outstanding solutions to the technical and structural problems of constructing the cathedral vaulting and dome. Criterion iv The Cathedral of St James in &amp;Scaron;ibenik is a unique testimony to the transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance period in church architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.7362900000</latitude><location>County of Šibenik-Knin</location><longitude>15.8903800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of &amp;Scaron;ibenik is the fruitful outcome of considerable interchanges of influences between the three culturally different regions of northern Italy, Dalmatia and Tuscany in the 15th and 16th centuries. These interchanges created the conditions for unique and outstanding solutions to the technical and structural problems of constructing the cathedral vaulting and dome. The structural characteristics of the cathedral make it a unique and outstanding building in which Gothic and Renaissance forms have been successfully blended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;Scaron;ibenik is a small town on the Dalmatian coast, opening out on a bay separated from the Adriatic by the Sveti Ante (St Anthony) channel and a multitude of tiny islands. The town was founded in the 10th century by the Subic family; it consists of a labyrinth of narrow streets and small squares climbing from the level of the cathedral to the fortress at the summit of the old town. Early in the 12th century it came under the sway of the kings of Hungary, who granted its independence. In 1116 and 1378 &amp;Scaron;ibenik suffered at the hands of the Venetians. They took the town in 1412, renaming it Sebenico and holding it until the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797. The cathedral of St James owes its present appearance to three successive periods of construction between 9 April 1431, when the first stone was laid, and 1535.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of St James bears witness to the considerable exchanges in the field of monumental arts between northern Italy, Dalmatia, and Tuscany in the 15th and 16th centuries. The first phase (1431-41) was carried out under the supervision of master mason Francesco di Giacomo, who began raising the west front and the walls of the nave and aisles as far as the first cornice. This first phase of construction in the Gothic style of northern Italy was completed by the west and north doors. In 1441 Dalmatian architect and sculptor Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus was charged with the resumption of work to transform the simple basilica into a more imposing edifice. His projects were only partially executed and came to a halt once the apses were complete. Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus mingled the forms of late Gothic with those of the early Renaissance. The third and final phase was directed between 1475 and 1505 by Niccol&amp;ograve; di Giovanni Fiorentino, an Italian architect and sculptor who retained the overall conception of the structure, the use of stone as the only material, and the method of joining the slabs of stone developed by his predecessor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral, consecrated in 1555, takes the form of a basilica consisting of three aisles, each ending in an apse, beyond a non-salient transept surmounted by a dome. A rectangular sacristy raised on pillars under which runs a passage leading to the baptistry stands between the southern apse and the Episcopal Palace. The three aisles are separated by two rows of Gothic columns, the capitals of which are decorated with plant motifs. Above them the fillet decorated with two rows of leaf-work motifs and the openings in the galleries, where short fluted pilasters alternate with columns, bear witness to the second phase of construction. There is a close correspondence between the interior and exterior forms of the building. The nave extends into a raised choir reached by means of a circular stairway. The altar stands at the rear of the central apse and there is a quatrefoil baptistry below the southern apse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus built the cathedral, with the exception of the nave and the aisle walls, by assembling slabs of stone and the contiguous sections of pilaster and ribbing using a particular technique for the joints. The roofing of the aisles, as well as that of the apses and the dome, is made from stone 'tiles'. These roofing tiles are laid side by side with their horizontal edges overlapping, and the joints are made by the perfect fit. On the dome the tiles are held in place by stone wedges fitted with great precision and are inserted into the ribs as into a portcullis. This type of construction could well have taken its inspiration from shipbuilding, or from the experience of many artists whose first trade was the working of wood as joiners, cabinet-makers, or model makers. The solution adopted for the cathedral at &amp;Scaron;ibenik was made possible by the outstanding quality of the stone used, which came from the stone quarries of Veselje, on the island of Brac, which are still in operation to this day.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of St James in &amp;Scaron;ibenik (1431-1535), on the Dalmatian coast, bears witness to the considerable exchanges in the field of monumental arts between Northern Italy, Dalmatia and Tuscany in the 15th and 16th centuries. The three architects who succeeded one another in the construction of the Cathedral - Francesco di Giacomo, Georgius Mathei Dalmaticus and Niccol&amp;ograve; di Giovanni Fiorentino - developed a structure built entirely from stone and using unique construction techniques for the vaulting and the dome of the Cathedral. The form and the decorative elements of the Cathedral, such as a remarkable frieze decorated with 71 sculptured faces of men, women, and children, also illustrate the successful fusion of Gothic and Renaissance art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Cathedral of St James in Šibenik</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1127</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There is evidence of a small Iron Age Illyrian tribal community in the 6th-5th centuries BCE, at Stari Grad, on the site of what is today the Church of St. John, in archaeological vestiges directly below the Greek level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Remains of forts and stone tumuli around the plain date from this period, or possibly from slightly earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greek expansion into the Adriatic began with the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder. The first colony was founded by the military conquest of the island of Vis, at the expense of the Illyrians, in 394 BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The next stage of Greek expansion was the conquest of the island of Hvar by the inhabitants of the Aegean island of Paros, allies of Dionysius, ten years later. They created the colony of Pharos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The perimeter of the town was circled by defensive walls, vestiges of which are visible next to the Church of St. John, and the remains of a city gate with towers can be seen nearby. Excavations have provided evidence of the ground plan of the Greek town and have uncovered vestiges of houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Agricultural colonisation was undertaken alongside the construction of the fortified town. It was based on subdivision into regular rectangular parcels (chora). The plain consists of 75 main parcels of around 16 hectares, subdivided in turn into square lots. Stone boundary markers were built between the various parcels and lots (See Description). Some excavation evidence from near Stari Grad suggests that part of the population lived on the plain itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The defensive system of the plain reused the former Illyrian forts and added new forts. Traces of four of them have been located.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The collapse of the Syracusan Empire in the mid-4th century BCE resulted in Pharos becoming an independent principality of Hellenised Illyrians. Its prosperity led to it becoming the capital of Demetrius of Hvar, who extended his power over the region in around 220 BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Demetrius came into conflict with Rome, and the town was partially destroyed in 219 BCE. The town was however soon rebuilt with the assistance of the former metropolis of Paros, as shown by two Greek inscriptions discovered from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island was unable to resist Roman conquest for long, and the port became, in the mid-2nd century BCE, an important naval base for Roman expeditions against the Dalmatians and Illyrians on the mainland. The town was given the name of Pharia, and acquired the status of a municipium during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. The whole island was colonised by the Romans at this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological traces have demonstrated that economic activities centred on grapes, fishing and port commerce. Some Roman graves were dug in the plain, and additional cisterns were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is little testimony concerning the period of late Antiquity. Pharia was fortified again, with a smaller perimeter compared with the Greek period. The first traces of Christianity are from the 5th and 6th centuries, with the presence of tombs, a baptistery and mosaics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The medieval history of the island of Hvar and of Pharia/Faria is complex. It became the seat of a Christian bishop (12th century), and was then conquered by the Venetians (mid-13th century), who maintained almost permanent political control of the island until 1797.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over this long period, the plain was under the shared or alternative control of the Christian church and the medieval aristocracy who drew substantial profits from it. Small chapels were built on the plain. The earliest descriptions of the plain and its agricultural system date back to the 14th and 15th centuries. The walls built on the boundaries of the Greek parcels are clearly named and identified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town underwent a period of renewal from the 15th century onwards, as a trading centre and port, in the orbit of the development of Venetian economic power. Its name at this time was Campo San Stephani.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, irrigation work was undertaken on the plain, and a cadastral scheme was drawn up by the Austrian administration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 19th century, winegrowing was seriously affected by the disease of phylloxera. This led to an abandonment of the agricultural land and an initial wave of rural emigration at the start of the 20th century. The winegrowing villages of the south were partially abandoned. The cadastral structure of the land and paths was conserved, but it was weakened by lack of maintenance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new form of threat to the conservation of the chora developed after the Second World War, when collective farms and the mechanisation of ploughing were introduced. This coincided with a second wave of emigration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third period, at the end of the 20th century, was marked by a move back to grapes and olives, but using modern, mechanised equipment that also pose a threat to conservation (See 4 - Factors affecting the property).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1240</http_url><id_number>1240</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1240.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.1816666667</latitude><location>Split and Dalmatia Counties</location><longitude>16.6386111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Stari Grad Plain on the Adriatic island of Hvar is a cultural landscape that has remained practically intact since it was first colonized by Ionian Greeks from Paros in the 4th century BC. The original agricultural activity of this fertile plain, mainly centring on grapes and olives, has been maintained since Greek times to the present. The site is also a natural reserve. The landscape features ancient stone walls and trims, or small stone shelters, and bears testimony to the ancient geometrical system of land division used by the ancient Greeks, the chora which has remained virtually intact over 24 centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stari Grad Plain</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1484</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1991-1998</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The proposed extension to the west of the old city includes part of the Pile suburb, with the Brsalje plateau. It marks the point where a major road entered the Roman town that preceded medieval Dubrovnik, and archaeological excavations have revealed the presence there of a Palaeochristian basilica, as well as medieval cemeteries. The Lovrijenac Fortress, located on a cliff, is first mentioned in a document of 1301, but its defensive importance is such that it must have been built much earlier (as early as the 11th century according to some scholars). The fortress owes its present appearance to the 15th and 16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pile suburb was a planned development of the 15th century, around a clearly defined industrial zone dating back to the 13th century. It was devoted to tanning and leather-working, the casting of cannon, soap manufacture,etc - activities which, for reasons of hygiene and security, were placed outside the walls but within the protection of the fortress. In the early 15th century an important dyeing industry developed in the area, and this was followed by other industries, such as glass-making, bell-casting, and weaving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These industrial operations led to the construction of workers' houses, and the settlement had its own Church of St George, dating back to the 14th century but rebuilt in its present form in 1590. The Pile suburb has retained its original character, although some changes resulted from the building in the late 19th century of a new road linking Pile with Gruz and passing outside the ramparts of the medieval town. The area known as Iza Grada (Behind the city) lies outside the northern part of the ramparts, and has remained an open space, for defensive reasons, throughout the town I s history. The road joining Pile and Gruz marks its northern boundary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the eastern side of the old city lies Ploce, which has served as the centre for trade with the hinterland for centuries. The area proposed for the extension of the World Heritage Site lies to the south of the main road and includes the Lazarets and the Revelin Fortress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kase moles were built around 1485 on the plans of paskoje Milicevic, the most famous Ragusan engineer of the Renaissance period, to protect the port against south-easterly gales while at the same time improving the facilities for controlling vessels approaching the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The building of the Lazarets began in 1627 and they were completed in 1648. Their siting at the eastern entrance to the city was practical: this is where traders and travellers would approach Dubrovnik from potentially plague-ridden parts of central Europe or the Orient. They have preserved their original appearance to a remarkable degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Revelin Fortress, built to command the town moat on its northern side, dates from 1449, though its present appearance is that of the 16th century, when it was remodelled by the architect Antonio Ferramolino di Bergamo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island of Lokrum lies to the south-east of Dubrovnik, some 500 m from the coast. In 1023 it became a Benedictine abbey, the first of several in the Republic of Dubrovnik. The monastic complex (and especially the Church of the Virgin Mary, destroyed by the earthquake of 1667 and not rebuilt) was continually enlarged in succeeding centuries. Following the reform of the Benedictine Order in the later 15th century, the monastery passed to the Congregation of St Justina of Padua, which was responsible for the building of a new monastery in Gothic-Renaissance style to the south of the ruins of the Benedictine establishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During their occupation of the island in the early 19th century the French began work on the construction of the Fort Royal Fortress, which was completed by the Austrians in the 1830s. In 1859 Archduke Maximilian of Austria (later Emperor of Mexico) bought the island with the intention of building a villa in classical style on the ruins of the Benedictine abbey, but only a small part of this work was completed.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/95</http_url><id_number>95</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_95.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.6505600000</latitude><location>County of Dubrovnik-Neretva, Adriatic Coast</location><longitude>18.0913900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The 'Pearl of the Adriatic', on the Dalmatian coast, was an important Mediterranean sea power from the 13th century onwards. Although severely damaged by an earthquake in 1667, Dubrovnik managed to preserve its beautiful Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque churches, monasteries, palaces and fountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dubrovnik was founded in the first half of the 7th century by a group of refugees from Epidaurum, who established their settlement at the island and named it Laus. The Latin name Ragusa (Rausa), in use until the 15th century, originated from the rock (Lat. lausa = rock). Opposite that location, at the foot of Srđ Mountain, the Slavs developed their own settlement under the name of Dubrovnik, derived from the Croatian word dubrava, which means oak woods. When the channel that separated these two settlements was filled in the 12th century they were united. From the time of its establishment the town was under the protection of the Byzantine Empire; after the Fourth Crusade the city came under the sovereignty of Venice (1205-1358), and by the Treaty of Zadar in 1358 it became part of the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom, when it was effectively a republican free state that reached its peak in the 15th and 16th centuries. An economic crisis in Mediterranean shipping and, more particularly, a catastrophic earthquake on April 1667 that levelled most of the public buildings, destroyed the well-being of the Republic. This powerful earthquake came as a turning point in the city's development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dubrovnik is a remarkably well-preserved example of a late-medieval walled city, with a regular street layout. Among the outstanding medieval, Renaissance and Baroque monuments within the magnificent fortifications and the monumental gates to the city are the Town Hall (now the Rector's Palace), dating from the 11th century; the Franciscan Monastery (completed in the 14th century, but now largely Baroque in appearance) with its imposing church; the extensive Dominican Monastery; the cathedral (rebuilt after the 1667 earthquake); the customs house (Sponza), the eclectic appearance of which reveals the fact that it is the work of several hands over many years; and a number of other Baroque churches, such as that of St Blaise (patron saint of the city).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original World Heritage site consisted solely of the defences and the intra-mural city. It was later extended to include the Pile medieval industrial suburb, a planned development of the 15th century, and the Lovrijenac Fortress, located on a cliff, which was probably begun as early as the 11th century, but owes its present appearance to the 15th and 16th centuries. Also included were the Lazarets, built in the early 17th century to house potential plague-carriers from abroad, the late 15th-century Kase moles, built to protect the port against south-easterly gales, and the Revelin Fortress, dating from 1449, which was built to command the town moat on its northern side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island of Lokrum lies to the south-east of Dubrovnik, some 500 m from the coast. In 1023 it became a Benedictine abbey, the first of several in the Republic of Dubrovnik. It was continually enlarged in succeeding centuries, passing to the Congregation of St Justina of Padua in the late 15th century, when a new monastery was built in Gothic-Renaissance style to the south of the ruins of the Benedictine establishment. During their occupation of the island in the early 19th century the French began work on the construction of the Fort Royal Fortress, which was completed by the Austrians in the 1830s. In 1859 Archduke Maximilian of Austria (later Emperor of Mexico) bought the island with the intention of building a villa in classical style on the ruins of the Benedictine abbey, but only a small part of this work was completed.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1994</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 'Pearl of the Adriatic', situated on the Dalmatian coast, became an important Mediterranean sea power from the 13th century onwards. Although severely damaged by an earthquake in 1667, Dubrovnik managed to preserve its beautiful Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque churches, monasteries, palaces and fountains. Damaged again in the 1990s by armed conflict, it is now the focus of a major restoration programme co-ordinated by UNESCO.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Dubrovnik</site><states>Croatia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2315</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/204</http_url><id_number>204</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_204.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>23.1333333300</latitude><location>Province of Ciudad de la Habana</location><longitude>-82.3500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Havana, last of the cities founded in Cuba by the Spanish conquistadores, had become by 1550 the most important on the island, a position that it has continued to hold. Havana was established at its present location in 1519 by the Spanish and became one of the Caribbean's main centres for shipbuilding. Its location made of the city a perfect gathering point for the annual treasure fleets bound for Spain from Mexico and Peru: Havana became the front door to the vast Spanish colonial empire, and in 1607 it became also the capital of Cuba.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1762, during the Seven Years' War, England seized Havana and held on to it for 11 months, then exchanging it for Florida. Newly recovered Havana was then turned into a strongly fortified city; it was also allowed to trade freely, developing and growing steadily through the 18th and 19th centuries. The city was physically untouched by the devastating wars of independence in the second half of the 18th century, making Havana easily the finest surviving Spanish complex in the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;During Prohibition in the United States, Havana became a paradise for those who wanted good rum and fine cigars - at least until New Year's Eve 1959, when rebels led by Fidel Castro marched into town. Today it is a capital of about 2&amp;nbsp;million inhabitants, the largest city in the Antilles and, with its skyscraper district dominating the port, the most modern.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Despite its turbulent history, the city suffered little damage in the country's wars and revolutions, and stands today much as it was built 100 years ago or more. It is today a sprawling metropolis of 2&amp;nbsp;million inhabitants, its old centre retaining an interesting mix of Baroque and neoclassical monuments, and a homogeneous ensemble of private houses with arcades, balconies, wrought-iron gates and internal courtyards.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a name="central"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a name="old"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Many of Old Havana's finest buildings have been converted into museums, and there are churches, palaces, castles, revolutionary monuments and markets to visit; however, the renovations are only slowly extending to residential areas. The most outstanding sights include the Plaza de la Catedral, one of the most beautiful squares in the city, with the towers of the Catedral de San Crist&amp;oacute;bal de La Habana which dominate the square. Nearby is the Castillo de la Real Fuerza, the oldest extant colonial fortress in the Americas: its west tower is crowned by a bronze weathervane dating back to 1632. La Giraldilla, as the nimble-figured wind-spinner is called, is believed to be Do&amp;ntilde;a In&amp;eacute;s de Bobadilla, waiting in vain for her husband, the explorer Hernando de Soto, who set off to Florida looking for the Fountain of Youth and died eaten by cannibals.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The royal palm-studded Plaza de Armas has been the seat of authority and power in Cuba for 400 years. The imposing Palacio de los Capitanes Generales on the west side of the square is one of Cuba's most majestic buildings: it is now the City Museum. Calle Obispo runs off the Plaza de Armas and was one of Ernest Hemingway's hangouts.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For the last several years the government of Cuba has been involved in efforts to restore to the historic centre its character of a colonial city, which has been compromised by a rapid urbanization. The fortress of La Fuerza has been restored, as have the palaces of the Segundo Cabo and of Los Capitanes Generales. The pattern of early urban setting still exists with its four large squares: Plaza de La Cathedral, Plaza de San Francisco, Plaza Vieja and Plaza de Las Armas. There is also a notable complex of 17th- to 19th-century buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Havana was founded in 1519 by the Spanish. By the 17th century, it had become one of the Caribbean's main centres for ship-building. Although it is today a sprawling metropolis of 2 million inhabitants, its old centre retains an interesting mix of Baroque and neoclassical monuments, and a homogeneous ensemble of private houses with arcades, balconies, wrought-iron gates and internal courtyards.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Havana and its Fortification System</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>225</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/460</http_url><id_number>460</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_460.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>21.8030555600</latitude><location>Province of Sancti Spiritus</location><longitude>-79.9844444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Trinidad is an outstanding example of a colonial city; it has maintained its historic core, featuring the highest percentage of surviving antique buildings and public squares and bringing together architectural, historic and cultural elements of great value. The city is representative of the colonial human settlement and the Valle de Los Ingenios is testimony to the development of the sugar industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Spain decided to conquer and colonize the island of Cuba, Don Diego Vel&amp;aacute;zquez was sent to the New World. Between 1512 and 1519 he founded the first seven Cuban townships: Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de La Asunci&amp;oacute;n de Baracoa, San Salvador de Bayamo, Santiago de Cuba, Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad, Sancti Spiritus, Santa Maria del Puerto del Principe (now Camaguey) and San Crist&amp;oacute;bal de La Habana.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1514 Velasquez founded a new town in honour of the Holy Trinity; he chose a site not far from the southern coast of Cuba, midway between the island's two tips. Protected on the north by a mountainous region of El Escambray, and lying at the edge of the Caribbean Sea on the south, Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad, or simply Trinidad, was one of the bridgeheads for the conquest of the American continent. It was the departure point for the expeditions led by Francisco Hern&amp;aacute;ndez de C&amp;oacute;rdova in 1517 and by Cortez in 1518. At the end of the 16th century, Trinidad's economic role increased, relaying the town's strategic utility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 17th century, cattle, tobacco and contraband were the economic mainstays of a largely Spanish population. Towards the end of the 18th century, the sugar industry was firmly established in the Valle de Los Ingenios and Trinidad prospered. By 1796 Trinidad was the third-largest city in Cuba and a Lieutenant Governor was appointed there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban layout of Trinidad dates for the most part from the first two centuries of its existence. Stone buildings were rare prior to the big sugar industry period, and the present city owes its charm to its 18th- and 19th-century buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All the streets in town lead to the Plaza Mayor, on which, overlooked by the campanile of the Convent of San Francisco, two large edifices are worthy of special attention. The Palacio Brunet located on the corner between the church and the Calle Bol&amp;aacute;var dates back to the 18th century and provides the most authentic picture of the golden age of the town, and the Palacio Cantero in neoclassical style now houses the municipal history museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Elsewhere, other 19th-century public buildings constructed between 1824 and 1857 are landmarks easily identifiable by their size and quality in an area of extremely homogenous streets. Characteristic of the city's domestic architecture are the single-storey houses whose verandas, wide awnings and, sometimes, wood balconies stand out against their polychromatic background of multicoloured walls, with door frames and windows often in a contrasting colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nearby Valle de Los Ingenios is a living museum of the sugar industry, featuring 75 ruined sugar mills, summer mansions, barracks, and other facilities related to the field. The famous Manaca-Iznaga Tower, built in 1816, is 45&amp;nbsp;m high, and the tolling of its bells once marked the beginning and end of working hours on the sugar plantations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The central park is composed of four small gardens separated by white-painted cast-iron fences; it is divided by two perpendicular walkways, one of which opens on to two bronze statues of greyhounds, and is adorned with fountains from the beginning of the 19th century. In the centre is a statue of Terpsichore, the muse of dance.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the early 16th century in honour of the Holy Trinity, the city was a bridgehead for the conquest of the American continent. Its 18th- and 19th-century buildings, such as the Palacio Brunet and the Palacio Cantero, were built in its days of prosperity from the sugar trade.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Trinidad and the Valley de los Ingenios</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>535</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/839</http_url><id_number>839</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_839.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; The size, altitudinal diversity, complex lithologies, and landform diversity of AHNP have resulted in a range of ecosystems and species unmatched in the Insular Caribbean. It was a Miocene-Pleistocene refuge site, particularly in the glacial eras, for the Caribbean biota. The fresh water rivers that flow off the peaks of the park are some of the largest in the insular Caribbean and because of this have high freshwater biological diversity. Because of the serpentine, peridotite, karst and pseudokarst geology of the region, AHNP is an excellent example of ongoing processes in the evolution of species and communities on underlying rocks that pose special challenges to plant survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; AHNP contains the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of terrestrial biological diversity in the entire insular Caribbean. It contains 16 of 28 plant formations defined for Cuba, the largest island in the Caribbean, which is a unique biogeographic province. It is one of the most important sites for conservation of endemic flora in the entire Western Hemisphere &amp;ndash; nearly 70% of the 1,302 spermatophytes already described, of an estimated total of 1,800-2,000, are endemic to the park. AHNP is one of the most biologically diverse terrestrial tropical ecosystems in an island setting anywhere on earth. Endemism rates for vertebrates and invertebrates found in the park are also very high. Many of these are threatened because of their small range. Because of their uniqueness and the fact that they represent unique evolutionary processes, they are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science and conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>20.4500000000</latitude><location>Guantánamo and Holguín Provinces</location><longitude>-75.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park is located in north-eastern Cuba and covers most of the central part of the Saqua-Baracpa mountain range. The site includes a complex system of mountains, tablelands, coastal plains, bays and coral reefs. In particular, coastal plains represent the highest and elongated system of plateaus and watersheds in the Caribbean region, with large weathering crusts and karstic or pseudo-karstic geological formations. The site includes the block of Farallones de Moa, a geological and biogeographic 'island' composed of basic and ultra-basic serpentine rocks. This contains the karstic system of Farallones de Moa Great Cavern. Several rivers flow from the park, including the Toa-Jaguani, Duaba, Jiguani, Nibujon and Moa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has the highest plant diversity of the Cuban archipelago and the insular Caribbean. The park is also considered as the least explored natural area in Cuba and there still are locations from where a collection has never been made. The terrestrial vegetation contains 16 of the 28 plant formations for Cuba, including low-altitude, submontane and montane rainforest, cloud forest, xenomorphic sub-thorny shrub, pine forests, semi-deciduous forest, riverine forest and mangrove forest. Many of the underlying rocks are toxic to plants, so species have had to adapt to survive in these hostile conditions. This unique process of evolution has resulted in the development of many new species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park has a flora list of 1,302 spermatophytes and 145 species of pteridophytes, of which 905 species are endemic to Cuba, representing almost 30% of all endemics reported for the country. Of this total figure, 343 species live exclusively in this area. The local flora includes five species of carnivore plant, one of which is &lt;em&gt;Pinguicola lignicola&lt;/em&gt;, the only Cuban epiphyte. There are also two endemic species of the genera &lt;em&gt;Podocarpus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Dracaena&lt;/em&gt;. According to recent collections, five new species to science have been made in the region, one of which is a pine. A species of the genus &lt;em&gt;Buxus&lt;/em&gt; (reported as extinct) was found in the area too. At least 30% of the mammals, 21% of the birds, 83.3% of the reptiles, 95.8% of the amphibians and 27.7% of the insects are local or national endemisms. The area is of particular importance for several species are of particular conservation concern, notably the ivory-billed woodpecker (&lt;em&gt;Campephilus principalis bairdii&lt;/em&gt;), thought to be extinct, the Cuban kite, an endemic species whose population has been so reduced that maybe just a few couples remain, and the Cuban solenodon. Forests in the region are important as refuge for many resident and migratory bird species, such as the Cuban Amazon parrot and Cuban parakeet. With regard to reptiles, three new species of Anolis lizard have been recently collected from the park. In the marine part of the park, there are numerous colonies of Caribbean manatee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning and middle of the 20th century, the valleys in the coast were occupied in order to raise coconut and cacao. During the 1940s and 1950s, there were some farming activities along the Toa and Jaguan&amp;iacute; riverbanks. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was some timber exploitation, particularly of pine, in the area of Ojito de Agua. Within the park the largest human settlement is La Melba.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Complex geology and varied topography have given rise to a diversity of ecosystems and species unmatched in the insular Caribbean and created one of the most biologically diverse tropical island sites on earth. Many of the underlying rocks are toxic to plants so species have had to adapt to survive in these hostile conditions. This unique process of evolution has resulted in the development of many new species and the park is one of the most important sites in the Western Hemisphere for the conservation of endemic flora. Endemism of vertebrates and invertebrates is also very high.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Alejandro de Humboldt National Park</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>989</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The numerous caves scattered on the slopes of the hillocks in the Vi&amp;ntilde;ales Valley were inhabited for many centuries before the arrival of the Spanish conquerors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fertile soil and favourable climate were conducive to the development of stock-raising and the cultivation of fodder and food crops, using slaves from Africa. The cimarrones, or escaped slaves, often found refuge in the caves of the Valley. The Pan de Azucar site contains the ruins of the biggest hacienda, where slaves were taught different trades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the emergence and considerable expansion of tobacco cultivation, the village of Vi&amp;ntilde;ales was founded in 1875, along the road leading from Pinar del Rio, the capital of the province, to Puerto Esperanza, the main outlet to the sea. The Western Railroad (Ferrocarril del Oeste), of which only a few vestiges are left, was built in 1882.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vi&amp;ntilde;ales Valley was the scene of several military operations during the War of Independence, and also during the Cuban Revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At present, the Valley is devoted to agriculture; its population of some 8000 people are engaged mainly in growing tobacco, a crop which gives the best yields.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/840</http_url><id_number>840</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_840.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iv):The Vi&amp;ntilde;ales valley is an outstanding karst landscape in which traditional methods of agriculture (notably tobacco growing) have survived unchanged for several centuries. The region also preserves a rich vernacular tradition in its architecture, its crafts, and its music.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>22.6166700000</latitude><location>Province of Pinar del Rio</location><longitude>-83.7166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vi&amp;ntilde;ales Valley is an outstanding karst landscape in which traditional methods of agriculture (notably tobacco-growing) have survived unchanged for several centuries. The region also preserves a rich vernacular tradition in its architecture, crafts and music.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The numerous caves scattered on the slopes of the hillocks in the Vi&amp;ntilde;ales Valley were inhabited for many centuries before the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. The fertile soil and favourable climate were conducive to the development of stockraising and the cultivation of fodder and food crops, using slaves from Africa. The &lt;em&gt;cimarrones&lt;/em&gt; (escaped slaves) often found refuge in the caves of the valley. The Pan de Az&amp;uacute;car site contains the ruins of the biggest hacienda, where slaves were taught different trades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The valley is surrounded by mountains. It is a plain of arable land, dotted with spectacular limestone outcrops (&lt;em&gt;mogotes&lt;/em&gt; ) rising to a height of up to 300&amp;nbsp;m. It has a series of very large caves containing ammonite fossils. The vegetation on the hills is characterized by local endemic species, particularly &lt;em&gt;Microcycas calocoma&lt;/em&gt; , and a living fossil of the Cretaceous phanerogamic flora. It is home to an interesting avian and molluscan fauna. The entire plain is devoted to traditional agriculture. Recent experiments have revealed that mechanical methods lower the quality of tobacco, and this explains why old methods, such as animal traction, are still being used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the emergence and considerable expansion of tobacco cultivation, the village of Vi&amp;ntilde;ales was founded in 1875, along the road leading from Pinar del Rio, the capital of the province, to Puerto Esperanza, the main outlet to the sea. The Western Railroad (Ferrocarril del Oeste), of which only a few vestiges are left, was built in 1882. Vi&amp;ntilde;ales Valley was the scene of several military operations during the War of Independence and also during the Cuban Revolution. At present, the valley is devoted to agriculture; its population of some 8,000 people is engaged mainly in growing tobacco, a crop which gives the best yields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the buildings scattered over the plain are simple; they are built using local and natural materials, and are used as homes or family farms. The village of Vi&amp;ntilde;ales, strung out along its main street, has retained its original layout, and there are many interesting examples of colonial architecture. The valley is home to an original culture, a synthesis of contributions from indigenous peoples, Spanish conquerors and black slaves. An excellent illustration is the musical expression of the field worker (&lt;em&gt;veguero&lt;/em&gt; ), of which Benito Hern&amp;aacute;ndez Cabrera (known as the Vi&amp;ntilde;alero) was the main interpreter. Traditional crafts also flourish here. Cubans identify themselves strongly with Vi&amp;ntilde;ales Valley because of the beauty of the site and its historical and cultural importance. In the visual arts, the valley has been transformed into a symbol of the Caribbean landscape by artists such as Domingo Ramos and Tiburcio Lorenzo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has a high degree of authenticity. It has been able to preserve its specific character, while adapting to modern conditions of life and receiving flows of visitors.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vi&amp;ntilde;ales valley is encircled by mountains and its landscape is interspersed with dramatic rocky outcrops. Traditional techniques are still in use for agricultural production, particularly of tobacco. The quality of this cultural landscape is enhanced by the vernacular architecture of its farms and villages, where a rich multi-ethnic society survives, illustrating the cultural development of the islands of the Caribbean, and of Cuba.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Viñales Valley</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>991</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;With the growth of shipping in the Caribbean and the policy of Philip II of fortifying the Spanish colonies there after losing naval supremacy in 1588, a ravelin and battery were installed between 1590 and 1610 on the south-western beach of the promontory (marra, from wh.ich the Castle of San Pedro de la Roca derives its alternative name, the Morro de San Sebastian, and its popular name in Cuba, El Marra). This fortification was built to protect the entrance to the town of Santiago de Cuba.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the conflict between Spain and England grew in the 17th century the governor of the town, Pedro de la Roca y B01ja, began the construction of a stone fortress, linked with the existing ravelin, following the visit of the noted military engineer Juan Bautista Antonelli in 1638.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;English expansion in the Caribbean reached its high point with the conquest of Jamaica in 1655. This had repercussions for Santiago de Cuba, wh.ich had been involved in the conflict. An English attack in 1662 led to the destruction of the castle. However, it was rebuilt and substantially enlarged in 1663-69. lts efficacy was demonstrated by the frustration of attacks by the French in 1678 and by the freebooter Franquesma in 1680. As a result the town enjoyed almost total security from the "Coast Brotherhood."&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Castle was weakened by earthquakes in 1675, 1678, and 1679, but it was reconstructed and consolidated in 1693-95. After a short period of relative tranquility, England adopted an aggressive stance again in 1738-40, and so further enlargement was carried out. When the English Admiral Vernon blockaded Santiago in 1741 he did not attempt to storm the Castle, choosing instead to land at Guant3namo, from whence he was dislodged with heavy losses. An attack on the Castle led by Admirai Knowles in 1747 was repulsed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Castle suffered from earthquake damage in 1757 and, more drastically, in 1766, but it was once again restored, when the opportunity was taken to incorporate more recent developments in military architecture. From 1775 the Castle served also as a prison and many important political figures were imprisoned there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It underwent many vicissitudes during the political tumult and unsuccessful revolts against the Spanish during much of the 19th century. Some minor additions were made to it, the last in 1898, during the Spanish-American War. It declined during the 20th century owing to lack of maintenance, until it was restored by Francisco Prat Puig in the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/841</http_url><id_number>841</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_841.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (iv) and (v), considering that the Castle of San Pedro de la Roca and its associated defensive works are of exceptional value because they constitute the largest and most comprehensive example of the principles of Renaissance military engineering adapted to the requirements of European colonial powers in the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>19.9666666700</latitude><location>Provincia de Santiago de Cuba</location><longitude>-75.8708333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Castle of San Pedro de la Roca and its associated defensive works are of exceptional value because they constitute the largest and most comprehensive example of the principles of Renaissance military engineering adapted to the requirements of European colonial powers in the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its exceptional location and its adaptation to the topography puts the castle into a widely recognized group of three such fortresses designed by the famous father and son military architects, Bautista and Juan Bautista Antonelli, the others being the Castle of the Three Kings in Havana (Cuba) and San Sebastian Castle in San Juan (Puerto Rico). The authenticity of the castle is high because it underwent little change from the late 19th century, when it went out of use, until the 1960s, when restoration work began.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the growth of shipping in the Caribbean and the policy of Philip II of fortifying the Spanish colonies there after losing naval supremacy in 1588, a ravelin and battery were installed between 1590 and 1610 on the south-western beach of the promontory. This fortification was built to protect the entrance to the town of Santiago de Cuba.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the conflict between Spain and England grew in the 17th century, the governor of the town, Pedro de la Roca y Borja, began the construction of a stone fortress, linked with the existing &lt;em&gt;ravelin&lt;/em&gt; , following the visit of Juan Bautista Antonelli in 1638.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;English expansion in the Caribbean had repercussions for Santiago de Cuba, which had been involved in the conflict. An English attack in 1662 led the destruction to the castle. It was rebuilt and substantially enlarged in 1663-69.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle was weakened by earthquakes in 1675, 1678 and 1679, but it was reconstructed and consolidated in 1693-95. After a short period of relative tranquillity, England adopted an aggressive stance again in 1738-40 and so further enlargement was carried out. The castle suffered from earthquake damage in 1757 and 1766, when the opportunity was taken to incorporate more recent developments in military architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle of San Pedro de la Roca, with its associated batteries of La Estrella and Santa Catalina by the canal leading to the port of Santiago de Cuba and the battery of Aguadores on the southern coast, protect the bay of Santiago. The castle is representative of the Spanish-American school of military architecture; it is a classic bastioned fortification, Italian in origin and of Renaissance design. It is built on a promontory with steep cliffs rising to more than 20m. The terrain is such that the various elements could be built in a series of terraces, one above another, and linked by a series of stairways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest part of the castle is La Lengua del Agua Ravelin, where the fortification of this strategically important promontory began in 1590. It is at the lowest level, just above high-water mark. In addition to the fortified gun platform, it consists of a powder magazine, a command building and a guard post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Next comes the Sant&amp;iacute;simo Sacramento Platform, the elements of which include gun emplacements, a powder magazine and quarters for its garrison. The whole of this part of the castle took its present form during the mid-18th-century reconstruction, and it was at this time that the North and South Bastions were added.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad Platform is the highest level of the main castle, and was built in the 1660s. To the north lies the La Avanzada Fort, which completes the chain of smaller defensive works down the north side of the promontory, consisting of La Estrella Fort and two smaller forts built in the 1660s. Later additions were the Semaphore Tower, the Chapel of Santo Cristo and the Lighthouse, all built in 1840, and two batteries, Scopa Alta and Vigia, built from prefabricated concrete in 1898 at the time of the Spanish-American War.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Commercial and political rivalries in the Caribbean region in the 17th century resulted in the construction of this massive series of fortifications on a rocky promontory, built to protect the important port of Santiago. This intricate complex of forts, magazines, bastions and batteries is the most complete, best-preserved example of Spanish-American military architecture, based on Italian and Renaissance design principles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>San Pedro de la Roca Castle, Santiago de Cuba</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>992</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/889</http_url><id_number>889</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_889.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The uplifted marine terraces of the Desembarco del Granma National Park and associated ongoing development of karst topography and features, represent a globally significant example of geomorphologic and physiographic features and ongoing geological processes. The area includes spectacular stair-step terraces and cliffs and the ecosystems that have evolved on them, as well as some of the most pristine and impressive coastal cliffs bordering the Western Atlantic between the Canadian Maritimes and southern South America.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>19.8833300000</latitude><location>Desembarco del Granma National Park, south-east corner of the the Republic of Cuba</location><longitude>-77.6333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Desembarco del Granma National Park, with its uplifted marine terraces and associated ongoing development of karst topography and features, represents a globally significant example of geomorphologic and physiographic features and ongoing geological processes. The area, which is situated in and around Cabo Cruz in south-west Cuba, includes spectacular terraces and cliffs, as well as some of the most pristine and impressive coastal cliffs bordering the western Atlantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains the most unique coastal landscape that can be found in Cuba with the largest and best-preserved systems of marine terraces (both above and below sea level) on calcareous rock, which exist in the world. These systems are located on the pseudopericlines of Sierra Maestra and comprise a series of elevated limestone marine terraces extending from 360&amp;nbsp;m above sea level to 180&amp;nbsp;m below. The area lies within a tectonically active zone between the Caribbean and North American plates. The park contains most key and interrelated natural elements present in the region, including the coral reef of Cabo Cruz, seagrass beds and mangroves and old submarine terraces up to 30&amp;nbsp;m deep.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area can be regarded as one of the most important centres of plant diversity and endemism that exist in Cuba, being only surpassed by the mountainous massifs of the east of the country. According to data a total 512 species of plants exist in the site, of which around 60% are endemic. There is also a newly defined vegetation complex on the terraces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site contains 13 species of mammal, 110 birds, 44 reptiles and seven amphibians. At least 23% of the mammals, 22.7% of the birds, 90.9% of the reptiles and 85.7% of the amphibians are of local or national endemism. Several species are of conservation concern including Caribbean manatee and blue-headed quail-dove.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;No reliable figures concerning invertebrates are available although they have been estimated to be numerous, with particularly large numbers of molluscs and butterflies. Four out of six species of painted snail (&lt;em&gt;Polymita picta&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;P. brocheri&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;P. venusta&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;P. versicolor&lt;/em&gt;) - a group of endemic molluscs considered perhaps the most beautifully coloured genus in the world - live in the area, one of which (&lt;em&gt;P. brocheri&lt;/em&gt;) can only be found in a section of these terrace systems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are well-developed coral formations with associated fauna. These corals are visited by loggerhead, green, olive ridley and hawksbill turtles. There is also a colony of queen conch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Desembargo del Granma National Park has sufficient size, altitudinal and climatic diversity and ecological elements necessary for the long-term conservation of the park's terrestrial ecosystems and in-shore marine ecosystems and their biological diversity, including endemic and migratory species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area has a remarkable archaeological value as it was the original settlement of groups that belonged to the Taina Culture. In the area, the local population has strong genetic and spiritual links with this group. The El Guate archaeological site includes a group of ceremonial caves. There is a well-preserved 20th-century lighthouse. Finally, most of the relevant milestones related to the Cuban Revolution took place in the area of Cabo Cruz.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Desembarco del Granma National Park, with its uplifted marine terraces and associated ongoing development of karst topography and features, represents a globally significant example of geomorphologic and physiographic features and ongoing geological processes. The area, which is situated in and around Cabo Cruz in south-east Cuba, includes spectacular terraces and cliffs, as well as some of the most pristine and impressive coastal cliffs bordering the western Atlantic.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Desembarco del Granma National Park</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1041</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Coffee production was established in the island of Saint- Domingue (Hispaniola) by French settlers in the 18th century. The uprisings from 1790 onwards, culminating in the establishment of the independent state of Haiti in 1804, resulted in the flight of French plantation owners, accompanied by many of their African slaves, to the neighbouring island of Cuba, then under Spanish rule. They were granted lands in the south-eastern part of the island in the foothills of the Sierra Maestra, at that time largely not settled and eminently suitable for coffee growing because of its climate and natural forest cover.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They quickly established coffee plantations (cafetales) over a very large area, introducing and improving the techniques and layouts developed in Haiti and elsewhere. They were to be joined by other coffee planters, from Metropolitan France and elsewhere (Catalans, English, Germans, and North Americans, as well as criollos from other parts of the region), throughout the 19th century. There was extensive physical and cultural intermingling with the criollo population, of Spanish ethnic origin, in the region, and a vigorous multiethnic culture developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plantation owners created an elaborate infrastructure of roads and water management in this difficult physical environment, in order to service their enterprises. Much of this survives to the present day, in the form of mountain roads and bridges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the late 19th century onwards coffee production began in other parts of Latin America, such as Brazil, Colombia, and Costa Rica. New techniques were introduced, based on developed agricultural systems, and the early plantations in eastern Cuba found themselves unable to compete in the growing world markets. They gradually closed down, and now only a handful survive in production using the traditional techniques in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1008</http_url><id_number>1008</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1008.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii The remains of the 19th and early 20th century coffee plantations in eastern Cuba are unique and eloquent testimony to a form of agricultural exploitation of virgin forest, the traces of which have disappeared elsewhere in the world. Criterion iv The production of coffee in eastern Cuba during the 19th and early 20th centuries resulted in the creation of a unique cultural landscape, illustrating a significant stage in the development of this form of agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>20.0300000000</latitude><location>Santiago and Guantanamo Provinces, South-Eastern Region</location><longitude>-75.3913888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of the 19th- and early 20th-century coffee plantations in eastern Cuba are unique and eloquent testimony to a form of agricultural exploitation of virgin forest, the traces of which have disappeared elsewhere in the world. The production of coffee in eastern Cuba during the 19th and early 20th centuries resulted in the creation of a unique cultural landscape, illustrating a significant stage in the development of this form of agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Coffee production was established in the island of Saint Domingue (Hispaniola) by French settlers in the 18th century. The uprisings from 1790 onwards, culminating in the establishment of the independent state of Ha&amp;iuml;ti in 1804, resulted in the flight of French plantation owners, accompanied by many of their African slaves, to the neighbouring island of Cuba, then under Spanish rule. They were to be joined by other coffee planters, from Metropolitan France and elsewhere, throughout the 19th century. In the late 19th century coffee production began in other parts of Latin America, such as Brazil, Colombia and Costa Rica. New techniques were introduced, based on developed agricultural systems; the early plantations in eastern Cuba found themselves unable to compete in the growing world markets and they gradually closed down.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of the remains of 171 historic coffee plantations on the steep and rugged slopes of mountain valleys in this region of the Sierra Maestra. The traditional plantation consists of a number of basic elements: its centre is the residence of the owner, surrounded by much more modest accommodation for the slaves, both domestic and agricultural. The owner's house always dominates the main industrial element, the terraced drying floor (&lt;em&gt;secadero&lt;/em&gt; ), on which the coffee beans were spread and steeped in water in preparation for subsequent processing. On the larger plantations are to be found workshops for working wood and metal, and sometimes lime-kilns (as at San Lu&amp;iacute;s de Jacas).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plantations are linked by clearly defined roads, fully metalled within the boundaries of the plantations themselves. Elaborate channels, often built as arcaded aqueducts (as at San Lu&amp;iacute;s de Jacas), and sluices conduct water from natural streams and springs for irrigation and process purposes; many of the plantations that have been studied have large stone-built cisterns for water storage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Coffee trees require shade, and so they were planted under the cover of the natural forest trees. In addition, cleared areas were interplanted with coffee and fruit trees, such as citrus fruits, guava and other tropical fruits, which provided a source of food for the plantation owners and their slaves. In plots attached to the houses vegetables and other crops could be raised for the use of the owners' households.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The owners' houses were substantial structures adapted to the requirements of a tropical climate. Constructed largely in wood, on stone foundations and with shingled roofs, they had rooms for living and sleeping, often decorated according to prevailing fashions. A number were equipped with fireplaces (e.g. Jaguey) and rudimentary sanitary facilities. They were usually surrounded by a ditch of some kind, for protective purposes. Their kitchens were sited in separate structures, close to the main house. Less is known about the huts of the slaves. Evidence in the form of postholes and beaten floors indicates that they were flimsy structures of wood and branches, probably roofed with branches and leaves. Scanty finds from excavations give an indication of the very low standard of living of these workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;secaderos&lt;/em&gt; are immediately recognizable, in the form of large sunken areas surrounded by low walls and linked with cisterns or water channels. Clever use is made of the natural topography so as to minimize physical labour in the production process and facilitate water handling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the restored buildings (La Isabelica, Ti Arriba) and the garden at San Juan de Escocia, where every care has been taken to ensure that authentic materials and techniques are based on meticulous site survey and archival research, the authenticity of the ruined cafetales is total.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of the 19th-century coffee plantations in the foothills of the Sierra Maestra are unique evidence of a pioneer form of agriculture in a difficult terrain. They throw considerable light on the economic, social, and technological history of the Caribbean and Latin American region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Landscape of the First Coffee Plantations in the South-East of Cuba</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1178</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Cienfuegos was founded in 1819 as the Colony Fernandina de Jagua. The first inhabitants were partly Spanish, partly from various other origins, such as French colonies, and came from Bordeaux, Louisiana, Philadelphia and Guarico. This formal foundation followed a series of earlier attempts in this region, where the economy was based on cattle raising and cultivation of tobacco. From the 18th century, there was wax production, as well as timber and sugar. In the 1830s, the colony grew based on the increment of sugar production but also due to its favourable geographical location. The settlement was recognised with the category of "Villa" as a confirmation of its urban aspect. It was authorised to trade in domestic and foreign field. In 1840, there were already registered companies in the town, and the growth continued in the following decades. In the 1860s, it was the third city of the country. After the Independence War against Spain ended, there was new capital entering from North America. By 1914, American investors were proprietors of the most important sugar mills in the province. Trade developed mainly with the United States, the principal market for Cienfuegos. With the new administrative division of 1976, the city of Cienfuegos became the capital of the province with the same name, increasing its development further. The local administration remained concentrated in the downtown area. As a whole, this area has retained its historic fabric without such drastic changes as is common in many historic cities.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1202</http_url><id_number>1202</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1202.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The historic town of Cienfuegos exhibits an important interchange of influences based on the Spanish Enlightenment, and it is an outstanding early example of their implementation in urban planning in Latin America in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;Cienfuegos is the first and an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble representing the new ideas of modernity, hygiene and order, in urban planning as these developed in the Latin America from the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>22.1472200000</latitude><location>Municipality of Cienfuegos</location><longitude>-80.4527800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Cienfuegos exhibits an important interchange of influences based on the Spanish Enlightenment, and it is an outstanding early example of their implementation in urban planning in Latin America in the 19th century. It is the first and an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble representing the new ideas of modernity, hygiene and order in urban planning as these developed in Latin America from the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cienfuegos is located on the Caribbean coast of southern central Cuba at the heart of the country's sugar cane, mango, tobacco and coffee production. It was founded, as the Colony Fernandina de Jagua, in the Spanish territory in 1819, but settled by French from Bordeaux, Louisiana, Philadelphia and Guarico. This formal foundation followed a series of earlier attempts in this region, where the economy was based on cattle-raising and cultivation of tobacco. The town was laid out in a grid plan with 25 blocks that formed its original centre, limited by St Elena Street in the north, St Clara in the south, Velazco in the west, and Hourruitiner in the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 18th century, there was wax production, as well as timber and sugar. In the 1830s, the colony grew based on the increment of sugar production but also due to its favourable geographical location. The settlement was recognized with the category of 'Villa' as a confirmation of its urban aspect. It was authorized to trade in the domestic and foreign fields.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the late 19th century, new functions were introduced into this emergent commercial port city, which continued growing. The original grid plan was multiplied towards the inland and along the coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the War of Independence from Spain ended, there was new capital entering from North America. By 1914, American investors were proprietors of the most important sugar mills in the province. Trade developed mainly with the United States, the principal market for Cienfuegos. With the new administrative division of 1976, the city of Cienfuegos became the capital of the province with the same name, increasing its development further. The local administration remained concentrated in the downtown area. As a whole, this area has retained its historic fabric without such drastic changes as is common in many historic cities. Today, the city is still developing and has some 167,000 inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The core zone of the World Heritage site is 70&amp;nbsp;ha, consisting of part of the 19th-century town. The buffer zone is 105&amp;nbsp;ha, covering one urban block on the landside and two blocks on the peninsula. In addition, it extends along the coast towards the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original central square of the town, the Plaza de Armas, was enlarged with another block to the west in 1830. This area was reserved for public functions: government buildings, a church, and the customs building and similar. The town developed as a compact structure, initially in neoclassical style, later eclectic, forming an overall unity. Most of the buildings have one or two storeys. The facades are generally plain without porches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most representative buildings include the Government Palace (City Hall, current office of the Provincial Assembly of the Popular Power), San Lorenzo School, Bishopric, Ferrer Palace, former Lyceum building and some residential buildings. At present, in the historic centre, six buildings remain from the first half of the 19th century and 327 buildings from the second half. There are 1,188 buildings from the 20th century, most of them from the first half. In all there are some 300 public buildings, and the rest are mainly residential.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The colonial town of Cienfuegos was founded in 1819 in the Spanish territory but was initially settled by immigrants of French origin. It became a trading place for sugar cane, tobacco and coffee. Situated on the Caribbean coast of southern-central Cuba at the heart of the country’s sugar cane, mango, tobacco and coffee production area, the town first developed in the neoclassical style. It later became more eclectic but retained a harmonious overall townscape. Among buildings of particular interest are the Government Palace (City Hall), San Lorenzo School, the Bishopric, the Ferrer Palace, the former lyceum, and some residential houses. Cienfuegos is the first, and an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble representing the new ideas of modernity, hygiene and order in urban planning as developed in Latin America from the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Urban Historic Centre of Cienfuegos </site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1379</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a del Puerto del Pr&amp;iacute;ncipe (now Camag&amp;uuml;ey) is one of the seven villages founded by the Spaniards in the 16th century in Cuba. It was one of two villages settled on the north coast of the island, against the prevailing preference for the south coast. The first settlement may have been founded in 1514 or 1515. Before 1528, the village was moved twice but then was definitively settled in its current location. Even though an original plan has not been found, it is known that the village had a square shape and buildings were constructed in timber and palm tree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 15 December 1616, the village was destroyed by fire. The town was then reconstructed but, from the beginning of 17th century, it became the target of pirate attack and was constantly threatened by tropical storms. Although water was supplied from the neighbouring rivers, the population developed water reservoirs and water was stored in large jars or vessels, similar to those used in Andalusia. This gave the town the name of "City of the Earthen Jars" (Tinajones). These containers, as well as brick and tiles, were manufactured in the village from 1620. At the same time, the Royal Road of Cuba was constructed, connecting the village with other Cuban towns, such as Havana, Sancti Spiritus, Santiago and Bayamo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the corsair Morgan&amp;acute;s attack in 1668, the centre of the village was reconstructed in its final location. The Older Square was perfected into an orthogonal layout, contrasting with the irregular pattern of the rest of the village. The definitive settlement of the village relates to the end of the 17th century. New churches were then constructed and neighbourhoods gathered around religious buildings. The construction of religious complexes and more solid civic buildings, from the end of 17th century to the beginning of 18th century, shows that the town was accumulating capital, following the development of the sugar industry. The urban structure was consolidated into the image that it still portrays.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sugar industry led to economic growth. By 1750, Puerto Pr&amp;iacute;ncipe had become a prosperous town with some nine churches. The domestic architecture of that time has become one of the main examples of colonial architecture. In the second half of the century, architectural codes were consolidated and prevailed over most of the 19th century. Eaves, truncated pilasters framing main entrance doors and lathed balustrades covering windows became typical in urban residences - featuring a town which was geographically and culturally isolated from both the capital and abroad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 1774, Puerto Pr&amp;iacute;ncipe had nearly 18,000 inhabitants, thus becoming the second town in Cuba. The position of the town determined the location of the Royal Audience, which was one of the most important institutions in Latin America. The removal of the Royal Audience from Santo Domingo to Puerto Pr&amp;iacute;ncipe favoured the arrival of illustrious men who contributed to the improvement and enhancement of the town's cultural life during the 19th century. The prevailing function of the village during the 18th century was religious, as is apparent in the churchhousing relation. The Old Square became the scene for Catholic processions and festivities, while incorporating some African elements introduced by the slaves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 19th century, the village was divided into six administrative units, with the churches at their core. In 1856, ordinances were issued to regulate the urban layout. There was concern at the previous spontaneous layout and new construction standards introduced neoclassical elements, causing a rupture with tradition. After 1881, development peaked again; modern sugar refineries were constructed and the town benefited with construction of new buildings responding to the functional and stylistic requirements of the time. Puerto Pr&amp;iacute;ncipe echoed Europe. During the first decades of the 20th century, streets were paved in stone while fresh architectural styles were introduced downtown. In 1978, the historic centre of Camag&amp;uuml;ey was declared a National Monument.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1270</http_url><id_number>1270</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1270.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>21.3786111111</latitude><location>Camagüey Province</location><longitude>-77.9186111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;One of the first seven villages founded by the Spaniards in Cuba, Camag&amp;uuml;ey played a prominent role as the urban centre of an inland territory dedicated to cattle breeding and the sugar industry. Settled in its current location in 1528, the town developed on the basis of an irregular urban pattern that contains a system of large and minor squares, serpentine streets, alleys and irregular urban blocks, highly exceptional for Latin American colonial towns located in plain territories. The 54 ha Historic Centre of Camag&amp;uuml;ey constitutes an exceptional example of a traditional urban settlement relatively isolated from main trade routes. The Spanish colonizers followed medieval European influences in terms of urban layout and traditional construction techniques brought to the Americas by their masons and construction masters. The property reflects the influence of numerous styles through the ages: neoclassical, eclectic, Art Deco, Neo-colonial as well as some Art Nouveau and rationalism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Camagüey</site><states>Cuba</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1482</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/79</http_url><id_number>79</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_79.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.7583300000</latitude><location>District of Paphos</location><longitude>32.4055600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Because of their great antiquity, and because they are closely and directly related to the cult and legend of Aphrodite (Venus), who became the ideal of beauty and love, inspiring writers, poets and artists throughout human history, Paphos is of outstanding universal value. Pre-Hellenic fertility deities were worshipped in Cyprus from Neolithic times. Many of the archaeological remains are of great antiquity, as Paphos has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. T&lt;a href="mailto:thetem@eofAphrodite"&gt;he Temple of Aphrodite&lt;/a&gt; represents one of the earliest settlements, while the mosaics of Nea Paphos are extremely rare and rank among the best examples in the world. The architectural remains of villas, palaces, theatres, fortresses and rock-hewn peristyle tombs are of outstanding historical value as they are one of the keys of the understanding of ancient architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Petra tou Romiou, or Aphrodite's Rock, is a rock that marks the site of Aphrodite's birthplace, which was a place of pilgrimage for the entire Hellenic world. Excavations have unearthed the spectacular 3rd- to 5th-century mosaics of the Houses of Dionysus, Orpheus and Aion, and the Villa of Theseus, buried for 16 centuries and yet remarkably intact. The mosaic floors of these noblemen's villas are considered among the finest in the Eastern Mediterranean. They mainly depict scenes from Greek mythology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nearby, the stone pillar where St Paul according to tradition was bound and beaten for preaching Christianity. The Chrysorrogiatissa Monastery was founded in the 12th century and is dedicated to Our Lady of the Golden Pomegranate. The neighbouring monastery of Agios Neofytos contains some of the world's finest Byzantine frescoes and icons as well as an interesting Byzantine museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tombs of the Kings, in Kato Paphos, is a monumental structure carved out of solid rock with some tombs decorated with Doric pillars. Spread over a vast area, these impressive underground tombs date back to the 4th century BC. High officials rather than kings were buried here, but the magnificence of the tombs gave the locality its name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palaipaphos (Old Paphos) was one of the most celebrated pilgrimage centres of the ancient Greek world, and once the city-kingdom of Cyprus. Here stood the famous elaborate sanctuary of Aphrodite, the most ancient remains of which date back to the 12th century BC. It is the most significant of a dozen such consecrated sites in Cyprus The glorious days of the sanctuary lasted until the 3rd-4th centuries AD. Amphoras and ceremonial bowls from here, many of which are on display in the Cyprus Museum in Lefkosia, depict exquisitely costumed priestesses as well as erotic scenes from the sacred gardens that once surrounded the temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Originally a Byzantine fort built to protect the harbour; it was rebuilt by the Lusignans in the 13th century, dismantled by the Venetians in 1570, and rebuilt by the Ottomans after they captured the island in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Paphos has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. It was a centre of the cult of Aphrodite and of pre-Hellenic fertility deities. Aphrodite's legendary birthplace was on this island, where her temple was erected by the Myceneans in the 12th century B.C. The remains of villas, palaces, theatres, fortresses and tombs mean that the site is of exceptional architectural and historic value. The mosaics of Nea Paphos are among the most beautiful in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Paphos</site><states>Cyprus</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>85</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Although the last line of the inscription indicating the date of construction and decoration of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour (Ayia Sotira) has been erased, research by specialists has enabled it to be dated to the beginning of the 16th century. As regards the wall paintings that decorate the interior of the church, comparative iconographic and stylistic studies with other churches in the region (Churches of the Holy Cross at Agiasmati, 1494; St Mamas at Louveras, 1495; St Sozomenus, 1513; the Archangel-Panagia Theotokos at Galata, 1514), have dated them to the second decade of the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, a surrounding wall was built on the southern and western sides of the edifice.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/351</http_url><id_number>351</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_351.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.9202777800</latitude><location>Troodos Region, Districts of Nicosia and Limassol</location><longitude>33.0958333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The churches of the region of Troodos are a well conserved example of rural religious architecture during the Byzantine period. The refinement of their decor provides a contrast with their simplicity of structure. The latest post-Byzantine painters alone, with their 'rustic' style, are at times in harmony with this vernacular architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The paintings of the Troodos region bear an outstanding testimony to the Byzantine civilization at the time of the Comnenes, thanks to the Nikitari and Lagoudera ensembles. It should be noted that the former, where the name Alexis Comnene is mentioned in a dedication, was probably executed by artists from Constantinople and that the latter was painted at the very time of the fall of Isaac Comnene and the sale of Cyprus to Guy de Lusignan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the existence of any direct influence cannot be confirmed, there was during the 12th century a very close relationship between painting in Cyprus and Western Christian art (stylistic relationships in the case of the Nikitari paintings; iconographical relationships in the case of the paintings of Lagoudera). Thus, there do exist some answers to the very complex question of ties between the two Christianities. These answers take the form of Cypriot monuments which precedes the constitution of the Frankish Lusignan Kingdom which was a fundamental link in the chain of East-West artistic exchanges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the region of the Mounts of Troodos, in the heart of Cyprus, can be found one of the greatest concentrations of churches and monasteries in the Byzantine Empire, by which the island was annexed during the conquest of 965. The complex of ten monuments included on the World Heritage List, all richly decorated with murals, provides an overview of Byzantine and post-Byzantine painting in Cyprus. They range from small churches, whose rural architectural style is in stark contrast to their highly refined decoration, to monasteries such as that of St John Lampadistis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most significant cycles is that of Panagia Phorbiotissa of Nikitari, which was traced back to 1105-06 thanks to a written dedication, and that of Panagia tou Arakou in Lagoudera, which was executed during the last six months of 1192. These paintings are the perfect expression of rudimental art during the period of the Comnenes. The 13th- and 14th-century painting is also represented by works of great quality in Nikitari, at the church of the Virgin in Moutoullas, and at St Heracleidius's, which is one of the twin churches of the Kalopanayotis monastery. Moreover, it is linked to St John Lampadistis. Finally, there is post-Byzantine painting which, after the fall of the Empire, spread the artistic formulas of Constantinople. It is well represented by the narthex of the Kalopanayotis monastery, by the church of the Archangel Michael in Pedhoulas (1474), that of the Holy Cross, in Platanistasa (1494), etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the church of St Nicholas in Kakopetria, which contains 11th-century paintings (&lt;em&gt;Transfiguration&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Resurrection of Lazarus&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Entry to Jerusalem&lt;/em&gt; ), 12th-century paintings (&lt;em&gt;Forty Martyrs of Sebaste&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;The Last Judgement&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;St Nicholas&lt;/em&gt; ), paintings from the 14th (&lt;em&gt;The Nativity&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;St Theodore and St George&lt;/em&gt; ) and the 16th centuries (donors and inscriptions of dedication from 1520, &lt;em&gt;Birth of the Virgin&lt;/em&gt; ), there are very few churches the decor of which testifies to a succession of periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour (Ayia Sotira) in Palaichori belongs to the architectural type of the steep-pitched wooden roof with flat hooked tiles. This type of roofing over a Byzantine church is not found elsewhere, making the wooden-roofed churches of Cyprus a unique group example of religious architecture. The church is a type of construction that is characteristic of the mountainous region of Troodos. It is particularly notable for its very rich wall-paintings, dating back to the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2001</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This region is characterized by one of the largest groups of churches and monasteries of the former Byzantine Empire. The complex of 10 monuments included on the World Heritage List, all richly decorated with murals, provides an overview of Byzantine and post-Byzantine painting in Cyprus. They range from small churches whose rural architectural style is in stark contrast to their highly refined decoration, to monasteries such as that of St John Lampadistis.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Painted Churches in the Troodos Region</site><states>Cyprus</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>401</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;During the Proto-Neolithic Period (c 8100 BC) there was ephemeral settlement by hunter-gatherers on Cyprus, but they are believed to abandoned the island after a short time. Permanent human occupation began in the Aceramic (Pre-Pottery) Proto-Neolithic Period, starting around 7000 BC, when the site at Choirokhoitia was founded, probably by people from Anatolia or the Levant, on a hill overlooking the Maroni river. They were sedentary farmers, cultivating cereals and herding sheep, goats, and pigs - all introduced from the mainland of Asia Minor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For some reason not yet understood, Choirokhoitia and other Aceramic Proto-Neolithic sites were abandoned abruptly in the mid-6th millennium BC and were not reoccupied until a thousand years later, in what is known as the Ceramic Neolithic Period. There is less monumental evidence of occupation in the form of the remains of buildings from this period at Choirokhoitia, but new forms of plant and animal life, as well as the characteristic pottery, have been identified, suggesting that the new inhabitants were members of a fresh immigrant group. Their way of life was, however, once again based on agriculture and the raising of domestic animals. The site was finally abandoned in the early 4th millennium BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/848</http_url><id_number>848</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_848.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cy</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; In the prehistoric period, Cyprus played a key role in the transmission of culture from the Near East to the European world. Criterion (iii): Choirokhoitia is an exceptionally well preserved archaeological site that has provided, and will continue to provide, scientific data of great importance relating to the spread of civilization from Asia to the Mediterranean world. Criterion (iv): Both the excavated remains and the untouched part of Choirokhoitia demonstrate clearly the origins of proto-urban settlement in the Mediterranean region and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.7983300000</latitude><location>District of Larnaca</location><longitude>33.3433300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the prehistoric period, Cyprus played a key role in the transmission of culture from the Near East to the European world. Choirokhoitia is an exceptionally well-preserved archaeological site that has provided, and will continue to provide, scientific data of great importance relating to the spread of civilization from Asia to the Mediterranean world. Both the excavated remains and the untouched part of Choirokhoitia demonstrate clearly the origins of proto-urban settlement in the Mediterranean region and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Neolithic settlement of Choirokoitia is one of the most important prehistoric sites in the eastern Mediterranean. It illustrates one aspect of the expansion of Neolithic culture in the special island environment. The long occupation of the village and the ample documentation of its cultural phases facilitate study of the evolution of this society. Burial customs and the use of figurines provide evidence for ritual and religious practices and beliefs of historical importance as manifested in some aspects of the material culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Permanent human occupation began in the Aceramic (pre-pottery) Proto-Neolithic period, starting around 7000 BC, when the Choirokhoitia site was founded, probably by people from Anatolia or the Levant - sedentary farmers, cultivating cereals and herding sheep, goats and pigs, all introduced from Asia Minor. For some reason Choirokhoitia and other sites were abandoned abruptly in the mid-6th millennium BC and were not reoccupied until 1,000 years later, in the Ceramic Neolithic period. There is less monumental evidence of occupation in the form of the remains of buildings from this period at Choirokhoitia, but new forms of plant and animal life, as well as the characteristic pottery, have been identified, suggesting that the new inhabitants were members of a fresh immigrant group, whose way of life was again based on agriculture and the raising of domestic animals. The site was finally abandoned in the early 4th millennium BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement is located on the slopes of a hill in a meander of the Maroni River overlooking the fertile Vasilikos valley, about 6&amp;nbsp;km from the sea. It covers an area of about 1.5&amp;nbsp;ha. The earliest occupation, consisting of circular houses built from mud-brick and stone with flat roofs, was on the eastern side of the hill. It was protected by a massive wall barring access from the west (the other sides were protected naturally by the curve of the river and by very steep slopes). A second defensive wall was erected to protect a later extension of the village to the west. Both of the enceintes were pierced by gateways, an impressive example of which came to light during excavation. A staircase with three flights of steps was built within the thickness of an external stone bastion in the form of a parallelepiped, and still standing to a height of 2.50&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 20 houses have been excavated; they were constructed directly on the ground, without foundations, of undressed limestone blocks, mud-brick and rammed clay. The outer surfaces are frequently of stone and the inner of clay or unfired brick. Impressions in the debris have made it possible to deduce that their roofs were flat, made from branches and reeds topped with clay. In some places there is evidence of the internal surfaces of the walls having been painted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Associated with the houses were the remains of hearths, cereal querns, and other domestic and agricultural equipment. A number of the houses had human burials beneath their rammed earth floors, showing evidence of inhumation rituals having been practised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The finds from the settlement include many objects in stone and bone and, later, pottery, along with vegetable materials such as burnt grain (early forms of wheat and barley, lentils). Animal bones include domesticated species. The tools are diversified, ranging from bone needles to agricultural implements such as sickles. However, the most noteworthy finds are undoubtedly the anthropomorphic figurines in stone (and one in clay), which point to the existence at this early period of elaborate spiritual beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Neolithic settlement of Choirokoitia, occupied from the 7th to the 4th millennium B.C., is one of the most important prehistoric sites in the eastern Mediterranean. Its remains and the finds from the excavations there have thrown much light on the evolution of human society in this key region. Since only part of the site has been excavated, it forms an exceptional archaeological reserve for future study.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Choirokoitia</site><states>Cyprus</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1927</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Česk&amp;yacute; Krumlov is located on an ancient east-west communication route at a crossing of the Vltava River. The earliest documentary record of 1253 refers to the existence there of a castle belonging to a member of the ruling Vitkovici family of south Bohemia. The core of the Castle (Hr&amp;aacute;dek) dates from the 13th century. Settlement developed to the east (Latr&amp;agrave;n) and also on the opposite bank of the river round a central square. This multi-nodal urban development is a characteristic of medieval town development, especially in northern and central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was the seat of the influential Rožmberk family for 300 years from the mid-14th century. The Gothic Castle was reconstructed in Renaissance style, with the involvement of leading artists of the period. The wealth and importance of the town is reflected in the high quality of many of the burgher houses, since the presence of the seat of government led to Česk&amp;yacute; Krumlov becoming an important craft and trade centre. There was also considerable ecclesiastical development, illustrated by the major 15th century church of St Vitus and monasteries of various preaching and itinerant Orders. The town later passed to the equally influential Schwarzenberg family, and it retained its importance well into the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are two main historic areas - the Latr&amp;agrave;n area below the Castle and the town proper on the opposite bank, in the meander of the Vltava River. The town has a regular street layout, typical of the planned towns of the Middle Ages, with streets radiating out from the central square and a circular intra-rampart road.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Castle contains elements from the Gothic, High Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles. It is dominated by the Gothic Hradek with its round tower: this was subsequently converted into a Baroque chateau with the addition of a garden, the Bellaire summer palace, a winter riding school, and a unique Baroque theatre of 1766.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Both Latr&amp;agrave;n and the town proper contain undisturbed ensembles of burgher houses from High Gothic onwards. They are notable for their facades, internal layouts, and decorative detail, especially carved wooden Renaissance ceilings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Vitus, dating from the early 15th century, anticipates High Gothic in its reticulated vaulting and is significant in the European context. Other important historic elements are the Renaissance Jesuit College and Baroque seminary, the Town Hall (created by combining several burgher houses and embellishing them with a Renaissance facade), the remains of the fortifications, especially the Budĕjovick&amp;aacute; Gate (a Renaissance structure, modelled on Italian originals), and the Renaissance armoury in Latr&amp;aacute;n.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/617</http_url><id_number>617</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_617.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.8166666700</latitude><location>South Bohemian Region</location><longitude>14.3166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Česk&amp;yacute; Krumlov is an outstanding example of a central European small town dating from the Middle Ages that owes the structure and buildings of its historic core to its economic importance and relatively undisturbed organic development over some five centuries. The town grew up within a meander of the Vltava river, which provides a natural setting of great beauty. Its evolution over time is evident with startling clarity from its buildings and its urban infrastructure. It has profited from a relatively peaceful history in that it has retained its entire medieval layout and most of its historic buildings relatively intact. Restoration and conservation has been slight and so there can be no question as to the authenticity of both the townscape and its components.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is located on an ancient east-west communication route at a crossing of the Vltava River. The earliest documentary record of 1253 refers to the existence there of a castle belonging to a member of the ruling Vitkovici family of south Bohemia. The core of the castle (Hradek) dates from the 13th century. Settlement developed to the east (Latr&amp;aacute;n) and also on the opposite bank of the river round a central square. This multi-nodal urban development is a characteristic of medieval town development, especially in northern and central Europe. It was the seat of the influential Rožmberk family for 300 years from the mid-14th century. The Gothic castle was reconstructed in Renaissance style, with the involvement of leading artists of the period. The wealth and importance of the town is reflected in the high quality of many of the burgher houses, as the presence of the seat of government led to Česk&amp;yacute; Krumlov becoming an important craft and trade centre. There was also considerable ecclesiastical development, illustrated by the major 15th-century church of St Vitus and monasteries of various preaching and itinerant orders. The town later passed to the equally influential Schwarzenberg family, and it retained its importance well into the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are two main historic areas - the Latr&amp;aacute;n area below the castle and the town proper on the opposite bank, in the meander of the Vltava River. The town has a regular street layout, typical of the planned towns of the Middle Ages, with streets radiating out from the central square and a circular intra-rampart road. The castle contains elements from the Gothic, High Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque styles. It is dominated by the Gothic Hradek with its round tower; this was subsequently converted into a Baroque chateau with the addition of a garden, the Bellaire summer palace, a winter riding school, and a unique Baroque theatre of 1766. Both Latr&amp;aacute;n and the town proper contain undisturbed ensembles of burgher houses from High Gothic onwards. They are notable for their facades, internal layouts and decorative detail, especially carved wooden Renaissance ceilings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Vitus, dating from the early 15th century, anticipates High Gothic in its reticulated vaulting and is significant in the European context. Other important historic elements are the Renaissance Jesuit College and Baroque seminary, the Town Hall (created by combining several burgher houses and embellishing them with a Renaissance facade), the remains of the fortifications, especially the Budejovicka Gate (a Renaissance structure, modelled on Italian originals), and the Renaissance armoury in Latr&amp;aacute;n.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The small towns of Bohemia are, because of their relatively untouched condition, of great importance in illustrating organic urban evolution in medieval and Renaissance central Europe in response to political, social and economic developments, and Česk&amp;yacute; Krumlov is the finest surviving example, in terms of both its intactness and the quality of its buildings and townscape.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the banks of the Vltava river, the town was built around a 13th-century castle with Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque elements. It is an outstanding example of a small central European medieval town whose architectural heritage has remained intact thanks to its peaceful evolution over more than five centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Český Krumlov</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>732</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Telt, located near the south-western border between&amp;nbsp;Moravia and Bohemia, is in a region that was thickly forested until the&amp;nbsp;13th century. The origins of the settlement are unclear: there was an&amp;nbsp;early medieval settlement at Star/e M&amp;amp;to to the SE of the present town,&amp;nbsp;but there is no mention of Tel8 in documentary records before 1333-5,&amp;nbsp;when reference is made to the existence there of an important castle&lt;br /&gt;(and presumabl y also a church and settlement). The town itself was&amp;nbsp;probably founded in the mid 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;It developed on a hilltop, round a market square in the form of an&amp;nbsp;elongated triangle. The town was surrounded by stone walls, further&amp;nbsp;strengthened by a network of ponds. Until a fire in 1386 most of the&lt;br /&gt;houses were wooden, but they were reconstructed in stone. The parish&amp;nbsp;church of St Jacob, built in 1360-72, also had to be rebuilt. The Gothic&amp;nbsp;castle was reconstructed in High Gothic style in the later 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The second half of the 16th century was a period of great prosperity&amp;nbsp;under Zacharias of Hradec, who began work on the Renaissance castle.&amp;nbsp;He also rebuilt the market place in the same style following another&lt;br /&gt;devastating fire. The resulting town is an outstanding example of&amp;nbsp;Renaissance town planning and architecture.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Baroque elements were introduced by the Jesuits, who built a college&amp;nbsp;(1651-65) and the Church of the Name of Jesus (1666-67). At the same&amp;nbsp;time Baroque gables were added to the facades of some of the houses in&amp;nbsp;the market place; Rococo and classical elements also followed in later&amp;nbsp;remodellings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Industrial Revolution of the early 19th century saw considerable&amp;nbsp;cultural awakening in the region and increased prosperity. Nevertheless,&amp;nbsp;the town of Tel: retained its traditional character.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The town covers 9 ha and contains 85 designated historical monuments.&amp;nbsp;Its centre is the Renaissance chateau, which retains substantial evidence&amp;nbsp;of its Gothic precursor. The Golden Hall to the north of the castle&amp;nbsp;complex is notable for its fine gilded ceiling of 1561. which shows&amp;nbsp;considerable Italian influence. The latest phase of reconstruction was&amp;nbsp;under the charge of Baldassar Maggi of Arogno, and dates to the late 16th&amp;nbsp;century.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The houses in the market place, although embellished with facades from&amp;nbsp;various periods, are basically Renaissance and conform to a standard plan.&amp;nbsp;The parish Church of St Jacob has a twin-a&amp;amp;led layout dating from the&amp;nbsp;early 14th century: a Renaissance choir was added in 1638 and the&amp;nbsp;Gothic tower was crowned with a Baroque dome in 1687.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/621</http_url><id_number>621</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_621.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.1833300000</latitude><location>Vysocina Region</location><longitude>15.4500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The later Middle Ages in central Europe saw the 'plantation' of planned settlements in areas of virgin forest for reasons of political control and economic expansion, and Telč is the best-preserved surviving example. It preserves its original layout and the castle-settlement relationship very clearly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Telč is also an architectural and artistic ensemble of outstanding quality. The quality of the architecture is high, particularly the Renaissance market place and chateau. Its triangular market place possesses great beauty and harmony as well as great cultural importance, surrounded as it is by intact and well-preserved Renaissance buildings with a dazzling variety of facades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is located near the south-western border between Moravia and Bohemia, in a region that was thickly forested until the 13th century. The origins of the settlement are unclear: there was an early medieval settlement at Stare Město to the south-east of the present town, but there is no mention of Telč in documentary records before 1333-35, when reference is made to the existence there of an important castle (and presumably also a church and settlement). The town itself was probably founded in the mid-14th century. It developed on a hilltop round a market square in the form of an elongated triangle. The town was surrounded by stone walls, further strengthened by a network of ponds. Until a fire in 1386 most of the houses were wooden, but they were reconstructed in stone. The parish church of St Jacob, built 1360-72, also had to be rebuilt. The Gothic castle was reconstructed in High Gothic style in the later 15th century. The second half of the 16th century was a period of great prosperity under Zacharias of Hradec, who began work on the Renaissance castle. He also rebuilt the market place in the same style following another devastating fire. The resulting town is an outstanding example of Renaissance town planning and architecture. Baroque elements were introduced by the Jesuits, who built a college (1651-65) and the Church of the Name of Jesus (1666-67). At the same time Baroque gables were added to the facades of some of the houses in the marketplace; Rococo and classical elements also followed in later remodelling. The Industrial Revolution of the early 19th century saw considerable cultural awakening in the region and increased prosperity. Nevertheless, the town of Telč retained its traditional character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town centre is the Renaissance chateau, which retains substantial evidence of its Gothic precursor. The Golden Hall to the north of the castle complex is notable for its fine gilded ceiling of 1561 which shows considerable Italian influence. The latest phase of reconstruction was under the charge of Baldassar Maggi of Arogno, and dates to the late 16th century. The houses in the market place, although embellished with facades from various periods, are basically Renaissance and conform to a standard plan. The Parish Church of St Jacob has a twin-aisled layout dating from the early 14th century: a Renaissance choir was added in 1638 and the Gothic tower was crowned with a Baroque dome in 1687. Telč was not affected by the mania for over-restoration of the 19th century and so both the individual buildings and the townscape retain authenticity in materials and design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The outstanding nature of Telč in terms of the quality and authenticity of its cultural elements, the tangible evidence of its origins and evolution represented by its layout, and its dramatic setting is unquestionable.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The houses in Telc, which stands on a hilltop, were originally built of wood. After a fire in the late 14th century, the town was rebuilt in stone, surrounded by walls and further strengthened by a network of artificial ponds. The town's Gothic castle was reconstructed in High Gothic style in the late 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Telč</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>738</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vicar General of the Prague Archbishopric, Jan (John) of Pomuk, died a martyr's death in 1393. In 1719 his physical remains were studied by a commission appointed by the Archbishop of Prague of the day when it was found that his tongue was perfectly preserved, which was interpreted as evidence of his sanctity. This initiated a wave of enthusiasm for the cult of the martyr, and in particular at the Cistercian monastery in Zd&amp;aacute;r nad S&amp;aacute;zavou, near the Bohemian border with Moravia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This monastery had inherited the role of the monastery at Zelen&amp;aacute; hora, near Nepomuk, where St John Nepomuk received his early education, which had been destroyed in the Hussite wars. It was monks from Zelen&amp;aacute; hora who founded the Zd&amp;aacute;r nad S&amp;aacute;zavou house, whose abbot from 1705 until 1738 was Vaclav Vejmluva, a dedicated follower of St John Nepomuk. He conceived his project to build a church to the glory of the saint which would at the same time demonstratet he relationship betweent he two Cistercian houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church was intended from the start as a place of pilgrimage. Work began in 1719, three years before the formal canonization of John of Nepomuk confirmed the unofficial status that he had been given in his native Bohemia for centuries. The architect was Jan Blažej Santini, who had been working for Vejmluva since 1706 on various projects at the monastery. The abbot worked closely with the architect in the design of the church by laying down its ideological framework, based on the symbolism of the saint's tongue and the numerological significance of the numbers 3 and 5 (the saint died at the age of 53).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The unfinished church was consecrated on 16 May 1720, the date of St John Nepomuk's martyrdom. The construction of the main structure was completed by 1721 and its preliminary furnishing and decoration was celebrated by a second consecration the following year, although work on the cloisters and other ancillary elements was not completed until 1727. Major items of its interior furnishings, such as the main and side altars, the pulpit, and the many statues, were added in later years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church was a major centre of pilgrimage from its foundation until 1784, when the monastery was abolished. It continued as a place of worship, and in the 19th century the cloister was used as a cemetery; the tombstones of this period survive in situ.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/690</http_url><id_number>690</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_690.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.5802000000</latitude><location>South Moravian Region</location><longitude>15.9420583333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pilgrimage Church of St John Nepomuk at Želena Hora, Žd&amp;aacute;r nad S&amp;aacute;zavou, is a masterpiece of an architectural style that spanned the transition between the Gothic and Baroque traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vicar General of the Prague Archbishopric, Jan (John) of Pomuk, died a martyr's death in 1393. In 1719 his physical remains were studied by a commission appointed by the Archbishop of Prague of the day when it was found that his tongue was perfectly preserved, which was interpreted as evidence of his sanctity. This initiated a wave of enthusiasm for the cult of the martyr, and in particular at the Cistercian monastery in Žd&amp;aacute;r nad S&amp;aacute;zavou, near the Bohemian border with Moravia. This monastery had inherited the role of the monastery at Želena Hora, near Nepomuk, where St John Nepomuk received his early education.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Works for a new pilgrimage church began in 1719, three years before the formal canonization of John of Nepomuk confirmed the unofficial status that he had been given in his native Bohemia for centuries. The architect was Jan Blažej Santini, who based his work on the symbolism of the saint's tongue and the numerological significance of the numbers 3 and 5 (the saint died at the age of 53). The unfinished church was consecrated on 16 May 1720, the date of St John Nepomuk's martyrdom. The construction of the main structure was completed by 1721. The church was a major centre of pilgrimage from its foundation until 1784, when the monastery was abolished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The composition of the Želena Hora pilgrimage complex is based on the aesthetic concept of a perfect central complex with an explicit central vertical dominant. The centrality of the plan is accentuated by the ground plan, which is based on the parallel to two equivalent radials. The number 5 is dominant in the layout and proportions: the ground plan of the church itself is defined by two groups of five radial axes upon which the basic elements of the ground plan and the composition of the mass are organized. In the design of the cloister these ten radials, which intersect in the centre of the church itself, determine the sitting of chapels and gates. The ground plan is geometrically based on a simple design with simple proportional relationships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An analysis of these relationships demonstrates the care with which Santini blended a concern for symbolic measurements and ratios with the creation of an independent spatial reality. The exterior of the church presents the appearance of a vertical central body that is star-shaped in form, with five points, graded outwards from the centre. Its morphology is simple, the &lt;em&gt;ordine gotico&lt;/em&gt; forms being interpreted minimally in stucco, thus enhancing the primary impact of the complex geometry of the basic structure. The articulating motifs are reduced to simple pilaster frames, the verticals of which are linked by rustic bands. The portal and window openings have pointed vaultings and simple band frames, thus simplifying the Gothicizing forms to one with the symbolic value of the sword of the Lord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main impression given by the interior is its loftiness and the upward orientation of the space. This space is divided into two by the conspicuous gallery at the base of the vaulting. The central space opens into five niches; of these, four are partitioned horizontally and the fifth, on the east, is filled by the main altar. The church retains many of its original furnishings, which include the main altar, designed by Santini and representing the celebration of St John of Nepomuk in heaven and the four side altars, also designed by Santini and depicting the four Evangelists.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This pilgrimage church, built in honour of St John of Nepomuk, stands at Zelená Hora, not far from Ždár nad Sázavou in Moravia. Constructed at the beginning of the 18th century on a star-shaped plan, it is the most unusual work by the great architect Jan Blazej Santini, whose highly original style falls between neo-Gothic and Baroque.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>816</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement in the Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora region from early times. There was a mint there in the 10th century AD, associated with the rich deposits of silver ore. It was the latter that determined the earliest occupation in what is now the historic centre of the town, which seems to have been occupied by numerous scattered mining settlements in the 13th-16th centuries. The complex street plan of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora is attributable to this early exploitation of the mineral resources, although it preserves what is almost certainly an anCient, nonurban road junction at its core, one road leading to Malin and the other to Časlav, both ancient settlements. Another old road leads to Kol&amp;iacute;n. The many small mining settlements in Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora itself are indicated by the small Romanesque parish Churches that existed until their disestablishment at the late 18th century: only one survives to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This pattern of settlement appears to date from the 12th century. The mid-13th century saw major Changes in the occupation of the land. The royal fortified towns of Časlav and Kol&amp;iacute;n were founded in the early 1260s, both closely associated with the silver mining in the area, which quickly developed during the reign of Wenceslas II (1285-1305) into a major industrial region. The extent and intensity of this exploitation of the mineral resources of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora is reported in documents of the period from as far away as the Rhineland. It seems to have been uncontrolled: Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora was a boom town like those of North America during the Gold Rush of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This situation came to an end with the establishment in 1300 by Wenceslas II of a mint at the Vla&amp;scaron;sk&amp;yacute; dvur (Italian court) on the southern edge of what is now the historical centre of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora, to produce the so-called 'Prague groschen" that was the basis of his coinage reform. In effect Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora became a Royal mining town, giving it a status second only to that of the capital of Bohemia, Prague. This new status is reflected first not in the town itself but at Sedlec, where Wenceslas established a major monastic house for the order that he favoured, the Cistercians. The earlier Romanesque church was demolished to make way for a magnificent cathedral in the High Gothic style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growing importance of the town is reflected in the accounts of the two Sieges, in 1304 and 1307, by Albrecht Habsburg. The first was repelled despite the fact that its defences were rudimentary, and when Albrecht returned three years later he was equally unsuccessful, since by then Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora was enclosed by massive stone walls. The Hr&amp;aacute;dek (Little Castle) probably dates from the same period. The early decades of the 14th century saw Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora being transformed from a chaotic mining settlement into a proper town, and by the middle of the century the definitive system of defences was complete, with its four main gates, moat, and bastions. The present street pattern was evolved from the haphazard communications of the mining boom and what must have been largely wooden houses were replaced by substantial stone houses. Public buildings began to appear, such as the first town hall and a number of Churches. Work on the monumental church of St Barbara began in the 1380s, outside the crowded town proper. Although it is of cathedral-like proportions, it has almost always had no more than the status of a daughter church of the parish church of nearby Pnĕvice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hussite wars of 1419-34 saw profound changes at Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora. Sedlec Monastery was destroyed by fire in 1421, to remain in a ruined state until the late 17th century, and there were serious fires in the town itself in 1422 and 1424 which destroyed most of its buildings. However, the wealth resulting from silver mining ensured that it was rapidly rebuilt when peace was restored. Work on the churches was led by two outstanding architects of the period, Matĕj Rejsek and Benedikt Ried. The defences were supplemented by an outer wall, with irregularly spaced artillery bastions, and the Hradek was rebuilt in Late Gothic style. The town was also embellished by many splendid merchant houses and with the system of arcades that is such a feature of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The relative lack Of Renaissance buildings in the town graphically illustrates the sudden decline in its fortunes in the early 1540S, when the silver mines became exhausted. The economic stagnation of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora was exacerbated by the after-effects Of the Thirty Years' war (1618-48): although the town was not itself directly affected by the war, it fell into a deeper decline and over two hundred of its 574 houses were deserted or demolished. The establishment of a Jesuit College in the 17th century did little more than endow the town with a striking new arChitectural feature, similar to the High Baroque renovation of Sedlec cathedral in the early 18th century by Jan Blažej santini and the work of Killian Ignaz Dientzenhofer at the Ursuline convent and the Chapel of the Holy Trinity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dissolution of Sedlec Monastery in 1785 was followed by the deconsecration and demolition of many of the town's smaller churches, and others disappeared in the first half of the 19th century. It was not until 1850, when Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora became an administrative centre of some importance, that the town began to revive and to begin to concern itself about its architectural heritage.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/732</http_url><id_number>732</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_732.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.9500000000</latitude><location>City and District of Kutná Hora, Central Bohemian Region</location><longitude>15.2666666667</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora was one of the most important political and economic centres of Bohemia in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its medieval centre and the churches are outstanding examples of architectural development and testify to the cultural vivacity of the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is built above the steep descent of the Vrchlice Creek, in the Kutna Hora plateau, 254&amp;nbsp;m above sea level and some 60&amp;nbsp;km east of Prague, developed as a result of the exploitation of the silver mines. The prosperity of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora silver mines reached its climax in the 14th and 15th centuries when the city became one of the richest places in Europe. In July 1300, based on the rich silver strikes in the area, King V&amp;aacute;clav II implemented a currency reform with the participation of Italian financiers. All existing mints in the Czech nation went out of operation, and in the central mint at Vla&amp;scaron;sk&amp;yacute; dvur the first Prague &lt;em&gt;groschen&lt;/em&gt; were struck. Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora thus became the country's most important economic centre, and at the same time it was being transformed into a royal town, with all the rights and privileges to be confirmed later by King Jan Lucembursk&amp;yacute; and King Charles IV.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town became the cultural, political and economic centre of Bohemia, competing for importance, even with Prague. In the 14th century it became a royal city endowed with monuments that symbolized its prosperity. The end of the 15th century brought this burgeoning town an unusual construction development. Work was begun on a new town hall, a Stone House and some majestic patrician houses. At the beginning of the 16th century, the mines in the city centre were gradually exhausted and abandoned, with mining continuing primarily at Kanek.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historical centre is an architectural jewel of European significance: Vla&amp;scaron;sk&amp;yacute; dvur, St Barbara's Cathedral, the Church of St James, the Stone House and the Gothic fountain are some of the most precious landmarks in Bohemia. Other man-made landmarks are located in nearby Sedlec and Malin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interior of the Church of St Barbara, a jewel of the late Gothic period, is decorated with medieval frescoes depicting the secular life of the medieval mining town of Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora. The Cathedral of the Holy Virgin Barbara was built in the late 14th century and during the 15th to the first half of the 16th centuries. It originated in spite of the until then most influential authority controlling the development of the town - the Sedlec Cistercian monastery. It was an expression of the importance and power of the upper town, formed from the Seventies of the 13th century by mining communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral symbolizes the self-esteem and exceptional ambitions and possibilities of the Kutna Hora patricians, who in view of their wealth enjoyed the favour of the Czech rulers. With royal aid they gained royal privileges and the possibility of contact with the most developed manifestations of European art at the time for their town. The first designer of the cathedral was John Parler, who designed the building with a gallery round the presbytery. Originally the cathedral was to have been triple-aisled and longer; however, it was soon changed into a five-aisled building. Other outstanding architects were Matyas Rejsek, who worked at Kutn&amp;aacute; Hora from 1489 until his death in 1506, and Benedikt Rejt, who died in 1534. In 1558 the cathedral was completed with the construction of the facade and three tent roofs. By that time the silver mines were virtually exhausted and means for the further furnishing and maintenance of the cathedral were lacking.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1626 the Jesuits arrived in the town and placed the cathedral under their administration. They began to carry out building modifications. They also changed the environs of the cathedral and, from the 1660s, began to build their college in its close vicinity. In 1905 the cathedral was newly consecrated. The Cathedral of Our Lady at Sedlec, which was restored in line with the Baroque taste of the early 18th century, was to influence the architecture of central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kutná Hora developed as a result of the exploitation of the silver mines. In the 14th century it became a royal city endowed with monuments that symbolized its prosperity. The Church of St Barbara, a jewel of the late Gothic period, and the Cathedral of Our Lady at Sedlec, which was restored in line with the Baroque taste of the early 18th century, were to influence the architecture of central Europe. These masterpieces today form part of a well-preserved medieval urban fabric with some particularly fine private dwellings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kutná Hora: Historical Town Centre with the Church of St Barbara and the Cathedral of Our Lady at Sedlec</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>865</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;This area has been inhabited since the Paleolithic period, and has played an important role in subsequent historical events up to and beyond the Middle Ages. During the Neolithic and Bronze Ages it lay on the important Amber Route from the Baltic to the Mediterranean. It was on the frontier (limes) of the Roman Empire, and so there are Several forts in the vicinity. In the 8th century the first Slavonic state, the Great Moravian Empire, was founded in this region, which later became part of the Bohemian state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lichtenstein family came first to Lednice in the mid-13th century, and by the end of the 14th century they had also acquired nearby Valtice. These were to become the nucleus of the family's extensive possessions, when Karel I of Lichtenstein was given the title of Duke in the early 17th century he made Valtice his main residence and Leunice his summer Seat. The two estates were later joined with the neighbouring Břeclav estate to form an organic whole, to serve the recreational requirements of the ducal family and as material evidence of its prestige.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The realization of this grandiose design began in the 17th century with the creation of avenues Connecting Valtice with other Parts of the estate. It continued throughout the 18th century with the evolution of a framework of avenues and paths providing vistas and rides, imposing order on nature in the manner of the Renaissance artists and architects. The early years of the 19th Century saw the application by Duke Jan Josef I of the English concept of the designed park, strongly influenced by the work of Lancelot "Capability" Brown at Stowe and elsewhere in England. Enormous landscaping projects were undertaken under the supervision of his estate manager, Bernhard Petri; these included raising the level of the Lednice park and the digging of a new channel for the Dvje river. A number of romantic elements were introduced into the landscape, the work of the architects joseph Hardtmuth, Josef Kornhausel, and Franz Engel. Smaller parks on the English model, the so-called Englische Anlagen, were also created around the Ml&amp;yacute;nsk&amp;yacute;, Prostředn&amp;iacute;, and Hlohovecky ponds.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/763</http_url><id_number>763</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_763.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i),(ii) and (iv) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value being a cultural landscape which is an exceptional example of the designed landscape that evolved in the Enlightenment and afterwards under the care of a single family. It succeeds in bringing together in harmony cultural monuments from successive periods and both indigenous and exotic natural elements to create an outstanding work of human creativity. The Committee decided to include criterion (i) to the proposed criteria since the ensemble is an outstanding example of human creativity.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.7758300000</latitude><location>Breclav District, South Moravian Region</location><longitude>16.7750000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Lednice-Valtice landscape is of outstanding universal value as an exceptional example of the designed landscape that evolved in the Enlightenment and afterwards under the care of a single family. It succeeds in bringing together in harmony cultural monuments from successive periods and both indigenous and exotic natural elements to create an outstanding work of human creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Liechtenstein family came first to Lednice in the mid-13th century, and by the end of the 14th century they had also acquired nearby Valtice. These were to become the nucleus of the family's extensive possessions. When Karel I of Liechtenstein was given the title of duke in the early 17th century he made Valtice his main residence and Lednice his summer seat. The two estates were later joined with the neighbouring Břeclav estate to form an organic whole, to serve the recreational requirements of the ducal family and as material evidence of its prestige. The realization of this grandiose design began in the 17th century with the creation of avenues connecting Valtice with other parts of the estate. It continued throughout the 18th century with the evolution of a framework of avenues and paths providing vistas and rides, imposing order on nature in the manner of the Renaissance artists and architects. The early years of the 19th century saw the application by Duke Jan Josef I of the English concept of the designed park, strongly influenced by the work of Lancelot 'Capability' Brown at Stowe and elsewhere in England. Enormous landscaping projects were undertaken under the supervision of his estate manager, Bernhard Petri; these included raising the level of the Lednice Park and digging a new channel for the Dvje River. Smaller parks on the English model, the so-called Englische Anlagen, were also created around the three large ponds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The composition of the landscape is based on the two chateaux, Lednice and Valtice. The Chateau of Valtice has medieval foundations, but it underwent successive reconstructions in Renaissance, Mannerist and, most significantly, Baroque style. Its present Baroque appearance is due to several architects, notably Johann Bernard Fischer von Erlach, Domenico Martinelli and Anton Johann Ospel. Along with the Baroque Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Maw, it is the dominant feature in the system of avenues created in the 17th and 18th centuries. By contrast, the Lednice chateau is not widely visible, the dominant role being taken by Hartmuth's exotic minaret, which is in keeping with the romantic ambience of Lednice. The chateau began as a Renaissance villa of around 1570, and then was progressively changed and reconstructed to take account of Baroque, classical and neo-Gothic fashions. It was the 1850 Gothic Revival reconstruction that brought it into harmony with the prevailing romanticism of this part of the landscape. Taking the landscape as a whole, it is the mingling and interplay of Baroque and Romantic elements that gives it a special character: architecture and landscape are intimately associated with one another. All the buildings are sited with great care at high points, as in the case of the Kolonada, the Rendezvous, Fishpond Manor or Pohansko, in the centre of major routes (the obelisk), or on a border or boundary (Hranicni Zamecek on the state boundary between Moravia and Lower Austria).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An important element in the appearance of the area is the very wide range of native and exotic tree species and the planting strategy adopted. The greatest variety is to be found in the parklands which cluster around the two main residences and along the banks of the fishponds between Lednice and Valtice, with in places a preponderance of exotic species. During his long tenure of the dukedom (1858-1929), Jan Josef II devoted himself to the improvement and maintenance of the landscape. He was an eager student of the works of great landscape architects such as J.&amp;nbsp;H. P&amp;ouml;ckler, P.&amp;nbsp;J. Lenn&amp;eacute; and Gertrude Jekyll. The Pohansk&amp;oacute; Manor is built on the site of an important hill fort of the Great Moravian period dating from the 8th century. The 2&amp;nbsp;km of massive ramparts enclosing an area of 28&amp;nbsp;ha are still visible. Excavations have revealed the court of the ruler, a church (the plan of which is preserved &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; ), several substantial houses and a rich burial ground.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Between the 17th and 20th centuries, the ruling dukes of Liechtenstein transformed their domains in southern Moravia into a striking landscape. It married Baroque architecture (mainly the work of Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach) and the classical and neo-Gothic style of the castles of Lednice and Valtice with countryside fashioned according to English romantic principles of landscape architecture. At 200 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , it is one of the largest artificial landscapes in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>899</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Following the Swedish occupation of this largely medieval city at the end of the Thirty Years' War (1648-50), four fifths of Olomouc lay in ruins and more than 90% of its inhabitants had fled. Although it lost its status as the capital of Moravia, it remained an episcopal see and this fact, coupled with the indomitable self-confidence of its citizens, ensured its regeneration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the post-war reconstruction the street pattern of the medieval town was respected. However, it took on a new appearance: over the following century many impressive public and private buildings were constructed in a local variant of the prevailing style, which became known as "Olomouc Baroque." The most characteristic expression of this style was a group of monuments (columns and fountains), of which the Holy Trinity Column is the crowning glory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;"... I shall raise a column so high and splendid it shall not have an equal in any other town": these were the words used by V&amp;aacute;clav Render, Olomouc master stonemason, to describe his project for building a religious column, which was submitted to the City Council on 29 October 1715. The project was approved on 13 January 1716 and work started in the spring of 1717, Render financing and carrying out most of it himself. In 1733, the year of Render's death, the column had reached the height of a single-storey building, with a chapel inside and a central core clad in stone, together with intricate stone-masonry detailing. In this first stage, in the 1720s, the first part of the sculptural decoration was carried out by the Olomouc sculptor Filip Sattler.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In his will Render bequeathed almost all his considerable fortune to the city for the completion of the work. The remaining sculptural work was carried out in 1745-52 by the distinguished Moravian sculptor Ondrej Zahner (1709-52). In the early 1750s, the topmost group and the group representing the Assumption of the Virgin Mary were cast in copper and gilded by the Olomouc goldsmith &amp;Scaron;imon Forstner (1714-73). The Column was ceremonially consecrated on 9 September 1754, in the presence of the Empress Maria Theresa.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/859</http_url><id_number>859</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_859.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Olomouc Holy Trinity Column is one of the most exceptional examples of the apogee of central European Baroque artistic expression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Holy Trinity Column constituted a unique material demonstration of religious faith in central Europe during the Baroque period, and the Olomouc example represents its most outstanding expression.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.5939361111</latitude><location>Olomouc Region</location><longitude>17.2504583333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Olomouc Holy Trinity Column is one of the most exceptional examples of the apogee of central European Baroque artistic expression. Columns of this type constituted a unique material demonstration of religious faith in central Europe during the Baroque period, and the Olomouc example represents its most outstanding expression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the reconstruction following the Thirty Years' War (1648-50) the city of Olomouc took on a new appearance. Many impressive public and private buildings were constructed in a local variant of the prevailing style, which became known as 'Olomouc Baroque'. The most characteristic expression of this style was a group of monuments (columns and fountains), of which the Holy Trinity Column is the crowning glory. V&amp;aacute;clav Render submitted the project to the City Council and work started in the spring of 1717. In this first stage, in the 1720s, the first part of the sculptural decoration was carried out by the Olomouc sculptor Filip Sattler. The remaining sculptural work was carried out in 1745-52 by the distinguished Moravian sculptor Ondrej Zahner (1709-52). The Column was ceremonially consecrated on 9 September 1754, in the presence of the Empress Maria Theresa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In essence, the basic ground plan of the Holy Trinity Column is derived from a circle 17m in diameter. From the circular base, which has eighteen peripheral guard stones linked by a forged chain, a staircase of seven steps rises to the column's first level, the ground plan of which is hexagonal. The first level comprises a small chapel, again with a circular ground plan. At the points of the hexagon there are six conical balustrades. At the points of the hexagon, supported by six massive pedestals richly decorated on three sides with motifs such as scrolls and acanthus, are to be found the first six larger than life-size statues of saints (&lt;em&gt;c.&lt;/em&gt; 220-240&amp;nbsp;cm) adjoining the body of the chapel on the first level. The first level is richly decorated with fluted pilasters, ribbon motifs, conches, relief cartouches with relief figures of apostles and other masonry details. The same pattern is consistently repeated in both the second and third levels. The second level retains the ground plan of the first, and is crowned by the second group of six statues of saints, placed on isolated pedestals. The third level tops the base of the column. It recedes slightly towards the centre, its periphery furnished again with six massive pedestals carrying the third row of six saints, another row of six relief figures of apostles and rich masonry decoration. This base of the third level supports a monolithic pillar 10&amp;nbsp;m high and richly decorated with fluting and acanthus motifs. The sculptural group of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary is mounted on the first third of the monolith, the figure of the Virgin Mary supported by a pair of angels. Again, the group is executed on a larger-than-life-size scale, in gilded copper. On the top of the pillar-monolith itself, crowned by a capital featuring scroll and acanthus motifs, there is a group of God the Father giving a blessing and Christ with the cross, both placed on a globe, with the figure of the Archangel Michael below. The entire structure is completed by a radial target-star with a dove in the centre, to symbolize the Holy Spirit. Once more, the entire group is on a larger-than-life-size scale in wrought and gilded copper. The overall height of the column is 35&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The concept of the Holy Trinity involved the two principal elements of the essential hierarchy of values in the Baroque period. Faith and religious tradition are intermingled with the idea of the city - its traditions, protection and civil administration. The ideas of Christianity and of citizenship (allegiance to the city in the best meaning of the word) combine here as a triumphal statement in the form of a stone monument.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This memorial column, erected in the early years of the 18th century, is the most outstanding example of a type of monument specific to central Europe. In the characteristic regional style known as Olomouc Baroque and rising to a height of 35 m, it is decorated with many fine religious sculptures, the work of the distinguished Moravian artist Ondrej Zahner.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1010</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of Kromer&amp;iacute;z began with the establishment of a settlement in the floodplain of the Morava river in the 9th century AD during the Greater Moravian Period. By the 12th century, when it belonged to the Bishopric of Olomouc, the original fortified site had disappeared. It did not achieve the status of a fortified town again until the mid-13th century, when a Gothic fort was constructed. The town prospered in the succeeding centuries, becoming the centre of the organization of vassals of the episcopal domains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1497 the wealthy and well-connected Stanislav Thurzo became Bishop of Olomouc. He set about reconstructing and modernizing his castle at Kromer&amp;iacute;z. At first this work was carried out using the Late Gothic style of the period, but Renaissance elements began to filter in as the work progressed. Bishop Thurzo also established a garden, comprising orchard, kitchen garden, and flower garden, which was praised by King Vladislav II when he visited Kromer&amp;iacute;z in 1509.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thurzo's successors made minor modifications and additions to his castle. The castle suffered grievously in the Thirty Years' War when the town was sacked by the Swedish army in 1643, a disaster followed by an outbreak of plague two years later. It was not until Count Karel Liechtenstein-Castelcorn became Bishop of Olomouc in 1664 that the town's fortunes began to change. He wanted the town where he lived to have an aristocratic air, and so he undertook many building projects, as well as compelling the burghers to renew their buildings and equipment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;He brought in the talented Imperial civil engineer and architect Filiberto Lucchese, who designed an entirely new Pleasure Garden (Lustgarten) for him after having brought the ruined castle back into a habitable state. When Lucchese died in 1666, his work was taken over by his successor as Imperial architect, Giovanni Pietro Tencalla; the work on the Garden was not completed until 1675.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Once the garden was finished Tencalla's attention turned to the design and construction of a magnificent episcopal castle and residence. This was to be his masterpiece, in the tradition of the north Italian Baroque school of Genoa and Turin. Nonetheless, it respected its Gothic predecessor, elements of which were blended into the new complex. Meanwhile, Bishop Karel was furnishing the interiors, creating a picture gallery that contained many masterpieces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle was affected by the fire that swept through the town in March 1752. Bishop Leopold Bedrich Eghk oversaw the restoration, bringing in artists and craftsmen to carry out the work, notably the Viennese painter Franz Anton Maulbertsch and the Moravian artists Josef Stern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The see was raised to an archbishopric in 1777 and the first archbishop, Colloredo-Waldsee, was responsible for the restyling of the Castle Garden in accordance with the romantic approach of the late 18th century. The Pleasure Garden, however, preserved its Baroque geometrical layout. The work on the Castle Garden continued well into the 19th century, with the construction of arcades, bridges, and even a model farmstead. Much of this was carried out under the supervision of the architect Anton&amp;iacute;n Arche between 1830 and 1845.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/860</http_url><id_number>860</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_860.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The ensemble at Kroměříž, and in particular the Pleasure Garden, played a significant role in the development of Baroque garden and palace design in central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Gardens and Castle at Kroměříž are an exceptionally complete and well preserved example of a princely residence and its associated landscape of the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.3000000000</latitude><location>City and District of Kroměříž, Zlin Region</location><longitude>17.3772222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Gardens and Castle at Kroměř&amp;iacute;ž are an exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a princely residence and its associated landscape of the 17th and 18th centuries. The ensemble, and in particular the pleasure garden, played a significant role in the development of Baroque garden and palace design in central Europe&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kroměř&amp;iacute;ž did not achieve the status of a fortified until the mid-13th century, when a Gothic fort was constructed, and the town prospered in the succeeding centuries. In 1497 Stanislav Thurzo became Bishop of Olomouc and he set about reconstructing and modernizing his castle at Kroměř&amp;iacute;ž. At first this work was carried out using the late Gothic style of the period, but Renaissance elements began to filter in as the work progressed. Bishop Thurzo also established a garden, comprising orchard, kitchen garden and flower garden, which was praised by King Vladislav II when he visited Kroměř&amp;iacute;ž in 1509.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle suffered grievously in the Thirty Years' War when the town was sacked by the Swedish army in 1643, a disaster that was followed by an outbreak of plague two years later. When Count Karel Liechtenstein-Castelcorn became Bishop of Olomouc in 1664, the town's fortunes began to change. He undertook many building projects and brought in the talented imperial civil engineer and architect Filiberto Lucchese, who designed an entirely new pleasure garden (&lt;em&gt;Lustgarten&lt;/em&gt; ) for him after having brought the ruined castle back into a habitable state. When Lucchese died in 1666, his work was taken over by Giovanni Pietro Tencalla; the work on the garden was not completed until 1675. Once it was finished Tencalla's attention turned to the design and construction of a magnificent Episcopal castle and residence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle was affected by the fire that swept through the town in March 1752. Bishop Leopold Bedrich Eglik oversaw the restoration, bringing in artists and craftsmen to carry out the work. The first archbishop, Colloredo-Waldsee, was responsible for the restyling of the castle garden in accordance with the Romantic approach of the late 18th century; the pleasure garden, however, preserved its Baroque geometrical layout. The work on the castle garden continued well into the 19th century, with the construction of arcades, bridges and even a model farmstead. Much of this work was carried out under the supervision of the architect Anton&amp;iacute;n Arche between 1830 and 1845.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main building of the castle is a free-standing structure with four wings round a trapezoidal central courtyard and rising to three storeys, with an attic half-storey above. The ground floor is set on a high platform, built to compensate for the uneven nature of the ground. It was originally surrounded by a moat, filled in 1832. In the interior, the first floor is, according to custom, the piano nobile, where the main rooms were located - Throne Room, Conference Hall and two dining rooms; the second floor houses the guest rooms, the Library, the Vassal or Feudal Hall and the Chapel. On the garden front of the castle there is a small Baroque terrace garden, the &lt;em&gt;giardino segreto&lt;/em&gt; , which is approached by an arcaded corridor with a double staircase, known as the Colloredo Colonnade and built in 1795.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle is linked to the castle garden through spacious ground-floor rooms with grottoes opening out of them, one of them reproducing a mine. Within the garden there are several important architectural features. A semi-circular colonnade in classical style was built in 1846 to house sculptures from Pompeii. On the western periphery Max's Farmstead is a luxurious building in French Empire style, with an impressive colonnade and projecting wings. Cast iron, produced at the archiepiscopal foundry, was used for the elegant Little Silver, Vase and Little Lantern bridges. The pleasure garden, in the south-western part of the historic centre of Kroměř&amp;iacute;ž, is a formal garden in the Italian style, entered by an arcaded gallery which contains many statues and busts.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kroměříž stands on the site of an earlier ford across the River Morava, at the foot of the Chriby mountain range which dominates the central part of Moravia. The gardens and castle of Kroměříž are an exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a European Baroque princely residence and its gardens.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gardens and Castle at Kroměříž</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1011</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological investigation has shown that this area was settled by humankind as early as the 2nd millennium BC, in the Neolithic period. It was settled by Slavonic peoples in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. It came under Premyslid rule at the end of the 10th century, but Holasovice was not founded until the period of largescale colonization of the border regions of Bohemia in the first half of the 13th century. The first written record is in a 1292 document of Wenceslas II, who gave the village, along with several others, to the Cistercian monastery at Vyssí Brod, which retained possession until 1848.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until the beginning of the 16th century the area was settled by Czechs, but the plague that ravaged Bohemia in 1521 left only two inhabitants alive. The Cistercians brought in settlers from other possessions of the Order in Bavaria and Austria: all the family names listed in a monastic record of 1524-30 were German. There followed a period of prosperity that came to an end with the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), but the village quickly recovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The numbers of farmsteads remained steady at seventeen from the early 16th century onwards, and the village did not begin to grow until the 20th century. The ethnic makeup remained predominantly German up to the creation of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1918: in 1895 there were 157 inhabitants of German origin and only 19 of Czech origin. By the time the ethnic Germans were expelled at the end of World War II Czechs remained in a minority.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Definitive Cadaster of 1827 reveals that all the farmsteads (with the exception of the barns) in "Holschowitz" were built of masonry, not timber-framed, as was the case in most of the villages of Bohemia at that time. This tradition of masonry building for domestic structures is a characteristic of South Bohemia, no doubt brought in from Austria and Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1840 and 1880 there was considerable rebuilding in the villages of North Bohemia. This process was later in South Bohemia, and the style adopted, known as "Folk Baroque," is characteristic of this region.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/861</http_url><id_number>861</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_861.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Holasovice is of special significance in that it represents the fusion of two vernacular building traditions to create an exceptional and enduring style, known as South Bohemian Folk Baroque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The exceptional completeness and excellent preservation of Holasovice and its buildings make it an outstanding example of traditional rural settlement in central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.9597222200</latitude><location>South Bohemian Region</location><longitude>14.2527777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Holašovice is an exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a traditional central European village. It has a large number of outstanding 18th- and 19th-century vernacular buildings in a style known as South Bohemian Folk Baroque, and preserves a ground plan dating from the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement was not founded until the period of large-scale colonization of the border regions of Bohemia in the first half of the 13th century. The first written record is in a 1292 document of Wenceslas II, who gave the village, along with several others, to the Cistercian Monastery at Vyšsí Brod, which retained possession until 1848. Until the beginning of the 16th century the area was settled by Czechs, but the plague that ravaged Bohemia in 1521 left only two inhabitants alive. The Cistercians brought in settlers from other possessions of the order in Bavaria and Austria: all the family names listed in a monastic record of 1524-30 were German. There followed a period of prosperity that came to an end with the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), but the village quickly recovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The population remained predominantly German until the creation of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1918. By the time the ethnic Germans were expelled at the end of the Second World War Czechs remained in a minority. The Definitive Cadaster of 1827 reveals that all the farmsteads (with the exception of the barns) in 'Holschowitz' were of masonry, not timber-framed, as was the case in most of the villages of Bohemia at that time. Between 1840 and 1880 there was considerable rebuilding in the villages of North Bohemia, and later in South Bohemia, and the style adopted, known as 'Folk Baroque', is characteristic of this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Holašovice is situated in the heart of South Bohemia, 15 km west of České Budějovice and 18 km north of Český Krumlov. The village consists at the present time of 120 buildings arranged round an elongated village square, with a small chapel and cross on it, and some more recent buildings on the outskirts. The historical reservation consists of the original village as surveyed in the Definitive Cadaster, which includes 23 farmsteads that are protected architectural monuments, along with their attached farm buildings (barns, stables, etc.) and gardens or tofts. The farmsteads are all built with their gable-ends facing the square. Among the others, Farmstead No. 8 is the largest in the village. The main farmhouse is a modest chamber-type structure with two rooms, and this adjoins a long cowhouse, divided into two vaulted rooms; this wing is dated on the facade to 1861. To the right of the entrance is a massive three-storey granary, the present form of which probably dates from the mid-19th century. The courtyard is closed at the rear by a spacious stone barn, built towards the end of the 19th century to replace an earlier timber structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a number of cases granaries and barns were converted in the years preceding and following the Second World War into retirement dwellings; this process involved substantial reconstruction. In addition to the farmsteads there are several farm labourers' cottages that are much smaller and simpler in design. The village smithy and the smith's house are located in the middle of the village square. A facility of this kind is known to have existed in Holašovice since the beginning of the 18th century. It was originally located on the west side of the square, but was moved to its present position in 1885. Both buildings are single-storey structures with saddle roofs, and the smithy has a characteristic arched opening on the square (now closed, since it has been converted for residential use). The other architectural feature in the village square is the small Chapel of St John of Nepomuk. This is a slender structure with a tall bell-shaped front. The rectangular interior is vaulted, with two lunettes closing it. The chapel has a saddle roof hipped at one end and with a four-pillar lantern spire containing a bell in its centre. It appears to date from the mid-18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Holašovice is an exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a traditional central European village. It has a large number of outstanding 18th- and 19th-century vernacular buildings in a style known as 'South Bohemian folk Baroque', and preserves a ground plan dating from the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Holašovice Historic Village</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1012</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been a settlement since at least the 10th century at Litomy&amp;scaron;l, which is located at an important communications junction on the main road between Bohemia and Moravia, with its fortified core on the hill where the castle now stands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is known to have been a small church dedicated to St Clement on this site, and a Premonstratensian monastery was founded in the town in the first half of the 12th century. The monastery was closed when the bishopric was created in 1344, its buildings being shared out between the bishop and the chapter. The document of 1398 relating to this partition contains the first reference to an "old palace" and castle at Litomy&amp;scaron;l. Archaeological and historical investigations have revealed remnants of the medieval structure beneath and within the Renaissance castle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1425 the town was conquered after a siege by the Hussites, who razed all the ecclesiastical buildings to the ground. Restoration was undertaken at the end of the Hussite Wars by the new owners of Litomy&amp;scaron;l, the Kostka family of Postupice, and details of this building have also been shown by recent investigations. It was damaged by fire in 1460 and again in 1546; after the second fire, the castle was confiscated by the king, but it was almost completely gutted after a third fire, in 1560.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruined structure was granted in 1567 to the Vratislav family of Pern&amp;scaron;tejn, who received a royal grant to reconstruct it. Work began in 1568 under the supervision of Jan Baptista Avostalis (Giovanni Battista Avostalli), who was joined by his brother Oldřich (Ulrico). Most of the work had been completed by 1580.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A fire in 1635 caused only slight damage to the upper storey of the castle and this was quickly repaired. The architect Franti&amp;scaron;ek Maximili&amp;aacute;n Kaňka was responsible for considerable modifications from 1719 onwards in the High Baroque style. Fire struck yet again in 1775, and the repairs involved some remodelling. Major alterations took place in the interior in 1792-96, to the designs of Jan Kry&amp;scaron;tof Habich, but he was careful to preserve the fine Renaissance gables. Since that time there have been no changes of any consequence in the structure, design, or decoration of the castle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first courtyard formed part of the original fortified settlement. The buildings associated with it were all built or rebuilt during the course of the modifications that the castle underwent over time, and this is reflected in their architectural styles.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/901</http_url><id_number>901</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_901.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Litomyšl Castle is an outstanding and immaculately preserved example of the arcade castle, a type of building first developed in Italy and modified in the Czech lands to create an evolved form of special architectural quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Litomyšl Castle illustrates in an exceptional way the aristocratic residences of central Europe in the Renaissance and their subsequent development under the influence of new artistic movements.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.8736100000</latitude><location>Pardubice Region</location><longitude>16.3144400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Litomy&amp;scaron;l Castle is an outstanding and immaculately preserved example of the arcade castle, a type of building first developed in Italy and modified in the Czech lands to create an evolved form of special architectural quality. It illustrates in an exceptional way the aristocratic residences of central Europe in the Renaissance and their subsequent development under the influence of new artistic movements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been a settlement since at least the 10th century at Litomy&amp;scaron;l, which is located at an important communications junction on the main road between Bohemia and Moravia, with its fortified core on the hill where the castle now stands. A document of 1398 contains the first reference to an 'old palace' and castle at Litomy&amp;scaron;l. Archaeological and historical investigations have revealed remnants of the medieval structure beneath and within the Renaissance castle. In 1425 the town was conquered after a siege by the Hussites. Restoration was undertaken at the end of the Hussite Wars by the new owners of Litomy&amp;scaron;l, the Kostka family of Postupice. It was damaged by fire in 1460, in 1546 and it was almost completely gutted after a third fire, in 1560.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruined structure was granted in 1567 to the Vratislav family of Pern&amp;scaron;tejn, who received a royal grant to reconstruct it. Work began in 1568 under the supervision of Jan Baptista Avostalis (Giovanni Battista Avostalli), who was joined by his brother Oldřich (Ulrico). Most of the work had been completed by 1580. The architect Franti&amp;scaron;ek Maximili&amp;aacute;n Kaňka was responsible for considerable modifications from 1719 onwards in the High Baroque style. Major alterations took place in the interior in 1792-96, to the designs of Jan Kry&amp;scaron;tof Habich, but he was careful to preserve the fine Renaissance gables. Since that time there have been no changes of any consequence in the structure, design or decoration of the castle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Litomy&amp;scaron;l Castle was originally a Renaissance arcade-castle of the type first developed in Italy and then adopted and greatly developed in central Europe in the 16th century. Its design and decoration are particularly fine, including the later High Baroque features added in the 18th century. The castle is a four-winged, three-storeyed structure with an asymmetrical disposition. The western wing is the largest, whereas the southern wing is no more than a two-storeyed arcaded gallery to close the square second courtyard (a feature that is unique to Litomy&amp;scaron;l). This groin-vaulted arcading continues round the western and eastern sides of the courtyard. The south-eastern corner of the eastern wing contains the castle chapel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the features in the interior of the castle one of the most striking is the fine neoclassical theatre from 1796-97 in the western wing. Constructed entirely of wood, it can seat 150 spectators in nine loggias and its lower floor. The original painted decoration of the auditorium, stage decorations, and stage machinery have survived intact. The Renaissance main staircase of the castle is located in this wing, which houses some finely proportioned Renaissance rooms decorated for the most part in neoclassical style in the 18th century. The other two wings have comparable interiors, basically Renaissance in form and with lavish late Baroque or neoclassical ornamentation in the form of elaborate plasterwork and wall and ceiling paintings. The paintings simulate three-dimensional compositions with ornamental mouldings from Roman antiquity. The paintings are coordinated from one room to the next.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The buildings associated with the castle were all built or rebuilt during the course of the modifications that the castle itself underwent over time, and this is reflected in their architectural styles. Among the ancillary buildings, the most interesting is the Brewery, which lies to the south of the first courtyard. Originally constructed as a counterpart to the castle, with sgraffito decoration, it was substantially reconstructed after the 1728 fire and received what is its present appearance, which blends elements of high Baroque and neoclassicism, after the 1775 fire.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Litomyšl Castle was originally a Renaissance arcade-castle of the type first developed in Italy and then adopted and greatly developed in central Europe in the 16th century. Its design and decoration are particularly fine, including the later High-Baroque features added in the 18th century. It preserves intact the range of ancillary buildings associated with an aristocratic residence of this type.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Litomyšl Castle</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1054</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tugendhat Villa was designed by the German architect, Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969), for Grete Weiss and her husband Fritz Tugendhat, members of wealthy industrial families in the city of Brno in former Czechoslovakia. The architect accepted the commission in 1927, and the design process lasted about two years, parallel with designing the German Pavilion (1928-29) at the International Fair in Barcelona, commissioned by the German Government. The construction of the Tugendhat Villa was completed by the end of 1930. The architect took charge of the project down to the smallest detail, also designing all the furniture of the house, designs that have become world-renowned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mies van der Rohe was one of the principal architects in the development of the Modern Movement in Architecture, which characterized design and construction in the 1920s and 1930s in Europe and North America. Originally from Aachen and then working in Berlin, he was influenced by the work and teachings of Behrens and Berlage, by the principles of the De Stijl movement, as well as by Frank Lloyd Wright. His early interests were in developing design concepts for high-rise buildings in reinforced concrete and glass in the early 1920s: he designed the Weissenhof apartments in Stuttgart in 1927, another key work in the Modern Movement. From 1926 Mies van der Rohe was a member of the Deutscher Werkbund, and from 1930 to 1933 he was Director of the Bauhaus in Dessau. He later moved to Chicago in the USA, teaching at the Illinois Institute of Technology and designing large office buildings, his later trademark. His furniture designs have become classics in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the German occupation, the Tugendhat family left Czechoslovakia and the Villa was taken over by the German State in 1939. It lost most of its original furniture, and was subject to some alterations and damage - eg that caused by a bomb explosion in the neighbourhood in 1944. After the war, the building was taken over by the State of Czechoslovakia; it served a nearby children's hospital and then the national health institute of Brno, becoming the property of the City of Brno. In 1962 the Villa was protected as a national monument. There was increasing interest in restoring it, and the first study to this effect was made in 1971, leading to a restoration campaign in 1981-85, which guaranteed the continuation of the use of the building on a provisional basis. The Tugendhat Villa Fund was established in 1993, followed by the decision of the Friends of the Tugendhat Fund to undertake a scientific restoration of the building. This work took place beginning in 1994 and funds were raised to furnish the building with replicas of the original designs by Mies van der Rohe.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1052</http_url><id_number>1052</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1052.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Tugendhat Villa is a masterpiece of the Modern Movement in architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The German architect Mies van der Rohe applied the radical new concepts of the Modern Movement triumphantly to the Tugendhat Villa to the design of residential buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Architecture was revolutionized by the Modern Movement in the 1920s and the work of Mies van der Rohe, epitomized by the Tugendhat Villa, played a major role in its worldwide diffusion and acceptance.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.2071833333</latitude><location>South Moravian Region</location><longitude>16.6160555556</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tugendhat Villa is a masterpiece of the Modern Movement in architecture. The German architect Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969) applied the radical new concepts of the Modern Movement triumphantly in the Tugendhat Villa to the design of residential buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The villa was designed by van der Rohe for Grete Weiss and her husband Fritz Tugendhat, members of wealthy industrial families in the city of Brno in former Czechoslovakia. The architect accepted the commission in 1927 and the villa was completed by the end of 1930. The architect took charge of the project down to the smallest detail, also designing all the furniture of the house, designs that have become world-renowned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mies van der Rohe was one of the principal architects in the development of the Modern Movement in architecture, which characterized design and construction in the 1920s and 1930s in Europe and North America. Originally from Aachen and then working in Berlin, he was influenced by the work of Frank Lloyd Wright. During the German occupation, the Tugendhat family left Czechoslovakia and the Villa was taken over by the German State in 1939. It lost most of its original furniture, and was subject to some alterations and damage. After the war, the building was taken over by the State of Czechoslovakia. The Tugendhat Villa Fund was established in 1993, and a scientific restoration of the building took place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tugendhat Villa is a detached house in a residential area of the city of Brno. The entrance to the house is from the street on the north side of the lot, which slopes down towards the south, forming a small garden. The building has three floors, one facing the street and three developing down towards the garden. The house has a flat roof, and each floor has a different plan. The uppermost floor is entered directly from street level and includes a terrace that traverses the house and forms a balcony on the garden side. From here one reaches a small entrance hall, family bedrooms and services; the master bedroom and dressing room are on the garden side. The garage and caretaker's lodging are at the west end of the house. From the hallway and from the balcony there are stairways leading down to the main floor, which has three parts. The first part is the main living area with a winter garden, reception room, music corner, study and library, sitting areas, dining room and services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second part has kitchen facilities, and the third part consists of the servants' area. The living area has large windows on two sides and is directly joined to the terrace, which is partly open, partly covered, and has a wide stairway leading down to garden level. The ground level has utility rooms and is used for technical purposes. The main structure of the house is made from reinforced concrete with steel frames. A structure of polished steel pillars supports the entire house. A steel skeleton also carries ceramic ceiling panels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The exterior of the house is rendered and painted white. Light-coloured travertine tiles are used in the staircases leading down to the garden and in the living hall there is ivory-coloured linoleum. The entrance is panelled with dark palisander wood. The back wall of the living area is made from beautiful onyx, the same division as in the glass wall opening towards the garden. The original furniture and some of the pieces were made specifically for this house, such as the so-called Tugendhat chair, in chromium-plated flat steel elements and upholstered in stitched leather. The living area was furnished in such a way that each piece had its specific place. The mechanical equipment designed and built for the house was also exceptional, including special structural solutions for the use of steel pillars, for processing the onyx wall that was brought from the African Atlas Mountains, and for the electrically operated large steel-frame windows. The house had central heating and an air-conditioning system with a regulated fine-spray humidifying chamber.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tugendhat Villa in Brno, designed by the architect Mies van der Rohe, is an outstanding example of the international style in the modern movement in architecture as it developed in Europe in the 1920s. Its particular value lies in the application of innovative spatial and aesthetic concepts that aim to satisfy new lifestyle needs by taking advantage of the opportunities afforded by modern industrial production.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tugendhat Villa in Brno</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1226</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic city of Prague comprises three separate cities - the Old Town (Star&amp;eacute; Mesto), the Lesser Town (Mala Strana). and the New Town (Nov&amp;eacute; Mĕsto).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest settlement on the banks of the Vltava River dates back to prehistory, as excavations have shown. In the late 9th century a fortified settlement was built on a hill on the left bank of the river, the site now occupied by Prague Castle. This extended down towards the river, whilst a second fortress was constructed on the opposite bank (Vy&amp;scaron;ehrad). During the 10th century the intervening areas were gradually settled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 10th century Prague became the capital of the Bohemian state, and a bishopric was founded there in 973. Construction of the early Romanesque Cathedral of St Vitus began in the later 11th century. In 1135 Sobĕslav Il began work on a large stone castle, replacing the earlier wooden structure. The 12th century saw considerable expansion of the city, with a Premonstratensian monastery being built at Strahov and the construction of a new stone bridge across the Vltava, which led to the growth of the Star&amp;eacute; Mĕsto.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mid-14th century saw further growth, with the foundation of the Nov&amp;eacute; Mĕsto, which was encircled by a defensive wall. From the mid-14th century onwards Prague became a major centre of culture, with artists and architects coming from all parts of Europe, but notably ltaly. The result was a massive programme of rebuilding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A disastrous fire in 1541 destroyed much of the settlement on the left bank of the Vltava, and in the rebuilding Renaissance styles predominated. The end of the Thirty Years War in 1648 saw Prague declining, and it was not until the end of the century that it recovered, commemorated by the vigorous development of High Baroque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Urban development from 1880 onwards resulted in the demolition of many old buildings, notably in the Jewish Quarter on the right bank of the Vltava. However, the city benefited from the construction of a large number of outstanding buildings in contemporary style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city is rich in monuments from ail periods of its history. Of particular importance are Prague Castle, the Cathedral of St Vitus. Hrad2'any Square in front of the Castle, and the Valdstejn Palace on the left bank of the river, the Gothic Charles Bridge, the Romanesque Rotunda of the Holy Rood, the Gothic arcaded houses round the Old Town Square, and the High Gothic Minorite Church of St James in the Star&amp;eacute; Mĕsto, and the late 19th century buildings and town plan of the Nov&amp;eacute; Mĕsto.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/616</http_url><id_number>616</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_616.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.0897200000</latitude><location>Prague</location><longitude>14.4194400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Prague is an urban architectural ensemble of outstanding quality, in terms of both its individual monuments and its townscape, and one that is deservedly world famous. The historic centre of Prague admirably illustrates the process of continuous urban growth from the Middle Ages to the present day. Its important role in the political, economic, social and cultural evolution of central Europe from the 14th century onwards and the richness of its architectural and artistic traditions meant that it served as a major model for urban development for much of central and eastern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The role of Prague in the medieval development of Christianity in central Europe was an outstanding one, as was its formative influence in the evolution of towns. By virtue of its political significance in the later Middle Ages and later, it attracted architects and artists from all over Europe, who contributed to its wealth of architectural and artistic treasures. The 15th-century creation of Charles University made it a renowned seat of learning, a reputation that it has preserved to the present day. Since the reign of Charles IV, Prague has also been the intellectual and cultural centre of its region, and is indelibly associated with such world-famous names as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Franz Kafka.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic city of Prague comprises three separate cities - the Old Town (Stare Město), the Lesser Town (Mal&amp;aacute; Strana) and the New Town (Nove Město). In the late 9th century a fortified settlement was built on a hill on the left bank of the river, the site now occupied by Prague Castle. This extended down towards the river; while a second fortress was constructed on the opposite bank (Vy&amp;scaron;ehrad). During the 10th century the intervening areas were gradually settled and Prague became the capital of the Bohemian state, a bishopric being founded there in 973. Construction of the early Romanesque Cathedral of St Vitus began in the later 11th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1135 Sobĕslav II began work on a large stone castle, replacing the earlier wooden structure. The 12th century saw considerable expansion of the city, with a Premonstratensian monastery being built at Strahov and the construction of a new stone bridge across the Vltava, which led to the growth of the Stare Město. The mid-14th century saw further growth, with the foundation of the Nove Město, which was encircled by a defensive wall. From the mid-14th century Prague became a major centre of culture, with artists and architects coming from all parts of Europe, notably Italy. The result was a massive programme of rebuilding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A disastrous fire in 1541 destroyed much of the settlement on the left bank of the Vltava, and in the rebuilding Renaissance styles predominated. The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw Prague declining, and it was not until the end of the century that it recovered, commemorated by the vigorous development of High Baroque. Urban development from 1880 onwards resulted in the demolition of many old buildings, notably in the Jewish Quarter on the right bank of the Vltava. However, the city benefited from the construction of a large number of outstanding buildings in contemporary style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city is rich in monuments from all periods of its history. Of particular importance are Prague Castle, the Cathedral of St Vitus, Hradčany Square in front of the castle, and the Vald&amp;scaron;tejn Palace on the left bank of the river, the Gothic Charles Bridge, the Romanesque Rotunda of the Holy Rood, the Gothic arcaded houses round the Old Town Square, the High Gothic Minorite Church of St James in the Stare Město, and the late 19th-century buildings and town plan of the Nove Město.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Listed among the endangered sites, St Anne's Church in the Old Town district of Prague has been used as a warehouse for the past two centuries; the church has preserved its original structure and most of its genuine fabric. The interior still retains a cycle of Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque murals, and its original Gothic roof timbering.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Old Town, the Lesser Town and the New Town speak of the great architectural and cultural influence enjoyed by this city since the Middle Ages. The many magnificent monuments, such as Hradcany Castle, St Vitus Cathedral, Charles Bridge and numerous churches and palaces, built mostly in the 14th century under the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles IV.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Prague</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1928</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;A Benedictine Monastery was founded in a strategic position at the crossing of Jihlava River, in 1101. Its existence stimulated the establishment of a market, which brought traders and amongst them also Jews. This was the beginning of a structural development of the monastery together with the settlement, called ‘Podklasteri' (lit. beneath the monastery) in its immediate vicinity, and the town of Trebic itself on the other side of the river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Jewish Quarter &lt;/strong&gt;was sited in the focal point of the commercially expanding settlement, close to the monastery and the ford across the river. Not having any defences, it went through the same fate as the rest of the town, and had to suffer of many attacks and destructions, such as those in the 15th century by the Hungarian king. In favourable years, the site developed and prospered allowing the necessary facilities to be built. In the 16th century, orders were issued to expel the Jews but these were not carried out. As a whole the authorities were here much more tolerant than elsewhere in Europe. In earlier years, the Jews were involved in money lending, but also working in some crafts: tanning, bead firing, glove making, and soap making. From the 17th century on, they were mainly involved in trade and such crafts. There were further destructive events in the subsequent centuries, including fires and frequent floods - in areas close to the river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the beginning, the Jewish Quarter had its own self-government with an elected magistrate and two councillors. In 1849, it had its own administration led by a mayor, and it was called Zamosti (lit. over the bridge). In the 1920s, the area was merged with the town of Trebic, and the population started being mixed. In 1890, there were nearly 1,500 Jews in this area, but in the 1930s only 300 were of Jewish faith. All Jewish residents were deported during the Second World War, and none are left at present. The houses are now owned by people of non- Jewish faith.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Benedictine monastery&lt;/strong&gt; , established in the early 12th century was richly endowed, and an important centre of ecclesiastical life and economic development. The first monastic church was rebuilt during the reign of King Wenceslas I (1230-53), being ready in the 1250s. After some damage in 1468, the church was repaired at the end of the century. During the first half of the 16th century, the monastery was rebuilt as a castle, and fully renovated in baroque style in 1666-84. There were various minor changes also in the basilica, which was then restored by a well-known Czech architect, Frantisek Maxmilian Kanka. The works began in 1726, and restoration of the nave was concluded in 1733. Externally several windows were widened and buttresses added, the south-west tower was rebuilt, and a new west front with two towers was constructed in the style of gothicising baroque. While avoiding any radical ‘restorations', the church was subject to some restoration in the 1920s and 1930s. The southern chapel, which had been destroyed, was rebuilt in the 1950s.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1078</http_url><id_number>1078</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1078.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Jewish Quarter and St Procopius Basilica of Trebic bear witness to the coexistence of and interchange of values between two different cultures, Jewish and Christian, over many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; the Jewish Quarter of Trebic is an exceptional testimony to the cultural traditions related to the Jewish diaspora in central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.2172222200</latitude><location>Trebic district, Vysocina Region</location><longitude>15.8788888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jewish Quarter of Třebíč is an exceptional testimony to the cultural traditions related to the Diaspora in central Europe, and bears witness to the coexistence of and interchange of values between two different cultures, Jewish and Christian, over many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site is in the town of Třebíč, and it has three distinct components: the Jewish Quarter, the Jewish cemetery and St Procopius Basilica, all situated on the north bank of the River Jihlava.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jewish Quarter rises from the river up on the hillside. The urban layout is characterized by two main streets, linked with the riverside through a number of small medieval alleys, some of which go through the houses. The buildings are vernacular in character, consisting generally of a vaulted ground floor and one or two upper floors with wooden ceilings. Some of the facades have features dating from the Renaissance or Baroque period, but many are of later date, until the 20th century. Because of political constraints, the Jewish quarter was limited in space. Its natural limits meant that this area was never fully fenced, although there was separation (&lt;em&gt;eruf&lt;/em&gt; ) until 1875, after which Jews were free to move and buy property elsewhere. As a result, wealthy people moved out, and the area remained in the hands of the poor. Characteristically the area is organized in condominiums. At street level there was often a shop or a workshop, the upper levels being reserved for residential use. There is no special typology for a Jewish house, which is characterized more in terms of the use of a limited space and the condominium structures. This leads to linkage of different houses through acquisition of spaces from neighbouring buildings. In Třebíč the area has preserved all essential social functions, synagogues, schools, etc., as well as a leather factory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest mention of a synagogue is in 1590; the present Old (Front) Synagogue, from 1639-42, a simple Baroque building, is today used as a Hussite church. The New (Rear) Synagogue dates from the 18th century; it has been restored and serves as a museum and meeting room. In the 16th century, orders were issued to expel the Jews from the Jewish Quarter but these were not carried out. As a whole the authorities were more tolerant here than elsewhere in Europe. Earlier the Jews were involved in money lending, but they also worked in some crafts (tanning, bead-firing, glove-making, soap-making). From the 17th century they were mainly involved in trade and crafts of this kind. From the beginning, the Jewish Quarter had its own self-government with an elected magistrate and two councillors. In 1849, it had its own administration led by a mayor, and it was called Zamošti ('over the bridge'). In the 1920s the area was merged with Třebíč, and the population became progressively mixed. In 1890, there were some 1,500 Jews in this area, but in the 1930s only 300. All Jewish residents were deported during the Second World War, and none are left at present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jewish Cemetery is situated above the Jewish Quarter, behind the hill. Access for carriages was arranged via a special road. The current cemetery has two parts, the first part from the 15th century and the second from the 19th. There are some 4,000 stones and some of them bear important carvings. At the entrance there is a ceremonial hall, built in 1903, which is still intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Procopius Basilica is situated in a good position on the hill with a view over the whole of Třebíč. It was originally a monastic church (13th century) and part of a Benedictine monastery (founded in 1101). Now it is linked with the castle built on the site of the monastery after its destruction in the 16th century. This is partly due to the mixture of Romanesque and early Gothic elements. It is a triple-choired, three-aisled basilica with an elongated presbytery, an open north porch with square plan, and two western towers. Beneath the east end and the presbytery, there is a crypt with pointed rib vaults. The basilica is built from granite and sandstone. The exterior of the basilica is in square-cut granite blocks. The west elevation is in Baroque style, with 'Gothicized' features in it, and it has plaster rendering. The walls of the interior are now bare, although some traces of original plaster have been discovered in the choir. The nave has Gothicized Baroque vaults with rendered fields.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of the Jewish Quarter, the old Jewish cemetery and the Basilica of St Procopius in Třebíč are reminders of the co-existence of Jewish and Christian cultures from the Middle Ages to the 20th century. The Jewish Quarter bears outstanding testimony to the different aspects of the life of this community. St Procopius' Basilica, built as part of the Benedictine monastery in the early 13th century, is a remarkable example of the influence of Western European architectural heritage in this region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jewish Quarter and St Procopius' Basilica in Třebíč</site><states>Czechia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2258</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Koguryo kingdom existed for nearly 1,000 years, from&amp;nbsp;277 BC to 668 AD. It was established in Huanren,&amp;nbsp;Liaoning Province in China, relocated in the year 3 AD to&amp;nbsp;Kungnae Castle in Ji'an, Jilin Province, China, to Mt.&amp;nbsp;Taesong area in Pyongyang, in 427 AD and finally to the&amp;nbsp;Jangan Castle in the centre of the present day city of&amp;nbsp;Pyongyang.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Pyongyang, situated in a strategic location, had long been&amp;nbsp;the political, economic and cultural centre, as the capital of&amp;nbsp;ancient Korea (Kojoson) which is the reason why the&amp;nbsp;Koguryo kingdom moved its capital here and made great&amp;nbsp;efforts in developing it.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Koguryo kingdom expanded its territory to cover&amp;nbsp;northeast China and half of the Korean peninsula,&lt;br /&gt;becoming one of the strongest powers in the east. It&amp;nbsp;collapsed in the year 668 AD.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The best known cultural heritage remains of this kingdom&amp;nbsp;are thousands of tombs, built of stone and covered by stone&amp;nbsp;or earthen mounds. Earthen mound tombs, including many&amp;nbsp;with murals, were prevalent once Koguryo moved its&amp;nbsp;capital to Pyongyang - but existed in other parts of the&amp;nbsp;kingdom as well.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the known tombs suffered of clandestine&amp;nbsp;excavations in the last thousand years. As a result very few&amp;nbsp;were scientifically excavated prior to such activity and&amp;nbsp;there are very few complete objects coming from the&amp;nbsp;tombs. The tombs received worldwide attention only in&amp;nbsp;1905, when during the Japanese occupation many of them&amp;nbsp;were opened to the general public. The first scientific&amp;nbsp;research and documentation were carried out by Japanese&amp;nbsp;scholars between 1911 and the 1940s.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Regular surveys, excavations and documentation took&amp;nbsp;place from 1945 on.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Minor conservation actions took place in early 1940's,&amp;nbsp;such as restricting entry to tombs and creating entrances to&amp;nbsp;some. Regular maintenance, protection and conservation&amp;nbsp;works started in 1946, with proper legislation and&amp;nbsp;nomination of site managers.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1091</http_url><id_number>1091</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1091.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The wall paintings of the Koguryo Tombs are masterpieces of the culture and period of the Koguryo kingdom; the construction of the tombs demonstrates ingenious engineering solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The special burial customs of the Koguryo culture had an important influence on other cultures in the region, including those in Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Koguryo Tombs are an exceptional testimony of the Koguryo culture, its burial customs as well as its daily life and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The complex of Koguryo Tombs is an important example of burial typology.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.8630555600</latitude><location>Pyongyang, South Phyongan Province, Nampho, South Hwangghae Province</location><longitude>125.4150000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Koguryo Tombs are exceptional testimony of the Koguryo culture, its burial customs, and its daily life and beliefs. The special burial customs of thisculture had an important influence on other cultures in the region, including those in Japan. The wall paintings of the tombs are masterpieces of the culture and the period of the Koguryo Kingdom, while the construction of the tombs demonstrates ingenious engineering solutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site includes several groups and individual tombs, totalling about 30 individual graves, from the later period of the Koguryo Kingdom, one of the strongest kingdoms in north-eastern China and half of the Korean peninsula between the 3rd century BC and 7th century AD. The tombs, many with beautiful wall paintings, are almost the only remains of this culture. Only about 90 out of more than 10,000 Koguryo tombs discovered in China and Korea so far have wall paintings. Almost half of these tombs are located on this site and they are thought to have been made for the burial of kings, members of the royal family and the aristocracy. These paintings offer a unique testimony to daily life of this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site includes 63 tombs from five areas in North Korea, believed to have been constructed between the 5th and 6th centuries. Of these, the Kangso Three Tombs and the Royal Tomb of King Tongmyong, along with 16 other tombs, contain mural paintings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As Koguryo extended from what is now Jilin Province in north-eastern China to Pyongyang in North Korea, the historical sites in the two nations have long been a point of conflict over their ancestry. Koreans insist that Koguryo is a kingdom of ancient Korea based on historical evidence, whereas Chinese historians have claimed Koguryo as part of their history, as artefacts from the period have been held and preserved by China because of their geographical distribution within its borders. The two countries agreed to put the ancient kingdom's historical heritages on the World Heritage List separately as it is considered to be 'non-political' and the two countries are focusing on preserving the sites and taking advantage of them as tourist attractions and as sources of historical research.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Koguryo, one of Korea's ancient three kingdoms, existed for 700 years and was ruled by 26 wise kings. All these rulers strove to improve the welfare of the people and strengthen the military forces. Koguryo had to fight against invaders from the north, and so its citizens were well organized and trained in the art of warfare. It developed a unique culture and remarkably advanced educational, socio-political and military systems. Koguryo murals are rich in color and tone: the images of women dancing, warriors in training, birds in the sky, dragons, fish in rivers, beasts in forests, wind and clouds of the murals are so real and fresh that they seem as though they may jump out of the canvas at any time.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property includes several group and individual tombs - totalling about 30 individual tombs - from the later period of the Koguryo Kingdom, one of the strongest kingdoms in nowadays northeast China and half of the Korean peninsula between the 3rd century BC to 7th century AD. The tombs, many with beautiful wall paintings, are almost the only remains of this culture. Only about 90 out of more than 10,000 Koguryo tombs discovered in China and Korea so far, have wall paintings. Almost half of these tombs are located on this site and they are thought to have been made for the burial of kings, members of the royal family and the aristocracy. These paintings offer a unique testimony to daily life of this period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Complex of Koguryo Tombs</site><states>Democratic People's Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1269</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1278</http_url><id_number>1278</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1278.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.9816666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>126.5080555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in Kaesong city, in the south of the country, the site consists of 12 separate components, which together testify to the history and culture of the Koryo Dynasty from the 10th to 14th centuries. The geomantic layout of the former capital city of Kaesong, its palaces, institutions and tomb complex, defensive walls and gates embody the political, cultural, philosophical and spiritual values of a crucial era in the region&amp;rsquo;s history.&amp;nbsp; The monuments inscribed also include an astronomical and meteorological observatory, two schools (including one dedicated to educating national officials) and commemorative steles. The site testifies to the transition from Buddhism to neo-Confucianism in East Asia and to the assimilation of the cultural spiritual and political values of the states that existed prior to Korea&amp;rsquo;s unification under the Koryo Dynasty. The integration of Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist and geomantic concepts is manifest in the planning of the site and the architecture of its monuments.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments and Sites in Kaesong</site><states>Democratic People's Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1878</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1994</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established in 1925 as Albert National Park (809,000ha); revised by Decree No. 69-041 of 22 August 1969 as Virunga National Park. Designated as a World Heritage site in 1979.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/63</http_url><id_number>63</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_63.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>0.9166666670</latitude><location>Province of North-Kivu and Orientale province  </location><longitude>29.1666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park lies in the north-east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the border with Uganda and Rwanda, and includes part of Lake Edward (Idi Amin), the Semliki River valley, parts of the Rwindi, Ishasha and Rutshuru valleys south of the lake, the Virunga area within the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and part of the Rwenzori range. Lake Edward belongs to the Nile river system and Lake Kivu to the Congo Basin river system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Features include hot springs in the Rwindi plains and the Virunga Massif volcanoes, such as Nyamulagira (3,068&amp;nbsp;m) and Nyiragongo (3,470&amp;nbsp;m), are still active. The areas of lowest and highest rainfall in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are in Virunga National Park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The considerable altitudinal range results in marked climatic variations which affect the overall biological and geographical diversity of habitats. Habitat types include lakes at various altitudes, marshy deltas and peat bogs, savannahs and lava plains, low altitude equatorial forest, high-altitude glaciers, and snowfields (the Rwenzori peaks have permanent snow cover).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located at the border between several biogeographic zones, the park protects both tropical rainforest and eastern steppe species, and its range of altitudes adds to the habitat variety. The diversity includes: bamboo and &lt;em&gt;Hagenia&lt;/em&gt; forest on the mountains; equatorial forest along the Semiliki; wooded savannah of the Rwindi; steppes; various low savannahs; swamps and transitional habitats; dry thick forest; &lt;em&gt;Neoboutonia macrocalyx&lt;/em&gt; forest on the lava plains; wet thick forest; alpine forests; and sparse vegetation above 4,300&amp;nbsp;m comprising mainly lichens and spermatophyta, although &lt;em&gt;Graminae&lt;/em&gt; have been found growing at over 5,000&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the largest wild animal concentrations in Africa occur along the rivers of the park. Mammals in the savannah of the Rwindi area include: elephant, hippopotamus, buffalo, numerous antelope including kob, defassa waterbuck and topi, warthog, lion and various monkeys. Large numbers of pelicans occur on the lower Rutshuru. In the Semiliki Valley and on the slopes of the Virunga mountains are gorilla, chimpanzee and okapi. In the extreme north are forest hog and bongo. Birds include Nahan's francolin, forest ground thrush, shoebill and probably papyrus yellow warbler.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Virunga National Park (covering an area of 790,000 ha) comprises an outstanding diversity of habitats, ranging from swamps and steppes to the snowfields of Rwenzori at an altitude of over 5,000 m, and from lava plains to the savannahs on the slopes of volcanoes. Mountain gorillas are found in the park, some 20,000 hippopotamuses live in the rivers and birds from Siberia spend the winter there.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Virunga National Park</site><states>Democratic Republic of the Congo</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>67</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1996 P 1984-1992</danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Instituted by decree on 17 March 1938 as Garamba National Park. Prior to that, an autonomous institution had been in existence since 1925, with the main aim of managing 'Albert National Park'. From 22 August 1969, under Presidential Decree No. 69/72, the National Institute for Nature Conservation had management responsibility. On 22 July 1975, the Institut Zairois pour la Conservation de la Nature, a public institution with legal status under the authority of the state Commission for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism, was responsible for the management of the park. It was inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage list in 1980.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/136</http_url><id_number>136</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_136.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>4.0000000000</latitude><location>Orientale Province </location><longitude>29.2500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is located in the north-east of the country, on the Sudanese border. The park's immense savannahs, grasslands and woodlands, interspersed with gallery forests along the riverbanks and swampy depressions, are home to four large mammals: the elephant, giraffe, hippopotamus and above all the white rhinoceros.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A vast undulating plateau broken up by inselbergs (generally of granitic formation) and sizeable marshland depressions, it lies on the watershed between the River Nile and the River Zaire. The largest rivers are the Dungu, Aka and Garamba.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park's position, between the Guinean and Sudanese biogeographic realms, makes it particularly interesting. Three formations can be distinguished: gallery forest, forest clumps and marshland; aquatic and semi-aquatic associations; and savannahs ranging from dense woodland to virtually treeless grassland. The densely wooded savannah, gallery forests, and papyrus marshes of the north and west give way in the centre to more open tree/bush savannah. Numerous small rivers with valley grasslands and papyrus swamps dissect the grasslands. It is estimated that there are approximately 1,000 vascular plant species, of which some 5% are endemic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains probably the last viable natural population of square-lipped or northern white rhinoceros. Elephant is a unique population representing an intermediary form between the forest and savannah subspecies. Other mammals include northern savannah giraffe (occurring nowhere else in the country), hippopotamus, buffalo, hartebeest, kob, waterbuck, chimpanzee, olive baboon, colobus, vervet, de Brazzas and four other species of monkey, two species of otter, five species of mongoose, golden cat, leopard, lion, warthog, bush pig, roan antelope and six other antelope species.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The park's immense savannahs, grasslands and woodlands, interspersed with gallery forests along the river banks and the swampy depressions, are home to four large mammals: the elephant, giraffe, hippopotamus and above all the white rhinoceros. Though much larger than the black rhino, it is harmless; only some 30 individuals remain.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Garamba National Park</site><states>Democratic Republic of the Congo</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>149</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1997</danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/137</http_url><id_number>137</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_137.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-2.5000000000</latitude><location>Provinces of South-Kivu and Maniena</location><longitude>28.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park is situated in the eastern part of the country, 50&amp;nbsp;km west of the town of Bukavu, near Lake Kivu and the Rwandan border. It consists of a smaller sector on the eastern side covering part of the Mitumba Mountains, and a larger western sector in the Zairean central basin. The two zones are connected by a narrow corridor. The entrance to the park is at Tshivanga, on the eastern side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 75,000&amp;nbsp;ha eastern sector is entirely montane. The massif is part of the Mitumba Mountain range, the western mountains of the Great Rift Valley. The two main peaks, Mount Kahuzi (3,308&amp;nbsp;m) and Mount Bi&amp;eacute;ga (2,790&amp;nbsp;m) are extinct volcanoes, and the massif dates from the late Tertiary or early Quaternary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lowland sector in the Zairean central basin covers the watersheds of the tributaries of the Luka and Lugulu rivers. These both drain into the River Lualaba. The extension lies below 1,500&amp;nbsp;m apart from isolated peaks such as Mount Kamani (1,700&amp;nbsp;m), and consists of mountains cut by deep valleys. Undulating terrain in the west forms a belt between the two zones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The western zone is forested by equatorial rainforest, with transition forest between 1,200&amp;nbsp;m and 1,500&amp;nbsp;m. In the eastern zone, six different primary vegetation types have been distinguished: mountain rainforest, high-altitude rainforest, swamp forest, bamboo forest, subalpine heather and swamp and peat bog.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park was established to protect 200-300 eastern lowland (Grauer's) gorilla occurring mainly in the forests at 2,100-2,400&amp;nbsp;m, but also in the lower rainforest. The 'mosaic' of biotypes makes the park an excellent gorilla habitat. Other primates include eastern chimpanzee, and numerous &lt;em&gt;Cercopithecinae&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Colobinae&lt;/em&gt;. Other mammals include elephant, forest hog and many antelope and duiker. Avifauna includes the endemic Rockefeller's sunbird, Grauer's broadbill, Grauer's warbler and Shelley's crimsonwing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Endemic mammal species include giant gennet, Aquatic civet, Maclaud's horseshoe bat, Ruwenzori least otter shrew, owl-faced monkey, eastern needle-clawed galago, Thomas' tree squirrel and Alexander's bush squirrel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fifteen villages of shifting cultivators were located in the eastern sectors of the park when it was created and continue to be occupied. The park is situated in one of the most densely populated areas of the country. Some 90% of the population of Kivu is rural, mainly dependent on agriculture. Seven separate tribal groups live around the park including the Pygmy, Barega and Bashi peoples. Traditional livelihoods are based on shifting agriculture and subsistence hunting.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A vast area of primary tropical forest dominated by two spectacular extinct volcanoes, Kahuzi and Biega, the park has a diverse and abundant fauna. One of the last groups of eastern lowland (graueri) gorillas (consisting of only some 250 individuals) lives at between 2,100 and 2,400 m above sea-level.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kahuzi-Biega National Park</site><states>Democratic Republic of the Congo</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>150</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1999</danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Declared a national park on 30 November 1970 by Ordinance 70-318. It is defined in law as 'une reserve naturelle integrale' in the sense of the 1933 London Convention and declared a World Heritage site in October 1984.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/280</http_url><id_number>280</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_280.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-2.0000000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Equateur, Bandundu and Kasaï Oriental and Occidental&#xd;
</location><longitude>21.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park lies in a large section of the central basin of the Zaire River in Bandundu and Kasaï equatorial regions, a very isolated region mainly accessible by boat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three types of landscape can be recognized: low plateaux, river terraces and high plateaux, each with different associated vegetation. Rivers in the west of the north sector are large and meandering with marshy banks. On the higher ground in the east, valleys are deeper, and rivers may run below cliffs of up to 80 m. The south sector includes the watershed between the basin of the Luilaka to the north and east, Likoro to the west, and Lukenje to the south. Salonga is the largest tropical forest national park in the world. Equatorial forest covers most of the area, varying in composition according to the geomorphology. The principal forest types are swamp, riverine and dry-land. Evergreen ombrophile forest is dominated by well-developed stands of &lt;em&gt;Gilbertiodendron dewevrei&lt;/em&gt; . Semi-deciduous forest covers almost all areas between the rivers. Pioneer or transitory communities are found along river banks. Grassland vegetation, rather than savannah, occurs in the north sector, known locally as &lt;em&gt;botoka-djoku&lt;/em&gt; (elephant's bath). The total area of grassland is under 0.5% of the park area. Southwards, the vegetation is more open with &lt;em&gt;esobe&lt;/em&gt; clearings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important species that has been reported is the endemic dwarf chimpanzee. However, it is absent from the north sector and there is now doubt that it still exists in the south sector. Other species include colobus monkeys, long-tailed pangolin, giant ground pangolin, tree pangolin, hippopotamus, leopard, African golden cat, Angolan mongoose, Congo water civet, bush pig, yellow-backed duiker, okapi, water chevrotain, sitatunga, bushbuck, bongo and pygmy Cape buffalo. Birds include cattle egret, black stork (migrant), yellow-billed stork and the endemic Zaire 'peacock'. Reptiles include African slender-snouted crocodile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A group of less than 1,000 Ediki lives in Yaelima, Dekese zone, in the centre of the park; while 500 Kitawalistes live near Lomela substation on the northern block. Both are in contact with poachers. It is proposed to relocate them outside the central zone. In order to improve the living conditions of the local population, it has been proposed to farm grey parrot in villages in the buffer zone. Traditional fishing is undertaken in the numerous rivers, as well as hunting and gathering in the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Salonga National Park is Africa's largest tropical rainforest reserve. Situated at the heart of the central basin of the Congo river, the park is very isolated and accessible only by water. It is the habitat of many endemic endangered species, such as the dwarf chimpanzee, the Congo peacock, the forest elephant and the African slender-snouted or 'false' crocodile.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Salonga National Park</site><states>Democratic Republic of the Congo</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>314</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1997</danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/718</http_url><id_number>718</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_718.jpg</image_url><iso_code>cd</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the property as one of the most important sites for conservation, including the rare Okapi and rich floral diversity, under natural &lt;em&gt;criterion (x)&lt;/em&gt;. The Committee expressed its hope that the activities outlined in the new management plan would ensure the integrity of the site. Considering the civil unrest in the country, the question of the long-term security of the site was raised.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>2.0000000000</latitude><location>Orientale Province </location><longitude>28.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park is located in the north-east of the country in the Ituri Forest. Some 90% of the reserve lies within the Zone of Mambasa in the Ituri subregion, and the remainder within the Zones of Wamba and Watsa in Haut-Uele subregion. The park's northern boundary is the Nepoko River. The Ituri River, a major tributary of the Zaire River, forms part of the southern boundary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From an elevation of about 600&amp;nbsp;m in the west, where the rolling plateaux of the Ituri drop onto the central Zaire basin, the forest rises to more than 1,000&amp;nbsp;m in the east, giving way abruptly to the savannah hills of the Albert Rift. The majority of the reserve is composed of gently rolling forested uplands. The most important geomorphological features are the Zaire drainage system and the mountains of the Albertine rift. The Zaire basin is one of the largest and most important drainage systems in Africa. Other important watercourses include the Lenda, Ngayu and Agamba rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Floral diversity is high, four main forest types occur: swamp forest, mixed forest, Mbau forest and secondary forest. Swamp forest occurs in narrow strips along drainage channels throughout the reserve. Mixed forest typically has a crown height of 30-40&amp;nbsp;m, and a heterogeneous canopy with frequent emergent trees. Mbau forest tree height is typically 30-40&amp;nbsp;m with an even, dense canopy. The understorey is open but a subcanopy layer is absent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 52 mammal species including endemic okapi. It has very localized distribution and the Ituri Forest is one of the major areas supporting okapi populations. Other species include the endemic water chevrotain, African golden cat, leopard, giant ground pangolin, giant forest genet, anubis baboon, bush pig, pygmy antelope and giant forest hog.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ituri Forest has one of the highest numbers of duiker species in Africa; 13 primate species have been observed, the largest number known for an African forest. Also present are Zaire clawless otter, brush-tailed porcupine, bongo antelope, Sitatunga antelope, black-legged mongoose, black mongoose and marsh mongoose. Two crocodiles are found, the African slender-snouted crocodile and the African dwarf crocodile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has 329 bird species including spot-breasted ibis, olive ibis, long-tailed hawk, Nahan's francolin, black guineafowl, sandy scops owl, Nkulengu rail, Bate's nightjar, black spinetail, bare-cheeked trogon, Bedford's paradise flycatcher, black-collared lovebird, lyre-tailed honeyguide, endemic yellow-legged weaver and the endemic golden-naped weaver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hunter-gatherers and shifting cultivators have occupied the Ituri Forest for centuries. The ancestries of present forest peoples can be traced back to both Sudanic and Bantu migrations as well as to more pygmoid stocks. The Pygmy groups that today inhabit the Ituri forest include the Efe and Mbuti. They excel in the use and identification of wild plants. Pygmies have a semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle and when not hunting with traditional nets or archery, gather insects, fungi, fruits, seeds, plants and honey. They depend on wild game and fish to supplement dietary protein requirements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the agrarians in the Ituri region are Bantu, the country's dominant ethnic group that includes Lese, Mamvu, Bira, Ndaka and Budu. Long-standing economic and cultural ties exist between pygmies and traditional forest agriculturalists, with the pygmies depending on exchanges to acquire cultivated starch foods to supplement a forest diet rich in protein.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Okapi Wildlife Reserve occupies about one-fifth of the Ituri forest in the north-east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Congo river basin, of which the reserve and forest are a part, is one of the largest drainage systems in Africa. The reserve contains threatened species of primates and birds and about 5,000 of the estimated 30,000 okapi surviving in the wild. It also has some dramatic scenery, including waterfalls on the Ituri and Epulu rivers. The reserve is inhabited by traditional nomadic pygmy Mbuti and Efe hunters.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Okapi Wildlife Reserve</site><states>Democratic Republic of the Congo</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>849</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first religious Structure on the site was a wooden church built around 980 by King HaraId Bluetooth. This was replaced successively by two travertine structures, built in 1030 and1080 respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-12th century brickmaking was introduced into Denmark by craftsmen from Lombardy, and Bishop Absalom decided around 1170 to rebuild his cathedral in this new material; his work was continued after his death in 1191 by his successor, Bishop Peder Suneson. The original structure was in Romanesque Style, based on contemporary western European pilgrimage churches, with a tree aisle. However, when only the eastern half was built the plan was changed, under the influence of the Gothic style then being introduced into France. The transept was located further back and the towers planned for the choir were removed to the west end. The inspiration for this early Gothic plan came from the Cathedrals of Picarciv and the Ile-de- France, such as Noyn, Sens, Laon, Arms, Tournai, and Notre-Dame-de-Paris. Work was virtually complete by around 1275, apart from the north tower, which was finished at the end of the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the centuries that followed, chapels, porches, and other structures were built around the cathedral, first by bishops and nobles and later by the royal family, which partly hid the original Structure. These included the chapter-house, gradually extended from the early 13th century to the end of the 15th century, the chapels of St Andrew (1387) and St Bridget (later 15th century). Royal additions included the Chapel of the Magi (Christian I: 14601, the Chapel of Christian IV (early 17th century, replacing two earlier chapels), and the Chapel of Frederik V (1772, in neo-classical style). TWO royal chapels were built in the Present century: the Chapel Of Christian IX (1924) and the detached New Royal Ground (1985). After the Reformation the cathedral fell into disrepair. In the 1630s Christian IV began restoration work, which involved the addition of spires to the towers and radical redesign of the roof. It has been continuously maintained since that time, with a major restoration project in the second half of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/695</http_url><id_number>695</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_695.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.6422222200</latitude><location>Island of Sjaelland, City of Roskilde, Sealand Region&#xd;
&#xd;
 &#xd;
</location><longitude>12.0797222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Roskilde Cathedral is the earliest major ecclesiastical building in brick in northern Europe and had a profound influence on the spread of brick for this purpose over the whole region. Both in its form and in its setting it is an outstanding example of a north European cathedral complex, especially noteworthy for the successive architectural styles used in the ancillary chapels and porches added during the centuries during which it has served as the mausoleum of the Danish royal family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first religious structure on the site was a wooden church built around 980 by King HaraId Bluetooth. This was replaced successively by two travertine structures, built in 1030 and 1080 respectively. In the mid-12th century brick-making was introduced into Denmark by craftsmen from Lombardy, and Bishop Absalom decided around 1170 to rebuild his cathedral in this new material; his work was continued after his death in 1191 by his successor, Bishop Peder Suneson. The original structure was Romanesque; however, when only the eastern half had been built the plan was changed, under the influence of Gothic. The transept was located further back and the towers planned for the choir were removed to the west end. Work was virtually complete by around 1275, apart from the north tower, finished at the end of the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Roskilde Cathedral is an aisled basilica in Gothic style with a semi-circular chancel gallery. The structure is essentially in brick, with occasional use of small boulders in the interior. Externally the walls stand on a plinth of granite ashlars two courses high; in the interior there is a hollow chamfered plinth of the same material. Traces have been found of the use of squared oak beams for reinforcement, further evidence of the early date of the structure, at a period when the builders were still uncertain about the properties of the new material, brick. The interior walls were originally bare, apart from the vaulting and the soffits of the arches, which were plastered. Most of the original rich wall paintings have disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Oluf Mortensen's Porch, named after the mid-15th-century bishop who commissioned it, is one of the finest examples of Danish brick Gothic architecture. Stylistically it is linked with the Gothic brick architecture of northern Germany. It is noteworthy for its fine roof gable and for the asymmetrical but finely balanced form of the lower part of the gable facade. The bricks used for the walling are remarkable for their richness of shading, which demonstrates excellent control of the brick-making process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the centuries that followed, chapels, porches, and other structures were built around the cathedral, first by bishops and nobles and later by the royal family, which partly hid the original structure. These included the chapter-house, gradually extended from the early 13th century to the end of the 15th century, the chapels of St Andrew (1387) and St Bridget (later 15th century). Royal additions included the Chapel of the Magi (Christian I: 1460), the Chapel of Christian IV (early 17th century, replacing two earlier chapels), and the Chapel of Frederik V (1772, in neoclassical style). Two royal chapels were built in the present century: the Chapel of Christian IX (1924) and the detached New Royal Ground (1985).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two-storeyed Chapel of the Magi, completed around 1463, was originally built from glazed brick, but little remains of the glazing. The second storey, known as the Knights' Hall, contains some noteworthy carved stone. The main feature of the Chapel is, however, its rich late medieval mural decoration, which entirely covers the walls and vaults. Christian IV's Chapel, designed as a sepulchral chapel for the king, was the first post-medieval addition to the cathedral. It is constructed in the Dutch Renaissance Style. The steep ribbed vault is the largest in Denmark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Frederik V's Chapel has a cruciform central chamber connected by a transverse building to the south aisle of the cathedral. Many of the medieval furnishings of the cathedral disappeared at the Reformation, and more were sold at a notorious auction in 1806. Of what remains the outstanding piece is the reredos, a masterpiece of Dutch religious art dating from around 1560. It is a triptych, probably from Antwerp, and bears scenes from the life of Christ. The canons' stalls of 1420 are of considerable importance because of the unique series of pictures on them.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the 12th and 13th centuries, this was Scandinavia's first Gothic cathedral to be built of brick and it encouraged the spread of this style throughout northern Europe. It has been the mausoleum of the Danish royal family since the 15th century. Porches and side chapels were added up to the end of the 19th century. Thus it provides a clear overview of the development of European religious architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Roskilde Cathedral</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>822</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/696</http_url><id_number>696</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_696.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Kronborg Castle is an outstanding example of the Renaissance castle, and one which played a highly significant role in the history of this region of northern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>56.0388900000</latitude><location>Island of Sjaelland, City of Helsingör, Capital Region of Denmark&#xd;
</location><longitude>12.6208333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kronborg Castle is an outstanding example of the Renaissance castle, and one which played a highly significant role in the history of this region of northern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After he began to levy duty on ships passing through the Sound between Sjaelland and Sk&amp;aring;ne around 1425, King Erik of Pomerania built a castle known as Krogen on the site occupied today by Kronborg. It was in 1574 that King Frederik II of Denmark used this site for the construction of his palace, to the designs of the architect Hans van Paeschen. It was given the name of Kronborg three years later, when the Flemish architect, Anthonis van Opbergen from Malines, was instructed to carry out a thorough restoration and enlargement of the palace. One of the new elements added at this time was a capacious banqueting hall, which was used for balls and theatrical performances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On September 1629 Kronborg was devastated by fire, only the walls being left standing. Christian IV immediately commissioned the Surveyor General, Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger, to carry out the restoration of the castle, which largely conformed to its original appearance. Under Frederik III and Christian V large fortifications were built, the outer defensive works were considerably enlarged under Frederik IV, and the castle itself underwent substantial restoration and alteration. In 1785 it passed to the military. It has remained intact to the present day. It is world-renowned as Elsinore, the setting of Shakespeare's Hamlet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest part of Kronborg Castle consists of the two lower floors on the eastern end of the north wing, which formed part of Erik of Pomerania's Kroge castle. The medieval brickwork here extends well into the present-day third storey. Frederik II's palace was based on this relatively modest structure. The north wing was extended and joined to the old banqueting hall on the west, which was divided up to become the kitchen, brewhouse and guest chambers. To the south a medieval brick house was converted into an imposing royal chapel. The result was a three-sided complex of two-storey buildings; there appear to have been no buildings on the east side, overlooking the Sound, which was closed only by the earlier curtain wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the king's abrupt change of plan in 1577, a magnificent banqueting hall was built on the south, joined to the north wing by a new three-storey suite of rooms with a regular courtyard facade. The lofty Trumpeter's Tower was added on the south side. At the same time a third storey was added to the buildings on the other three sides. Following the disastrous fire of 1629, the castle was reconstructed almost exactly as it had been before. The result is a Renaissance palace that reflects the piecemeal nature of its construction, with only the west wing having a facade designed as an integrated whole. The interior of the castle presents the same heterogeneity of style and layout as the exterior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The chapel, which was the only building not to have been ravaged by fire in 1629, preserves its original altar, gallery and pews, with fine carvings and painted panels. The north wing, now a three-storey building faced with sandstone, has the royal apartments on its second storey. Although the layout of rooms is much as it was at the time of Frederik II, the decoration dates mainly from the 17th and 18th centuries. The top floor of the east wing was arranged as a long gallery in 1583, to enable the queen to reach the Banqueting Hall in the south wing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The latter appears originally to have been divided into two levels at its east end, presumably providing a gallery, which has been removed. In its original form the Banqueting Hall had a magnificently carved and gilded ceiling and its walls were hung with tapestries. After the fire of 1629 it was rebuilt, to a greater height but less lavishly decorated. Only 14 of the tapestries, prepared for the north wall and depicting Danish kings, have survived; of these seven are on display at Kronborg, the remainder being in the National Museum in Copenhagen. Other important components of the Kronborg complex are the Little Hall in the west wing, the so-called 'Scottish Suite' in the west wing, and Frederik V's apartments on the top floor of the north wing.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on a strategically important site commanding the Sund, the stretch of water between Denmark and Sweden, the Royal castle of Kronborg at Helsing&amp;oslash;r (Elsinore) is of immense symbolic value to the Danish people and played a key role in the history of northern Europe in the 16th-18th centuries. Work began on the construction of this outstanding Renaissance castle in 1574, and its defences were reinforced according to the canons of the period's military architecture in the late 17th century. It has remained intact to the present day. It is world-renowned as Elsinore, the setting of Shakespeare's Hamlet.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kronborg Castle</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>824</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1149</http_url><id_number>1149</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1149.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; The Ilulissat Icefjord is an outstanding example of a stage in the Earth’s history: the last ice age of the Quaternary Period. The ice-stream is one of the fastest (19m per day) and most active in the world. Its annual calving of over 35 cu. km of ice accounts for 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice, more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. The glacier has been the object of scientific attention for 250 years and, along with its relative ease of accessibility, has significantly added to the understanding of ice-cap glaciology, climate change and related geomorphic processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii):&lt;/em&gt; The combination of a huge ice sheet and a fast moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs is a phenomenon only seen in Greenland and Antarctica. Ilulissat offers both scientists and visitors easy access for close view of the calving glacier front as it cascades down from the ice sheet and into the ice-choked fjord. The wild and highly scenic combination of rock, ice and sea, along with the dramatic sounds produced by the moving ice, combine to present a memorable natural spectacle.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>69.1333333300</latitude><location>West coast of Greenland, Bay of Disko Bugt (bight), Municipality of Ilulissat</location><longitude>-49.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250&amp;nbsp;km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland's Ilulissat Icefjord (40,240&amp;nbsp;ha) is the sea mouth of Sermeq Kujalleq, one of the few glaciers through which the Greenland ice cap reaches the sea. Sermeq Kujalleq is one of the fastest (19&amp;nbsp;m per day) and most active glaciers in the world. Its annual calving is of over 35&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of ice, 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice and more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. Studied for over 250 years, it has helped develop our understanding of climate change and ice-cap glaciology. The combination of a huge ice-sheet and the dramatic sounds of a fast-moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs make for a dramatic and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora of the area is a low-arctic type, typical of the nutrient-poor silicaceous soil which, where humid, shows solifluction an effect such as frost boils. Colonization of the margins of retreating ice also provides examples of plant succession. The main plant communities of the area are heath, fell-field, snow-patch, herb-slope, willow-scrub, fen, river-bank, seashore and aquatic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The upwelling caused by calving icebergs brings up nutrient-rich water which supports prolific invertebrate life and attracts great numbers of fish, seals and whales that feed on the generated nutrients. 20 species of fish have been recorded in the area; the dominant species is the flatfish Greenland halibut which feeds mainly on northern shrimp and euphausid crustaceans. The halibut migrates seasonally in and out of the fjord, living both on the benthos and in the open sea. Warmer waters bring the Atlantic cod, ringed seal and Greenland shark to the area. All three species are hunted by man and feed on the halibut. Harp seals, fin and minke whales occur in summer at the fjord mouth with very occasional blue and Greenland whales. Beluga visit Disko Bugt in autumn and winter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The seabirds are typical for the area, with numerous breeding colonies attracted by the high primary productivity of the glacier front, and by fish discarded by the local fishery. Large flocks of northern fulmar and gulls feed among the grounded icebergs. These are mainly Iceland gulls, glaucous gulls with lesser numbers of great black-backed gulls, kittiwakes and guillemots with great cormorant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Land birds are few and also typical for the area; there are few mammals within the locality. Arctic fox is believed to be common, whereas Arctic hare occur mainly in the higher land near the inland ice. Reindeer live only to the south of the icefjord, and polar bears are very rare visitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greenland has been inhabited for 4,500 years, settlers migrating from Asia via the Bering Straits and north-west Greenland in three main waves, known as the Saqqaq, Dorset and from 1000 BP, the Thule peoples. Their middens are shown in clear section at the Thule settlement of Sermermuit near Ilulissat. Norsemen inhabited south-west Greenland between AD 985 and 1450. During the 16th-18th centuries explorers followed by whalers inhabited the area. The nominated area includes the archaeologically valuable sites of Sermermuit, abandoned in 1850, and Qajaa on the south side of the fjord, abandoned earlier. The early settlers summered in tents but used stone and turf hovels in winter. The first local Danish settlement was in 1742 at Jakobshavn, now Ilulissat.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250 km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland’s Ilulissat Icefjord is the sea mouth of Sermeq Kujalleq, one of the few glaciers through which the Greenland ice cap reaches the sea. Sermeq Kujalleq is one of the fastest and most active glaciers in the world. It annually calves over 35 km3 of ice, i.e. 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice and more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. Studied for over 250 years, it has helped to develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology. The combination of a huge ice-sheet and the dramatic sounds of a fast-moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs makes for a dramatic and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ilulissat Icefjord</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1330</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1416</http_url><id_number>1416</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1416.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.2672222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>12.4233333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This geological site comprises a 15 km-long fossil-rich coastal cliff, offering exceptional evidence of the impact of the Chicxulub meteorite that crashed into the planet at the end of the Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago. Researchers think that this caused the most remarkable mass extinction ever, responsible for the disappearance of over 50 per cent of all life on Earth. The site harbours a record of the cloud of ash formed by the impact of the meteorite – the exact site being at the bottom of the ocean off the coast of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula. An exceptional fossil record is visible at the site, showing the complete succession of fauna and micro-fauna charting the recovery after the mass extinction.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stevns Klint</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1973</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1468</http_url><id_number>1468</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1468.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.3555555556</latitude><location>N55 21 20 E9 28 53</location><longitude>9.4813888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1773 in South Jutland, the site is an example of a planned settlement of the Moravian Church, a Lutheran free congregation centred in Herrnhut, Saxony. The town was planned to represent the Protestant urban ideal, constructed around a central Church square. The architecture is homogenous and unadorned, with one and two-storey buildings in yellow brick with red tile roofs. The democratic organization of the Moravian Church, with its pioneering egalitarian philosophy, is expressed in its humanistic town planning. The settlement’s plan opens onto agricultural land and includes important buildings for the common welfare such as large communal houses for the congregation’s widows and unmarried men and women. The buildings are still in use and many are still owned by the local Moravian Church community .&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Christiansfeld, a Moravian Church Settlement</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2029</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1469</http_url><id_number>1469</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1469.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.9136111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>12.3577777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located about 30 km northeast of Copenhagen, this cultural landscape encompasses the two hunting forests of Store Dyrehave and Gribskov, as well as the hunting park of Jægersborg Hegn/Jægersborg Dyrehave. This is a designed landscape where Danish kings and their court practiced par force hunting, or hunting with hounds, which reached its peak between the 17th and the late 18th centuries, when the absloute monarchs transformed it into a landscape of power. With hunting lanes laid out in a star system, combined with an orthogonal grid pattern, numbered stone posts, fences and a hunting lodge, the site demonstrates the application of Baroque landscaping principles to forested areas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The par force hunting landscape in North Zealand</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2030</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1536</http_url><id_number>1536</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1536.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>61.1644444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>-45.5980555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kujataa is a subarctic farming landscape located in the southern region of Greenland. It bears witness to the cultural histories of the Norse farmer-hunters who started arriving from Iceland in the 10th century and of the Inuit hunters and Inuit farming communities that developed from the end of the 18th century. Despite their differences, the two cultures, European Norse and Inuit, created a cultural landscape based on farming, grazing and marine mammal hunting. The landscape represents the earliest introduction of farming to the Arctic, and the Norse expansion of settlement beyond Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kujataa Greenland: Norse and Inuit Farming at the Edge of the Ice Cap</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2154</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1557</http_url><id_number>1557</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1557.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>67.0639305556</latitude><location></location><longitude>-51.4332055556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located inside the Arctic Circle in the central part of West Greenland, the property contains the remains of 4,200 years of human history. It is a cultural landscape which bears witness to its creators’ hunting of land and sea animals, seasonal migrations and a rich and well-preserved tangible and intangible cultural heritage linked to climate, navigation and medicine. The features of the property include large winter houses and evidence of caribou hunting, as well as archaeological sites from Paleo-Inuit and Inuit cultures. The cultural landscape includes seven key localities, from Nipisat in the west to Aasivissuit, near the ice cap in the east. It bears testimony to the resilience of the human cultures of the region and their traditions of seasonal migration.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aasivissuit – Nipisat. Inuit Hunting Ground between Ice and Sea</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2221</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Many of the early Danish records relating to the Viking Ring Corm and Queen Thyre are recognized by scholars not to be based on reliable tradition. There is no direct evidence that the two large grave-mounds at Jelling were those of the two monarchs. The only irrefutable link is that provided by the two runic stones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nonetheless, certain facts are incontrovertible. Jelling was a Royal manor in the 10th century, during the reign of Corm and his son Harald Bluetooth. Corm erected a stone here in memory of his wife Thyre, and the royal couple ruled a realm known as Denmark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first wooden church built on the site of the present edifice was the largest of its kind anywhere in Scandinavia. Archaeological evidence suggests that it was built in the later 10th century, during the period around 960 when Harald Bluetooth introduced Christianity into Denmark, as he proclaims on the larger of the two nmic stones. A large timber-lined tomb of 10th century type, containing high-status artefacts, was an integral feature of the design of this first church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The larger of the two runic stones bearing Harald's inscription is located symmetrically between the two burial mounds, which has been shown by archaeological excavation to be its original location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The north mound was constructed over an impressive burial chamber of oak, cut into an earlier Bronze Age barrow of much smaller dimensions. This chamber had been opened before the first excavation took place in 1820. The greater part of its original contents had been removed, but the few remaining items showed that it had been a high-status pagan burial of the mid-10th century. It is uncertain whether this was a single or double burial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The south mound contains no burial chamber. Excavation has revealed that it is built over a stone alignment (possibly a ship-setting of Viking type), precisely orientated towards the Bronze Age barrow underlying the north mound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hypothetical reconstruction of the sequence at Jelling is as follows. After the death of QueenThyne, her husband raised a stone in her memory and laid out a joint funerary monument consisting of two very large mounds. On his death he was buried in the chamber of the north mound, which may already have contained Thyre's remains. After bringing Denmark and Norway together and introducing Christianity into Denmark, their son Harald Bluetooth set up a stone proclaiming his achievements between the two mounds and built an impressive wooden church, in which the remains of his father were re-interred.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/697</http_url><id_number>697</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_697.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.7563888900</latitude><location>Vejle Commune, Region of Southern Denmark</location><longitude>9.4200000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jelling complex, and especially the pagan burial mounds and the two runic stones, are outstanding examples of the pagan Nordic culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many of the early Danish records relating to the Viking King Gorm and Queen Thyre are recognized by scholars not to be based on reliable tradition. There is no direct evidence that the two large grave-mounds at Jelling were those of the two monarchs. The only irrefutable link is that provided by the two runic stones. Nonetheless, certain facts are incontrovertible. Jelling was a royal manor in the 10th century, during the reign of Gorm and his son Harald Bluetooth. Gorm erected a stone here in memory of his wife Thyre, and the royal couple ruled a realm known as Denmark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first wooden church built on the site of the present edifice was the largest of its kind anywhere in Scandinavia. Archaeological evidence suggests that it was built in the later 10th century, during the period around 960 when Harald Bluetooth introduced Christianity into Denmark, as he proclaims on the larger of the two runic stones. A large timber-lined tomb of 10th-century type, containing high-status artefacts, was an integral feature of the design of this first church. The larger of the two runic stones bearing Harald's inscription is located symmetrically between the two burial mounds, which has been shown by archaeological excavation to be its original location. The north mound was constructed over an impressive burial chamber of oak, cut into an earlier Bronze Age barrow of much smaller dimensions. This chamber had been opened before the first excavation took place in 1820. The greater part of its original contents had been removed, but the few remaining items showed that it had been a high-status pagan burial of the mid-10th century. It is uncertain whether this was a single or double burial. The south mound contains no burial chamber. Excavation has revealed that it is built over a stone alignment (possibly a ship-setting of Viking type), precisely orientated towards the Bronze Age barrow underlying the north mound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hypothetical reconstruction of the sequence at Jelling is as follows. After the death of Queen Thyre, her husband raised a stone in her memory and laid out a joint funerary monument consisting of two very large mounds. On his death he was buried in the chamber of the north mound, which may already have contained Tyre's remains. After bringing Denmark and Norway together and introducing Christianity into Denmark, their son Harald Bluetooth set up a stone proclaiming his achievements between the two mounds and built an impressive wooden church, in which the remains of his father were reinterred. The two flat-topped mounds are almost identical in shape (a truncated cone) and size. The larger runic stone is located exactly midway between the two mounds. Its inscription reads: 'King Harald bade this monument be made in memory of Gorm his father and Thyre his mother, that Harald who won for himself all Denmark and Norway and made the Danes Christians.' Most of the inscription is on the east face of the stone, and is surmounted by a carved depiction of a typical Nordic dragon in interlace ornament. The remainder of the inscription, relating to the Christianization of the Danes between 953 and 965, is on the south-west face, which also bears the earliest depiction of Christ in Scandinavia. Alongside it is the smaller runic stone. This is not in its original position, which is not known; it has been at its present location since about 1630. The inscription reads: 'King Gorm made this monument to his wife Thyre, Denmark's ornament.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present church, which archaeological excavation has shown to have been preceded by at least three churches built from wood, all of which were destroyed by fire, is a simple whitewashed structure built from calcareous tufa, an easily quarried local material. Its reconstruction began around 1100, when it consisted of a chancel and nave; the tower at the west end was added in the early 15th century. Mural paintings dating from around 1100 (and thus the earliest in Denmark) came to light on the walls of the chancel in 1874-75.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jelling burial mounds and one of the runic stones are striking examples of pagan Nordic culture, while the other runic stone and the church illustrate the Christianization of the Danish people towards the middle of the 10th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jelling Mounds, Runic Stones and Church</site><states>Denmark</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2316</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Morne Trois Pitons National Park was first proposed as a forest reserve in 1952. The area was designated as National Park under the National Parks and Protected Areas Act No.16 of July 1975.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/814</http_url><id_number>814</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_814.jpg</image_url><iso_code>dm</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the Morne Trois Pitons National Park on the basis of natural &lt;em&gt;criteria (viii)&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;(x)&lt;/em&gt; for its diverse flora with endemic species of vascular plants, its volcanoes, rivers and waterfalls, illustrating ongoing geo-morphological processes with high scenic value.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>15.2666666700</latitude><location>South central part of the island</location><longitude>-61.2833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Morne Trois Pitons is located 13&amp;nbsp;km east of the town of Roseau in the highlands of south-central Dominica and it is the basaltic spike-like remains of a former volcano rising to approximately 1,300&amp;nbsp;m, within 8&amp;nbsp;km of the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape is characterized by volcanic piles with precipitous slopes, and deeply incised valleys (&lt;em&gt;glacis&lt;/em&gt; slopes). There is also a fumarole known as Valley of Desolation (or Grand Soufriere), with fumaroles, hot springs, mud pots, sulphur vents and the Boiling Lake, which is the world's second largest of its kind. The valley is a large amphitheatre surrounded by mountains and consisting of at least three separate craters where steam vents, small ponds, and hot springs bubble up through the ground. Boiling Lake is surrounded by cliffs and is almost always covered by clouds of steam. The Valley of Desolation drains into the Pointe Mulatre River, which flows into the Atlantic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other outstanding features in the area include the Emerald Pool, fed by the Middleham Falls; Stinking Hole, a lava tube in the middle of the forest; and the Boeri and Freshwater lakes. The Freshwater Lake is the largest and second deepest of Dominica's four freshwater lakes. The Boeri Lake is the second largest in Dominica, and is located in the crater of an extinct volcano. Both lakes are separated from each other by Morne Macaque (1,221&amp;nbsp;m) and vary in depth with the season. Both are thought to have originated some 25,000-30,000 years ago. The park also encompasses almost all the headwaters of the streams and rivers in the southern half of the island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Five natural vegetation zones are recognized within the area, plus a small patch of encroaching agricultural land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;Elfin/cloud forest, which occurs at the highest elevations, above 914&amp;nbsp;m, and is almost constantly covered by mist and subject to high winds, rain and cold temperatures. Main vegetation types consist of mosses, ferns, shrubs and stunted trees covered by lichens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Montane thicket, which is transitional between elfin and montane forests, is dominated by spindly trees. The most common tree found on steep slopes is Podocarpus coriaceus, the island's only native conifer. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Montane rainforest, which grows above 610m, is frequently in cloud cover or fog. The species composition is similar to that of mature rainforest, yet much reduced in stature. Non-vascular epiphytes cover most montane rainforest plants. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Mature rainforest, which grows below 460m. This zone contains the most luxuriant growth. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The occurrence of at least 7 species of mammal, 50 birds, 12 reptiles and amphibians and 12 crustaceans is indicated. Apart from introduced opossum and agouti, there are no terrestrial mammals in the area. Other introduced mammals include feral cats and pigs and rats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Birds include imperial Amazon and red-necked Amazon parrots. Imperial Amazon was formerly common but is now threatened in Dominica. Red-necked Amazon was also a commonly seen species, but now is rarely observed in only a few small areas of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are no poisonous snakes in Dominica. Boa grows to 3.6&amp;nbsp;m in length and is common in Morne Trois Pitons. Three species of lizards, including the endemic, exist in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Luxuriant natural tropical forest blends with scenic volcanic features of great scientific interest in this national park centred on the 1,342-m-high volcano known as Morne Trois Pitons. With its precipitous slopes and deeply incised valleys, 50 fumaroles, hot springs, three freshwater lakes, a 'boiling lake' and five volcanoes, located on the park's nearly 7,000 ha, together with the richest biodiversity in the Lesser Antilles, Morne Trois Pitons National Park presents a rare combination of natural features of World Heritage value.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Morne Trois Pitons National Park</site><states>Dominica</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>962</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/526</http_url><id_number>526</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_526.jpg</image_url><iso_code>do</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.4833333300</latitude><location>Distrito Nacional</location><longitude>-69.9166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;After the arrival of Christopher Columbus on the island of Hispaniola in 1492, Santo Domingo became the site of the first cathedral, hospital, customs house and university in the Americas. This colonial town was laid out on the grid pattern that became the model for almost all town planners in the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first impression of the Spanish colonizers was favourable: the nature was luxuriant; the aborigines were friendly, and it seemed that the ground was rich in gold. Using what was left of the Santa María, Columbus built the fort of the Nativity (Navidad) on the northern coast of the island not far away from a peak that he called Christi Mount, leaving 39 men there under the protection of the village head. When Columbus returned to Hispaniola a year later, the fort had been destroyed, his men were dead, and the aborigines had become mistrustful. He founded a new colony further to the east, which he called Isabella, and left it under the control of Bartholomew. However, the first revolts were very soon to begin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1496, Bartholomew abandoned Isabella in order to move on the southern coast of the island, where he established the settlement of Nueva Isabella, now Santo Domingo, on the left bank of the Ozama River. Because of the insurrections that continued to upset the island, Columbus was replaced as Viceroy and Governor of the colony by Nicolás de Ovando. In 1502 a typhoon destroyed the city and the fleet that was preparing to return to Castile. Ovando decided that the city should be completely rebuilt on its present site on the Ozama.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This colonial town was laid out on the grid pattern that became the model for almost all town planners in the New World. The city was to be embellished with a cathedral, a hospital, convents, a fortress and a university. At that time it was not appropriate to describe these buildings as having been built in the colonial architectural style because they were all based on plans that faithfully followed models imported from Spain. Earthquakes and pirate attacks were in due course to ravage the main buildings of the city, such as the convents of the Dominican, Franciscan and Las Mercedes, the three religious orders that pioneered the evangelization of the New World, and the Hospital of Nicolás de Ovando.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most outstanding buildings, the cathedral was constructed between 1514 and 1542; it is the oldest in America, and is one of the architectural wonders of the Colonial City. The main entrance stands next to the Columbus Plaza, where stands a giant statue of the great navigator himself. The fine stained glass is by the famed Dominican artist José Rinçon Mora.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ozama Fortress and Tower of Homage were built in 1503: this stone group is said to be the oldest formal military outpost still standing in America. The Tower of Homage still stands in the centre of the grounds, an impressive architectural structure that is medieval in style and design.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;After Christopher Columbus's arrival on the island in 1492, Santo Domingo became the site of the first cathedral, hospital, customs house and university in the Americas. This colonial town, founded in 1498, was laid out on a grid pattern that became the model for almost all town planners in the New World.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Colonial City of Santo Domingo</site><states>Dominican Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>615</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2007-2010</danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1</http_url><id_number>1</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ec</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-0.8166700000</latitude><location>Cantons: San Cristobal, Santa Cruz and Isabela, Province of Galapagos</location><longitude>-91.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Pacific some 1,000 km from the South American continent, these islands and the surrounding marine reserve have been called a unique 'living museum and showcase of evolution'. Located at the confluence of three ocean currents, the Galápagos are a 'melting pot' of marine species. Ongoing seismic and volcanic activity reflect the processes that formed the islands. These processes, together with the extreme isolation of the islands, led to the development of unusual animal life such as the land iguana, the giant tortoise and the many species of finch that inspired Charles Darwin's theory of evolution following his visit in 1835.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is situated on the Galápagos Submarine Platform, and consists of about 120 islands. The larger islands are Isabela, Santa Cruz, Fernandina, Santiago and San Cristobal. The islands were formed by volcanic processes and most represent the summit of a volcano, some of which rise over 3,000 m from the Pacific floor. The western part of the archipelago experiences intense volcanic and seismic activity. The larger islands typically comprise one or more gently sloping shield volcano, culminating in collapsed craters or calderas. Long stretches of shoreline are only slightly eroded, but in many places faulting and marine erosion have produced steep cliffs and lava, coral or shell sand beaches. Other noteworthy landscape features include crater lakes, fumaroles, lava tubes, sulphur fields and a great variety of lava and other ejects such as pumice, ash and tuff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The marine environments are highly varied and are associated with water temperature regimes reflecting differences in nutrient and light levels. These range from warm temperate conditions brought on by vigorous upwelling (Equatorial Undercurrent) and a moderately cool, warm temperate-subtropical influence (Peru Flow).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is considerable variation in altitude, area and orientation between the islands which when combined with their physical separation, has contributed towards the species diversity and endemism on particular islands. Coastal vegetation occurs along beaches, salt-water lagoons and low, broken, boulder-strewn shores. Protected coves and lagoons are dominated by mangrove swamps. The arid zone is found immediately inland from the coastal zone, and is the most widespread formation in the islands. The humid zone emerges above the arid zone through a transition belt in which elements of the two are combined. It is a very damp zone maintained in the dry season by thick, garua fogs which accumulate through most of the night and last well into each day. A fern-grass-sedge zone covers the summit areas of the larger islands where moisture is retained in temporary pools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The endemic fauna includes invertebrate, reptile and bird species. There are a few indigenous mammals. All the reptiles, except for two marine tortoises, are endemic. These include the Galápagos giant tortoise, with 11 subspecies on different islands, all of which are endangered, terrestrial iguanas, marine iguana, three racer species, numerous lizards of the genus and geckos. The native avifauna includes 57 residents, of which 26 (46%) are endemic and 31 are regular migrants. Endemic taxa include 13 species of Darwin's finches, including Floreana tree finch and mangrove finch. Other noteworthy species include dark-rumped petrel, Galápagos flightless cormorant, Galápagos penguin, lava gull, Floreana mockingbird, Galápagos hawk, lava heron, nocturnal swallow-tailed gull, Galápagos rail, thick-billed flycatcher, Galápagos martin and Galápagos dove. The native mammalian fauna includes six species: Galápagos fur seal, Galápagos sea lion, two species of rice rat, bat and hoary bat. Marine fauna includes several species of sharks, rays and Cetaceans. Green turtle and hawksbill turtle are common in surrounding waters, with the former nesting on sandy beaches.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2001</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Pacific Ocean some 1,000 km from the South American continent, these 19 islands and the surrounding marine reserve have been called a unique ‘living museum and showcase of evolution’. Located at the confluence of three ocean currents, the Galápagos are a ‘melting pot’ of marine species. Ongoing seismic and volcanic activity reflects the processes that formed the islands. These processes, together with the extreme isolation of the islands, led to the development of unusual animal life – such as the land iguana, the giant tortoise and the many types of finch – that inspired Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection following his visit in 1835.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Galápagos Islands</site><states>Ecuador</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>4</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/2</http_url><id_number>2</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_2.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ec</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-0.0038888890</latitude><location>Province of Pinchinada, City and Canton of Quito</location><longitude>-78.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Quito, the capital of Ecuador, forms a harmonious ensemble &lt;em&gt;sui generis&lt;/em&gt;, where the actions of man and nature are brought together to create a work unique and transcendental of its kind. With its historic centre and its buildings the city is an outstanding example of the Baroque school of Quito, a fusion of European and indigenous art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city occupies a small basin in the great central plateau formed by the volcano Pichincha, the Puengasi ridge, and ridges formed by spurs from the eastern side of Pichincha. The land upon which Quito is built is uneven and is traversed by two deep ravines (quebradas), one of which is arched over in great part to preserve the alignment of the streets, the drainage of which escapes through a cleft in the ridge northward to the plain of Tumbaco.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Quito (2,850&amp;nbsp;m above sea level) derives its name from the Quitus, who inhabited the region a long time before the Spanish conquest. In 533 Sebastian Benalcazar took peaceable possession of the native town, which had been successively a capital of the Seyris and the Incas, and in 1541 it was elevated to the rank of a Spanish city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its full title was San Francisco del Quito, and it was the capital of the province or presidency of Quito down to the end of Spanish colonial rule. It has suffered repeatedly from earthquakes, the greatest damage occurring from those of 1797 and 1859 but the city has the best preserved and least altered historic centre in Latin America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Franciscan Order was the first to establish itself in Quito and immediately started built a monastery which became the centre of education and art with its own schools of painting and sculpture. The Augustinian, Dominicans and Jesuits subsequently shaped the appearance of the city with their monasteries. The monasteries of San Francisco and Santo Domingo and the Church and Jesuit College of La Compa&amp;ntilde;&amp;iacute;a with their rich interiors are pure examples of the so-called 'Baroque school of Quito', a fusion of Spanish, Italian, Moorish, Flemish and indigenous art. La Compa&amp;ntilde;&amp;iacute;a is probably the richest church in South America with its golden altar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city is in great part laid out in rectangular squares, the streets approximately aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The houses of Quito are chiefly built in the old Spanish or Moorish style. The building material in general use is sun-dried brick, covered in the better houses with plaster or stucco.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The public buildings are of the heavy Spanish type. Facing on to the principal square are the cathedral, the government palace, the archbishop's palace and the city hall. The finest building in the city is the Jesuit church, the facade of which is covered with elaborate carving.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Quito, the capital of Ecuador, was founded in the 16th century on the ruins of an Inca city and stands at an altitude of 2,850 m. Despite the 1917 earthquake, the city has the best-preserved, least altered historic centre in Latin America. The monasteries of San Francisco and Santo Domingo, and the Church and Jesuit College of La Compañía, with their rich interiors, are pure examples of the 'Baroque school of Quito', which is a fusion of Spanish, Italian, Moorish, Flemish and indigenous art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Quito</site><states>Ecuador</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>5</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1992-2005</danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established as a Wildlife Reserve on 16 June 1975 under Interministry Agreement No. 190. The status was changed to National Park on 26 July 1979 under Interministry Agreement No. 322. Inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List in 1983.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/260</http_url><id_number>260</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_260.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ec</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-1.8333300000</latitude><location>Provinces of Morona Santiago, Chimborazo and Tungurahua</location><longitude>-78.3333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is situated in the Cordillera Oriental region of the Andes in central Ecuador. The park is dominated by three volcanoes, Tungurahua (5,016&amp;nbsp;m) and El Altar (5,139&amp;nbsp;m) to the north-west and Sangay (5,230&amp;nbsp;m) in the central section of the park. Tungurahua and Sangay are both still active. Sangay regularly ejects hot rocks and tephra, and the last violent eruptions of Tungurahua occurred from 1916 to 1925. El Altar has an eroded and glaciated caldera and is considered extinct. The park has three landscapes: alluvial fans, eastern foothills and the High Andes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Major rivers drain eastwards into the Amazon Basin and are characterized by rapid and dramatic variations in level. Numerous waterfalls occur, especially in the hanging valleys of the glaciated zone and along the eastern edge of the Cordillera. Numerous lakes are present, including Laguna Pintada which measures 5&amp;nbsp;km in length.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A high diversity of vegetation types are present, ranging from alpine zones of the high paramo to the subtropical rain and wet forests of the upper Amazon Basin. The principal physical factors influencing vegetation are altitude and rainfall, with more luxuriant vegetation growing on the wetter eastern slopes. Alpine rain tundra has formed at the highest levels below the snowline, and is dominated by lichens and bryophytes. A subalpine rain Paramo zone occurs below this. Montane wet forest is found in valleys to the west. At lower elevations, there is a greater variety of small trees and shrubs. Montane rainforest has developed on the wetter eastern slopes and occurs below 3,750&amp;nbsp;m. The vegetation of the upper half of this zone attains approximately 5&amp;nbsp;m. Below 3,000&amp;nbsp;m, the vegetation develops into forest up to 12&amp;nbsp;m high; between 2,000&amp;nbsp;m and 3,000&amp;nbsp;m lower montane rainforest occurs on steep-sided valleys. Subtropical rainforest occurs below 2,000&amp;nbsp;m where temperatures range from 18&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C to 24&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C and rainfall may reach 5,000&amp;nbsp;mm annually. Species diversity is very high and members of the &lt;em&gt;Lauraceae&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Moraceae&lt;/em&gt; families. This formation receives less rainfall in the south, forming a subtropical wet forest, although there is no clear distinction with wetter areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fauna species distributions correspond with vegetation zones and there is a distinct altitudinal zonation. At the highest altitudes mountain tapir, puma, guinea pig and Andean fox occur. Elsewhere spectacled bear, jaguar, ocelot, margay, white-tailed deer, brocket deer, pudu and giant otter are found. The park contains two Endemic Bird Areas, the Central Andean p&amp;aacute;ramo, home to 10 bird species of restricted range, and the eastern Andes of Ecuador and northern Peru, home to 15 restricted-range species. Noteworthy species include condor, seen particularly around the mountain area of Altar, cubillin and quilimas, cock-of-the-rock, which exists in substantial populations in inaccessible upper forest areas of the eastern Andean slopes, giant hummingbird, torrent duck, king vulture and swallow-tailed kite.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;With its outstanding natural beauty and two active volcanoes, the park illustrates the entire spectrum of ecosystems, ranging from tropical rainforests to glaciers, with striking contrasts between the snowcapped peaks and the forests of the plains. Its isolation has encouraged the survival of indigenous species such as the mountain tapir and the Andean condor.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sangay National Park</site><states>Ecuador</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>290</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town was founded in 1557, on the orders of the Viceroy Andr&amp;eacute;s Hurtado de Mendoza, on a site next to Pumpapungo. The purpose was to turn it into an agricultural centre, since the conditions of the surrounding plains were favourable for farming and stock raising. The aim was also to establish an administrative centre for the numerous Indian populations in this Andean region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Cuenca developed slowly, because it was hampered for a long time by its initial layout, and remained a centre for agricultural production. It incorporated a succession of architectural contributions, in keeping with its urban fabric and character as a colonial town. This situation continued until political independence from the Spanish Crown in 1820. At the same time, the various populations and cultures intermingled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the second half of the 19th century, the town went through a manufacturing phase, particularly the production of quinine and straw hats. This development enabled it to become relatively richer, and it was accompanied by the construction of some more important buildings, including the University of Cuenca in 1867.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Owing to its geographical isolation, Cuenca had a coherent urban profile until 1950. However, this was followed by the threats of urban expansion and transformations resulting from pressure exerted by real-estate promotion and new social requirements. An Urban Development Plan for the Metropolitan Area of Cuenca was adopted in 1982 to safeguard the image of the town and to restore several buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/863</http_url><id_number>863</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_863.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ec</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): Cuenca illustrates the successful implantation of the principles of Renaissance urban planning in the Americas. Criterion (iv): The successful fusion of different societies and cultures in Latin America is vividly symbolized by the layout and townscape of Cuenca. Criterion (v): Cuenca is an outstanding example of a planned inland Spanish colonial city.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-2.8833333330</latitude><location>Province of Azuay</location><longitude>-78.9833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cuenca is an outstanding example of a planned inland Spanish colonial city, demonstrating the successful implantation of the principles of Renaissance urban planning in the Americas. In addition, the successful fusion of different societies and cultures in Latin America is vividly symbolized by the layout and townscape of Cuenca.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Ana de los R&amp;iacute;os de Cuenca is set in a valley surrounded by the Andean mountains in the south of Ecuador. This inland colonial town (entroterra), now the country's third city, was founded on the rigorous planning guidelines issued thirty years earlier by the Spanish king Charles V. Cuenca still observes the formal orthogonal town plan that it has respected for 400 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was founded in 1557, on the orders of the Viceroy Andr&amp;eacute;s Hurtado de Mendoza, on a site next to Pumpapungo. The purpose was to turn it into an agricultural centre, as the conditions of the surrounding plains were favourable for farming and stock-raising. The aim was also to establish an administrative centre for the numerous Indian populations in this Andean region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Cuenca developed slowly, because it was hampered for a long time by its initial layout, and remained a centre for agricultural production. It incorporated a succession of architectural contributions, in keeping with its urban fabric and character as a colonial town. This situation continued until political independence from the Spanish Crown in 1820.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time, the various populations and cultures intermingled. During the second half of the 19th century, the town went through a manufacturing phase, particularly the production of quinine and straw hats. This development enabled it to become relatively richer, and it was accompanied by the construction of some more important buildings, including the University of Cuenca in 1867.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Owing to its geographical isolation, Cuenca had a coherent urban profile until 1950. However, this was followed by the threats of urban expansion and transformations resulting from pressure exerted by real-estate promotion and new social requirements. An Urban Development Plan for the Metropolitan Area of Cuenca was adopted in 1982 to safeguard the image of the town and to restore several buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Andean mountain chains have allowed the town to maintain close contact with its natural environment over a long period. It is laid out on a strict grid of perpendicular streets stretching from the Main Square, the Abd&amp;oacute;n Calder&amp;oacute;n Park, to form a total of 200 blocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The seat of the Town Council, the Office of the Governor, two cathedrals, and the Law Courts are ranged around the Main Square. The paved streets are wide and sunlit. The urban fabric is noteworthy for the presence of parks, squares, church cloisters and other public areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many of the simple colonial houses have been converted into more important residences, especially during the period of expansion. The result is an unusual architecture incorporating various influences, both local and European. A few important edifices are worthy of mention, such as the New Cathedral, begun in 1880, the Old Cathedral, the Carmelite Monastery and the Church of Santo Domingo.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Santa Ana de los R&amp;iacute;os de Cuenca is set in a valley surrounded by the Andean mountains in the south of Ecuador. This inland colonial town (&lt;em&gt;entroterra&lt;/em&gt; ), now the country's third city, was founded in 1557 on the rigorous planning guidelines issued 30 years earlier by the Spanish king Charles V. Cuenca still observes the formal orthogonal town plan that it has respected for 400 years. One of the region's agricultural and administrative centres, it has been a melting pot for local and immigrant populations. Cuenca's architecture, much of which dates from the 18th century, was 'modernized' in the economic prosperity of the 19th century as the city became a major exporter of quinine, straw hats and other products.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Santa Ana de los Ríos de Cuenca</site><states>Ecuador</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1014</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/86</http_url><id_number>86</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_86.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.9760400000</latitude><location>Governorate of Giza</location><longitude>31.1304100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble at Memphis embraces a number of exceptional monuments of great antiquity. The step pyramid of the first pharaoh of the Memphis period, constructed entirely in limestone, is the oldest known architectural structure of this type, from regularly cut stone. At Giza, one of the oldest boats preserved today, the solar barge, was discovered intact in the complex around the Pyramid of Cheops. The archaic necropolis of Saqqara dates back to the period of the formation of the pharaonic civilization. The exceptional historic, artistic and sociological interest of these monuments bears witness to one of the most brilliant civilizations of this planet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The capital of the Old Kingdom of Egypt has some extraordinary funerary monuments, including rock tombs, ornate mastabas, temples and pyramids. In ancient times, the pyramids were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first sovereign of the unified Egyptian kingdom, Menes or Narmer, ordered the construction of a new capital in the area around the Nile Delta, the City of Menes, Mennufer, also know as Huta-Ka-Pta or dwelling of the Ka of Ptah, the most important sanctuary dedicated to the god of creative force, depicted as a ram-headed artisan working intently to shape humanity on his potter's wheel. Of the grandeur of Memphis, as it was known to the ancient Greeks, all that survive today are a few ruins of the sanctuary of Ptah, from which have come many votive statues depicting pharaohs and dignitaries and monumental necropolises.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the necropolis of Saqqara, the closest to the capital and the largest in the land, stands the first great stone pyramid. It was built as a mausoleum by Djoser, the founder of the Third Dynasty. This was a transformation of the earlier tombs, shaped like great brick rectangles, with the walls sloping inward and a flat roof, commonly referred to as mastabas. For the first time brick was replaced by stone. The pyramid is located inside a funerary complex enclosed by a curtain wall rising to a height of 10&amp;nbsp;m built from a fine-grained limestone. There are 14 false stone doors in the enclosure wall and a monumental entrance consisting of a corridor and a hall flanked by columns. The entry path leads to a plaza known as the Courtyard of the Jubilee. One side of this is occupied by a great stepped podium upon which were arranged the thrones of the Pharaoh; to the east and to the west of the podium sanctuaries were constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The founder of the Fourth Dynasty, Snefru, transformed the structure of the tomb once and for all by choosing the now familiar pyramid shape with a square base. In the necropolis of Dahshur stands the Red Pyramid, named after the reddish hue of the limestone that was used to build it. To the south is the Rhomboid Pyramid, with its double slope on each of the four faces, apparently an intermediate form. With Snefru for the first time the annex construction appeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Credit goes to the son of Snefru, Khufu or Cheops, and to his successors Rahaef (Chephren) and Menkaure (Mycerinus) for the construction of the great pyramids of Giza. The pyramid is a symbol of the Sun, the great god Ra, whose cult became pre-eminent from the Fourth Dynasty; the Pyramid Texts, found in the funerary chambers of the tombs dating from the end of the Old Kingdom, speak of the transformation of the dead king into the Sun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'Horizon of Cheops' was the name given to the Pharaoh's tomb, the oldest and the largest. The entrance is located in the middle of the north side. In the interior the narrow passageway splits in two: one leading to a chamber carved into the rock beneath the monument, and the other to a small room called the 'Chamber of the Queen' and thence to the Great Gallery and the large 'Chamber of the King'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The other two pyramids were known in antiquity as 'Great is Chepren' and 'Divine is Mycerinus' respectively. Each tomb forms part of the classic funerary complex first built at the behest of Snefru.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The capital of the Old Kingdom of Egypt has some extraordinary funerary monuments, including rock tombs, ornate mastabas, temples and pyramids. In ancient times, the site was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>92</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/87</http_url><id_number>87</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_87.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.7333300000</latitude><location>Governorate of Qina</location><longitude>32.6000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Thebes contains the finest relics of the history, art and religion of ancient Egypt, of which it was the capital in its period of greatest splendour. Hundred of sovereigns, from pharaohs to Roman emperors, glorified the city with architecture, obelisks and sculpture. The exaltation of life found expression in the Thebes of the Living, identifiable in the fabulous site of Luxor and Karnak, on the right bank of the Nile, the site of the temples dedicated to the divine triad of Montu, Amon and Mut, while the celebration of death took shape in the Thebes of the Dead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the Middle Kingdom to the end of the ancient era, the city was sacred to the god Amon, the supreme Sun God: temples of incomparable splendour and size were dedicated to him. The temple of Luxor, built by Amenophis III and Ramesses II, was connected to the great sanctuary of Karnak by a long triumphal boulevard lined by sphinxes that led to its entrance, preceded by a pair of obelisks made from pink granite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entrance to the temple is adorned with scenes from the Syrian and Hittite military campaign and leads to the great courtyard of Ramesses II and to the chapel that served as a storehouse for the boats, dedicated to the triad of Amon, the father, Mut, the mother, represented in the form of a vulture or a lion, and Khonsu, the lunar son of the couple. The second complex, with a magnificent and immense entrance and colonnade, a courtyard, and a hall crowned with tall columns, was built at the command of Amenophis III.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;About 3&amp;nbsp;km from Luxor is the monumental complex of Karnak, composed of three temples, one of which is consecrated to Mut, one to the warrior god Montu, and one to Amon. The building dedicated to the father of the gods is the product of a series of ingenious project of expansion and renovation ordered by Pharaohs eager to leave behind marvellous testimonials to their reign: the immense courtyard at the centre of which stands the enormous aedicule of Taharqa; the portico of Bubastis; the temple of Sethi II; the colossi of the pharaohs Thutmosis III and Ramesses I and II; the great hypostyle hall with 134 colossal columns; the six monumental entrances; the granite pillars and obelisk; the rooms decorated with religious and military scenes and the hall of the botanical garden; the sacred lake flanked by storehouses; the temple dedicated to the hippopotamus goddess Opet, placed on the site in which she is said to have given birth to Osiris; and finally the Southern Propylaea, four portals adorned with bas-reliefs, columns, obelisks and colossi, which adorned the sacred way that led to the Temple of Mut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the opposite bank of the river there grew up over centuries the Thebes of the Dead. For almost 15 centuries, great funerary temples were built at the foot of the hills. They were entirely separate from their corresponding tombs, which were dug into the mountains, safe from violation and tomb robbers. To the north were built the Temple of Qurna al Gedida, dedicated to Amon-Re, and the temple consecrated to Hathor, the goddess of sweetness and joy who was venerated in the form of a cow. It was commissioned by Queen Hatshepsut for herself and her father Thutmosis I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Even better known is the magnificent funerary Temple of Ramesses II, a building situated at the edge of cultivated fields which, because of its courtyards, sacraria filled with statues, decorations and colossi, was admired by many ancient writers. All that remains of the temple of Amenophis III are the colossi of Memnon, two impressive quartz monoliths that depict the pharaoh sitting on his throne, accompanied by the figures of his mother and his wife.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tombs of the pharaohs and of their dignitaries, priests and princesses are instead hidden in the bowels of the mountains and form the great cemeteries of al-Asasif, al-Khokha, Qurnet Mura, Deir al-Medina, the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens. Among the underground tombs of the Valley of Kings, the British explorers Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter found in 1922 a small tomb that soon became the most renowned in Egypt, that of the young Pharaoh Tutankhamun.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Thebes, the city of the god Amon, was the capital of Egypt during the period of the Middle and New Kingdoms. With the temples and palaces at Karnak and Luxor, and the necropolises of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens, Thebes is a striking testimony to Egyptian civilization at its height.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>93</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/88</http_url><id_number>88</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_88.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.3372222222</latitude><location>Governorate of Aswan</location><longitude>31.6258055556</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The open-air Museum of Nubia and Aswan brings together cultural properties closely associated with the unfolding of a long sequence of Egyptian Pharaonic history. In addition to the complexes of Abu Simbel and Philae the site includes the temples of Amada, of Derr, those of Ouadi Es Sebouah, Dakka and Maharraqah, the temple of Talmis, and the kiosk of ak-Kartassi, the temple of Beit el Ouali which are both rare and ancient. To these must be added the astonishing granite quarries of Aswan, exploited by pharaohs from early antiquity, where colossal unfinished obelisk-like monuments have been discovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An archaeological zone of primary importance extends from Aswan to the Sudanese border. Aswan, situated north of the First Cataract, was an essential strategic point where, since prehistoric times, victorious expeditions had been mounted leading to a lasting domination of Nubia, the country to the south, rich in gold and other minerals, in ivory and in precious wood. To each of the great periods of Egyptian history there corresponds, if only partially, a seizure of Nubia, which enjoyed the role of a natural annex to the kingdom. The sovereignty of the pharaohs was solidly established during the New Empire. After the military conquest, towards 1550 BC, Nubia virtually became a colony, administered by a governor, whose fiscal and commercial income was transferred to Aswan. With the fall of the New Empire (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1070 BC) Nubia again entered a period of prosperity during the Graeco-Roman period and during the first years of the Christian era, until the triumph of Islam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Abu Simbel is a temple built by Ramesses II in ancient Nubia; he chose to build the temple dedicated to himself on the site where there were two grottoes consecrated to the cult of the local divinities. The sovereign in this way reaffirmed the fact that Nubia belonged to the Egyptian Empire. The Great Temple has four colossal statues carved out of the living rock, fastened to the cliff wall, which depict Ramesses II, seated with the double crown of Lower and Upper Egypt. Standing between and on either side of the pharaoh's legs were depicted princes, princesses and Queen Nefertari, much smaller in size and standing erect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The temple faces east, and Re-Horakhty, one manifestation of the Sun God, is shown inside the niche directly above the entrance. The alignment of the temple is such that twice a year the Sun's rays reach into the innermost sanctuary to illuminate the seated statues of Ptah, Amun-Re, Ramesses II and Re-Horakhty. The facade is crowned by a row of statues of baboons, considered to be the protectors of water. Inside the temple there is a great hall, whose ceiling is supported by eight colossal pillars in the shape of statues of the king, a smaller hall with simple pillars, a vestibule and a sanctuary. There are reliefs on the walls of the halls in which Ramesses is depicted in different ways but always fighting against his enemies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the High Dam was being constructed in the early 1960s, international cooperation assembled funds and technical expertise to move this temple to higher ground so that it would not be inundated by the waters of Lake Nasser.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not far off stands the Little Temple dedicated to the Goddess Hathor in memory of the king's wife Nefertari, who was later venerated as the goddess of love and fertility. In the facade six statues are carved in the rock. They represent the pharaoh and his wife, assimilated to the divinity and therefore depicted with the divinity's attributes, a Sun disk between the horns of a cow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interior is subdivided into a hall supported by pillars decorated with reliefs depicting the goddess, a vestibule with side rooms, and the sanctuary, which contained the statue of a goddess in the form of a cow. The interior walls are decorated with magnificent reliefs showing the presentation of offerings and festive processions in honour of the pharaoh and his wife.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This outstanding archaeological area contains such magnificent monuments as the Temples of Ramses II at Abu Simbel and the Sanctuary of Isis at Philae, which were saved from the rising waters of the Nile thanks to the International Campaign launched by UNESCO, in 1960 to 1980.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>94</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/89</http_url><id_number>89</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_89.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.0500000000</latitude><location>Governorate of al-Qahirah (Cairo)</location><longitude>31.2611100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Cairo bears impressive material witness to the international importance, on the political, strategic, intellectual and commercial levels, of the city during the medieval period. There are few cities in the world as rich as Cairo in old buildings: the historic centre on the eastern bank of the Nile includes no less than 600 classified monuments dating from the 7th to 20th centuries, distributed over various parts of the well-preserved urban fabric, which represent forms of human settlement that go back to the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 7th century, following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, Arab armies marched with great speed to conquer neighbouring lands. In 640 the army of the Caliph Omar reached the Nile, occupied Babylon, and founded across from it his own capital al-Fustat, surrounded by an enclosure wall. There the caliph built the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina: enclosing a simple courtyard surrounded by brick walls, it perfectly embodies the essence of Islam, severe and almost military in character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the domination of the Abbasids, al-Fustat gradually declined in importance and was replaced by the northern suburb of al-Askar, the military camp that gradually gathered more and more buildings, such as the palace of the governor, houses, shops and a mosque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 870 the new Governor Ahmed Ibn-Tulun made Egypt independent of the Abbasid Caliphate and founded in the north-eastern area a splendid new capital, al Qatai. This city was destroyed at the beginning of the 10th century, when the Abbasids regained control of the country. They spared the Great Mosque of Ibn-Tulun with its large courtyard surrounded by porticoes intended for teaching, punctuated by elegantly decorated round arches, probably the work of Iraqi artists, is still one of the most admirable monuments in Cairo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great period of city splendour began at the end of the 10th century, when Egypt was conquered by the powerful Shiite Muslim dynasty of the Fatimids, who decided to build a new capital. In AD 969 the city of al-Qahira was founded, and at the heart of the capital stood the residence of the Imam, the administrative buildings, and the two great Fatimid palaces ,of which nothing survives today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present-day quarter of al-Azhar preserves other monuments from the Fatimid era, such as the three large gates and the huge square towers of the city's enclosure walls and five mosques. Among these the Mosque of al-Hakim is the last example of a military mosque: it is a compact and severe building, with a broad open courtyard that, with the adjacent walls, makes up a medieval architectural compound of remarkable power. The Mosque of al-Azhar was built between 970 and 972 under the Caliph Muizz, to serve as a sanctuary and as a meeting place; it also housed a university which became an important centre for Islamic studies. The present-day appearance, with its Persian-arch porticoes, its decorated gates, the immense prayer hall, the variously shaped minarets, adorned with lacy carved stone, is the product of a series of embellishment projects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the brief intrusion of Seljuk Turks and the attacks of the Crusaders, Egypt fell in 1172 into the hands of Saladin, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. The period of Cairo's greatest splendour coincided with the advent of the dynasty of the Mamelukes, who replaced the Ayyubids and remained in power until 1257. The first Mameluke mosque was built in 1266 by Sultan Baibars, crowned by an immense dome. The mandrasa-mosque that Sultan Hasan VII ordered to be built dates from 1356-63. This impressive building, whose cross-shape plan develops around a central courtyard, with the elegant pavilion of the fountain for ritual ablutions, was built with the use of material taken largely from the pyramids. The stern and massive appearance of the construction is balanced by the thrusting vertical power of the dome and the sole minaret of the original four to have survived. In addition to religious structures the Sultans built splendid mausolea in the City of the Dead, the huge cemetery to the east of the city proper.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tucked away amid the modern urban area of Cairo lies one of the world's oldest Islamic cities, with its famous mosques, &lt;em&gt;madrasas, hammams&lt;/em&gt; and fountains. Founded in the 10th century, it became the new centre of the Islamic world, reaching its golden age in the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Cairo</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>95</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2001</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/90</http_url><id_number>90</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_90.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.8358333333</latitude><location>Mariut desert, District of Burg al-Arab, Gouvernate of Al Iskandariyah (Alexandria)</location><longitude>29.6666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Abu Mena is located south of Alexandria, between Wadi el-Natrun and Alexandria itself. The church, baptistry, basilicas, public buildings, streets, monasteries, houses and workshops in this early Christian holy city were built over the tomb of the martyr Menas of Alexandria, who died in AD 296.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built in the 3rd century, the monastery commemorates an Alexandrine soldier, Menas, who was an officer in Diocletian's army. Menas refused to kill any Christian after his army won. He declared his Christianity publicly, which was a tremendous motive for other Christians to bear the suffering and abuse from Diocletian's army. Legend has it that Menas's remains were brought back from Phrygia by camel and were buried where the animal refused to walk any more. Water welled up in the desert at that spot, filling the area with vines and olive trees, as a result of which it is known as St Menas's Vineyards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations since 1900 have revealed that Abu Mena grew rapidly in the course of the 5th and 6th centuries. By 600 the oasis had become a pilgrimage city, centred on the great basilica complex. Archaeological excavations revealed an entire town with houses and cemeteries. They even found the house of the potters who made flasks, their shop, and the remains of some flasks, lamps and toys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built in the 5th century to accommodate the increasing number of Christian pilgrims, the Thermal Basilica used to store the curative waters used for the heated baths and pools surrounding the basilica. Pilgrims would fill small clay flasks (&lt;em&gt;ampullae&lt;/em&gt;) with water from the basilica. The flasks were stamped with the seal of St Menas, showing the martyr standing between two kneeling camels. During the 5th and 6th centuries many buildings were erected around the Thermal Basilica, including a monastery on its north side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Basilica of Arcadius was built in the 5th century and is in the centre of a beautiful complex just south of Alexandria in Karm Abu Menas. Its roof is supported with 56 marble columns. The baptistry is located at the western end of the basilica with corners rounded in semicircular, polychrome marble niches. This is the only Coptic monument that shows the use of these elements in ancient Christian architecture. A church located at the west side of the basilica has strong Egyptian and Byzantine architectural influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Menas is considered to be the best-known saint in the East and the West. That is evident by the fact that numerous &lt;em&gt;ampullae&lt;/em&gt; have been discovered in many places around the world, including Heidelberg (Germany), Milan (Italy), Yugoslavia, Marseilles (France), Dengela (Sudan) and Jerusalem.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The church, baptistry, basilicas, public buildings, streets, monasteries, houses and workshops in this early Christian holy city were built over the tomb of the martyr Menas of Alexandria, who died in A.D. 296.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Abu Mena</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>96</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Despite its hostile environment and harsh climate, the southern part of the Sina&amp;iuml; peninsula has attracted human occupation for many millennia. The remains of the simple dwellings of the ancient inhabitants known to history as the Amalekites date from the Early Bronze Age (3000-2800 BCE), but earlier settlements of Late Mesolithic or Early Neolithic date have also been found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the Ist to the XXth dynasties (c 3000-700 BCE) turquoise was being mined from the Sarabit Al-Khadem, where a temple was erected to Hathor, the goddess of turquoise. This is a very significant site, since it was here that Semitic workers helped their Egyptian masters acquire their own alphabet (known as Proto-Sinaitic). The Wadi Maghara was another important source of turquoise for the Egyptians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dominant power from the 4th century BCE onwards were the Nabataeans, from the region around Petra. They dominated the trade routes across Sina&amp;iuml; (including the rich overland routes that brought luxury goods from Africa, India, and China into the Mediterranean world). This is evidenced by thousands of Nabataean inscriptions all over Sina&amp;iuml;, along with caravan tracks, mining sites, and dwellings (nawawis). However, with the destruction of Petra by the Romans in 106 CE Nabataean influence waned and the survivors became nomads, the present-day Jabaliya.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sina&amp;iuml; region, known to the Romans as Palestina Tertia, became a savage wilderness, and as such attracted early Christian anchorites. Following the departure of the Romans in the second half of the 4th century the general lawlessness eventually drove the monastic communities to seek help. This was supplied by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, who sent teams of architects and masons to build a fort below the rocky eminence identified by the monks as Mount Sina&amp;iuml;, with the dual purpose of protecting the community and securing the road from Aqaba to Suez. The wall built to protect the monks and the military garrison survives to the present day. The main Church of the Transfiguration was built in the 560s, around the time of Justinian's death. Its first dedication was to the Virgin Mary, but this was later to change to the mid-3rd century martyr St Catherine, whose head and hand are preserved as relics within the church; they were brought there for safe keeping in the 10th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mount Sina&amp;iuml; is also identified by Muslims as Mount Moses (hence its Arabic name, Jebel Musa/Gabbal Moussa), and for them, as for Christians, this is the place where God made a covenant with his people, handing down the Tablets of the Law to Moses. The Christian communities of St Catherine's Monastery have always maintained close relations with Islam. In 623 a document signed by the Prophet himself, known as the Actiname (Holy Testament), exempted the monks of St Catherine's from military service and tax and called upon Muslims to give them every help. As a reciprocal gesture the monastic community permitted the conversion of a chapel within the walled enceinte to a mosque during the Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171). It was in regular use until the period of Mameluke rule in Egypt in the later 13th century. The mosque remained in a desolate condition throughout the Ottoman period, and was not restored until the early 20th century; it is still used on special occasions by the local Muslims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/954</http_url><id_number>954</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_954.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The architecture of St Catherine's Monastery, the artistic treasures that it houses, and its domestic integration into a rugged landscape combine to make it an outstanding example of human creative genius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; St Catherine's Monastery is one of the very early outstanding examples in Eastern tradition of a Christian monastic settlement located in a remote area. It demonstrates an intimate relationship between natural grandeur and spiritual commitment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Ascetic monasticism in remote areas prevailed in the early Christian church and resulted in the establishment of monastic communities in remote places. St Catherine's Monastery is one of the earliest of these and the oldest to have survived intact, being used for its initial function without interruption since the 6th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The St Catherine&amp;rsquo;s area, centred on the holy mountain of Mount Sina&amp;iuml; (Jebel Musa, Mount Horeb), like the Old City of Jerusalem, is sacred to three world religions: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>28.5562300000</latitude><location>Governorate of Janub Sina' (South Sinai)</location><longitude>33.9754300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Ascetic monasticism in remote areas prevailed in the early Christian church and resulted in the establishment of monastic communities in remote places. St Catherine's Monastery is one of the earliest of these, and the oldest to have survived intact, having been used for its initial function without interruption since the 6th century. It demonstrates an intimate relationship between natural grandeur and spiritual commitment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the destruction of Petra by the Romans, Nabataean influence waned and the survivors became nomads. The Sina&amp;iuml; region, known to the Romans as Palestina Tertia, became a savage wilderness, and as such attracted early Christian anchorites. Following the departure of the Romans in the second half of the 4th century the general lawlessness eventually drove the monastic communities to seek help. This was supplied by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, who sent teams of architects and masons to build a fort below the rocky eminence identified by the monks as Mount Sina&amp;iuml;, with the dual purpose of protecting the community and securing the road from Aqaba to Suez.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mount Sina&amp;iuml; is identified by Muslims as Mount Moses (hence its Arabic name, Jebel Musa/Gabbal Moussa), and for them, as for Christians, this is the place where God made a covenant with his people, handing down the Tablets of the Law to Moses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main Church of the Transfiguration was built in the 560s, around the time of Justinian's death. Its first dedication was to the Virgin Mary, but this was later to changed to the mid-3rd-century martyr St Catherine, whose head and hand are preserved as relics within the church. The Christian communities of St Catherine's Monastery have always maintained close relations with Islam. In 623 a document signed by the Prophet himself, known as the Actiname (Holy Testament), exempted the monks of St Catherine's from military service and tax and called upon Muslims to give them every help. As a reciprocal gesture the monastic community permitted the conversion of a chapel within the walled enceinte to a mosque during the Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery complex is completely surrounded by a massive wall. It is constructed of massive dressed granite blocks; however, the upper sections were restored on the orders of Napoleon, using smaller, undressed stone blocks. The wall is decorated in places with carved Christian symbols, such as crosses, monograms, etc. The main structure within the enclosure is the Church of the Transfiguration, which is the work of the Byzantine architect Stephanos; it is built from granite, in basilical form, with a broad main nave, two side aisles defined by massive granite columns with capitals composed of Christian symbols, an apse and a narthex. Each of the aisles has three chapels, and there is one on either side of the apse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Behind the apse is the holiest part of the Monastery, the Chapel of the Burning Bush, which incorporates the 4th-century chapel built by the pious Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary. The neoclassical bell tower is the work of the monk Gregorius and was built in 1871. The rectangular Old Refectory has 16th-century murals on the walls. The most ancient library in the Christian world is considered to be second only to that of the Vatican, in terms of both number and value of its collection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fatimid Mosque, on the site of a small Crusader chapel, was built between 1101 and 1106. It is rectangular in plan, with a small semi-detached minaret in the northern corner and a small courtyard in front, which forms the roof of the well restored ancient olive press and mill. A constant supply of fresh water is provided by the Fountain of Moses, which taps an underground spring. The monks' cells are disposed along the inner faces of the walls. Outside the walls is the triangular monastery garden, created over many years by the monks, who brought soil here and made tanks to store water for irrigation. Adjoining the garden are the cemetery and charnel house.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Orthodox Monastery of St Catherine stands at the foot of Mount Horeb where, the Old Testament records, Moses received the Tablets of the Law. The mountain is known and revered by Muslims as Jebel Musa. The entire area is sacred to three world religions: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. The Monastery, founded in the 6th century, is the oldest Christian monastery still in use for its initial function. Its walls and buildings of great significace to studies of Byzantine architecture and the Monastery houses outstanding collections of early Christian manuscripts and icons. The rugged mountainous landscape, containing numerous archaeological and religious sites and monuments, forms a perfect backdrop to the Monastery.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Saint Catherine Area</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1116</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1186</http_url><id_number>1186</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1186.jpg</image_url><iso_code>eg</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii): &lt;/em&gt;Wadi Al-Hitan is the most important site in the world to demonstrate one of the iconic changes that make up the record of life on Earth: the evolution of the whales. It portrays vividly their form and mode of life during their transition from land animals to a marine existence. It exceeds the values of other comparable sites in terms of the number, concentration and quality of its fossils, and their accessibility and setting in an attractive and protected landscape. It accords with key principles of the IUCN study on fossil World Heritage Sites, and represents significant values that are currently absent from the World Heritage List.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>29.3333300000</latitude><location>Faiyum Governorate</location><longitude>30.1833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Wadi Al-Hitan, Whale Valley, in the Western Desert of Egypt, contains invaluable fossil remains of the earliest, and now extinct, suborder of whales, the archaeoceti. These fossils represent one of the major stories of evolution: the emergence of the whale as an ocean-going mammal from a previous life as a land-based animal. This is the most important site in the world for the demonstration of this stage of evolution. It portrays vividly the form and life of these whales during their transition. The number, concentration and quality of such fossils here is unique, as is their accessibility and setting in an attractive and protected landscape. The fossils of Al-Hitan show the youngest archaeocetes, in the last stages of losing their hind limbs. They already display the typical streamlined body form of modern whales, whilst retaining certain primitive aspects of skull and tooth structure. Other fossil material in the site makes it possible to reconstruct the surrounding environmental and ecological conditions of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wadi Al-Hitan is the most important site in the world to demonstrate one of the iconic changes that make up the record of life on Earth: the evolution of the whales. It portrays vividly their form and mode of life during their transition from land animals to a marine existence. It exceeds the values of other comparable sites in terms of the number, concentration and quality of its fossils, and their accessibility and setting in an attractive and protected landscape. It accords with key principles of the IUCN study on fossil World Heritage sites, and represents significant values that are currently absent from the World Heritage List.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Wadi Al-Hitan, Whale Valley, in the Western Desert of Egypt, contains invaluable fossil remains of the earliest, and now extinct, suborder of whales, Archaeoceti. These fossils represent one of the major stories of evolution: the emergence of the whale as an ocean-going mammal from a previous life as a land-based animal. This is the most important site in the world for the demonstration of this stage of evolution. It portrays vividly the form and life of these whales during their transition. The number, concentration and quality of such fossils here is unique, as is their accessibility and setting in an attractive and protected landscape. The fossils of Al-Hitan show the youngest archaeocetes, in the last stages of losing their hind limbs. Other fossil material in the site makes it possible to reconstruct the surrounding environmental and ecological conditions of the time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale Valley)</site><states>Egypt</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1363</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Around AD 200, the central and western parts of the territory of the modern Republic of El Salvador were buried beneath thick layers of volcanic ash from the Ilopango volcano. The area was abandoned and the Late Preclassic Maya Period cultural evolution was interrupted for several centuries until the ash layer had weathered into fertile soil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Resettlement did not begin until around AD 400, and the Joya de Ceren settlement was founded before the end of the 6th century. Since excavations are still in progress, it is not yet clear whether it was a small village or a larger community. Evidence from the structures excavated so far suggests that the inhabitants were farmers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not long afterwards, around AD 600, Joya de Ceren was destroyed by the eruption of the Loma caldera, less than 1 km from the settlement. Although the eruption only affected some 5 sq km, it completely buried Joya de Ceren under 5-7 m of volcanic ash.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site was discovered during the construction of Government grain-storage silos in 1976, when a clay-built structure was exposed by a bulldozer. Excavations were carried out under the direction of Dr Paysan D Sheets (University of Colorado) in 1978 and 1980, but were interrupted by civil war. They were resumed in 1989 and been continuing since that time.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/675</http_url><id_number>675</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_675.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sv</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.8275000000</latitude><location>Department of La Libertad, Canton Joya de Ceren, jurisdiction of San Juan Opico</location><longitude>-89.3691666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Joya de Cer&amp;eacute;n is remarkable by virtue of the completeness of the evidence that it provides of everyday life in a Mesoamerican farming community of the 6th century AD, which is without parallel in this cultural region. It was a pre-Hispanic farming community that, like Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy, was buried under a volcanic eruption about AD 590. Although a warning earthquake apparently gave residents time to flee, the ash preserved their personal belongings, from garden tools and bean-filled pots to sleeping mats and religious items, essentially freezing the agricultural village in time. Because of the exceptional condition of the remains, they provide an insight into the daily lives of the Central American peoples who worked the land at that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around AD 200, the central and western parts of the territory of the modern Republic of El Salvador were buried beneath thick layers of volcanic ash from the Ilopango volcano. The area was abandoned and the late pre-Classical Maya cultural evolution was interrupted for several centuries until the ash layer had weathered into fertile soil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Resettlement did not begin until around 400, and the Joya de Cer&amp;eacute;n settlement was founded before the end of the 6th century. As excavations are still in progress, it is not yet clear whether it was a small village or a larger community. Evidence from the structures excavated so far suggests that the inhabitants were farmers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not long afterwards, around 600, Joya de Cer&amp;eacute;n was destroyed by the eruption of the Loma caldera, less than 1&amp;nbsp;km from the settlement. Although the eruption only affected some 5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , it completely buried Joya de Cer&amp;eacute;n under 5-7&amp;nbsp;m of volcanic ash.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site was discovered during the construction of government grain-storage silos in 1976, when a clay-built structure was exposed by a bulldozer. Excavation were carried out under the direction of Dr Payson D. Sheets (University of Colorado) in 1978 and 1980, but were interrupted by civil war. They were resumed in 1988 and have been continuing since that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Twelve structures were excavated, including living quarters, storehouses, workshops, kitchens, a communal sauna and a religious structure. Cer&amp;eacute;n is thought to have been home to about 200 people, although no human remains have been found. The buildings are grouped into compounds that include structures for sleeping, storage, cooking and handicrafts. The specialized structures include a sweat house, a large communal building, and two which may have been used by specialists such as a shaman or a healer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The volcanic eruption was so sudden that artefacts representative of every aspect of daily life were found still in place around the buildings, while perishable materials, including plants, survive either as carbonized material or as casts in the ash deposit. The objects recovered by excavation from the buildings constitute a virtual inventory of their contents at the moment of eruption.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several cultivated fields and other vegetation have also been uncovered. These include fields containing young and mature maize plants, a kitchen garden with a variety of herbs and a &lt;em&gt;henequen&lt;/em&gt; (agave) garden. Various fruit trees, including guayaba and cacao, have also been found.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Joya de Cer&amp;eacute;n was a pre-Hispanic farming community that, like Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy, was buried under an eruption of the Laguna Caldera volcano c. AD 600. Because of the exceptional condition of the remains, they provide an insight into the daily lives of the Central American populations who worked the land at that time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Joya de Cerén Archaeological Site</site><states>El Salvador</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>799</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550</http_url><id_number>1550</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1550.jpg</image_url><iso_code>er</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.3352777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>38.9358333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located at over 2,000 m above sea level, the capital of Eritrea developed from the 1890s onwards as a military outpost for the Italian colonial power. After 1935, Asmara underwent a large scale programme of construction applying the Italian rationalist idiom of the time to governmental edifices, residential and commercial buildings, churches, mosques, synagogues, cinemas, hotels, etc. The property encompasses the area of the city that resulted from various phases of planning between 1893 and 1941, as well as the indigenous unplanned neighbourhoods of Arbate Asmera and Abbashawel. It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Asmara: A Modernist African City</site><states>Eritrea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2131</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological investigations have shown that a fort on the limestone plateau of Toompea and a trading post and harbour at its foot, on the Viking route to Miklag&amp;aacute;rd (Constantinople), have existed since the lOth-11th centuries. With the expansion of Baltic trade, the settlement known at that time as Lyndanise (Reval in German, Kolyvan in Russian) was occupied in 1219 by troops of Waldemar II of Denmark, who strengthened the fortifications on Toompea and built the first church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After coming under direct Papal jurisdiction in 1226- 27, the town was assigned to the crusading Order of the Brethren of the Sword (later to be merged with the Teutonic Order), who divided the settlement into two parts - the fortress (castrum) and the lower town (suburburn). In 1230 the Order invited two hundred German merchants from Gotland to Tall&amp;amp;, where they settled around a new church dedicated to St Nicholas, alongside the existing Estonian, Scandinavian, and Russian trading posts. They were quickly followed by the Dominican and Cistercian Orders, who established the monasteries of St Catherine and St Michael respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1248 Tallinn adopted the Ltibeck statute, becoming a full member of the Hanseatic League in 1285, as a key station on the trade route between the Baltic lands and the interior of Russia. Its prosperity was reflected by its rapid growth in the 14th century: work began on the massive town wall in 1310, enclosing an area laid out according to the characteristic Baltic trading pattern with radiating streets. Along with the territory of northern Estonia the town was sold in 1345 to the Teutonic Order, who promptly sold it on to the Livonian Order, and it was the latter who were responsible for rebuilding the castle on Toompea as one of the strongest in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the fall of Visby in 1361 the importance of Tallinn along with Riga, increased substantially. The 15th century saw the transformation of the town, with the construction of a new town hall and other public buildings and the rebuilding of the merchants' wooden houses in stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the decline of the Hanseatic League Tom the 15th century, the commercial role of Tallinn survived and the town continued to be embellished with fine public and domestic buildings according to prevailing architectural taste. It was annexed by Sweden in 1561, and it was Swedish architects who were responsible for the reconstruction of the Toompea area after a disastrous fire in 1684 and for the addition of a system of bastions to the fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;ln 1710 the town surrendered to the troops of Tsar Peter I and entered into a half-century of commercial and cultural stagnation, but this came to an end when its role as a provincial administrative centre was confirmed, with the castle as its seat. Tallinn continued in this role, with relatively few but very significant additions right up to the early years of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During World War II, when Tallinn was under German occupation after a short-lived period of Estonian independence between 1918 and 1940, the town was heavily bombed in 1944. The church of St Nicholas and the area around it suffered grave damage and destruction. The church was carefully reconstructed and now serves as a museum, with an open space around it. Buildings around the church, although constructed in the "Stalinist" style, respect the scale and proportions of the rest of the historic town.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/822</http_url><id_number>822</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_822.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ee</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that Tallinn is an outstanding and exceptionally complete and well preserved example of a medieval northern European trading city that retains the salient features of this unique form of economic and social community to a remarkable degree.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>59.4333300000</latitude><location>County of Harju</location><longitude>24.7333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tallinn is an outstanding and exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a medieval northern European trading city. It retains the salient features of this unique form of economic and social community to a remarkable degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological investigations have shown that a fort on the limestone plateau of Toompea and a trading post and harbour at its foot, on the Viking route to Constantinople, have existed since the 10th-11th centuries. With the expansion of Baltic trade, the settlement known at that time as Lyndanise (Reval in German, Kolyvan in Russian) was occupied in 1219 by troops of Waldemar II of Denmark, who strengthened the fortifications on Toompea and built the first church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After coming under direct papal jurisdiction in 1226-27, the town was divided into two parts: the fortress (&lt;em&gt;castrum&lt;/em&gt; ) and the lower town (&lt;em&gt;suburbum&lt;/em&gt; ). In 1230 the order invited 200 German merchants from Gotland to Tallinn, where they settled around a new church dedicated to St Nicholas, alongside the existing Estonian, Scandinavian and Russian trading posts. In 1248 Tallinn adopted the L&amp;uuml;beck statute, becoming a full member of the Hanseatic League in 1285. Its prosperity was reflected by its rapid growth in the 14th century: work began on the massive town wall in 1310, enclosing an area laid out according to the characteristic Baltic trading pattern with radiating streets. Along with the territory of northern Estonia, the town was sold to the Livonian Order, and it was the latter that was responsible for rebuilding the castle on Toompea as one of the strongest in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the fall of Visby in 1361 the importance of Tallinn increased substantially. The 15th century saw the transformation of the town, with the construction of a new town hall and other public buildings and the rebuilding of the merchants' wooden houses in stone. It was annexed by Sweden in 1561, and it was Swedish architects who were responsible for the reconstruction of the Toompea area after a disastrous fire in 1684 and for the addition of a system of bastions to the fortifications. In 1710 the town surrendered to the troops of Tsar Peter I, entering into a half-century of commercial and cultural stagnation, but this came to an end when its role as a provincial administrative centre was confirmed, with the castle as its seat. The town was heavily bombed in 1944. The church of St Nicholas and the area around it suffered grave damage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most prominent feature of the town is the Toompea limestone hill. The western part is occupied by the castle, of which the tower known as Long Hermann, two bastions and the imposing walls survive on the western, northern and eastern sides. Within the enceinte is the cathedral, which is basically Gothic but has been extended and reconstructed on a number of occasions since the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lower town preserves to a remarkable extent the medieval urban fabric of narrow winding streets, many of which retain their medieval names, and fine public and burgher buildings. The distribution of building plots survives virtually intact from the 13th-14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around the town hall (1371-1404) in Town Hall Square there are some exceptionally well-preserved burgher houses. These are high gabled structures in stone, the ground floors having been used for living quarters and the upper storeys as granaries and storehouses, many retaining their original projecting winch beams. An outstanding structure is the House of the Great Guild (1410), which is a splendid example of Northern Gothic with fine vaulted ceilings and richly decorated columns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are several medieval churches within the walls. The restored Church of St Nicholas (Niguliste) and the Church of St Olaf (Oleviste) are both in typical basilical form, with lofty vaulting and a precise geometry of form in what is recognized to be the distinctive Tallinn School. There are two monastic complexes surviving within the walls - the Dominican monastery of St Catherine and the Cistercian nunnery of St Michael, which was characteristically sited away from the main urban complex.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of Tallinn date back to the 13th century, when a castle was built there by the crusading knights of the Teutonic Order. It developed as a major centre of the Hanseatic League, and its wealth is demonstrated by the opulence of the public buildings (the churches in particular) and the domestic architecture of the merchants' houses, which have survived to a remarkable degree despite the ravages of fire and war in the intervening centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn</site><states>Estonia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1626</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1996</danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/9</http_url><id_number>9</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_9.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.1833333333</latitude><location>Gondar Region</location><longitude>38.0666666667</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Massive erosion over the years on the Ethiopian plateau has created one of the most spectacular landscapes in the world, with jagged mountain peaks, deep valleys and sharp precipices dropping some 1,500&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is located in the western Simen Mountains, 120&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Gondar in Begemder Province, north-west Ethiopia. With its abundance of creviced basalt rock, Simen serves as an ideal water catchment area, replenished by two wet seasons and the Mayshasha River, which weaves its way north to south through the national park. Consequently the park is rich in a wide range of wildlife and vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation is a mixture of afro-alpine woods, heath forest and high montane vegetation. Higher altitudes support montane savannah and montane moor land with tree heath, giant lobelia, yellow primrose, everlastings, lady's mantle and mosses (&lt;em&gt;Grimmiaceae&lt;/em&gt;). Lichen drapes the high-altitude forest trees. Ridge tops and gorge sides support coarse grassland with herbs thickets, scattered, and creepers. Forests of St John's wort once flourished at 3,000-3,800&amp;nbsp;m, but few still remain. There are high, but unquantified, levels of endemism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is home to some extremely rare animals such as the gelada baboon, Simen foxand walia ibex, a goat found nowhere else in the world. Walia ibex on the north scarp of the massif are endemic to the Simen Mountains, with most of the population occurring in the park. Simen fox are endemic to Ethiopia, and other mammals include the hamadryas baboon, colobus monkey, leopard, caracal, wild cat, spotted hyena, jackal and several large herbivores, including bushbuck, common duiker and klipspringer. The 400 bird species include lammergeyer, Verreaux's eagle, kestrel, lanner falcon and augur buzzard. A total of 21 mammals have been recorded, with three endemics and 63 bird species, including seven endemics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Simen region has been inhabited by human settlers and cultivators for at least 2,000 years. Today it is surrounded by old cultural centres such as Aksum, where over 100 hand-carved stone monoliths (stelae) can be found, Lalibela and Gonder, where curious 15th-century churches and palaces still stand. Erosion indicates that cultivation first started on the gentler slopes of the highland valleys but later extended onto steeper slopes. Simen is at the crossing of old trade routes and records of various local features were made in the 18th and 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Massive erosion over the years on the Ethiopian plateau has created one of the most spectacular landscapes in the world, with jagged mountain peaks, deep valleys and sharp precipices dropping some 1,500 m. The park is home to some extremely rare animals such as the Gelada baboon, the Simien fox and the Walia ibex, a goat found nowhere else in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Simien National Park</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>12</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10</http_url><id_number>10</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_10.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>11.1000600000</latitude><location>Afar region</location><longitude>40.5793900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The development that took place in the Lower Valley of the Awash changed the history of mankind. The hominid remains excavated there are characteristic of a unique type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene palaeo-anthropological localities that have provided information about the ancestors of mankind are concentrated in the East African Rift System. This is due to the fact that volcanic and tectonic activities were responsible for creating dynamic environments for the proliferation of life and the preservation of faunal and floral remains within the confines of the rift. Volcanic and tectonic activities related to rift evolution created plateaus and mountains; most of the sediments in the basins were derived from these topographic highs located within and outside the rift valleys. Lavas, volcaniclastic sediments, and tephra were responsible for the quick burial and preservation of fossils.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, there are numerous gaps in the fossil record representing an important period (10-5&amp;nbsp;million years BP) pertinent to the understanding of the pongid/hominid split and the extinction and appearance of numerous taxa. The Middle Awash valley contains late Miocene fossiliferous sedimentary sequences that can fill this gap. Detailed geological, palaeontological, palaeoenvironmental, and palaeoecological studies in the Middle Awash fluvial and lacustrine fossiliferous sedimentary rocks are addressing the environment-related evolutionary issues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1973 to 1976, a team of international specialists working in the Lower Valley of the Awash excavated a large entire of extremely well-preserved human and animal fossils. These remains, the oldest of which are at least 4&amp;nbsp;million years old, constitute evidence of human evolution which has modified the history of mankind. The most complete fossil found at this site is the remains of the skeleton of a humanoid, certain traits of which link it with the australopithecine species whereas certain others place it with &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt;. The most spectacular discovery came in 1974 at the site of Hadar, when 52 fragments of a skeleton enabled the famous hominid known as Lucy to be reconstructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The term 'hominid' refers to a member of the zoological family Hominidae; hominids share a suite of characteristics which define them as a group. The most conspicuous of these traits is bipedal locomotion, or walking upright. As in a modern human's skeleton, Lucy's bones are full of evidence clearly pointing to bipedality. At Hadar the size difference between males and female is very clear, with larger males and smaller females being fairly easy to distinguish: Lucy clearly fits into the smaller group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hominid-bearing sediments in the Hadar formation are divided into three members. Lucy was found in the highest of these, the Kada Hadar member. Although fossils cannot be dated directly, the deposits in which they are found sometimes contain volcanic flows and ashes, which can be dated. According to these dates Lucy is dated to just less than 3.18&amp;nbsp;million BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although several hundred fragments of hominid bone were found at the Lucy site, there was no duplication of bones. The bones all come from an individual of a single species, a single size, and a single developmental age. In life, she would have stood about 1&amp;nbsp;m tall and weighed 27-30&amp;nbsp;kg. There are several indicators which give an idea of her age: her third molars; all the ends of her bones and her cranial sutures indicate a completed skeletal development; her vertebrae show signs of degenerative disease. All these indicators, when taken together, suggest that she was a young, but fully mature, adult when she died. No cause has been determined for Lucy's death. The remains are stored in a specially constructed safe in the Paleoanthropology Laboratories of the National Museum of Ethiopia in Addis Ababa.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Awash valley contains one of the most important groupings of palaeontological sites on the African continent. The remains found at the site, the oldest of which date back at least 4 million years, provide evidence of human evolution which has modified our conception of the history of humankind. The most spectacular discovery came in 1974, when 52 fragments of a skeleton enabled the famous Lucy to be reconstructed.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lower Valley of the Awash</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>13</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/12</http_url><id_number>12</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_12.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>8.4349100000</latitude><location>Sodo woreda, Gurage zone, Southern Nation Nationalities &amp; Peoples Region</location><longitude>38.6121000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The stelae from the Soddo region, with their enigmatic configuration, are highly representative of an expression of the Ethiopian megalithic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Soddo lies to the south of Addis Ababa, beyond the Aouache river. It is remarkable because of the numerous archaeological sites of the megalithic period, comprising hundreds of sculptured stelae, that have been discovered there. The carved monoliths vary in size from 1&amp;nbsp;m to 5&amp;nbsp;m. Their forms fall into several distinct categories: figurative composition; anthropomorphic; hemispherical or conical; simple monoliths. In the northern area are to be found stelae with depictions of swords, associated with enigmatic symbols and schematic human figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most important of the roughly 160 archaeological sites discovered so far in the Soddo region is Tiya, lying 38&amp;nbsp;km south of the river, which is also one of the most representative. Roughly aligned over an axis of 45&amp;nbsp;m there is a group of 33 stelae, with another group of three stelae a short distance from them. Of the 36 stelae at Tiya, 32 are sculpted with vaguely representational configurations (including the sword designs), which are for the most part difficult to decipher. One depicts the outline of a human figure in low relief.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They are the remains of an ancient Ethiopian culture the age of which has not yet been precisely determined. However, they have been interpreted as having a funerary significance, as there are tombs scattered around the stelae.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tiya is among the most important of the roughly 160 archaeological sites discovered so far in the Soddo region, south of Addis Ababa. The site contains 36 monuments, including 32 carved stelae covered with symbols, most of which are difficult to decipher. They are the remains of an ancient Ethiopian culture whose age has not yet been precisely determined.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tiya</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>15</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15</http_url><id_number>15</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_15.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.1301900000</latitude><location>Tigrai Region</location><longitude>38.7186100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of the ancient city of Aksum are located close to Ethiopia's northern border. They mark the location of the heart of ancient Ethiopia, when the Kingdom of Aksum was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia. The massive ruins, dating from between the 1st and 13th centuries, include monolithic obelisks, giant stelae, royal tombs and the ruins of ancient castles. Long after its political decline in the 10th century, Ethiopian emperors continued to be crowned in Aksum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beginning around the 2nd millennium BCE and continuing until the 4th century CE there was immigration into the Ethiopian region. The immigrants came mostly from a region of western Yemen associated with the Sabean culture. Conditions in their homelands were most probably so harsh that the only means of escape was by a direct route across the Red Sea into Eritrea. By the 4th century, Aksum was already at its peak in land sovereignty, which included most of southern Yemen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Aksum emerged several centuries before the birth of Christ, as the capital of a state that traded with ancient Greece, Egypt and Asia. With its fleets sailing as far afield as Ceylon, Aksum later became the most important power between the Roman Empire and Persia, and for a while controlled parts of South Arabia. Aksum, whose name first appears in the 1st century AD in the Periplus of the Eritrean Sea, is considered to be the heart of ancient Ethiopia. Indeed, the kingdom which held sway over this area at this time took its name from the city. The ruins of the site spread over a large area and are composed of tall, obelisk-like stelae of imposing height, an enormous table of stone, vestiges of columns and royal tombs inscribed with Aksumite legends and traditions. In the western sector of the city there are also the ruins of three castles from the 1st century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest records and legends suggest that it was from Aksum that Makeda, the fabled Queen of Sheba, journeyed to visit King Solomon in Jerusalem. A son was born to the queen from her union with Solomon. This son, Menelik I, grew up in Ethiopia but travelled to Jerusalem as a young man, where he spent several years before returning to his own country with the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark, according to Ethiopian belief, has remained in Aksum ever since (in an annex to the Church of St Mary of Zion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;In addition to the old St Mary of Zion church, there are many other remains in Aksum dating back to pre- and early Christian times. Among these, a series of inscriptions on stone tablets have proved to be of immense importance to historians of the ancient world. They include a trilingual text in Greek, Sabaean (the language of South Arabia) and Ge'ez (classical Ethiopian), ordered by King Ezana in the 4th century AD, along with the 3,000-year-old stelae and obelisks. The standing obelisk rises to a height of over 23&amp;nbsp;m and is exquisitely carved to represent a nine-storey building in the fashion of the 'tower-houses' of southern Arabia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aksum inherited a culture highly influenced by southern Arabia. The Aksumites' language, Ge'ez, was a modified version of the southern Arabian rudiments, with admixtures of Greek and perhaps Cushitic tongues already present in the region. Their architectural art was inherited from southern Arabian art; some Aksumite artwork contained combinations of Middle Eastern deities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From its capital on the Tigray Plateau, Aksum was in command of the ivory trade with Sudan. It also dominated the trade route leading south and the port of Adulis on the Gulf of Zola. Its success depended on resourceful techniques, the production of coins, steady migrations of Graeco-Roman merchants and ships landing at the port of Adulis. In exchange for Aksum's goods, traders offered many kinds of cloth, jewellery and metals, especially steel for weapons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At its peak, Aksum controlled territories as far as southern Egypt, east to the Gulf of Aden, south to the Omo River, and west to the Cushite Kingdom of Mero&amp;euml;. The South Arabian kingdom of the Himyarites was also under the control of Aksum. Unlike the nobility, the people used salt and iron bars as money and barter remained their main source of commerce.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of the ancient city of Aksum are found close to Ethiopia's northern border. They mark the location of the heart of ancient Ethiopia, when the Kingdom of Aksum was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia. The massive ruins, dating from between the 1st and the 13th century A.D., include monolithic obelisks, giant stelae, royal tombs and the ruins of ancient castles. Long after its political decline in the 10th century, Ethiopian emperors continued to be crowned in Aksum.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aksum</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>18</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17</http_url><id_number>17</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_17.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>4.8000000000</latitude><location>Southern Nation Nationalities &amp; Peoples Region</location><longitude>35.9666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The hominid remains that have been excavated in the Lower Valley of the Omo are characteristic of a unique type. They bear exceptional witness to important developments in the field of cultural development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The south-west of Ethiopia is a region rich in wildlife resources, with three major national parks. Distinctly different from other parts of Ethiopia, it offers a mixture of fertile grasslands, terraced hillsides, broad rivers and forests. The National Park in which the hominid remains have been found is one of the most beautiful in Ethiopia. Its 4,068&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of wilderness bordered by the Omo River is home to an amazing range of wildlife: 306 species of bird have been identified here, while large herds of eland, buffalo and elephant are not uncommon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lower Valley of the Omo is unlike any other place on Earth in that so many different types of people have inhabited such a small area of land over many millennia. It is believed that it was the crossroads of a wide assortment of cultures where early humans of many different ethnicities passed as they migrated to and from lands in every direction. As a result the Lower Valley of the Omo, which is a prehistoric site near Lake Turkana, is renowned the world over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The discovery of many fossils there, especially of &lt;em&gt;Homo gracilis&lt;/em&gt;, has been of fundamental importance in the study of human evolution. The site is well documented owing to the research undertaken during the 1930s by Professor Camille Aramburg and from 1968 to 1976 by a team of palaeontologists and prehistorians. The discoveries of humanoid fossils in the valley include jaw bones, quantities of detached teeth, and fragments of australopithecines. Furthermore, evidence of the oldest-known humanoid technological activity has been found in this region, as well as stone objects attesting to an encampment of prehistoric human beings that is among the oldest known today.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A prehistoric site near Lake Turkana, the lower valley of the Omo is renowned the world over. The discovery of many fossils there, especially &lt;em&gt;Homo gracilis&lt;/em&gt;, has been of fundamental importance in the study of human evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lower Valley of the Omo</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>20</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/18</http_url><id_number>18</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_18.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.0293500000</latitude><location>Amhara Region</location><longitude>39.0404200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The rock-hewn churches of Lalibela are exceptionally fine examples of a long-established Ethiopian building tradition. Monolithic churches are to be found all over the north and the centre of the country. Some of the oldest of such churches are to be found in Tigray, where some are believed to date from around the 6th or 7th centuries. King Lalibela is believed to have commissioned these structures with the purpose of creating a holy and symbolic place which considerably influenced Ethiopian religious beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 11 medieval monolithic cave churches of this 13th-century 'New Jerusalem' are situated in a mountainous region in the heart of Ethiopia near a traditional village with circular-shaped dwellings. Lalibela is a high place of Ethiopian Christianity, still today a place of pilgrimage and devotion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lalibela is a small town at an altitude of almost 2,800&amp;nbsp;m in the Ethiopian highlands. It is surrounded by a rocky, dry area. Here in the 13th century devout Christians began hewing out the red volcanic rock to create 13 churches. Four of them were finished as completely free-standing structures, attached to their mother rock only at their bases. The remaining nine range from semi-detached to ones whose facades are the only features that have been 'liberated' from the rock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jerusalem theme is important. The rock churches, although connected to one another by maze-like tunnels, are physically separated by a small river which the Ethiopians named the Jordan. Churches on one side of the Jordan represent the earthly Jerusalem; whereas those on the other side represent the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of jewels and golden sidewalks alluded to in the Bible.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was King Lalibela who commissioned the structures, but scholars disagree as to his motivation. According to a legendary account, King Lalibela was born in Roha. His name means 'the bee recognizes its sovereignty'. God ordered him to build 10 monolithic churches, and gave him detailed instructions as to their construction and even their colours. When his brother Harbay abdicated, the time had come for Lalibela to fulfil this command. Construction work began and is said to have been carried out with remarkable speed, which is scarcely surprising, for, according to legend, angels joined the labourers by day and at night did double the amount of work which the men had done during the hours of daylight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like more episodes in the long history of this country, there are many legends about this king. One is that Lalibela was poisoned by his brother and fell into a three-day coma in which he was taken to Heaven and given a vision of rock-hewn cities. Another legend says that he went into exile to Jerusalem and vowed that when he returned he would create a New Jerusalem. Others attribute the building of the churches to Templars from Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The names of the churches evoke hints of Hebrew, a language related to the Hamo-Semitic dialect still used in Ethiopian church liturgies: Beta Medhane Alem (House of the Saviour of the World), Beta Qedus Mikael (House of St Michael) and Beta Amanuel (House of Emmanuel) are all reminiscent of the Hebrew &lt;em&gt;beth&lt;/em&gt; (house). In one of the churches there is a pillar covered with cotton. A monk had a dream in which he saw Christ kissing it; according to the monks, the past, the present and the future are carved into it. The churches are connected to each other by small passages and tunnels.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 11 medieval monolithic cave churches of this 13th-century 'New Jerusalem' are situated in a mountainous region in the heart of Ethiopia near a traditional village with circular-shaped dwellings. Lalibela is a high place of Ethiopian Christianity, still today a place of pilmigrage and devotion.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>21</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/19</http_url><id_number>19</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_19.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.6069200000</latitude><location>Amhara Region</location><longitude>37.4661700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site is an outstanding testimony of the modern Ethiopian civilization on the northern plateau of Tana. The characteristics of the style of the Gondar period appeared at the beginning of the 17th century in the capital city and have subsequently marked Ethiopian architecture in a long-lasting manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Flanked by twin mountain streams at an altitude of more than 2,300&amp;nbsp;m, Gondar was founded by Emperor Fasilidas who, tiring of the pattern of migration that had characterized the lifestyle of so many of his forefathers, moved his capital here in 1636, a role that it filled until 1864. It is famous for its many medieval castles and the design and decoration of its churches. No one knows exactly why Fasilidas chose to establish his headquarters there. Some legends say an archangel prophesied that an Ethiopian capital would be built at a place with a name that began with the letter G. The legend led to a whole series of 16th- and 17th-century towns: Guzara, Gorgora, and finally Gondar. Another legend claims that the city was built in a place chosen by God, who pointed it out to Fasilidas who had followed a buffalo there when hunting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main castle, which stands today in a grassy compound surrounded by later fortresses, was built in the late 1630s and early 1640s on the orders of Fasilidas. With its huge towers and looming battlemented walls, it resembles a piece of medieval Europe transposed to Ethiopia. In addition to this castle, Fasiladas is said to have been responsible for the building of a number of other structures, perhaps the oldest of which is the Enqulal Gemb (Egg Castle), so named on account of its egg-shaped domed roof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beyond the confines of the city to the north-west by the Qaha River there is another fine building sometimes associated by Fasilidas, a bathing palace. The building is a two-storeyed battlemented structure situated within and on one side of a rectangular pool of water which was supplied by a canal from the nearby river. The bathing pavilion itself stands on pier arches, and contains several rooms reached by a stone bridge, part of which could be raised for defence. The Emperor, who was greatly interested in architecture was also responsible for seven churches and a number of bridges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Iyasu the Great, a grandson of Fasilidas, was particularly active. His castle was described at the time as finer than the House of Solomon. Its inner walls were decorated with ivory, mirrors and paintings of palm trees and its ceiling was covered with gold-leaf and precious stones. Iyasu's most lasting achievement was the Church of Debra Berhan Selassie (Light of the Trinity), which stands surrounded by a high wall on raised ground to the north-west of the city and continues in regular use. A plain, thatched, rectangular structure on the outside, the interior of Debra Berhan Selassie is marvellously painted with scenes from religious history. The north wall is dominated by a depiction of the Trinity above the Crucifixion; the theme of the south wall is St Mary and that of the east wall the life of Jesus. The west wall shows major saints, with St George in red and gold on a prancing white horse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not long after completing this remarkable and impressive work, Iyasu went into deep depression when his favourite concubine died. He abandoned affairs of state and his son, Tekla Haimanot, declared himself Emperor and killed his father. Tekla Haimanot was in his turn murdered; his successor was also forcibly deposed and the next monarch was poisoned. The brutalities came to an end with Emperor Bakaffa, who left two fine castles, one attributed directly to him and the other to his consort, the Empress Mentewab.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bakaffa's successor, Iyasu II, is regarded by most historians as the last of the Gondar Emperors to rule with full authority. During his reign, work began on a whole range of new buildings outside the main palace compound. The monarch also developed the hills north-west of the city centre known as Kweskwam (after the home of the Virgin Mary).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 16th and 17th centuries, the fortress-city of Fasil Ghebbi was the residence of the Ethiopian emperor Fasilides and his successors. Surrounded by a 900-m-long wall, the city contains palaces, churches, monasteries and unique public and private buildings marked by Hindu and Arab influences, subsequently transformed by the Baroque style brought to Gondar by the Jesuit missionaries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fasil Ghebbi, Gondar Region</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>22</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of Harar are obscure, and the main source of information is oral tradition. There is a myth, according to which, in July 1256, there arrived from the Arab Peninsula 405 sheikhs who chose this site to found the city. Some sources indicate that Harar came into being around the 10th century or even earlier. Islam was introduced to Ethiopia in the 9th century. Three mosques of Harar have been dated to the 10th century (Aw Mansur and Garad Muhammad Abogh in Jugol, and Aw Machad Mosque outside). Between 1277 and 1285, a neighboring lord created a coalition of five Muslim principalities. From that time on, the trade was in the hands of the Muslims, and Harar became a principal trading post.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century, Harar was established in its present urban form and from 1520 to 1568 it was the capital of the Harari Kingdom. From the second half of the 16th century until the 19th century, Harar was noted as a centre of trade and Islamic learning in the Horn of Africa. In the 17th century it became an independent emirate. Nevertheless, this was also a period of decline, and the population fell from some 50,000 to ca. 12,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Due to its fame, Harar attracted the interest of the Egyptians, who occupied it from 1875 to 1885. Following this, in 1887, Harar was conquered by Menelik, the king of Asmaadin and later Emperor of Ethiopia. At this time, the Great Mosque at Faras Magala was destroyed and replaced by an octagonal Orthodox church. Menelik also opened the sixth gate and cut through a new street in the east-west direction. At the end of the 19th century, there was immigration of Indian merchants, who introduced the Indian house type and the combined version.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1938 to 1942, Ethiopia was occupied by the Italians. In the subsequent period, due to various problems, Ethiopia and with it also Harar have been subject to famine, civil war, and economic decline, including for example land reform, which in reality decreased productivity of agriculture. After the end of the dictatorship in 1991, there was a slight improvement until the war with Eritrea. At the moment, Harar Jugol needs to rebuild its economy on the basis of sustainable development.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1189</http_url><id_number>1189</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1189.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>9.3088888888</latitude><location>Harari Region</location><longitude>42.1377777777</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified historic town of Harar is located in the eastern part of the country on a plateau with deep gorges surrounded by deserts and savannah. The walls surrounding this sacred Muslim city were built between the 13th and 16th centuries. Harar Jugol, said to be the fourth holiest city of Islam, numbers 82 mosques, three of which date from the 10th century, and 102 shrines, but the townhouses with their exceptional interior design constitute the most spectacular part of Harar's cultural heritage. The impact of African and Islamic traditions on the development of the town's building types and urban layout make for its particular character and uniqueness.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Harar Jugol, the Fortified Historic Town</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1452</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1333</http_url><id_number>1333</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1333.jpg</image_url><iso_code>et</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.3000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>37.4000000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Konso Cultural Landscape is a 55km2 arid property of stone walled terraces and fortified settlements in the Konso highlands of Ethiopia. It constitutes a spectacular example of a living cultural tradition stretching back 21 generations (more than 400 years) adapted to its dry hostile environment. The landscape demonstrates the shared values, social cohesion and engineering knowledge of its communities. The site also features anthropomorphic wooden statues - grouped to represent respected members of their communities and particularly heroic events - which are an exceptional living testimony to funerary traditions that are on the verge of disappearing. Stone steles in the towns express a complex system of marking the passing of generations of leaders.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Konso Cultural Landscape</site><states>Ethiopia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1846</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1399</http_url><id_number>1399</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1399.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fj</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-17.6833777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>178.8345333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The town and its low line of buildings set among coconut and mango trees along the beach front was the first colonial capital of Fiji, ceded to the British in 1874. It developed from the early 19th century as a centre of commercial activity by Americans and Europeans who built warehouses, stores, port facilities, residences, and religious, educational and social institutions around the villages of the South Pacific island&amp;rsquo;s indigenous population. It is a rare example of a late colonial port town that was influenced in its development by the indigenous community which continued to outnumber the European settlers. Thus the town, an outstanding example of late 19th century Pacific port settlements, reflects the integration of local building traditions by a supreme naval power, leading to the emergence of a unique landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Levuka Historical Port Town</site><states>Fiji</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1886</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Scandinavian Bronze Age culture, from 1500 BC to 500 BC, included the coastal zone of continental Finland and the land archipelago. Bronze is extensively represented in its material culture, although neither copper nor tin is to be found in the area, the metals being largely acquired through trade and exchange. The value of the objects is enhanced by their association with burials and religious sites, such as cairns and other types of grave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Stone burial cairns constructed of boulders, without earth fill, over cists of stone or wood, were erected on cliffs with a view on the sea all along the coast of Finland; more than 3000 have been identified. They contained both cremation and inhumation burials of members of the community with all the associated funerary objects (grave goods).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki is associated with sun worship rituals, a cult which spread from Scandinavia over the entire region. It is also a manifestation of land ownership by kinship groups, a practice introduced with agriculture. At the time the hill of Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki was completely bare of trees and was probably chosen for its unimpeded view of the sea and its openness to the sun in all directions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Four cairns were excavated in 1891, leading to a better understanding of their contents and of their use. The number of known cairns is greater than the number of known settlements from this period. Thus, the spread of human population can be better observed through the distribution of graves. Many cairns are directly associated with settlements, most probably those of their builders, but the settlement of the people buried at Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki has not yet been identified&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/579</http_url><id_number>579</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_579.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fi</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki cairn cemetery bears exceptional witness to the society of the Bronze Age of Scandinavia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki cemetery is an outstanding example of Bronze Age funerary practices in Scandinavia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>61.1205600000</latitude><location>Region of Satakunta, Province of Western Finland</location><longitude>21.7775000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki cairn cemetery bears exceptional witness to the society, and especially the funerary practices, of the Bronze Age of Scandinavia. The Scandinavian Bronze Age culture, 1500-500 BC, included the coastal zone of continental Finland and the land archipelago. Bronze is extensively represented in its material culture, although neither copper nor tin is to be found in the area, the metals being largely acquired through trade and exchange. The value of the objects is enhanced by their association with burials and religious sites, such as cairns and other types of grave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Stone burial cairns constructed of boulders, without earth fill, over cists of stone or wood, were erected on cliffs with a view on the sea all along the coast of Finland; more than 3,000 have been identified. They contained both cremation and inhumation burials of members of the community with all the associated funerary objects (grave goods).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is associated with Sun worship rituals, a cult that spread from Scandinavia over the entire region. It is also a manifestation of land ownership by kinship groups, a practice introduced with agriculture. At the time the hill of Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki was completely bare of trees and was probably chosen for its unimpeded view of the sea and its openness to the Sun in all directions. The settlement of the people buried here has not yet been identified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki cemetery includes 33 burial cairns and is the largest and best cairn site in all Finland; of the cairns, 28 can be securely dated to the early Bronze Age. They lie along the crest and upper slopes of a 700&amp;nbsp;m long ridge, and are disposed in several distinct clusters. The structures were built using granite boulders that were quarried from the cliff face below the crest of the ridge or collected from the site itself. Some are also built from drystone masonry. They can be classified into several different groups according to their shapes and sizes: small low round cairns, large mound-like cairns, and round walled cairns. They enclose cists made from stone slabs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site also contains two unusual structures. One is oval and elongated and seems to have been enlarged in three successive stages. It contains only charcoal, no bones of any sort having ever been found. The other is a large quadrangular cairn, known as the Church Floor (&lt;em&gt;Kirkonlaatia&lt;/em&gt; ), which is unique in Finland and extremely rare in Scandinavia. Its surface is flat, it has no outer wall, and the layers of stones are thinner towards the centre. Excavations revealed an internal structure in the centre made from stone flags. It is still difficult to determine whether this structure is linked with religious ceremonies or whether it is a tomb. None of the Sammallahdenm&amp;auml;ki cairns have produced any bronze implements. Their layout and location indicates that these cairns most probably belong to the early Bronze Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The degree of authenticity of the site is very high. The cairns are built from granite, which does not erode easily. The surroundings have remained untouched and the cairns themselves have been subject to very little disturbance. The remote location of the site has protected it from development, and the local population has taken pride in protecting it.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This Bronze Age burial site features more than 30 granite burial cairns, providing a unique insight into the funerary practices and social and religious structures of northern Europe more than three millennia ago.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bronze Age Burial Site of Sammallahdenmäki</site><states>Finland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>686</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1747 the Swedish Diet made a decision to fortify the eastern border and to establish a place d'armes on islands outside Helsinki. France, with which Sweden had a military alliance, financed a great part of the construction during the first decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sveaborg was the largest construction project in Sweden in the 18th century. It was constructed under the supervision and direction of Lieutenant-Colonel Augustin Ehrensvard, assisted by the best Swedish engineering and mechanics experts. The fortress was constructed by soldiers in the regular army from all over Sweden and Finland. At its height, the construction crew totalled more than 6500. When Ehrensvard died in 1772, the fortress was virtually ready for use. The overall plan was revisecf in 1774.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;European power politics also determined Sveaborg's fate. In the war of 1808-1809, which was a direct consequence of the treaties between Napoleon and Alexander I, Russia occupied Finland. Sveaborg surrendered and became a Russian garrison for the following 110 years. At the turn of the century there were about 4000 Russian soldiers in Sveaborg. The fortress remained in the state it had been under Swedish rule until the bombings during the Crimean War in 1855, when the British and French Navies &amp;middot;fired on the fort. In the repairs and modernisation , undertaken after .that, some of the damaged buildings were torn down or made lower and a new coastal defence line of earth banks was constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Before the First World War, Sveaborg, mainly serving as a depot area, formed part of the defence scheme, "Peter the Great's Sea Fortress". The intention was that Sveaborg, together with Tallinn, would block off the entire Gulf of Finland and guarantee the security of St Petersburg, the Capital of Russia. After Finland became independent in 1917, Sveaborg became a Finnish garrison and was renamed in Finnish as Suomenlinna. It served as a prison camp after the Civil War in 1918-1919. Suomenlinna was in military use for the last time during the Second World War when it served as one of Helsinki's air surveillance centres. It served as a garrison until 1972. Its use for tourism and recreation began on a larger scale after 1963 .&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/583</http_url><id_number>583</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_583.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fi</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>60.1472200000</latitude><location>Helsinki Harbour, Region of Uusimaa, Province of Southern Finland</location><longitude>24.9872200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the history of military architecture, the Fortress of Finland (Suomenlinna) is an outstanding example representative both of the general fortification principles of the period and of its specific characteristics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1747, when Finland was part of the Swedish realm, the Diet in Stockholm decided to build a fortress to serve as the main base for the armed forces stationed in Finland. A group of islands close to Helsinki were chosen to be the site of the fortress, which was to be called Sveaborg, the 'Fortress of Sweden', and construction began in 1748. The purpose was to link and fortify several islands so that entry into the city's harbour could be controlled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The work began in 1748 under the supervision of the Swedish Admiral Augustin Ehrensv&amp;auml;rd (1710-72), an artillery officer of aristocratic background in his mid-thirties. He adapted Vauban's theories to the very special geographical features of Helsinki. Ehrensv&amp;auml;rd's original plan was to build a chain of linked fortifications across a group of islands close to Helsinki and to fortify certain strategic points on land around the town itself. The second part of the plan was never carried out, but by the time of his death in 1772 Ehrensv&amp;auml;rd had produced the chain of forts, collectively called Sveaborg (Swedish Fortress), that were to protect the approaches to Helsinki. By the end of the century the construction work was virtually complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One of the main reasons for building Sveaborg was to help Sweden counter the ambitions of Russia, whose principal military base in the Gulf of Finland was Kronstadt, commissioned by Peter the Great to protect the city of St Petersburg and as the home port of a new Russian Navy to challenge Swedish maritime power in the eastern reaches of the Baltic Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although Sveaborg was operational at Ehrensv&amp;auml;rd's death, fortification continued. King Gustav III (1771-92) seems to have taken a close interest in the work. The fortress was occupied by the Russians after the war of 1808-9 (despite its reputation as being invulnerable); it was again strengthened and its name was changed to Viapori. Swedish power in the region gradually declined and in 1808 Sveaborg was surrendered to Russian forces. In 1855, during the Crimean War, Franco-British soldiers bombarded the fortress to no avail. However, reconstruction work and new construction were undertaken. Following Finland's independence (1918), the name was changed a final time to Suomenlinna (Fortress of Finland). 6&amp;nbsp;km of walls and 190 buildings have been preserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located on islands off Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a unique historical monument and one of the largest maritime fortresses in the world. Its history is closely entwined with that of Finland and the Baltic region. Helsinki can also thank Suomenlinna for its early growth and prosperity.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the second half of the 18th century by Sweden on a group of islands located at the entrance of Helsinki's harbour, this fortress is an especially interesting example of European military architecture of the time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fortress of Suomenlinna</site><states>Finland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>690</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Petajvesi Old Church was designed and built in 1763-64 by the peasant master-builder, Jaakko Klemetinpoika Lepptien. In 1821 his grandson, Erkki Lepparren, added the bell-tower at the west end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since a new church was built on the other side of the strait in 1879, less than 1 km distant, the Old Church has been out of use. It was not maintained for a considerable period, only the bell-tower and cemetery being used for their original purpose. Repair work began in the 1920s when the Austrian art historian, Josef Strzygowski, drew attention to its historical and architectural value. At the present time the church is mainly a tourist attraction, though services are held there during the summer&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/584</http_url><id_number>584</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_584.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fi</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>62.2500000000</latitude><location>Petäjävesi, Region of Central Finland, Province of Western Finland</location><longitude>25.1833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pet&amp;auml;j&amp;auml;vesi Evangelical Lutheran Old Church is a building of considerable global importance as an example of northern timber church architecture. The church is uniquely representative of log construction in the northern coniferous area and of the skills of the peasant population. European architectural trends have influenced the external form and the ground plan of the church, but they have been applied masterfully to traditional log construction. The church combines the layout of a Renaissance central church conception and older forms derived from Gothic groined ceilings. It reflects in an impressive way the architectural beauty of a northern rural Protestant church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church is situated on a peninsula where Lakes Jamsa and Pet&amp;auml;j&amp;auml;vesi meet. The location was determined by the fact that the congregation would be able to reach it by boat or over the ice in the winter. At the present time there is no settlement in the immediate vicinity of the church, since the town of Pet&amp;auml;j&amp;auml;vesi has developed about 1&amp;nbsp;km away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pet&amp;auml;j&amp;auml;vesi Old Church was designed and built in 1763-64 by a peasant master-builder, and in 1821 his grandson added the bell tower at the west end. Since a new church was built on the other side of the strait in 1879, the Old Church went out of use and was not maintained for many years, only the bell tower and cemetery being used for their original purpose. Repairs began in the 1920s when an Austrian art historian drew attention to its historical and architectural value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ground plan of the church is cruciform, the arms being virtually the same size. This form of church developed first in towns in the later 17th century, and only later spread into the countryside. The model was probably the stone church built in Stockholm in 1656 in a style derived from Italian architecture. The bell tower at the west end of the church is connected to it by a narrow corridor; the vestry is similarly linked with the eastern arm. The main structure is of horizontal log (Blockbau) construction, in the tradition to be found further to the east. The walls were not originally clad with planks, as at the present time. The four arms are covered by high, slightly angular vaults made from reddish pine planks, and there is an octagonal dome at the crossing. The circular design at the top of the dome derives from the classical opaion as interpreted in Renaissance architecture. The masking slats, base and tie-beams of the vaults are decorated in red ochre. The interior largely preserves its original form, as developed during the century (1764-1879) when it was in liturgical use. The distinctive features are the pulpit, pews, balustraded galleries and chandeliers, the elaborate carving of which is entirely the work of local craftsmen and artists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The exterior is characterized by the steeply pitched roof, reminiscent of Gothic architecture. One of the doorways and the window of the choir have preserved their original triple arches. The lowest tier of the bell tower is in Blockbau construction, the walls and lantern being timber-framed with clapboard cladding. The bell trestle is supported on a sturdy log frame. Unlike the rest of the church, the bell tower is painted a different colour. The church is situated within a graveyard surrounded by a stone wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period of neglect between 1879 and the 1920s was a blessing in disguise. When restoration began the historical importance of the building had been recognized and so interventions for restoration and conservation were kept to a minimum and used traditional techniques and materials. As a result the level of authenticity is exceptionally high.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Petäjävesi Old Church, in central Finland, was built of logs between 1763 and 1765. This Lutheran country church is a typical example of an architectural tradition that is unique to eastern Scandinavia. It combines the Renaissance conception of a centrally planned church with older forms deriving from Gothic groin vaults.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Petäjävesi Old Church</site><states>Finland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>691</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;industrial revolution&amp;quot; that reached the Kymi river valley in the first half Of the 1870s is one of the most dramatic phenomena in the economic history of Finland. In a very short period dozens of steam sawmills, groundwood mills, and board millS were established, in many cases by foreign businessmen, especially from Norway and Germany. This Process was encouraged by the favourable attitude of its Russian rulers towards the trading activities of the Grand Duchy created in 1809. The Kymi valley benefited in particular from the construction of timber-floating facilities and the introduction of cooperative floating, which enabled logs from the Virgin forests of central Finland to be brought to the Processing facilities. At the same time a new social class of factory and mill workers emerged here, as elsewhere in Finland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first mill on the western bank of the Verlankoski rapids was founded in 1872, but it encountered financial Problems and closed down after a fire in 1876. A new, larger groundwood mill with adjoining board mills was built in 1882 by two master papermakers, one Austrian and the Other German. One of the major shareholders was a businessman of German descent from Viipuri, Friedrich Wilhelm Dippell, who eventually became the major shareholder in the company. The new mill was again built entirely in wood, but set apart from the other buildings to minimize the fire risk. The main section of the present owner's residence was completed in 1885, and the seventeen-room hostel for the workers in the following year (although most of the workers lived in cottages on either side of the rapids). When the board-drying section was destroyed by fire in 1892 it was replaced by an impressive, ornamental building in red brick on four floors, designed by Carl Eduard Dippell, brother of the owner, who was also responsible for all the other main buildings that survive at Verla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the Verla buildings are in the neo-Gothic style, which was already somewhat outmoded at the time of their construction, they were technically advanced for their time. For example, reinforced concrete floors, using the Hennebique technique only three years after it was patented, were installed in the groundwood mills. The industrial installations, by contrast, were traditional and only slightly modified and updated between 1882 and 1920.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Transport of finished Products (principally to Russia, and later to Western Europe and the USA) was always an obstacle to development at Verla. At first the bales of groundwood had to be transported to a distant railway station by boat down a route with many rapids or in winter over the frozen river. When the new railway was Completed in 1889 the distance was reduced to 7 km, but transport by horse-drawn cart over bad roads remained a major problem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Wilhelm Dippell died in 1906, Verla became a limited company, which was purchased by a Small wood-processing company on the same waterway, &amp;Ouml;y Kissakoski Ab; this was in its turn bought two years later by the present-day Kymmene Corporation. Output gradually diminished in subsequent decades until it was closed down on 18 July 1964, when the last of the old workers retired. The Kymmene Corporation decided to preserve the entire Complex intact as an industrial heritage museum, just as it had been when the last worker left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/751</http_url><id_number>751</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_751.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fi</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criterion (iv)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the Groundwood and Board Mill and its associated habitation is an outstanding and remarkably well preserved example of the small-scale rural industrial settlement associated with pulp, paper, and board production that flourished in northern Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th centuries, of which only a handful survives to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>61.0619400000</latitude><location>Municipalities of Jaala and Valkeala, Region of Kymenlaakso, Province of Southern Finland</location><longitude>26.6408300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Verla groundwood and board mill and its associated habitation are an outstanding and remarkably well-preserved example of the small-scale rural industrial settlement associated with pulp, paper and board production that flourished in northern Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th centuries, of which only a handful survive&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'Industrial Revolution' that reached the Kymi river valley in the first half of the 1870s is one of the most dramatic phenomena in the economic history of Finland. Over a very short time dozens of steam sawmills, groundwood mills and board mills were established, in many cases by foreign businessmen, especially from Norway and Germany. This process was encouraged by the favourable attitude of its Russian rulers towards the trading activities of the Grand Duchy created in 1809. The Kymi valley benefited in particular from the construction of timber-floating facilities and the introduction of cooperative floating, enabling logs from the virgin forests of central Finland to be brought to the processing facilities. At the same time a new social class of factory- and mill-workers emerged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first mill on the western bank of the Verlankoski Rapids was founded in 1872, but it encountered financial problems and closed down after a fire in 1876. A new, larger groundwood mill with adjoining board mills was built in 1882 by two master papermakers. A businessman of German descent from Viipuri, Friedrich Wilhelm Dippell, eventually became the major shareholder in the company. The new mill was again built entirely in wood, but set apart from the other buildings to minimize fire risk. The main section of the present owner's residence was completed in 1885, and the hostel for the workers in the following year (although most of the workers lived in cottages on either side of the rapids). When the board-drying section was destroyed by fire in 1892 it was replaced by an impressive ornamental building in red brick on four floors, designed by Carl Eduard Dippell, brother of the owner, who was also responsible for all the other main buildings that survive at Verla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the Verla buildings are in the neo-Gothic style, which was already somewhat outmoded at the time of their construction, they were technically advanced for their time. For example, reinforced concrete floors, using the Hennebique technique only three years after it was patented, were installed in the groundwood mills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The industrial installations, by contrast, were traditional and only slightly modified and updated between 1882 and 1920. Transport of finished products (principally to Russia, and later to Western Europe and the United States) was always an obstacle to. At first the groundwood had to be transported to a distant railway station by boat down a route with many rapids or in winter over the frozen river. When the railway was completed in 1889 the distance was reduced to 7&amp;nbsp;km, but transport by horse-drawn cart over poor roads remained a major problem. When Wilhelm Dippell died in 1906, Verla became a limited company, which was purchased by a small wood-processing company on the same waterway, which was in its turn bought two years later by the present-day Kymmene Corporation. Output gradually diminished in subsequent decades until it was closed down on 18 July 1964, when the last of the old workers retired. The Kymmene Corporation decided to preserve the entire Complex intact as an industrial heritage museum, just as it had been when the last worker left.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prehistoric rock painting sited above the rapids on the Valkeala side depicts eight elks, three human figures and a geometric motif. They are considered to be some 6,000 years old, from the earliest period of Finnish rock art, the work of the Arctic Hunting Culture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Verla groundwood and board mill and its associated residential area is an outstanding, remarkably well-preserved example of the small-scale rural industrial settlements associated with pulp, paper and board production that flourished in northern Europe and North America in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Only a handful of such settlements survive to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Verla Groundwood and Board Mill</site><states>Finland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>885</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/582</http_url><id_number>582</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_582.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fi</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>61.1280600000</latitude><location>Region of Satakunta, Province of Western Finland (formerly Province of Turku-Pori)</location><longitude>21.5116700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rauma is an outstanding example of the traditional wooden architecture and urbanism in this part of Europe, and one of the most beautiful and extensive of all those that have survived to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, located on the Gulf of Bothnia, is one of the oldest harbours in Finland, mentioned first in 1441. It is built around a Franciscan monastery where the mid-15th-century Holy Cross Church still stands. This is the former monastery church of a Franciscan friary, which was built in the mid-14th century. There are medieval wall and vault paintings in the choir of the two-aisle stone church. The church nowadays serves as the town and rural parish church of Rauma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, which was constructed in wood, was ravaged by fire in the late 17th century and a new city was built. Despite some changes made in the 19th century, Rauma has preserved its ancient appearance as the modern city has grown up outside the original core.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the old Franciscan church and the ruins of the 15th-century Holy Trinity church, the only monument in the old city is the City Hall, built in the 18th century. However, the old city of Rauma's great wealth is its vernacular architectural heritage (houses, workshops and shops). The majority of the buildings in the old city have been sensitively restored as part of a comprehensive development plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Old Rauma is the largest unified historical wooden town in the Nordic countries. It covers an area of 28&amp;nbsp;ha and contains 600 buildings, most of which are privately owned. The lively business area is concentrated around the market square. In addition to dwelling houses there are different kinds of outbuildings, old animal sheds and granaries. The plots are bordered by gates and fences (plank walls).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The appearance of the buildings has formed gradually during several phases of building and renovation, over the past centuries. Characteristics from the 1700s still remain in some buildings, whereas others have the appearance of the 1820s and 1830s. The majority of the buildings, however, received their current neo-Renaissance exterior during the active period of renovation in the 1890s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kirsti is a typical two-room Old Rauma house from the 18th century furnished as a seaman's home from the turn of the last century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the Gulf of Botnia, Rauma is one of the oldest harbours in Finland. Built around a Franciscan monastery, where the mid-15th-century Holy Cross Church still stands, it is an outstanding example of an old Nordic city constructed in wood. Although ravaged by fire in the late 17th century, it has preserved its ancient vernacular architectural heritage.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Rauma</site><states>Finland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1718</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/85</http_url><id_number>85</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_85.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.0575000000</latitude><location>Communes of Les Eyzies de Tayac, Tursac, Montignac-sur-Vézère, Saint-Leon-sur-Vézère, Marquay, Manaurie-Rouffignac and Saint-Cirq-du Bugue, Department of the Dordogne, Region of Aquitaine</location><longitude>1.1700000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The objects and works of art found in the Vézère Valley bear extremely rare witness to long-extinct civilizations which are very difficult to understand. This material is of universal interest as being exceptional from historic as well as ethnological, anthropological and aesthetic points of view. Certain of the figurative ensembles of the caves of the Vézère are universally recognized as masterpieces of prehistoric art: the Venus de Laussel (Marquay), the frieze of horses in high relief of Cap-Blanc, and especially the renamed wall paintings of the Lascaux cave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vézère valley is particularly interesting from an ethnological and anthropological as well as an aesthetic point of view because of its cave paintings, especially those of the Lascaux Cave, the discovery of which in 1940 was of great importance for the history of prehistoric art. The hunting scenes show some 100 animal figures, which are remarkable for their detail, rich colours and lifelike quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prehistoric site covers an area approximately 30 km by 40 km and comprises 147 sites and 25 decorated caves. Besides skeletons, an important collection of objects (more than 500,000 flints, 148 sets of faunal remains, 844 utensils and works of art of various kinds) has been brought together which has made it possible to establish chronological cadre for the prehistoric civilizations of the European Quaternary period. There is no other prehistoric site in any other part of the world which equals site in the quantity, quality and variety of the finds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lascaux is far superior to some of the other caves in France and Spain, including Les Trois-Frères, Niaux, Altamira, Font-de-Gaume and Les Combarelles, because Lascaux is much larger than these caves and the artefacts are better preserved. The walls of Lascaux are covered in painted, drawn and engraved animals on the ancient stone, which proved difficult to reach. Scholars calculated that the ground was a different shape 17,000 years ago, so that the paintings on the walls were much easier to reach. The ground had sunk deeper and deeper over the years and made it hard gain access to the prehistoric paintings. When Breuil entered the cave he found that there was a very thick coating of calcite crystals, with some of the best preserved pictures painted on them. All of the paintings have lasted thousands of years without decaying or fading because the natural removal and replacement of the air in Lascaux does not cause deterioration of the paintings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The animal art found in the caves depicts different species: bulls, bison and horses. Along with the many animals on the walls, there are some signs of human or semi-human representation. The human figures are not as richly defined or carefully executed as is the animal art. The depictions of animals involved in the hunt helped to assure or reassure the hunters of great success.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vézère valley contains 147 prehistoric sites dating from the Palaeolithic and 25 decorated caves. It is particularly interesting from an ethnological and anthropological, as well as an aesthetic point of view because of its cave paintings, especially those of the Lascaux Cave, whose discovery in 1940 was of great importance for the history of prehistoric art. The hunting scenes show some 100 animal figures, which are remarkable for their detail, rich colours and lifelike quality.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>91</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/160</http_url><id_number>160</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_160.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.4019444400</latitude><location>Department of Seine-et-Marne, Ile-de-France</location><longitude>2.6980555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The architecture and decor of the Palace of Fontainebleau exerted considerable influence on the artistic evolution not only of France but also of Europe. Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I intended to make a new Rome of this royal residence. It was in this spirit that he brought artists of renown from Italy, whose intervention marks the decisive stage in the introduction of the aesthetic formulas of the Renaissance into France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Used by the kings of France from the 12th century, the medieval royal hunting lodge of Fontainebleau, standing at the heart of a vast forest in the &amp;Icirc;le-de-France, was transformed, enlarged and embellished in the 16th century by Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I. From then on it was one of the most important and prestigious sites of the French Court. The construction of the royal palace began during the reign of Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I, who in 1528 ordered an ambitious campaign of demolition and expansion of the old royal residence. Further modifications undertaken by his successors and carried out at varying degrees of intensity until the 19th century gave shape to the present complex, which nowadays consists of five courtyards, arranged irregularly and surrounded by wings of buildings and gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest buildings were erected between 1528 and 1540 under the supervision of master builder Gilles le Breton, who was responsible for the Cour Ovale, now located in the eastern section of the complex, and which stands on the ancient foundations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1533 to 1540 Rosso Fiorentino worked on the decor of frescoes and the stucco work of the Galerie Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I, achieving an ambitious iconographic programme in the Mannerist style, in which themes of monarchist propaganda were borrowed from Graeco-Roman fables and myths. Francesco Primaticcio was responsible for the casting of the most famous Romantic bronzes: those of the Cortile of the Belvedere and of the Palazzo della Valle. Primaticcio devoted the better part of his career to Fontainebleau, working on the frescoes of the Salle de Bal, the room of the Duchess d'&amp;Eacute;tampes and the Galerie d'Ulysse. Very little survives of the rooms that were decorated under Primaticcio's supervision: there are traces, however, of his exquisite and refined creations in numerous drawings and engravings, which had considerable influence on the tastes of the time. Niccol&amp;ograve; dell'Abate collaborated with him in several of these workshops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The memory of other famous artists is intimately connected with Fontainebleau: a Hercules of Michelangelo was raised on a plinth in the Cour de la Fontaine; Benvenuto Cellini intended his Nymphe de Fontainebleau for the Porte Dor&amp;eacute;e; Serlio drew up the plans for several parts of the palace and conceived the door for the Fontaine Belle-Eau with its rustic grotto with telamons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By virtue of the contact with the Italian architects, painters and sculptors, French artists were led to a radical self-renewal. If Gilles le Breton seems to have escaped their influence at the beginning of the workshop, for Philibert de l'Orme and then for Jacques Androu et du Cerceau, Fontainebleau was the source of definitive revelations. The lesson of the Italian painters inspired yet another generation of artists, that of the second school of Fontainebleau, such as Toussaint Dubreuilh, Ambroise Dubois and Martin Fr&amp;eacute;minet, as the need to enlarge and decorate the immense palace created the ideal conditions for the survival of an artistic centre into the mid-17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like the buildings, the gardens of Fontainebleau also underwent major transformations over the centuries. To the east the Grand Jardin was originally composed of a series of square flower beds, criss-crossed by a canal. Later it was transformed into the Parterre du Tibre and then redesigned by Le N&amp;ocirc;tre and gradually simplified until it attained its present-day configuration with four grassy panels surrounded by flowering borders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Royal domicile, 'house of the centuries' - Fontainebleau has retained the imprint of every reign and every style: Henri IV, Louis XIII, Louis XV and Louis XVI paid without hesitation for the embellishment of this royal palace, which Napoleon I preferred above all the others.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Used by the kings of France from the 12th century, the medieval royal hunting lodge of Fontainebleau, standing at the heart of a vast forest in the Ile-de-France, was transformed, enlarged and embellished in the 16th century by François I, who wanted to make a 'New Rome' of it. Surrounded by an immense park, the Italianate palace combines Renaissance and French artistic traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palace and Park of Fontainebleau</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>178</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/164</http_url><id_number>164</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_164.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.6776388900</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.6306944440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Like Verona in Italy, Arles is an especially significant example of the appropriation of a classical city by a medieval European civilization. The town, founded by the Phoceans in the 7th century BC as Arelate, owed its prosperity to the decline of its rival, Marseilles, under the Emperor Augustus. It has retained impressive Roman monuments of which the earliest, the Arena, the Roman Theatre, and the Cryptoporticus (subterranean galleries) date back to the 1st century BC. During the 4th century, Arles rose to the rank of political capital and religious metropolis; testimony to this second golden age is provided by the Baths of Constantine and the superb marble sarcophagi of the Alyscamps cemetery. However, in 480 the city fell into the hands of barbarians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The subsequent decline was a cruel one for the city, which did not regain its role as a capital until the 9th century with the creation of an independent kingdom. Successively a territory of the Empire and a possession of the Counts of Provence, Arles was one of the most attractive cities of the Mediterranean world during the Middle Ages. Travellers from many countries described its monuments with enthusiasm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman theatre was built at the end of the 1st century BC. The cavea could hold 10,000 people in 33 rows of seats. The majestic high wall at the back of the stage was decorated with columns and statues; two columns and the collection of sculptures are in the Arles Archaeological Museum. From the 5th century onwards, the theatre was occupied by houses and religious buildings, which were demolished starting in 1834. At that time the semi-circular orchestra section with its precious marble pavement, the space occupied by the machinery used to raise and lower the curtain, part of the seats, and parts of the outer wall preserved in the Tower of Roland during the Middle Ages were restored and conserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The amphitheatre, built around AD 90, ranks among the great amphitheatres and could hold 20,000 spectators. Gladiator fights and animal hunts took place here until the end of the 5th century. During the Middle Ages, the building became a fortress, sheltering two chapels and 212 houses within its walls. These parasitic constructions were destroyed in 1825. The underground passages of the Cryptoporticus were used as foundations for the Roman forum, the political, commercial, and religious centre of the Roman city. They were built in 30 BC on the side of the hill, and their construction necessitated gigantic earth filling and levelling operations. The U-shaped Cryptoporticus is made up of three double corridors covered with barrel vaults. They intersect at right angles and are separated by rows of massive pillars supporting basket-handle arches. Towards the end of the Roman Empire shops were built, opening on the outer side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Roman times Arles was surrounded by graveyards, including one situated along the Via Aurelia which later became known as Les Alyscamps. This cemetery subsequently became important when the Christian martyr Saint Genest and the first bishops of Arles were buried there. In 1040 the site became the Saint-Honorat priory, one of the required stops on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. Today a path lined with numerous sarcophagi, painted by Van Gogh and Gauguin, leads to the church of St Honorat at the far end. The latter was rebuilt during the 12th century in Romanesque style and crowned with a splendid octagonal lantern inspired by the architecture of the Roman amphitheatre. The church of Saint Trophime and its cloisters constitute an exceptional Romanesque group, strongly influenced by ancient art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beside the Rh&amp;ocirc;ne the Baths of Constantine were built during the 4th century as part of a complex including several buildings. Still visible today are the hot rooms, the pools, the ventilation system for the hot air circulating within the walls through tubuli (hollow tiles) and between the piles of bricks (hypocausts).&lt;br /&gt;The walls, consisting of alternating rows of bricks and small worked limestone blocks, are built around a semi-circular apse which was lit by three high round-arched windows, and covered with a magnificent quarter-sphere vault (&lt;em&gt;cul-de-four&lt;/em&gt;). Towards the south were located the warm baths, the cold baths, and the &lt;em&gt;palaestra&lt;/em&gt; (gymnasium).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Arles is a good example of the adaptation of an ancient city to medieval European civilization. It has some impressive Roman monuments, of which the earliest – the arena, the Roman theatre and the cryptoporticus (subterranean galleries) – date back to the 1st century B.C. During the 4th century Arles experienced a second golden age, as attested by the baths of Constantine and the necropolis of Alyscamps. In the 11th and 12th centuries, Arles once again became one of the most attractive cities in the Mediterranean. Within the city walls, Saint-Trophime, with its cloister, is one of Provence's major Romanesque monuments.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Arles, Roman and Romanesque Monuments</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>182</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1309 the Frenchman Bertrand de Got, who had been elected and crowned Supreme Pontiff in 1305, refused to go to Rome, choosing instead to install himself temporarily in the Dominican Convent at Avignon. Seven Popes were to reign there until the election of Martin v in 1417 and the return of the seat of the Papacy to Rome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Clement's successor, John XXII (1316-34), moved to the former bishop's palace, which ne converted into a Papal Palace, on the Rocher des Doms, alongside the cathedral. Benedict XII (1334-42) gradually demolished this building and replaced it with what is now known as the Old Palace, covering the northern part of the present monument, a structure that took the master-builder Pierre Poisson eighteen years to complete. It was Benedict's successor, Clement VI (1342-52), who was to complete the ensemble, under the direction of Jean de Louvres, who brought with him from the Ile-de-France the high Gothic style than prevailing there. Clement entrusted the interior decoration to the famous Italian Painter Matteo Giovannetti from Viterbo, who worked on the Chapels of St John and St Martial while waiting for the New Palace to be completed. He also supervised the work of French and Italian Painters on other halls and rooms within the palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Avignon had been sold to Clement VI in 1348 by Queen Joan of Naples and Sicily, and it was to remain the residence of the Italian Papal legates for nearly four hundred years after the Papacy had returned to Rome, until they were expelled at the time of the Revolution, when the people of Avignon, which had benefited markedly from its long association with the Papacy, opted to join France. In 1793 the Convention decided to demolish this "Bastille du Midi," but the massive building defied their efforts. It passed to the ownership of the town in 1810,and eight years later was put at the disposal of the Minister of war, Who used it as a barracks until 1906, when it was returned to the town.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/228</http_url><id_number>228</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_228.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.9527777800</latitude><location>Department of Vacluse, Region of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur</location><longitude>4.8061111110</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 14th century, this city in the South of France was the seat of the papacy. The Palais des Papes, an austere-looking fortress lavishly decorated by Simone Martini and Matteo Giovanetti, dominates the city, the surrounding ramparts and the remains of a 12th-century bridge over the Rhone. Beneath this outstanding example of Gothic architecture, the Petit Palais and the Romanesque Cathedral of Notre-Dame-des-Doms complete an exceptional group of monuments that testify to the leading role played by Avignon in 14th-century Christian Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Avignon: Papal Palace, Episcopal Ensemble and Avignon Bridge</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>254</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Scandola Nature Reserve established under decree of 9 December 1975. Parc naturel regional de Corse established under decree of 12 May 1972. Since a law of 2 May 1930, updated by decree of 14 December 1976, no destruction or modification can be carried out in the area without authorisation from the Minister of the Environment. Girolata and Porto were classified as nature reserves in 1975 and 1976. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1983 and Scandola Nature Reserve was awarded the European Diploma in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/258</http_url><id_number>258</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_258.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.3251944400</latitude><location>Departments of Corse du Sud and Haute Corse, Corsica</location><longitude>8.6288333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site lies on the central western coast of the island  of Corsica. The natural reserve, which is part of the Regional Natural Park of Corsica, occupies the Scandola peninsula, an impressive, porphyritic rock mass. The site includes a coastline of astonishing beauty studded with offshore islets and sea pillars rising out of translucent waters. On the shore itself there are hidden coves and long beeches of fine sand, sea grottos and high cliffs of blood-red porphyry. The vegetation is an outstanding example of scrubland. Seagulls, cormorants and sea eagles can be found there. The clear waters, with their islets and inaccessible caves, host a rich marine life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve is divided into two sectors: the Elpa Nera inlet (between Pointe Bianca and Pointe Validori) and the Scandola peninsula. This area, which includes the massif of Cinto and the valley of Fango, is part of a large geological complex that appears to have undergone two distinct cycles of volcanic activity in the Permian. Since then, the area has been subject to alternating cycles of erosion and rejuvenation. Geologically comprises porphyry, rhyoliths and basaltic pillars, which have all been considerably eroded by wave action. The jagged and sheer cliffs contain many grottos and are flanked by numerous stacks and almost inaccessible islets and coves, such as Tuara. The coastline is also noted for its red cliffs, some 900&amp;nbsp;m high, sand beaches, and headlands such as Cape Osani and the peninsula  of Elbo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the more gentle slopes, typical Mediterranean maquis vegetation occurs. This is replaced by arborescent plants at an altitude of 200&amp;nbsp;m and oaks succeed this in certain areas. All species of marine algae for this part of the Mediterranean are found within the littoral zone, including a number of species, such as red algae, which are not recorded anywhere else in France. Because of the highly transparent nature of the waters the sublittoral algae is found over quite a large area. Scandola Nature Reserve contains a rich sedentary and migrant fauna including the peregrine falcon, osprey and Eleonora falcon, with Cory's shearwater and Audouin's gull occurring in the littoral zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The marine environment contains considerable numbers of spiny lobster and a wide range of littoral and sublittoral invertebrates and fish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This area conserves traditional agriculture and grazing activities, and contains complete systems of architecturally interesting fortifications, which are important elements of Corsican culture. There are also some Roman sites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The nature reserve, which is part of the Regional Natural Park of Corsica, occupies the Scandola peninsula, an impressive, porphyritic rock mass. The vegetation is an outstanding example of scrubland. Seagulls, cormorants and sea eagles can be found there. The clear waters, with their islets and inaccessible caves, host a rich marine life.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana, Gulf of Girolata, Scandola Reserve</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>288</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest known occupation of the site where Carcassonne now stands dates from the 6th century BC, when a protohistoric hill-fort (oppidum) was built on this rocky spur overlooking the valley of the Aude and the ancient routes linking the Atlantic with the Mediterranean and the Iberian peninsula with the rest of Europe. Following the absorption of the region into the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC, this settlement, known as Carcaso Volcarum Tectosagum, became the Latin Colonia Iulia Carcaso in 27 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the turbulent years of the late 3rd and the early 4th century it was protected by the construction of a defensive wall some 1200m in length, the impressive remains of which still survive around two thirds of the interior fortifications of the later town. It earned the town the appellation castellum in a document dated to the 330s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It came under Visigothic rule in the 5th century, and resisted repeated attempts by the Franks to capture it. It was a frontier town on the northern boundary of Septimania. The Arabs were more successful in 724, but were driven out in 759, after a siege led by P&amp;eacute;pin the Short. In the 9th century it became the seat of a count, and later of a viscount.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Visigothic period saw the creation of a bishopric at Carcassonne, sometime in the 6th century. It is probably that a cathedral was built here, on the site of the present Romanesque cathedral, on which work began in June 1096. The chancel of this structure was demolished in 1270, when construction of the new chancel started, not to be completed until the 1320s. A Lady Chapel was added in the early 15th century, adjoining the infirmary and chapel built by Bishop Radulph in the 1260s. The 12th century count's castle (chateau comtal) was built over the western part of the Roman walls; it was surrounded by a rectangular fortified enclosure in 1226. At the same time the external defensive walls were built, so as to make the town, recently annexed to the Royal domains and made the seat of a senechal, completely impregnable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two final construction campaigns took place in the 13th and early 14th centuries, following unsuccessful sieges in 1240 and 1280. By the end of the 13th century the town had assumed its definitive appearance as a medieval fortress. A local revolt in 1262 caused the king to expel most of the inhabitants. He allowed them to settle on the other side of the river, \\-here the new town that they set up was itself fortified in 1347.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Such was the impregnability of Carcassonne that it was never attacked during the Hundred Years' War, even during the Black Prince's raid in 1355. The Huguenots made two surprise attempts to seize the town by force in 1575 and 1585, but both were quickly repressed. It became an arsenal and supply depot during the Ancien Regime and then during the Revolution. It was removed from the list of military fortresses in 1804, then reinstated as a second-grade fortress in 1820.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a result, it was quickly treated as a convenient stone quarry and its walls and towers began to be dismantled. The survival of this magnificent set of fortifications owes its salvation to J P Cros Mayrevieille, \\-ho succeeded on 31 July 1850 in having the decree that abandoned the defences to demolition annulled. Prosper M6rim6e, at that time Inspecteur General des Monuments Historiques, began discussions with the War Ministry to save the ramparts, and the first funds were made available for this purpose in 1852.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Eugene-Emmanuel Viollet-Ie-Duc, who had been commissioned to prepare a report as early as 1846, began his restoration work at the Porte Narbonnaise and the Porte de l' Aude, and continued working at Carcassonne until his death in 1879. During this time the internal fortifications were almost entirely restored, along with a number of the towers on the external defences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the last part of the century his successor Paul Boeswillwald removed the houses that had been constructed within the lists (the area between the two lines of walls) and continued working on the restoration of the walls and the castle. The restoration process was not completed until1910.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/345</http_url><id_number>345</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_345.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that the historic town of Carcassonne is an excellent example of a medieval fortified town whose massive defences were constructed on walls dating from Late Antiquity. It is of exceptional importance by virtue of the restoration work carried out in the second half of the 19th century by Viollet-le-Duc, which had a profound influence on subsequent developments in conservation principles and practice.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.2105555600</latitude><location>Department of Aude, Languedoc-Roussillon Region</location><longitude>2.3588888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic city of Carcassonne is an excellent example of a medieval fortified town whose massive defences were constructed on walls dating from late antiquity. It is of exceptional significance by virtue of the restoration work carried out in the second half of the 19th century by Viollet-le-Duc, which had a profound influence on subsequent developments in conservation principles and practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the pre-Roman period, a fortified settlement has existed on the hill where Carcassonne now stands. The earliest known occupation of the site dates from the 6th century BC, when a protohistoric hill fort (&lt;em&gt;oppidum&lt;/em&gt; ) was built on this rocky spur overlooking the valley of the Aude and the ancient routes linking the Atlantic with the Mediterranean and the Iberian peninsula with the rest of Europe. In the 1st century BC, this settlement, Carcaso Volcarum Tectosagum, became the Latin Colonia Iulia Carcaso in 27 BC. During the turbulent years of the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, it was protected by the construction of a defensive wall some 1,200&amp;nbsp;m long. The fortifications, consisting of two lines of walls and a castle, which is itself surrounded by fortifications, extend over a total length of 3&amp;nbsp;km. Their line largely follows that of the Roman defences, and these are clearly visible over two-thirds of the total length. The Roman walls were strengthened by horseshoe-shaped bastions at roughly regular intervals. The masonry is in characteristic late Roman style: rubble cores faced with courses of dressed ashlars intersected by courses of bricks and built on concrete foundations. The Porte Narbonnaise on the eastern side and the Porte de l'Aude on the west are particularly elaborate defensive works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It came under Visigothic rule in the 5th century and resisted repeated attempts by the Franks to capture it. The Arabs were more successful in 724, but were driven out in 759, after a siege led by Pepin the Short. The Visigothic period saw the creation of a bishopric at Carcassonne, some time in the 6th century. It is probably that a cathedral was built here, on the site of the present Romanesque cathedral, on which work began in June 1096.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 12th-century count's castle was built over the western part of the Roman walls; it was surrounded by a rectangular fortified enclosure in 1226. By the end of the 13th century the town had assumed its definitive appearance as a medieval fortress. A local revolt in 1262 caused the king to expel most of the inhabitants. He allowed them to settle on the other side of the river, where the new town that they set up was itself fortified in 1347.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main body of the cathedral, dedicated to St Nazaire and St Celse, consists of a central six-bayed nave with an interrupted barrel vault and two narrow side-aisles rising to almost the same height and fully vaulted. The transverse arches of the barrel vaulting spring alternately from square columns surrounded by embedded columns and round pillars. The original Romanesque choir was replaced in the later 13th century by an imposing High Gothic structure. This is a large transept with a six-sided apse at its eastern end. It is at variance with the practice in the High Gothic cathedrals of northern France, where the choir itself was stressed; accenting the transept is more in keeping with a Romanesque tradition, which here is gothicized. Its exterior, like that of most southern French Gothic churches, has no flying buttresses, stability being assured by means of the interior vaulting. It contains some important sculpture, notably the 13th-century tomb of Bishop Radulph. The stained glass in the windows of the apse and the transept is of exceptionally high quality. Three periods can be distinguished: late 13th century, early 14th century and 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Carcassonne is also of exceptional importance because of the lengthy restoration campaign undertaken in the latter half of the 19th century by Eug&amp;egrave;ne-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, one of the founders of the modern science of conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Since the pre-Roman period, a fortified settlement has existed on the hill where Carcassonne now stands. In its present form it is an outstanding example of a medieval fortified town, with its massive defences encircling the castle and the surrounding buildings, its streets and its fine Gothic cathedral. Carcassonne is also of exceptional importance because of the lengthy restoration campaign undertaken by Viollet-le-Duc, one of the founders of the modern science of conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Fortified City of Carcassonne</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>393</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/600</http_url><id_number>600</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_600.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.8583333300</latitude><location>Ile de France</location><longitude>2.2941666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The banks of the Seine are studded with a succession of masterpieces, including, in particular, Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle, Louvre, Palais de l'lnstitut, Les Invalides, Place de la Concorde, &amp;Eacute;cole Militaire, La Monnaie (Mint), Grand Palais des Champs Elys&amp;eacute;es, Eiffel Tower and Palais de Chaillot. A number of them, such as Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle, were definitive references in the spread of Gothic construction, while the Place de la Concorde or the vista at the Invalides exerted influence on the urban development of European capitals. The Marais and &amp;Icirc;le Saint-Louis have coherent architectural ensembles, with highly significant examples of Parisian construction of the 17th and 18th centuries (H&amp;ocirc;tel Lauzun and H&amp;ocirc;tel Lambert on the &amp;Icirc;le St Louis), Quai Malaquais, and Quai Voltaire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the Louvre to the Eiffel Tower, from the Place de la Concorde to the Grand and Petit Palais, the evolution of Paris and its history can be seen from the River Seine. The Cathedral of Notre-Dame and the Sainte Chapelle are architectural masterpieces while Haussmann's wide squares and boulevards influenced late 19th- and 20th-century town planning the world over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Paris is a river town. Ever since the first human settlements, from the prehistoric days and the village of the Parisii tribes, the Seine has played both a defensive and an economic role. The present historic city, which developed between the 16th (and particularly the 17th) centuries and the 20th century, translates the evolution of the relationship between the river and the people: defence, trade, promenades, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The choice of the zone between Pont de Sully and Pont d'l&amp;eacute;na is based on the age-old distinction between Paris upstream and Paris downstream. Upstream, beyond the Ars&amp;eacute;nal, begins Paris the port and river transport town; downstream is the royal and subsequently aristocratic Paris, which had only limited commercial activity. It is this latter section of the city which was selected for the World Heritage List. The powerful hand of the state is extremely visible here through its constructions and the legislation in effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It can be seen how the site and the river were gradually brought under control with the articulation of the two islets, &amp;Icirc;le de la Cit&amp;eacute; and &amp;Icirc;le Saint-Louis with the bank, the creation of north-south thoroughfares, installations along the river course, construction of quays, and the channelling of the river. Similarly, although the successive walls of the city have disappeared (the enceintes of Philippe-Auguste, Charles V, and the Fermiers G&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;raux), their traces may be read in the difference in size and spacing of the buildings (closer together in the Marais and the &amp;Icirc;le Saint-Louis, more open after the Louvre, beyond which are a greater number of major classic constructions laid along three perpendicular axes: Palais Bourbon-Concorde-Madeleine, Invalides-Grand and Petit Palais, Champ-de-Mars-&amp;Eacute;cole Militaire-Palais de Chaillot. The ensemble must be regarded as a geographical and historic entity. Today it constitutes a remarkable example of urban riverside architecture, where the strata of history are harmoniously superposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Haussmann's urbanism, which marks the western part of the city, inspired the construction of the great cities of the New World, in particular in Latin America. The Eiffel Tower and the Palais de Chaillot are living testimony of the great universal exhibitions, which were of such great importance in the 19th and 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From the Louvre to the Eiffel Tower, from the Place de la Concorde to the Grand and Petit Palais, the evolution of Paris and its history can be seen from the River Seine. The Cathedral of Notre-Dame and the Sainte Chapelle are architectural masterpieces while Haussmann's wide squares and boulevards influenced late 19th- and 20th-century town planning the world over.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Paris, Banks of the Seine</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>710</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/601</http_url><id_number>601</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_601.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.2533333300</latitude><location>Department of Marne, Champagne Ardenne Region</location><longitude>4.0327777780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;By virtue of the outstanding handling of new architectural techniques in the 13th century and the harmonious marriage of architecture and sculpted decoration, Notre-Dame Cathedral at Reims is a masterpiece of Gothic art. The perfection of the architecture and the sculptural ensemble of the cathedral were such that numerous later edifices were influenced by it, particularly in regions of Germany. The former abbey still has its beautiful 9th-century nave, in which lie the remains of Archbishop Saint R&amp;eacute;mi (440-533). The former archiepiscopal palace known as the Tau Palace, which played an important role in religious ceremonies, was almost entirely rebuilt in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral, the Archiepiscopal Palace, and the old Abbey of Saint-R&amp;eacute;mi are directly linked to the history of the French monarchy, and hence to that of France in general. These places were part of the coronation ceremony, the result of a perfect balance between Church and State that made the French monarchy a political model throughout Europe until modern times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of great importance in the early days of Christianity in Gaul, Reims had a number of archbishops who were major figures in the Roman Catholic Church, canonized after their death. This was the case for the most famous among them, R&amp;eacute;mi (440-533) the archbishop who baptized Clovis and instituted the Holy Anointing of Kings. The ceremony was fully established in the 12th century, and after that time almost all French sovereigns were consecrated at Reims. For the Royal Anointing, which took place in the town's cathedral, the Ampulla containing the Chrism, or holy oil, was brought from the Abbey of Saint-R&amp;eacute;mi. R&amp;eacute;mi, who died in 533, was buried in St Christopher's chapel, which was replaced in the 11th-12th centuries by a Benedictine abbey church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastic buildings date from the 12th-13th centuries, but were extensively remodelled during the 17th century. However, some very interesting medieval parts were conserved. The present cathedral, built on the site of the Carolingian church which was destroyed by fire, is one of the great French cathedrals of the 13th century. Along with the cathedrals of Chartres and Amiens, it is at the summit of the classical Gothic style. At Reims all the innovations introduced at Chartres may be found, except that the builders of Reims, perhaps conscious of erecting the church for the coronation of the kings of France, enhanced the structural elements with greater lightness and made more openings in the walls to allow a maximum of light to filter through the stained glass and illuminate the sacred space. Nowhere is sculpture so prevalent on a Gothic facade than it is at Reims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than simple ornamentation, the sculpture of Reims Cathedral is an integral part of the architectural composition. Reflecting both &amp;Icirc;le-de-France traditions and the minor arts of the Champagne region, the sculpture possesses a monumental character and a grace inspired by the silver- or goldsmith's art. While the smiling figures on the west facade are very famous, the sumptuousness of the composition of the Crowning of the Virgin (above the central portal) or the grave antique nobility of other figures such as Elizabeth in the composition depicting the Visitation should not be overlooked.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old archiepiscopal palace was both the Episcopal See and an important step in the coronation ceremony, the banquet being held there. It was almost completely rebuilt by Robert de Cotte on the behest of Archbishop Le Tellier. The beautiful 18th-century Palatine chapel and the 15th-century banqueting hall were kept intact.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The outstanding handling of new architectural techniques in the 13th century, and the harmonious marriage of sculptural decoration with architecture, has made Notre-Dame in Reims one of the masterpieces of Gothic art. The former abbey still has its beautiful 9th-century nave, in which lie the remains of Archbishop St R&amp;eacute;mi (440&amp;ndash;533), who instituted the Holy Anointing of the kings of France. The former archiepiscopal palace known as the Tau Palace, which played an important role in religious ceremonies, was almost entirely rebuilt in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Former Abbey of Saint-Rémi and Palace of Tau, Reims</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>711</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Investigations into the possibilities of creating canals joining the major natural waterways began in the early 16tn century, when Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I brought Leonardo da Vinci with him on his return to France. One of their projects envisaged linking the Garonne and the Aude rivers, and thus the Mediterranean with the Atlantic. The first successful enterprise was the canal de Briare, joining the Loire and the Seine, which was completed in 1642. Solution of the technical problerns involved rekindled interest in the Mediterranean-Atlantic link and a number of projects were put forward. lt was to become a reality thanks to a very favourable political climate in France at the time, and aIso to the availability of an exceptional man, with the vision and determination to see a project on this scale through to completion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pierre-Paul Riquet was 50 when he began work on the project in 1654. He considered a number of possible routes to link the Garonne with the Aude and surmount the watershed between the two rivers at Naurouze, which presented special problems of water supply. He enlisted the a id of local experts, notably Pierre Campmas, who was responsible for the water supply of the town of Revel, at the foot of the Montagne Noire massif. He also recruited Fran&amp;ccedil;ois Andreossy, a civil engineer specializing in hydraulic projects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1662 Riquet secured a powerful supporter in Jean-Baptiste Colbert, at that time Intendant des Finances for Louis XIV, who was tireless in his efforts to encourage the creation of industries in France. Colbert quickly realized the importance of the proposed canal in this connection, and he gave his full support to Riquet's project. He also imparted his enthusiasm to the king, who saw it as imparting more lustre to his reign. A Royal commission was set up to study the technical and financial viability of the project and, following its favourable report, letters patent were granted to Riquet in May 1665 to excavate a narrow watercourse over the entire route, which demonstrated that water could be raised sufficiently to cross the watershed at Naurouze. The project was to be financed on a tripartite basis, from the Royal Treasurv, the Province of Languedoc, and Riquet himself. The Treasury funds would be used for purchasing the land over which the canal would pass and those from the province for the works themselves. Management of the completed canal and use of the eventual revenue was assigned to the entrepreneur and his successors. A Royal Edict announcing the construction of the canal was issued in October 1666 and letters-patent were granted to Riquet; however, this authorized him to construct only the western section, between the Garonne at Toulouse and the Aude at Tr&amp;egrave;bes. The work was to be completed in eight years and 3.36 million livres were allocated for the project. He was authorized to construct the second section, between Tr&amp;egrave;bes and S&amp;egrave;te, on the Mediterranean coast, in 1669.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two thousand workers were engaged for the project in January 1667; this number was to reach a peak of twelve thousand, including six hundred women brought in to make up for a shortage of male workers. They were divided into twelve divisions, each under the control of an inspecteur g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ral, and further divided into squads of fifty people under a foreman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The project underwent many vicissitudes and financial crises in the years that followed, but it was largely completed when Riquet died in 1681. Following persistent complaints about the flooding of neighbouring agricultural land, the great military architect Vauban was sent to the canal; as a result of his report a number of aqueducts were built and the Saint-Ferr&amp;eacute;ol dam was raised in height. The final elements of the entire system were completed in 1694. Its total cost was over fifteen million livres, exceeding the original estimates by some 70%, which was not unreasonable given the number of unexpected problems that arose. Ancillary works carried out subsequently were the canal de Saint-Pierre (or canal de Brienne) at Toulouse and the canal de Jonction to serve the canal de Robine and Narbonne (1768-87) and the canal-bridge on the Orb (1854-57).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/770</http_url><id_number>770</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_770.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (i), (ii), (iv) and (vi)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the site is of outstanding universal value being one of the greatest engineering achievements of the Modern Age, providing the model for the flowering of technology that led directly to the Industrial Revolution and the modern technological age. Additionally, it combines with its technological innovation a concern for high aesthetic architectural and landscape design that has few parallels. The Committee endorsed the inscription of this property as the Canal du Midi clearly is an exceptional example of a designed landscape&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.6113888900</latitude><location>Region of Midi-Pyrénées (departments of Haute-Garonne and Tarn);  Region of Languedoc-Roussillon (departments of l'Aude and l'Herault)</location><longitude>1.4163888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Canal du Midi is one of the greatest engineering achievements of the modern age, providing the model for the flowering of technology that led directly to the Industrial Revolution and the modern technological age. It represents a significant period in European history, that of the development of water transport as a result of mastery of hydraulic civil engineering. It combines with its technological innovation a concern for high aesthetic architectural and landscape design that has few parallels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Investigations into the possibilities of creating canals joining the major natural waterways began in the early 16th century, when Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I brought Leonardo da Vinci with him on his return to France. One of their projects envisaged linking the Garonne and the Aude rivers, and thus the Mediterranean with the Atlantic. The first successful enterprise was the Canal de Briar&amp;eacute;, joining the Loire and the Seine, which was completed in 1642. Solution of the technical problems involved rekindled interest in the Mediterranean-Atlantic link and a number of projects were put forward. It was to become a reality thanks to a very favourable political climate in France at the time, and also to the availability of Pierre-Paul Riquet, who began work on the project in 1654. He considered a number of possible routes to link the Garonne with the Aude and to surmount the watershed between the two rivers at Naurouze, which presented special problems of water supply. He enlisted the aid of local expert: Pierre Campmas, who was responsible for the water supply of the town of Revel, at the foot of the Montagne-Noire massif, Francois Andreossy, a civil engineer specializing in hydraulic projects, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert, at that time &lt;em&gt;Intendant des Finances&lt;/em&gt; for Louis XIV, who was tireless in his efforts to encourage the creation of industries in France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Colbert quickly realized the importance of the proposed canal in this connection, and he gave his full support to Riquet's project. A Royal Edict announcing the construction of the canal was issued in October 1666 and letters-patent were granted to Riquet; however, this authorized him to construct only the western section, between the Garonne at Toulouse and the Aude at Tr&amp;egrave;bes. He was authorized to construct the second section, between Tr&amp;egrave;bes and S&amp;egrave;te on the Mediterranean coast, in 1669.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The project underwent many vicissitudes and financial crises in the years that followed, but it was largely completed when Riquet died in 1681. Following persistent complaints about the flooding of neighbouring agricultural land, the great military architect Vauban was sent to the Canal; as a result of his report a number of aqueducts were built and the Saint-Ferr&amp;eacute;ol dam was raised in height. The final elements of the entire system were completed in 1694.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are five components of this property, and the total length of the waterway is 360&amp;nbsp;km. The main Canal du Midi runs from Toulouse to the &amp;Eacute;tang de Thau on the Mediterranean coast at Marseillan; there is a branch between Moussan and Port-la-Nouvelle, incorporating part of the earlier Canal de la Robine. The waters of the Montagne-Noire are brought to the canal through two channels that join together and flow into the Canal at Naurouze. The canal de Saint-Pierre is the link between the main canal and the Garonne at Toulouse. Finally, there is a short section joining the H&amp;eacute;rault River to the round lock at Agde. The ensemble contains 328 works of art - locks, aqueducts, bridges, spillways, tunnels, etc. One of its most noteworthy features is the Saint-Ferr&amp;eacute;ol dam on the Laudot River in the Montagne-Noire region. This is the largest project on the entire canal and the greatest work of civil engineering of its time, Riquet was conscious that he was creating a symbol of the power of 17th-century France as well as a functional communication waterway. He was assiduous, therefore, in ensuring that the quality of the architecture on the Canal was worthy of this role. The bridges, the locks and their associated structures, and the tunnel entrances were therefore designed with monumental dignity and simplicity. He was also very conscious of the impact of his work on the landscape, and took great pains to ensure that it was suitably framed by trees and plantations that harmonized with the landscape through which it passed.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This 360-km network of navigable waterways linking the Mediterranean and the Atlantic through 328 structures (locks, aqueducts, bridges, tunnels, etc.) is one of the most remarkable feats of civil engineering in modern times. Built between 1667 and 1694, it paved the way for the Industrial Revolution. The care that its creator, Pierre-Paul Riquet, took in the design and the way it blends with its surroundings turned a technical achievement into a work of art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Canal du Midi</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>910</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;After Jerusalem was captured by the Caliph Omar in 638, Christians were hesitant about going to the Holy City as pilgrims. Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, where the tomb of the apostle St James the Great, who brought Christianity to the Iberian peninsula, had been found around 800, benefited from the decline of Jerusalem as a pilgrimage centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santiago had begun as a local religious centre, which became the see of a bishopric around 900, but its renown grew rapidly after the visit in 951 of Godescalc, Bishop of Le Puy and one of the first foreign pilgrims to be recorded. At this time, however, the roads were not safe from brigandry and the threat of Moslem raids, such as that in 997 led by Al- Mansour, vizier of the Caliph of C&amp;oacute;rdoba, when Compostela was looted and burned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the start of the Reconquista during the early decades of the 11th century, the shrine became a centre to which goods of all kinds flowed. In this way the cathedral was endowed with immense treasures, making it capable of underwriting the needs of Rome and of the rulers of Le&amp;oacute;n and Castille. It was from this time onwards that pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela reached its apogee. Thousands of pilgrims, among them kings and bishops, travelled long distances to pray at the tomb of one of Christ's closest companions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This flowering coincided with that of the Cluniac Order, which encouraged the worship of relics by publishing Lives of the Saints and Collections of Miracles. As a result other sanctuaries of less importance developed at this time, but without eclipsing the splendour of Santiago de Compostela. From the 11th to the 13th century "staging post" churches developed along the pilgrimage route, and in particular in France. Each of these was proud to house holy relics; indeed, the cult of relics was the mainstay of medieval pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time there was renewed fervour for the cult of the Virgin Mary. Pilgrimages to shrines such as Notre-Dame du Puy, Notre-Dame de Chartres, and Notre-Dame de Boulogne, which had been renowned since the early Middle Ages, experienced a spectacular renaissance in the 12th century as a result of the growth of pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Of the three churches, that at Le Puy in the Auvergne was most closely linked with Santiago. It was identified in Book V of the Codex Calixtinus, the description of the pilgrimage routes prepared around 1139 for Pope Calixtus II by Aymeric Picaud, as the starting point of one of the four routes in France. It was, of course, the episcopal see of Godescalc, one of the first foreign pilgrims in Santiago de Compostela, and so was probably the first to be established.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/868</http_url><id_number>868</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_868.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Pilgrimage Route of Santiago de Compostela played a key role in religious and cultural exchange and development during the later Middle Ages, and this is admirably illustrated by the carefully selected monuments on the routes followed by pilgrims in France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The spiritual and physical needs of pilgrims travelling to Santiago de Compostela were met by the development of a number of specialized types of edifice, many of which originated or were further developed on the French sections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Pilgrimage Route of Santiago de Compostela bears exceptional witness to the power and influence of Christian faith among people of all classes and countries in Europe during the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.1840555600</latitude><location>Regions of Aquitaine, Auvergne, Basse-Normandie, Bourgogne, Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Ile-de-France, Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin, Midi-Pyrénées, Picardie, Poitou-Charentes, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur</location><longitude>0.7229444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pilgrimage Route of Santiago de Compostela played a key role in religious and cultural exchange and development during the later Middle Ages, and this is admirably illustrated by the carefully selected monuments on the routes followed by pilgrims in France. The spiritual and physical needs of pilgrims travelling to Santiago de Compostela were met by the development of a number of specialized types of edifice, many of which originated or were further developed on the French sections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Jerusalem was captured by the Caliph Omar in 638, Christians were hesitant about going to the Holy City as pilgrims. Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, where the tomb of the apostle St James the Great, who brought Christianity to the Iberian peninsula, had been founded around 800, benefited from the decline of Jerusalem as a pilgrimage centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santiago began as a local religious centre, becoming the See of a bishopric around 900, but its renown grew rapidly after the visit in 951 of Godescalc, Bishop of Le Puy and one of the first foreign pilgrims to be recorded. From the 11th century onwards, pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela reached its apogee. Thousands of pilgrims, among them kings and bishops, travelled long distances to pray at the tomb of one of Christ's closest companions. This flowering coincided with that of the Cluniac Order, which encouraged the worship of relics by publishing Lives of the Saints and Collections of Miracles. From the 11th-13th centuries 'staging post' churches developed along the pilgrimage route, and in particular in France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The four main pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela in France began at Paris, V&amp;eacute;zelay, Le Puy, and Arles respectively, and each of these was fed by a number of subsidiary routes. Thus, the start of the Paris route saw the convergence of routes from Boulogne, Tournai, and the Low Countries, while routes from Caen, Mont-Saint-Michel, and Brittany joined it at intermediate points such as Tours, Poitiers, Saint-Jean d'Ang&amp;eacute;ly and Bordeaux (the port for pilgrims coming by sea from England and coastal areas of Brittany and Normandy). Le Puy was the link with the Rh&amp;ocirc;ne valley, whereas those coming from Italy passed through Arles. The three western routes converged at Ostabat, crossing the Pyrenees by means of the Ibaneta pass, while the eastern route from Arles used the Somport pass; the two routes joined in Spain at Puente-la-Reina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The places of worship along the pilgrimage routes in France range from great structures such as Saint-Sernin at Toulouse or Amiens Cathedral to parish churches. All are included either because they figure on the guide produced by Aymeric Picaud (Saint-Front Cathedral at P&amp;eacute;rigueux or the Church of Saint-L&amp;eacute;onard de-Noblat) or because they contain important relics and other material that connect them directly with the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Certain churches exhibit architectural characteristics that permit them to be given the appellation of 'pilgrimage churches'. Sainte-Foy at Conques, Saint-Sernin at Toulouse, and the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela itself in particular have in common large transepts and apsidal chapels ranged round a spacious ambulatory, designed to meet the liturgical needs of pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pilgrimages in the Middle Ages imposed considerable hardships on the pilgrims, such that they were often in need of medical treatment and care. Few of these survive intact on the French sections of the route and are included in the World Heritage site. A number of bridges are known as 'pilgrims' bridges', and that over the Borade at Saint-Ch&amp;eacute;ly-d'Aubrac even has the figure of a pilgrim carved on it. Of special importance are the Pont du Diable over the H&amp;eacute;rault at Aniane, one of the oldest medieval bridges in France, and the magnificent 14th-century fortified Pont Valentr&amp;eacute; over the Lot at Cahors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;While the course of the different routes is generally known, very little of them survive in anything approaching their original form. The seven stretches included in the site are all on the Le Puy route, and cover a little over 20% of its total length. These are relatively minor roads whose course has not changed significantly since the Middle Ages; they are also lined with monuments associated with the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, such as crosses and modest places of worship.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Santiago de Compostela was the supreme goal for countless thousands of pious pilgrims who converged there from all over Europe throughout the Middle Ages. To reach Spain pilgrims had to pass through France, and the group of important historical monuments included in this inscription marks out the four routes by which they did so.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1019</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There was a Gaulish settlement here as early as the 4th century BC, to the west of the line of hills bordering the Sa&amp;ocirc;ne. Although the area was marshy at that time, the settlement played an important role in trading with Marseille.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 43 BC Lucius Munatius Plancus, governor of the Roman province of Gallia Transalpina, founded a town known as Lugdunum on one of these hills, Fourvi&amp;egrave;re; it was granted the high status of colonia by the Senate, giving it important fiscal privileges. With the reorganization of the provinces of Gaul in 27 BC it became the capital of Gallia Lugdunensis and the headquarters of the Imperial government. A network of roads was built spreading outwards from Lugdunum, a factor that contributed significantly to its economic and political supremacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lugdunum had a special status, since it was here that the Council of the Gauls met annually. Delegates from all the towns in the three provinces came together at the sanctuary dedicated to Rome and Augustus on the slopes of the Croix-Rousse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Christianity was brought to Lugdunum by the Greeks from Asia Minor who had settled there in large numbers. In AD 177 the Christian community sent a letter to their co-religionists in Asia Minor, giving the names of 48 of their number who had suffered martyrdom in the Croix-Rousse amphitheatre, among them St Pothinus, first Bishop of Lyon. The church was, however, to recover quickly, and Ireneus, the successor of Pothinus, became the first great Christian theologian. In the 5th century this intellectual tradition was maintained by another son of Lugdunum, Sidonius Apollinaris.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the period that followed the collapse of the Roman Empire of the West, Lyon survived as an important urban centre, and a number of important monastic communities established themselves there. In 843 it was assigned to Lotharingia by the Treaty of Verdun, and then passed to the Burgundian kingdom. It became the centre of the County of Lyon, the lordship of which was conferred by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to the Archbishop of Lyon in 1157. Although small, the County was influential, by virtue both of its independent status and of its commercially and politically strategic location. The Archbishopric was also important, since Pope Gregory VII had conferred the title of "Primate of the Gauls" on its holders in 1078. It was especially favoured by the Papacy, and several pontiffs were crowned there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This independence came to an end in 1312, when Philip the Fair annexed the city to the Kingdom of France. However, its commercial significance was unaffected and it continued to prosper. During the first half of the 16th century Lyon also became the base for French political activities in Italy. As a result it was frequently visited by the French court, bringing many artists in its train.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of Louis XI (1461-83) four annual fairs were established, which drew merchants from all over Europe, especially Italy (and Florence in particular). Lyon became a major centre for the spice trade and, even more importantly, the silk trade, following the authorization by Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I of weaving privileges, hitherto an Italian monopoly. The Florentine immigrants also made Lyon a financial centre for banking and insurance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first printing establishment was set up in Lyon in 1472, and it quickly became one of the most important printing and publishing centres in Europe, behind Venice and Paris, producing books in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanish as well as French. The works of Erasmus, Rabelais, Scaliger, More, Poliziano, and many other intellectual leaders were published by the W&amp;uuml;rttemberger Sebastian Gryphe, who set up in Lyon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When French policy turned away from Italy in the 1550s, Royal visits to Lyon became less frequent. It was also caught up in the Religious Wars and in 1562 was seized by Protestant troops. Lyon was the location of the meeting that resulted in 1601 in large parts of the Dukedom of Savoy being added to the French kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lyon lost the considerable degree of autonomy that it had hitherto enjoyed around this time, but its commercial and industrial importance was not abated. During the 17th and 18th centuries its pre-eminence in silk production was unchallenged, and inventors like Vaucanson and Jacquard made far-reaching contributions to this industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The geographical situation of Lyon meant that many artists and architects passed through it on their way to and from Italy, and their influence is plain to see in many buildings of the period, such as the H&amp;ocirc;tel-Dieu and the Loge du Change. During the 18th century the expansion resulting from increased prosperity indicated the need for a measure of systematic town planning, and this was carried out by a series of brilliant planners and architects such as de Cotte, Soufflot, Morand, and Perrache.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Napoleon I imposed the use of Lyonnais silk on all the courts of Europe the industry boomed. New tenements with workshops were built for the craftsmen (canuts). Lyon was to see the first Conseil des Prud'hommes (labour litigation court) in 1806 and the first cooperative grocery store in 1835. Between 1800 and 1848 the number of looms in operation increased tenfold, from 6000 to 60,000, and over 90,000 people were employed in the industry. However, relations between the workers who produced the silk and the merchants who sold it were always uneasy, and Lyon also saw the first worker demonstrations in 1831 and 1834. This was to come to an end with the authoritarian policies of the Second Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wealth of Lyon and its worldwide mercantile contacts attracted banks from the Far East to the city as well as encouraging the creation of banking institutions by the Lyonnais themselves. This led in turn to investment in land in Algeria, Madagascar, and southeast Asia: the port of Haiphong was created with Lyonnais investment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This concern with non-Christian countries outside Europe had another important effect on Lyon, which was to become the leading centre of missionary activities in the Catholic world. The earliest institution to be founded was the Propagation de la Foi (1822), to be followed by bodies such as the P&amp;egrave;res Maristes (1836), the P&amp;egrave;res des Missions africaines (1856), and the Soeurs de Notre Dame des Ap&amp;ocirc;tres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the present century Lyon has moved its industrial base from silk to other sectors, such as automobiles, textile chemicals, and pharmacy, from which it has continued to enjoy a considerable degree of prosperity.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/872</http_url><id_number>872</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_872.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Lyon bears exceptional testimony to the continuity of urban settlement over more than two millennia on a site of great commercial and strategic significance, where cultural traditions from many parts of Europe have come together to create a coherent and vigorous continuing community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; By virtue of the special way in which it has developed spatially, Lyon illustrates in an exceptional way the progress and evolution of architectural design and town planning over many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.7672200000</latitude><location>Department of Rhône, Region of Rhône-Alpes </location><longitude>4.8333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lyons bears exceptional testimony to the continuity of urban settlement over more than two millennia on a site of great commercial and strategic significance, where cultural traditions from many parts of Europe have come together to create a coherent and vigorous continuing community. By virtue of the special way in which it has developed spatially, Lyons illustrates in an exceptional way the progress and evolution of architectural design and town planning over many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Lyons is dominated by two hills: to the west Fourvi&amp;egrave;re and to the east Croix-Rousse, the latter prolonged by a peninsula formed by alluvial deposits laid down at the confluence of the two rivers. The Rh&amp;ocirc;ne is a strongly flowing river that comes from the Alps. The Sa&amp;ocirc;ne, by contrast, is a gentler and more easily navigable river, linking Lyons with the plains of north-eastern France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present city began with the Roman settlement on Fourvi&amp;egrave;re, although the area of the confluence had been used by man for many centuries before. The Roman town spread to Croix-Rousse and the Peninsula, but shrank during the troubled 3rd century AD to two fortified areas: on the right bank of the Sa&amp;ocirc;ne, at the foot of Fourvi&amp;egrave;re, around the bishop's estate, and a commercial district around the church of Saint-Nizier on the Peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the mid-15th century it was one of the mostly heavily populated cities in Europe: there were 36 districts, each with its own mercantile attribution, and only the slopes of Croix-Rousse were not densely built on, being reserved for the 'rural' villas of rich German and Italian merchants and for vineyards. Overpopulation and the risk of epidemics led to the implementation of a policy of planned expansion starting in the mid-16th century and led by the religious orders. New districts were opened up in the 17th century, in particular the Bellecour area in the south, round the Place Royale (now the Place Bellecour). New projects undertaken in the 18th century involved extensive drainage works to the east and the linking of the peninsula to an adjoining island. During the Revolution, land confiscated from the religious orders became available for building. In 1850 several surrounding communes were incorporated into the city and major roads driven through the centre. The resulting urban fabric, visible today, is an epitome of the development of Lyons, with areas of medieval streets and of 18th-and 19th-century town planning alongside one another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman city is represented by the buildings excavated on Fourvi&amp;egrave;re. The large theatre, capable of seating some 10,000 spectators, was built in the early 1st century AD and reconstructed under Hadrian (117-38). Alongside it is the smaller odeon, seating around 3,000 people and probably built in the mid-1st century. The amphitheatre is on Croix-Rousse hill, and was built around 19 BC to accompany the altar dedicated to Rome and Augustus; it was here that the Council of the Three Gauls met each August.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The succeeding centuries are well represented in the rich stock of private residences in Lyons - the Thomassin House in the Place du Change (late 13th century, enlarged 15th century); the house of the poet Maurice Sc&amp;egrave;ve (1493; additional storey in the 17th century); the Chamberlain's mansion (1495-1516), illustrating the transition from Gothic to French Renaissance style; the Mannerist house of the Lions (1647); the classical building on the Quai Lassagne (1760); and the House of 365 Windows, an example of the tenements built for the &lt;em&gt;canuts&lt;/em&gt; (silk workers) in the first half of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The public buildings include the late 11th-century Man&amp;eacute;canterie (Choir School); the Ainay Abbey Church (1107) in full Romanesque style; the noble Cathedral of St John the Baptist (1160-1481), which preserves a remarkable degree of stylistic homogeneity, given the long period over which it was built; the Church of Saint-Nizier, begun in the 14th century,with its Flamboyant Gothic nave, classical Renaissance front, and neo-Gothic south spire; the 17th-18th century H&amp;ocirc;tel-Dieu, built over a medieval original; the Loge du Change (1745-80), now a Protestant church; the Fourvi&amp;egrave;re Basilica (1872-96); and the &amp;Eacute;cole de Tissage (Weaving School), the work of Modernist architect Tony Garnier (1927-33).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The long history of Lyon, which was founded by the Romans in the 1st century B.C. as the capital of the Three Gauls and has continued to play a major role in Europe's political, cultural and economic development ever since, is vividly illustrated by its urban fabric and the many fine historic buildings from all periods.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Site of Lyon</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1023</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the Gallo-Roman period, the site of present-day Provins was related to two important regional axes: the route from Soissons to Troyes towards the north and the route to Sens to the south-west. These two routes, together with the valley of the Seine, form an important communication artery enclosing the rocky spur of the early settlement. The origin of the name Provins is uncertain but could be an abbreviation of Probus Vinum. The earliest document related to Provins is an ordinance by Charlemagne of 802 which indicates that the site was already an established fort. In 983 the site became part of the lands of the powerful Counts of Champagne, one of the great feudal domains in France, and a favoured place of residence of the Counts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of its political and commercial importance, the castle (Ch&amp;acirc;tel) on the high ground was fortified in the 11th and 12th centuries. The original enclosure (castrum) was small, including, in addition to the castle, the Collegiate Church of Saint-Quiriace and the Palace of the Counts. However, the settlement grew up rapidly outside the fortifications and this, too, was encircled by a defensive wooden wall in the late 12th century. A third set of fortifications, this time in stone, was added in the first half of the 13th century, to protect the houses and stalls erected for the great fairs in the town outside the earlier walls, down in the river valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Provins is thus one of the four towns (together with Troyes, Lagny, and Bar-sur-Aube) where medieval fairs were held in the reign of the Counts of Champagne, developing here from the 11th to the 14th century. Of the four towns, Provins is the only one to retain its original medieval fabric; the others have been substantially altered. The importance of the fairs in Champagne is at the beginning of the process. Their location in central France was along the favoured route to the north. Their political and economic ambitions decided the development by the Counts of Champagne of a system of fairs that were regularly programmed over a yearly cycle, avoiding overlaps and competition. The fairs led to merchants converging here from all over Europe and from the Orient. They became important centres of banking; the Provins denier was one of the few currencies accepted widely throughout the continent of Europe. The towns also became centres of intellectual and artistic life, and Ab&amp;eacute;lard and Chr&amp;eacute;tien de Troyes are known to have spent time in Provins. The fairs continued from 1120 until 1320, when the economic and political situation changed, and commercial contacts developed elsewhere, particularly with the Hanseatic League, Flanders, and Italy. The function of Provins was thus reduced to a local context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Provins is fortunate in having preserved good documentation dating from the 12th century onwards, which has helped to throw light on the entire process of development and its consequences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is important to distinguish between a market and a fair. A market could be a yearly event, or even a continuous activity, where the purpose was to sell goods directly to consumers. A fair, on the other hand, indicated an activity that was aimed at merchants and dealers, with an international character. It was generally composed of three parts: first the presentation and study of merchandise by potential customers, then negotiation and acquisition, and finally legal verification of the sales that had taken place. The fair required long-distance transport systems and special conditions to guarantee safety and security. Fairs were also accompanied by the development of a multitude of other activities, which together gave the incentive and motivation for the development of a particular type of urban fabric. The historic town of Provins, therefore, can be seen as a materialization of a built framework for the fairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Counts of Champagne starting losing interest in the region on assuming the crown of Navarre in 1234. In 1284, with the marriage of Philip the Fair (Philippe IV le Bel) to Jeanne of Navarre, Champagne (and with it Provins) became part of the royal domain. The town was in English hands during the 15th century but was finally to become French at the end of the Hundred Years' War. Provins was not to be affected to any marked extent by the Industrial Revolution. It has survived to the present day as a small market town, and so has escaped the demolitions and reconstructions that other towns have undergone, allowing it to conserve its medieval form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/873</http_url><id_number>873</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_873.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; At the beginning of the 2nd millennium Provins was one of several towns in the territory of the Counts of Champagne that became the venues for great annual trading fairs linking northern Europe with the Mediterranean world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Provins preserves to a high degree the architecture and urban layout that characterize these great medieval fair towns.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.5597222200</latitude><location>Department of Seine-et-Marne, Ile-de-France</location><longitude>3.2988888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 2nd millennium, Provins was one of several towns in the territory of the Counts of Champagne that became the venues for great annual trading fairs linking northern Europe with the Mediterranean world. It preserves to a high degree the architecture and urban layout that characterize these great medieval fair towns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Gallo-Roman period, the site of present-day Provins was related to two important regional axes: the route from Soissons to Troyes towards the north and the route to Sens to the south-west. The earliest document related to Provins, an ordinance by Charlemagne of 802, indicates that the site was already an established fort. Because of its political and commercial importance, the castle on the high ground was fortified in the 11th and 12th centuries. The original enclosure (&lt;em&gt;castrum&lt;/em&gt; ) was small, but the settlement grew up rapidly outside the fortifications and this, too, was encircled by a defensive wooden wall in the late 12th century. A third set of fortifications, this time in stone, was added in the first half of the 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Provins is thus one of the four towns (together with Troyes, Lagny and Bar-sur-Aube) where medieval fairs were held in the reign of the Counts of Champagne, developing here from the 11th to the 14th centuries. Provins is the only one to retain its original medieval fabric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town developed to the south of the Brie chalk plateau, in a gently hilly region at the confluence of the valleys of the Voulzie and the Durteint. It consists of the Upper Town, which grew up on a spur of the Brie plateau, and the Lower Town, lying further to the east at the confluence of two rivers. The Upper Town is characterized by the small houses built from stone and timber-framed construction and by green areas and gardens. There are two large buildings: the so-called 'Tour de C&amp;eacute;sar' or the Big Tower, is a stone structure, dating initially from the 12th century, consisting of three large spaces one above the other, covered with a 17th-century conical roof; and the Romanesque-Gothic church of Saint-Quiriace. Construction of the church began with a choir of impressive size in the 12th century and went on until the decline of Provins in 1320 up to the crossing of the nave and two bays beyond. The vaults above the crossing were damaged in a fire in the 17th century and replaced with a dome. The centre of the town was the old market square, surrounded by houses that developed in relation to the fairs, each with large vaulted underground storage spaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 12th-century ramparts still surrounding the Upper Town on three sides have been relatively well preserved, whereas the enclosure of the Lower Town was dismantled in the 19th century. In the area of the Lower Town there were at first religious ensembles, including the churches of Saint-Ayoul and Sainte-Croix.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the town was extended into the valley, the religious orders created lots, building and selling houses, following a typology that corresponded to the needs of the fairs. As the land did not allow underground spaces, the storage areas were built above ground, using a similar vaulted construction to that in the Upper Town. The private buildings may be divided into two groups: those with multiple functions and those with solely commercial functions, all date to the 12th and 13th centuries. A characteristic of all the ancient buildings in Provins, whether for mixed or for commercial use, is their system of vaulted cellars, dating from the 12th to the 14th centuries. These are either entirely underground (Upper Town) or partly built up above ground (Lower Town), and all open out to the street by means of a large door to which access is gained by a wide stone staircase. The oldest building in the town is probably the 12th-century Maison Romane (now the museum), constructed in coursed dressed stone. Its location in the former Jewish quarter suggests that it may originally have been a rabbinical school or even a synagogue. The Lower Town of Provins is in particular testimony to the development of various handicrafts into an industrial process; the locations of this development still exist. There are three areas in the slopes of the plateau where clay was extracted for the process of removing grease from wool (fulling). These intricate underground galleries were quarried at several levels and were later also used for storage of wine, etc. The entire town developed in relation to the fairs, either directly serving the fair functions or being indirectly related as an outcome.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified medieval town of Provins is situated in the former territory of the powerful Counts of Champagne. It bears witness to early developments in the organization of international trading fairs and the wool industry. The urban structure of Provins, which was built specifically to host the fairs and related activities, has been well preserved.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Provins, Town of Medieval Fairs</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1025</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first traces of human settlement in the Saint-Emilion region date back at least to the Upper Palaeolithic (35,000- 10,000 BC). The Pierrefitte menhir confirms human presence in the 5th-4th millennia BC. The region was heavily populated during the Celtic-Gaulish period, as testified by an oppidum (defended hillfort) on the plateau overlooking modern Saint-Emilion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman occupation began when Augustus created the province of Aquitania in 27 BC. With the prosperity of Burdigala (Bordeaux), Valerius Probus used his legions to fell the Cumbris forest in AD 275 BC and created the first vineyards by grafting new varieties of grape on the Vitis biturica that grew naturally in the region. There are considerable traces of Roman occupation, especially rich villas, and it was here that the Latin poet Ausonius retired when he withdrew from public affairs in the 4th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Christian monasteries appear at the beginning of the 7th century. Legend has it that in the mid 8th century a Breton monk, Emilian, sought asylum here from the Benedictine community and led an eremitic life in a cave. His numerous miracles attracted many companions, who lived according to the rule of St Benedict. It was they who began to build the great monolithic church, which was not to be completed for another three centuries. Since the region was on the Pilgrimage Route to Santiago de Compostela, from the 11th century onwards it experienced great prosperity and many monasteries, churches, and other religious buildings were founded. To construct the many large stone buildings that this entailed, the excellent limestone of the region was quarried extensively, an industry that continued until well into the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry Plantagenet (later Henry II of England), the town of Saint-Emilion, by then fortified, became part of the English kingdom, along with all Guyenne. King John granted the town full liberties in 1199.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1224, when this part of Guyenne had been recovered for France, Louis VIII began work on the Royal Castle, not to be completed until 1237, by Henry III of England. In 1298 Edward I signed a decree defining the limits of the jurisdiction. Five years later it became once again part of France under Philippe Le Bel, though it was to change hands repeatedly in the course of the Hundred Years' War.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1453 it became French permanently, and three years later Charles VII confirmed all the privileges granted by the English to the town to help it re-establish itself. It was to suffer again during the Wars of Religion in the later 16th century and, despite the efforts of Louis XIV, it lost its leading position to Libourne. As a result the town retained its medieval appearance until the 18th century, when its fortifications were dismantled. Profound social changes were introduced during the Revolution which destroyed the old order, dating from the Middle Ages, and many of the ancient buildings were demolish or fell into ruins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These had an adverse effect on the vineyards, and it was not until 1853 that Saint-Emilion started to recover, thanks to its vineyards. During the 12th and 13th centuries these had produced what were known as vins honorifiques (known in English as "Royal wines") because they were presented as gifts to kings and important people, which gives an indication of their quality. A regulatory body known as La Jurade monitored the quality of the wine of Saint-Emilion and granted this appellation to a limited number of wines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The demands of Flemish consumers in the 18th century led to an increase in viticulture, since the quality of the Saint- Emilion wines enabled them to be transported by sea without the wine turning into vinegar. That century saw the quality of the wines from the region becoming recognized as exceptional, as witnessed by countless records of the period. During the Second Empire production of red wines in the region became generalized, replacing the white wines that had been most common in the medieval period. Their distribution was greatly facilitated by the opening in 1853 of the railway line between Paris and Bordeaux.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1867 the Saint-Emilion wines were awarded the Gold Medal of the Universal Exhibition, followed by the highest award, the Grand Prix Collectif, of the 1889 Universal Exhibition. La Jurade, which had been suppressed during the Revolution, was restored in 1948, and continues to ensures the quality of the Saint-Emilion wines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first classification of the Saint-Emilion wines by the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine (AOC) was in 1954, when four grades were defined. These were reduced to two - Saint-Emilion and Saint-Emilion Grand Cru - in 1984. By comparison with other vineyard regions of the Bordelais, Saint-Emilion has been noteworthy for its innovations, such as the establishment of the first wine syndicate in 1884 and the first cooperative cellars in the Gironde in 1932.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the present time the Saint-Emilion vineyards produce an average of 230,00 hectolitres of wine (all red) annually, representing 10% of the AOC wines of the Gironde.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/932</http_url><id_number>932</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_932.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Jurisdiction of Saint-Emilion is an outstanding example of an historic vineyard landscape that has survived intact and in activity to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The intensive cultivation of grapes for wine production in a precisely defined region and the resulting landscape is illustrated in an exceptional way by the historic Jurisdiction of Saint-Emilion.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>44.8947222200</latitude><location>Department of the Gironde, Region of Aquitaine </location><longitude>-0.1552777780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jurisdiction of Saint-Emilion is an outstanding example of a historic vineyard landscape that has survived intact and in activity to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first traces of human settlement in the Saint-Emilion region date back at least to the Upper Palaeolithic (35,000-10,000 BC). The Pierrefitte menhir confirms human presence in the 5th-4th millennia BC. The region was heavily populated during the Celtic-Gaulish period, as testified by an oppidum (defended hill fort) on the plateau overlooking modern Saint-Emilion. The Roman occupation began when Augustus created the province of Aquitania in 27 BC with the first vineyards by grafting new varieties of grape on the Vitis biturica that grew naturally in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Christian monasteries appear at the beginning of the 7th century. As the region was on the Pilgrimage Route to Santiago de Compostela, from the 11th century onwards it experienced great prosperity and many monasteries, churches and other religious buildings were founded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry Plantagenet (later Henry II of England), the town of Saint-Emilion, by then fortified, became part of the English Kingdom, along with all Guyenne. The town was to change hands repeatedly in the course of the Hundred Years' War; in 1453 it became French permanently. It was to suffer again during the Wars of Religion in the later 16th century; as a result the town retained its medieval appearance until the 18th century, when its fortifications were dismantled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This had an adverse effect on the vineyards, and it was not until 1853 that Saint-Emilion started to recover, thanks to its vineyards. In the 18th century the quality of the wines from the region was recognized as exceptional. During the Second Empire production of red wines in the region became generalized, replacing the white wines that had been most common in the medieval period. Their distribution was greatly facilitated by the opening in 1853 of the railway line between Paris and Bordeaux. By comparison with other vineyard regions of the Bordelais, Saint-Emilion has been noteworthy for its innovations, such as the establishment of the first wine syndicate in 1884 and the first cooperative cellars in the Gironde in 1932.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property covers 7,846&amp;nbsp;ha; the relief characterized by a stratum of limestone defined by shelves that criss-cross the landscape. This disappears to the north and is replaced by a heterogeneous mixture of clayey sands and gravels, dipping towards the south. Two slopes are clearly distinguishable: the northern one is gentle and cut by valleys, the southern steeply plunging into the Dordogne valley and forming concave valleys (&lt;em&gt;combes&lt;/em&gt; ), in one of which the town of Saint-Emilion is situated. The landscape presents a monoculture, that of vineyards exclusively, and occupying more than 67.5% of the total area. Apart from the human settlements, the only other traces of exploitation are the abandoned underground quarries, which supplied limestone for the religious and public buildings of Bordeaux and its hinterland until the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Before viticulture predominated, medieval and Renaissance castles were built on dominant sites as seigniorial residences. Examples are the 13th-century Ch&amp;acirc;teau Laroque (Saint-Christophe-des-Bardes), the 14th-century Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Preyssac (Saint-&amp;Eacute;tienne-de-Lisse), and the 16th-century Ch&amp;acirc;teau Ferrand (Saint-Hippolyte). By contrast, the 'vineyard' castles are located at the centre of their respective domains. They range in date from the mid-18th century (Ch&amp;acirc;teau Ausone, Ch&amp;acirc;teau Canon) through the early 19th century (Ch&amp;acirc;teau Cheval-Blanc, Ch&amp;acirc;teau Mondot) to the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Ch&amp;acirc;teau Laroze, Ch&amp;acirc;teau La Gaffali&amp;egrave;re).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Settlements are characterized by modest stone houses, most dating from the first half of the 19th century. They never have more than two storeys, and are found in small groups, for the use of vineyard workers. The chais (wine storehouses) are large functional rectangular structures built from stone or a mixture of brick and stone, with tiled double-pitched roofs.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Viticulture was introduced to this fertile region of Aquitaine by the Romans, and intensified in the Middle Ages. The Saint-Emilion area benefited from its location on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela and many churches, monasteries and hospices were built there from the 11th century onwards. It was granted the special status of a 'jurisdiction' during the period of English rule in the 12th century. It is an exceptional landscape devoted entirely to wine-growing, with many fine historic monuments in its towns and villages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jurisdiction of Saint-Emilion</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1088</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Being at the mouth of the river Seine, the site of Le Havre was always strategic for the access to the inland, to Rouen and Paris. Due to the estuary and the marshy lands, the decision to establish a seaport for Rouen was only taken in the early 16th century (1517). As a result of the discovery of America, the port gained in importance, and in 1541, Kind Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I commissioned architect J. Bellarmato from Siena to plan an extension. This area was the quarter of Saint-Fran&amp;ccedil;ois, and it was designed on the basis of a Renaissance grid-plan. In the 17th century, Le Havre (meaning &amp;lsquo;harbour') continued developing its commercial links with America and Africa. Minister Colbert authorised the construction of an arsenal, transferring the naval docks to the area of Perrey. It was from here that Lafayette started his trip to go to fight America in 1779.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 18th century, Le Havre was one of the four principal ports of France, and in 1786, a new plan was commissioned (engineer Fran&amp;ccedil;ois-Laurent Lamand&amp;eacute;), though only completed in 1830 due to the Revolution. In 1847, a railway was built from Paris to Rouen and to Le Havre, further strengthening the role of the city. In 1852, the old fortifications were demolished and the city area was multiplied by nine. The population reached 60,000. Important companies for transatlantic traffic were established here, encouraging industrial development. At the beginning of the First World War, the population of the metropolitan area was 190,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the start of the Second World War, the harbour of Le Havre was used by the British army for servicing its troops. The town was bombarded by the Germans in May 1940, and the British left it. After the peace treaty, it was occupied by the Germans, who were preparing an attack to Britain. Therefore, the harbour was bombed by the British and the shipyards were destroyed. In the following years until September 1944, the city was continuously under air attack by the Allied Forces, and finally the central area was entirely destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The idea to rebuilt Le Havre was perceived during the war destruction. In summer 1944, with a group architect colleagues Auguste Perret (1874-1954), then 70 years old, took the lead in the project of reconstruction of the town. Perret had studied in the school of Beaux-Arts, though he never graduated as this would not have allowed him to act as a contractor entering his family enterprise. He was trained in the spirit of classicism and had the inheritance of the 19th-century technical developments. He obtained solid experience in the development of the techniques of reinforced concrete. Some of his early architectural designs, such as the flats in the Rue Franklin in Paris (1903) and the Notre-Dame of Le Raincy (1923) have been recognized as masterpieces of the early modernism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taking into account the soil conditions and high water table, it was proposed to construct the entire city on a reinforced concrete platform about 3.50m above the ground level. At the time, this was a revolutionary initiative, and would have facilitated the building of infrastructures. Due to the limits of cement and iron in the post-war period, it was not authorised however. The general master plan was however carried out. The project was based on the basic grid module of 6.24m square. The lots were planned in a 100m grid, though some of these were united to make larger lots. The construction lasted until 1964, when the church of Saint-Joseph was consecrated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1181</http_url><id_number>1181</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1181.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The post-war reconstruction plan of Le Havre is an outstanding example and a landmark of the integration of urban planning traditions and a pioneer implementation of modern developments in architecture, technology, and town planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;Le Havre is an outstanding post-war example of urban planning and architecture based on the unity of methodology and system of prefabrication, the systematic use of a modular grid and the innovative exploitation of the potential of concrete.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.4927800000</latitude><location>Department of Seine-Maritime, Region of Haute-Normandie</location><longitude>0.1075000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The post-Second World War reconstruction plan of Le Havre is a landmark in the integration of urban planning traditions and a pioneer implementation of modern developments in architecture, technology and town planning. It is based on the unity of methodology and system of prefabrication, the systematic use of a modular grid, and the innovative exploitation of the potential of concrete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Being at the mouth of the river Seine, the site of Le Havre was always strategic for access inland, to Rouen and Paris. Because of the estuary and its marshes, the decision to establish a seaport for Rouen was only taken in the 1517. As a result of the European discovery of America the port gained in importance and, in 1541, Fran&amp;ccedil;ois I commissioned Sienese architect Bellarmato to plan an extension. The quarter of Saint-Fran&amp;ccedil;ois was designed on the basis of a Renaissance grid-plan. In the 17th century, Le Havre (harbour) continued developing its commercial links with America and Africa. Minister Colbert authorized the construction of an arsenal, transferring the naval dockyards to the area of Perrey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plan to rebuild Le Havre was conceived during the Second World War. In summer 1944 Auguste Perret (1874-1954) took the lead in the project of reconstructing the town. Perret had studied in the &amp;Eacute;cole des Beaux-Arts; he was trained in the spirit of classicism and had the inheritance of the 19th-century technical developments. He obtained solid experience in the development of the techniques of reinforced concrete. Some of his early architectural designs, such as the flats in the Rue Franklin in Paris (1903) and Notre-Dame du Raincy (1923) have been recognized as masterpieces of early modernism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taking into account the soil conditions and high water table, it was proposed to construct the entire city on a reinforced concrete platform about 3.50&amp;nbsp;m above ground level, a revolutionary initiative that would have facilitated the building of infrastructures. Owing to the limits of cement and iron in the post-war period, it was not authorized, although the general master plan was carried out. The project was based on a basic grid module of 6.24&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . The lots were laid out on a 100&amp;nbsp;m grid, although some were combined to make larger lots. Construction lasted until 1964, when the Church of Saint-Joseph was consecrated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The project corresponds to the architect's ideal to create a homogenous ensemble, where all the details are designed to the same pattern, thus creating a kind of Gesamtkunstwerk in the urban scale. Perret reserved some of the most important public buildings as his personal design projects. A few buildings that had not been destroyed in the bombardment were retained as part of the new town scheme. Even though the Saint-Fran&amp;ccedil;ois quarter was also destroyed, several historic buildings remained standing, and were protected in 1946. As a result, the plan of this area was mainly based on the old street pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Basing the design of the buildings and open spaces on 6.24m square module of a square was to facilitate the production, but also to introduce 'musical harmony' into the city. The average density was reduced from the pre-war 2,000 to 800 inhabitants to a hectare. The spirit of the town was conceived as 'neoclassical', where the building blocks are closed and the streets remain streets. The essence of Perret's project is in structural design, which was based on an avant-garde use of reinforced concrete elements, a system called poteau dalle. The idea of the structure is to make it modular and completely transparent so that no structural elements remain hidden. This gives the dominating character and a certain uniformity to all architecture. However, the elements are used in skilful way so as to avoid boredom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Porte Oc&amp;eacute;ane is a monumental entrance to Avenue Foch and an entrance to the city from the sea, taking the idea of the ancient gate destroyed in the war. This building also became an experimental 'laboratory' for the development of the structural system and methods of construction for the project. The square Saint-Roch is located in the place of an earlier public park and cemetery, which has given some its orientations to the new design. The H&amp;ocirc;tel de Ville (town hall) is the most monumental structure in the whole scheme and its central part is marked by an 18-storey tower 70&amp;nbsp;m high.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Le Havre, on the English Channel in Normandy, was severely bombed during the Second World War. The destroyed area was rebuilt according to the plan of a team headed by Auguste Perret, from 1945 to 1964. The site forms the administrative, commercial and cultural centre of Le Havre. Le Havre is exceptional among many reconstructed cities for its unity and integrity. It combines a reflection of the earlier pattern of the town and its extant historic structures with the new ideas of town planning and construction technology. It is an outstanding post-war example of urban planning and architecture based on the unity of methodology and the use of prefabrication, the systematic utilization of a modular grid, and the innovative exploitation of the potential of concrete.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Le Havre, the City Rebuilt by Auguste Perret</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1358</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1256</http_url><id_number>1256</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1256.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.8388888889</latitude><location>Department of Gironde, Region of Aquitaine</location><longitude>-0.5722222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Port of the Moon, port city of Bordeaux in south-west France, is inscribed as an inhabited historic city, an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble, created in the age of the Enlightenment, whose values continued up to the first half of the 20th century, with more protected buildings than any other French city except Paris. It is also recognized for its historic role as a place of exchange of cultural values over more than 2,000 years, particularly since the 12th century due to commercial links with Britain and the Low Lands. Urban plans and architectural ensembles of the early 18th century onwards place the city as an outstanding example of innovative classical and neoclassical trends and give it an exceptional urban and architectural unity and coherence. Its urban form represents the success of philosophers who wanted to make towns into melting pots of humanism, universality and culture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bordeaux, Port of the Moon</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1433</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1283</http_url><id_number>1283</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1283.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.2361111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>6.0269444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Fortifications of Vauban consists of 12 groups of fortified buildings and sites along the western, northern and eastern borders of France. They represent the finest examples of the work of Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707), a military engineer of King Louis XIV. The serial property includes towns built from scratch by Vauban, citadels, urban bastion walls and bastion towers. There are also mountain forts, sea forts, a mountain battery and two mountain communication structures. This property is inscribed as bearing witness to the peak of classic fortifications, typical of western military architecture. Vauban also played a major role in the history of fortification in Europe and on other continents until the mid-19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fortifications of Vauban</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1514</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1115</http_url><id_number>1115</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1115.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.4119444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>164.5663888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This serial site comprises six marine clusters that represent the main diversity of coral reefs and associated ecosystems in the French Pacific Ocean archipelago of New Caledonia and one of the three most extensive reef systems in the world. These Lagoons are of exceptional natural beauty. They feature an exceptional diversity of coral and fish species and a continuum of habitats from mangroves to seagrasses with the world&amp;rsquo;s most diverse concentration of reef structures. The Lagoons of New Caledonia display intact ecosystems, with healthy populations of large predators, and a great number and diversity of big fish. They provide habitat to a number of emblematic or threatened marine species such as turtles, whales or dugongs whose population here is the third largest in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lagoons of New Caledonia: Reef Diversity and Associated Ecosystems</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1531</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/165</http_url><id_number>165</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_165.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.6394400000</latitude><location>Department of Côte d'Or, Burgundy Region</location><longitude>4.3891100000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This stark Burgundian monastery was founded by St Bernard in 1119. With its church, cloister, refectory, sleeping quarters, bakery and ironworks, it is an excellent illustration of the ideal of self-sufficiency as practised by the earliest communities of Cistercian monks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cistercian Abbey of Fontenay</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1565</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/344</http_url><id_number>344</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_344.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.9472222200</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.5352777780</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>The Pont du Gard was built shortly before the Christian era to allow the aqueduct of Nîmes (which is almost 50 km long) to cross the Gard river. The Roman architects and hydraulic engineers who designed this bridge, which stands almost 50 m high and is on three levels – the longest measuring 275 m – created a technical as well as an artistic masterpiece.</short_description><site>Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct)</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1566</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/163</http_url><id_number>163</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_163.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.1357222200</latitude><location>Department of Vacluse, Region of Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur</location><longitude>4.8084166670</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Rhone valley, the ancient theatre of Orange, with its 103-m-long facade, is one of the best preserved of all the great Roman theatres. Built between A.D. 10 and 25, the Roman arch is one of the most beautiful and interesting surviving examples of a provincial triumphal arch from the reign of Augustus. It is decorated with low reliefs commemorating the establishment of the Pax Romana.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Roman Theatre and its Surroundings and the "Triumphal Arch" of Orange</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1568</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/83</http_url><id_number>83</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_83.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.8050000000</latitude><location>Department of Yvelines,  Ile-de-France</location><longitude>2.1194444440</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Palace of Versailles was the principal residence of the French kings from the time of Louis XIV to Louis XVI. Embellished by several generations of architects, sculptors, decorators and landscape architects, it provided Europe with a model of the ideal royal residence for over a century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palace and Park of Versailles</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1571</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/84</http_url><id_number>84</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_84.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.4663888900</latitude><location>Department of Yonne, Bourgogne Region</location><longitude>3.7483333330</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Shortly after its foundation in the 9th century, the Benedictine abbey of V&amp;eacute;zelay acquired the relics of St Mary Magdalene and since then it has been an important place of pilgrimage. St Bernard preached the Second Crusade there in 1146 and Richard the Lion-Hearted and Philip II Augustus met there to leave for the Third Crusade in 1190. With its sculpted capitals and portal, the Madeleine of V&amp;eacute;zelay &amp;ndash; a 12th-century monastic church &amp;ndash; is a masterpiece of Burgundian Romanesque art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vézelay, Church and Hill</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1572</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1317</http_url><id_number>1317</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1317.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-21.0994444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>55.4800000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pitons, cirques and remparts of Reunion Island site coincides with the core zone of La Réunion National Park. The property covers more than 100,000 ha or 40 % of La Réunion, an island comprising two adjoining volcanic massifs located in the south-west of the Indian Ocean. Dominated by two towering volcanic peaks, massive walls and three cliff-rimmed cirques, the property includes a great variety of rugged terrain and impressive escarpments, forested gorges and basins creating a visually striking landscape. It is the natural habitat for a wide diversity of plants, presenting a high level of endemism. There are subtropical rainforests, cloud forests and heaths creating a remarkable and visually appealing mosaic of ecosystems and landscape features.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pitons, cirques and remparts of Reunion Island</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1604</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/203</http_url><id_number>203</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_203.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.9375000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>5.8763888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2009</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans, near Besançon, was built by Claude Nicolas Ledoux. Its construction, begun in 1775 during the reign of Louis XVI, was the first major achievement of industrial architecture, reflecting the ideal of progress of the Enlightenment. The vast, semicircular complex was designed to permit a rational and hierarchical organization of work and was to have been followed by the building of an ideal city, a project that was never realized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Great Saltworks of Salins-les-Bains was active for at least 1200 years until stopping activity in 1962. From 1780 to 1895, its salt water travelled through 21 km of wood pipes to the Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans. It was built near the immense Chaux Forest to ensure its supply of wood for fuel. The Saltworks of Salins shelters an underground gallery from the 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century including a hydraulic pump from the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century that still functions. The boiler house demonstrates the difficulty of the saltworkers’ labour to collect the “White Gold”.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>From the Great Saltworks of Salins-les-Bains to the Royal Saltworks of Arc-et-Senans, the Production of Open-pan Salt </site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1637</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The promontory between the Tarn River to the north and the Bondidou Ravine to the south-west was the site of an ancient oppidum; traces of occupation of this site date back to the Bronze Age. It corresponds with the present-day Castelviel Quarter (see Description). The site was first occupied by the Celts, and then housed a small Gallo-Roman settlement. It was sufficiently important to be the seat of a bishopric as early as the 5th century. It was fortified during the early medieval period and buildings appeared along the banks of the river, which was navigable. In 418 the Visigoths invaded and took control of the region, followed by the Franks in 507. All the remains from these periods are archaeological.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Saint-Salvi Quarter (10th century) and the Old Bridge (11th century) are testimony to early medieval economic and urban development. The Madeleine Quarter was built on the right bank around the end of the Old Bridge. By virtue of its geographical location, Albi benefits from contact with both the moist and cool heights of the S&amp;eacute;gala and the Rouergue regions and the warmer and drier Garonne Basin lowlands. Albi was deforested very early and became an agricultural region producing a variety of crops, the town becoming a market town for farmers where a variety of products were traded, depending on the season: grain, wine, cattle, and hemp, and later pastels, etc. The Tarn River is naturally navigable from Albi to the Garonne. The city became a centre for a regional wholesale trade in wool and fabrics manufactured in the surrounding countryside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The feudal period in Albi was marked by the presence of the Counts of Toulouse, and then by the overlordship of the powerful Trencavel viscounts in the 12th and 13th centuries. Land ownership was also shared among other right-holders in addition to the feudal lords, namely the bishop and canons of Saint-Salvi. The urban development in clearly distinct districts and quarters reflects this sharing of the space (see Description).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Urban development in the 12th and 13th centuries was accompanied by religious dissent at the regional level, with the inhabitants of Albi forming one of its centres, alongside Toulouse, Carcassonne, Foix, etc. The Catholic ecclesiastical establishment appeared to be cut off from the social realities of both the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie of the period. In the 12th century the dissenters became organised; they were known as the Albigenses or Cathars. They were evolving towards a dualist interpretation of the world and the human condition, as well as towards religious practices that were rapidly judged to be heretical by the Roman Catholic authorities. The preachings of Saint Bernard (1145) and the Cistercians, and then of Saint Dominic (1206-07), alternated with declarations of heresy and excommunication, notably the Fourth Lateran Council, which instigated the inquisition of the Albigenses (1179). Two successive crusades were then decreed by the Church against the dissenters: the first (feudal) from 1208 to 1209 and the second (royal) from 1224 to 1229. Despite the name, the Albigensian Crusade, the city of Albi was in material terms relatively unaffected by the military events, which rapidly turned into the conquest of the feudal lords in the north and then a royal annexation. The restoration of the Catholic faith by force was accompanied by the definitive anchoring of Languedoc within the French sphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman Catholic church's firm recovery of control over the population also resulted in the elimination of the local elite, who were favourable to Catharism, and in the establishment of a powerful clerical grip on spiritual and material life. Albi is typical of these developments in the 13th century, becoming an episcopal city under the overlordship of the builder-bishops. Bernard de Combret started building the fortified castle and the Palais de la Berbie during the final phase of the Crusade; his successor, Bernard de Castanet, began construction of the imposing Sainte-C&amp;eacute;cile Cathedral, a veritable incarnation of a fortress of the Roman Catholic faith (see Description). At the end of the 13th century and the start of the 14th, considerable urban growth paralleled the erection of the episcopal ensemble, including new quarters and religious institutions outside the walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to its symbolic populist dimension, the choice of brick in the 13th century as the building material for the large buildings can be explained by the poor quality of the region's limestone quarries and the natural abundance of clay in the Tarn and Garonne basins. It has given a common language to the Languedoc cities in this region, notably in Montauban, Toulouse, and Albi. Furthermore, the new episcopal city benefited from the input of very diverse artistic and architectural influences from the northern regions of France as well as from Flanders and Catalonia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The major European crisis in the mid-14th century, with the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, famine, and plague, had a lasting effect on Albi and its region. The city contracted and vegetated, closed within its walls, which were strengthened at the start of these events. Its craftsmen and its trade suffered long-term consequences, and the urban population collapsed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Renaissance, beginning in the mid-15th century in the Albi region, brought economic recovery based on the extraction of pastel, a plant-dye in fashion at the time. A new local elite developed, bringing in its wake the construction of fine residences in a Renaissance style and the renovation of the old quarters in the historic centre. The seigneurial bishops Louis I and Louis II of Amboise undertook the completion of the Cathedral, building the external entrance baldaquin and the choir, with its rood-screen and internal stone rails; they then launched an imposing programme of internal murals and statuary, assisted by both regional artists and others from France, Flanders, and Italy (see Description). They reflect a Late Gothic style, characterised by extremely rich decoration, at times overly ornate, coupled with highly expressive characters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th and 17th centuries the episcopal Palais de la Berbie underwent a series of important architectural transformations. Its military aspects were softened and partly replaced by buildings of Renaissance inspiration and gardens, to form a more light and open palatial ensemble that was more pleasant to live in. The Palais de la Berbie gradually took on its contemporary appearance. The successive bishops of Albi, raised to the rank of archbishop in the 17th century, were still the lords of the city and its dependencies; they presided over the Estates of Albi, exercising a dual spiritual and temporal power right up to the French Revolution. At the end of the 17th century the historical city, still encircled by ramparts and clustered around its fortress-cathedral, retained the appearance of a medieval citadel. It is sometimes referred to as the Red City because of the colour of its brick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city's appearance changed in the 18th century, when demolition of the ramparts began to facilitate the urban development required as a result of population growth. The number of building projects grew in the second part of the century, resulting in the creation of new quarters and a rational extension of the road network, notably to the east of the city. Nonetheless, this period was also marked by a decline in trading activities, which started to shift to the new transport axis formed further south by the Canal du Midi and the Garonne River.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Revolution, the clergy's properties were sold, to become administrative centres or warehouses. The Cathedral was briefly converted into a Temple of Reason. Although the rood-screen and the choir escaped relatively unscathed from damage during the disorder under the Terror, the statuary and the reliquary did not.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century urban renewal projects were again taken up and expanded, especially in the second half of the century; the Old Bridge was widened and navigation along the Tarn was improved. The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries were marked by an economic revival due to the growth of the glass-making and hat-making industries, along with the extraction of coal near Carmaux.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Major restoration work was undertaken on the Cathedral at the end of the 19th century, in the spirit of Viollet-le- Duc and under the supervision of the architect C&amp;eacute;sar Daly. Its immediate surroundings were cleared in order to enhance its appearance, along with a significant reordering of the old city's streets so as to facilitate urban traffic. A number of peripheral quarters appeared, extensive infrastructural work was carried out around the city, and modern buildings, generally built of brick, appeared in the old quarters. Having become unsuitable for episcopal functions that had become reduced to their simple ecclesiastical dimension, the Palais de la Berbie was gradually abandoned. In the early 20th century it became the Toulouse-Lautrec Museum to house the collections left by the painter's family to the city where he was born.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of World War II the historic urban centre was first abandoned, losing many of its inhabitants, who moved to the new buildings in the city's outskirts. However, it escaped a project that would have seen it demolished and replaced with a modernist reconstruction. It was then recognised as an urban ensemble with considerable heritage value and declared a Conservation Area by the Municipality in 1968, which led to the implementation of a conservation plan in 1974. The pace of work was stepped up at the end of the 20th and the start of the 21st centuries, resulting in a high level of conservation for this urban ensemble within the perimeter of the former episcopal city.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1337</http_url><id_number>1337</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1337.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.9283333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>2.1425000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the banks of the Tarn river in south-west France, the old city of Albi reflects the culmination of a medieval architectural and urban ensemble. Today the Old Bridge (Pont-Vieux), the Saint-Salvi quarter and its church are testimony to its initial development (10th -11th centuries). Following the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathar heretics (13th century) it became a powerful episcopal city. Built in a unique southern French Gothic style from local brick in characteristic red and orange colours, the lofty fortified Cathedral (late 13th century) dominates the city, demonstrating the power regained by the Roman Catholic clergy. Alongside the Cathedral is the vast bishop&amp;rsquo;s Palais de la Berbie, overlooking the river and surrounded by residential quarters that date back to the Middle Ages. The Episcopal City of Albi forms a coherent and homogeneous ensemble of monuments and quarters that has remained largely unchanged over the centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Episcopal City of Albi</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1663</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/81</http_url><id_number>81</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_81.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.4475000000</latitude><location>Department of Eure-et-Loire, Centre Region</location><longitude>1.4872222220</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Partly built starting in 1145, and then reconstructed over a 26-year period after the fire of 1194, Chartres Cathedral marks the high point of French Gothic art. The vast nave, in pure ogival style, the porches adorned with fine sculptures from the middle of the 12th century, and the magnificent 12th- and 13th-century stained-glass windows, all in remarkable condition, combine to make it a masterpiece.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chartres Cathedral</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1719</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1360</http_url><id_number>1360</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1360.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.4625000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.5461111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Remarkable as a landscape shaped over three centuries of coal extraction from the 1700s to the 1900s, the site consists of 109 separate components over 120,000&amp;nbsp;ha. It features mining pits (the oldest of which dates from 1850) and lift infrastructure, slag heaps (some of which cover 90&amp;nbsp;ha and exceed 140&amp;nbsp;m in height), coal transport infrastructure, railway stations, workers&amp;rsquo; estates and mining villages including social habitat, schools, religious buildings, health and community facilities, company premises, owners and managers&amp;rsquo; houses, town halls and more. The site bears testimony to the quest to create model workers&amp;rsquo; cities from the mid 19th century to the 1960s and further illustrates a significant period in the history of industrial Europe. It documents the living conditions of workers and the solidarity to which it gave rise.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Nord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1776</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1153</http_url><id_number>1153</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1153.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.2202777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.4730555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This 302,319 ha property, in the southern part of central France, is a mountain landscape interspersed by deep valleys that is representative of the relationship between agro-pastoral systems and their biophysical environment, notably through drailles or drove roads. Villages and substantial stone farmhouses on deep terraces of the Causses reflect the organization of large abbeys from the 11th century. Mont Loz&amp;egrave;re, inside the property, is one of the last places where summer transhumance is still practiced in the traditional way, using the drailles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Causses and the Cévennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral Cultural Landscape</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1848</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/162</http_url><id_number>162</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_162.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.8950000000</latitude><location>Department of Somme, Picardie Region</location><longitude>2.3016666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Amiens Cathedral, in the heart of Picardy, is one of the largest classic 13th-century Gothic churches. It is notable for the coherence of its plan, the beauty of its three-tier interior elevation, and the particularly fine display of sculptures on the principal facade and in the south transept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Amiens was once a place of great strength, and still possessed a late 16th-century citadel, but the ramparts that surrounded it have been replaced by boulevards, bordered by handsome residences. The older and more picturesque quarter is situated directly on the Somme; its narrow and irregular streets are intersected by the eleven arms of the river and it is skirted on the north by the canal derived there from.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century, motivated by the faith of their inhabitants, cities competed to build the most magnificent religious buildings. Thanks to technical progress, the experience gained from other building sites and the speed at which it was constructed, Notre-Dame of Amiens has a very rare uniform style. The height of the ceiling is about 42.3&amp;nbsp;m (compared with &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 37&amp;nbsp;m at Chartres and &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 38&amp;nbsp;m at Reims) and the width of the nave is about 14.6&amp;nbsp;m. The cathedral, erected on the plans of Robert de Luzarches, consists of a nave with aisles and lateral chapels, a transept with aisles, and a choir (with deambulatory) ending in an apse surrounded by chapels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Amiens Cathedral was built in 1152 in Romanesque style and was destroyed by fire in 1218. Reconstruction was started around 1220 and the nave was completed around 1245. Reconstruction of the choir started began around 1238 and completed before 1269, and the most of this part of the building, including the transept, was completed in 1288. The south tower was constructed about 1366 and the north tower about 1401.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The French Revolution left the edifice, which has undergone only minor restorations (Galerie des Rois), practically untouched. In 1849 onwards, Eug&amp;egrave;ne Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-79) arranged and repaired the gallery over the rose window of the west facade and the top of the north tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The facade, which is flanked by two square towers without spires, has three portals decorated with a profusion of statuary, the central portal having a remarkable 13th-century statue of Christ; they are surmounted by two galleries, the upper one containing 22 statues of the kings of Judah in its arcades, and by a rose window. A slender spire rises above the crossing. The southern portal is remarkable for a figure of the Virgin and other statuary. The light inside the cathedral is also exceptional owing to the extremely high vaults, the large number of openings, and the glazed triforium above the choir and transept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inside the cathedral shows the sign of the new way of mature Gothic design such as the triforium of the choir, which was glazed with stained glass. Originally the triforium of the nave as well as the choir was to be fitted by stained glass, but it was eventually walled for structural reasons, owing to the 3m increase in the height of the nave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coherence of its plan, the beauty of its three-tier interior elevation, and the application of an extremely scholarly sculptural programme on its principal facade and the wing of the southern transept are striking. From 1292 to 1375, the cathedral was enriched by a series of chapels built between the buttresses of the side aisles. The style of the seven radiating chapels facing the double ambulatory of the choir became a model for other cathedrals. At the end of the Middle Ages, with the spire constructed above the transept crossing, the choir screen and the splendid stalls of the canons in sculpted wood, the cathedral assumed its present-day appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Besides its prodigious 12th-century sculptural decor, the cathedral houses two bronze tombs, which are extremely rare testimonies to 13th-century foundry techniques: that of Geoffroy d'Eu and especially that of Edward de Foutilloy, the bishop who in 1220 undertook the reconstruction of Notre-Dame d'Amiens. Among other 14th-century works, that of the pier of Cardinal de la Grange with the statues of Andr&amp;egrave; Beaunevau are especially notable.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Amiens Cathedral, in the heart of Picardy, is one of the largest 'classic' Gothic churches of the 13th century. It is notable for the coherence of its plan, the beauty of its three-tier interior elevation and the particularly fine display of sculptures on the principal facade and in the south transept.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Amiens Cathedral</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1951</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been a Christian cult centre on this site since the 3rd century AD, when Roman Avaricum became the first Christian community in Gaul. A Romanesque basilica dedicated to St Stephen was erected here in the 1 lth century and other religious buildings quickly clustered around it. A small crypt from the Romanesque structure has survived beneath the present cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 12th century transepts and a monumental west front were added, but fires in the early 1190s necessitated complete rebuilding (contemporaneously with the main construction of Notre-Dame de Paris). Work began in 1195 and continued throughout the 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new cathedral was built to a simple but harmonious plan. It is basilican in form, with chapels surrounding the nave. The perspective of the side walls and the unity of the interior space are outstanding features of the building. The sculptures on the north and south doors and the Last Judgement on the west facade are notable examples of the art of the period. The stained glass is also of exceptionally high quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other historic buildings in the precincts are a 13th century tithe barn, those elements of the 17th century Bishop's Palace which survive as the Hotel de Ville, and the cathedral gardens in classical French style.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/635</http_url><id_number>635</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_635.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.0822222200</latitude><location>Department of Cher, Centre Region</location><longitude>2.3983333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bourges Cathedral is of considerable importance in the development of Gothic architecture and as a symbol of the strength of Christianity in medieval France. However, its principal claim lies in its striking beauty, combining masterly management of space with harmonious proportions and decoration of the highest quality. As the figurehead of the Capetian domain facing the south of France, the Cathedral of Saint-&amp;Eacute;tienne had to be unique in design. The architectural style chosen by the unknown master-builder is based on a plan with no transept and plastic effects of great modernity for their time. The cathedral is still surrounded by the half-timbered houses of the medieval town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A royal city since the year 1100, Bourges has grown in size and prosperity; the new Gothic cathedral was a hymn to the authority of the Archbishops of Bourges, primates of Aquitaine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There had been a Christian cult centre on this site since the 3rd century, when Roman Avaricum became the first Christian community in Gaul. A Romanesque basilica dedicated to St Stephen was erected there in the 11th century and other religious buildings quickly clustered around it. A small crypt from the Romanesque structure has survived beneath the present cathedral. In the 12th-century transepts and a monumental west front were added, but fires in the early 1190s necessitated complete rebuilding (contemporaneously with the main construction of Notre-Dame de Paris).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1195, Archbishop Henri de Sully decided to rebuild the cathedral, starting with the chevet, in the new Gothic style: work began and continued throughout the 13th century. The new cathedral was built to a simple but harmonious plan. It is basilical in form, with chapels surrounding the nave. The cathedral has a very simple plan, with double side aisles, a double ambulatory, and no transept. The perspective of the side walls and the unity of the interior space are outstanding features of the building. The architectural features of the whole edifice are already visible in the chevet: the pyramidal composition of the elevation and the audacious double flying buttresses, which are intended to create effects of perspective and harmony of volumes inside the edifice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1199, Archbishop Guillaume de Dangeon, a former Cistercian abbot, succeeded Henri de Sully and played an important part in the development of the site and in the definition of the iconographical programme: the cathedral as a whole, its carved decorations and the stained-glass windows, which are the assertion of religious doctrine against heresy. The second stage of construction, including the nave and the west front, was finished around 1230; five carved portals completed the facade. The architects who succeeded the first master-builder maintained the coherence and the apparent simplicity of the programme, the absence of a transept contributing to the effect of unity of space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 13th century, stained-glass windows were added to the three levels of the choir: they represent the Christ of the Last Judgement and the Apocalypse, the Blessed Virgin and Saint &amp;Eacute;tienne are flanked by the trade guilds, parallel scenes from the New and Old Testaments, the life of the Saints and Martyrs, the Archbishops of Bourges, the Prophets and Apostles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tympanum of the central portal of the west facade is bears a grandiose sculptural representation of the Last Judgement that is both realistic and timeless, in which Hell swarms with demons and creatures in the torments of despair. The sculptures on the north and south doors and the Last Judgement on the west facade are notable examples of the art of the period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other historic buildings in the precincts are a 13th-century tithe barn, those elements of the 17th-century Bishop's Palace which survive as the H&amp;ocirc;tel de Ville and the cathedral gardens in classical French style. The structure is essentially as it was when it was completed in the late 13th century, both in form and materials, although many elements have been replaced over the centuries, as is the case with all Gothic cathedrals.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of St Etienne of Bourges, built between the late 12th and late 13th centuries, is one of the great masterpieces of Gothic art and is admired for its proportions and the unity of its design. The tympanum, sculptures and stained-glass windows are particularly striking. Apart from the beauty of the architecture, it attests to the power of Christianity in medieval France.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bourges Cathedral</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1952</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1426</http_url><id_number>1426</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1426.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.3875000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.4161111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in a limestone plateau of the Ardèche River in southern France, the property contains the earliest-known and best-preserved figurative drawings in the world, dating back as early as the Aurignacian period (30,000–32,000 BP), making it an exceptional testimony of prehistoric art. The cave was closed off by a rock fall approximately 20,000 years BP and remained sealed until its discovery in 1994, which helped to keep it in pristine condition. Over 1,000 images have so far been inventoried on its walls, combining a variety of anthropomorphic and animal motifs. Of exceptional aesthetic quality, they demonstrate a range of techniques including the skilful use of shading, combinations of paint and engraving, anatomical precision, three-dimensionality and movement. They include several dangerous animal species difficult to observe at that time, such as mammoth, bear, cave lion, rhino, bison and auroch, as well as 4,000 inventoried remains of prehistoric fauna and a variety of human footprints.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Decorated Cave of Pont d’Arc, known as Grotte Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, Ardèche</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1974</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1425</http_url><id_number>1425</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1425.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.0580555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.8644444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The climates are precisely delimited vineyard parcels on the slopes of the Côte de Nuits and the Côte de Beaune south of the city of Dijon. They differ from one another due to specific natural conditions (geology and exposure) as well as vine types and have been shaped by human cultivation. Over time they came to be recognized by the wine they produce. This cultural landscape consists of two parts. Firstly, the vineyards and associated production units including villages and the town of Beaune, which together represent the commercial dimension of the production system. The second part includes the historic centre of Dijon, which embodies the political regulatory impetus that gave birth to the climats system. The site is an outstanding example of grape cultivation and wine production developed since the High Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Climats, terroirs of Burgundy</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2016</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1465</http_url><id_number>1465</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1465.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.0775000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>3.9461111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;The property encompasses sites where the method of producing sparkling wines was developed on the principle of secondary fermentation in the bottle since the early 17&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century to its early industrialization in the 19&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century. The property is made up of three distinct ensembles: the historic vineyards of Hautvillers, Aÿ and Mareuil-sur-Aÿ, Saint-Nicaise Hill in Reims, and the Avenue de Champagne and Fort Chabrol in Epernay. These three components – the supply basin formed by the historic hillsides, the production sites (with their underground cellars) and the sales and distribution centres (the Champagne Houses) - illustrate the entire champagne production process. The property bears clear testimony to the development of a very specialized artisan activity that has become an agro-industrial enterprise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Champagne Hillsides, Houses and Cellars</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2026</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/230</http_url><id_number>230</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_230.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.5647200000</latitude><location>Department of Vienne, Poitou-Charentes Region</location><longitude>0.8661100000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Known as the 'Romanesque Sistine Chapel', the Abbey-Church of Saint-Savin contains many beautiful 11th- and 12th-century murals which are still in a remarkable state of preservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Abbey Church of Saint-Savin sur Gartempe</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2118</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1529</http_url><id_number>1529</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1529.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-16.8414000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-151.3723777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>Taputapuātea on Ra’iātea Island is at the centre of the ‘Polynesian Triangle’, a vast portion of the Pacific Ocean, dotted with islands, and the last part of the globe to be settled by humans. The property includes two forested valleys, a portion of lagoon and coral reef and a strip of open ocean. At the heart of the property is the Taputapuātea &lt;em&gt;marae&lt;/em&gt; complex, a political, ceremonial and funerary centre. It is characterized by several marae, with different functions. Widespread in Polynesia, the &lt;em&gt;marae &lt;/em&gt;were places where the world of the living intersected the world of the ancestors and the gods. Taputapuātea is an exceptional testimony to 1,000 years of &lt;em&gt;mā'ohi &lt;/em&gt;civilization&lt;em&gt;.&lt;/em&gt;</short_description><site>Taputapuātea</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2155</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/495</http_url><id_number>495</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_495.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.5844444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>7.7488888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2017</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The initial property, inscribed in 1988 on the World Heritage List, was formed by the Grande-Île, the historic centre of Strasbourg, structured around the cathedral. The extension concerns the &lt;em&gt;Neustadt&lt;/em&gt;, new town, designed and built under the German administration (1871-1918). The &lt;em&gt;Neustadt&lt;/em&gt; draws the inspiration for its urban layout partially from the Haussmannian model, while adopting an architectural idiom of Germanic inspiration. This dual influence has enabled the creation of an urban space that is specific to Strasbourg, where the perspectives created around the cathedral open to a unified landscape around the rivers and canals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Strasbourg, Grande-Île and &lt;em&gt;Neustadt&lt;/em&gt;</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2156</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/229</http_url><id_number>229</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_229.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.6936111100</latitude><location>Department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, Lorraine Region</location><longitude>6.1833333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The three squares in Nancy represent a unique artistic achievement, a masterpiece of the creative genius. Nancy is the oldest and most typical example of a modern capital where an enlightened monarch proved to be sensitive to the needs of the public. Built between 1752 and 1756 by a brilliant team led by the architect Her&amp;eacute;, this was a carefully conceived project that succeeded in creating a capital that not only enhanced the sovereign's prestige but was also functional. It is an outstanding example of a type of structure which illustrates a significant stage in history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 17th century the French, who had occupied Nancy, established a means of communication with the New Town by opening a gate in the walls, calling it the Royal Gate in honour of Louis XIV. Stanislas Leszczynski, unhappy pretender to the Polish throne and father-in-law of Louis XV, King of France, received as a recompense for his abdication the Dukedom of Lorraine for life. He 'reigned' there peacefully from 1737 to 1766. It was during the reign of Stanislas that the link between the Old Town and the New Town took a concrete form. He wished to fuse the two cities that made up his capital: the Old City and the New City (created by Charles III in 15881) by organizing their junctures around a double axis: one east - west bounded by the Portes Sainte-Catherine and Stanislas, forming the northern limit of the new city, and the other north-south, marking the junction between the quarter with the Ducal Palace and the new urban centre, with its Place Royale dedicated to Louis XV, the present Place Stanislas. The works which resulted from the urbanization of Nancy are the most beautiful creations of the patronage of this prince.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The project was carried out between 1752 and 1756 by a brilliant team under the direction of the architect Her&amp;eacute;, composed of the ironworker Jean Lamour and the sculptors Cuibal and Cyffl&amp;eacute;; this was a project of extreme coherence which culminated in monumental perfection. The foundation stone of the first building in the square was officially laid in March 1752 and the royal square solemnly inaugurated in November 1755.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to some prestigious architecture conceived to exalt a sovereign with its triumphal arches, statues, and fountains, the project for Nancy was in the interests of the public with its three squares that give to the town hall, the courts of law, and the Palais des Fermes as well as to the administrative centre, the school of medicine, the botanical gardens, the library, the academy, the theatre, the public garden, and many cafes and billiard halls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning a bronze statue of Louis XV in the uniform of a Roman general, the work of Guibal and Cyffl&amp;eacute;, decorated the centre of the square. The statue, along with the allegorical figures that surrounded it, disappeared during the French Revolution and it was only in 1851 that a new statue, this time of Stanislas, was erected in its place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The need to modernize the ramparts in the mid-16th century led to an extension of the town towards the east, and thus the creation of a new square, the Place Neuve de la Carri&amp;egrave;re. The square is closed to the north by the Palais du Gouverneur (the former Palais de l'Intendance), set in a semicircle of columns, and to the south by a triumphal arch. At the south end, opposite the Beauvau-Craon Mansion by Boffrand, Emmanuel Her&amp;eacute; built a copy of it for the Bourse (stock exchange). Starting from these two buildings, two long rows of houses with a few rocaille decorations stretch along either side of the square as far as two identical houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Alliance Square (Place de l'Alliance), was originally called Saint Stanislas Square; it is characterized by a Baroque fountain by Cyffl&amp;eacute;. Its name is symbolic of the alliance between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and France in 1756.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Nancy, the temporary residence of a king without a kingdom – Stanislas Leszczynski, later to become Duke of Lorraine – is paradoxically the oldest and most typical example of a modern capital where an enlightened monarch proved to be sensitive to the needs of the public. Built between 1752 and 1756 by a brilliant team led by the architect Héré, this was a carefully conceived project that succeeded in creating a capital that not only enhanced the sovereign's prestige but was also functional.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Place Stanislas, Place de la Carrière and Place d'Alliance in Nancy</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2186</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Loire Valley was important over much of pre- and protohistory. The Roman impact on the landscape was massive, and it today still strongly influences settlement location and form (especially urban) and road communications. The Loire was one of the most important arteries for communications and trade in Gaul.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the late Roman period St Martin, Bishop of Tours, founded an abbey at Marmoutier around 372, and this was to serve as the model for many other monastic settlements in the Loire Valley in the centuries that followed. The sanctuary at Tours was one of the most important pilgrimage centres in Europe until it was superseded by Santiago de Compostela. The many monasteries served as focal points for settlement in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Seigneurial power developed in the 10th century and made a profound impression on the landscape. Land allotment followed the patterns of feudal society and strongly fortified residences were built by the overlords. These, too, acted as focal points for settlement. The Loire Valley was a frontier zone during the Hundred Years' War and the scene of many confrontations between French and English. The castles were rebuilt and extended to become massive fortresses, the forerunners of the ch&amp;acirc;teaux of today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ever-present danger to Paris from the English during the War resulted in the Royal court spending long periods at Tours. With the end of the War in the mid-15th century the Valley was an ideal place for Humanism and the Renaissance to take root in France. This involved inter alia the dismantling of the massive medieval fortresses and their reconstruction as palaces for pleasure and recreation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 17th-18th centuries saw the development of a secular commercial economy based on industry, crafts, trade, shipping, the river, and the towns alongside the feudal survival of the Ancien R&amp;eacute;gime. The late 18th century also saw the first water-management controls introduced in the Valley; these were intensified throughout the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The romantic representation of the Valley in the 19th century by writers and painters led to the Loire becoming a magnet for tourists, first from France, then Europe, and then in the 20th century the rest of the world. This interest in the scenic qualities of the Valley and its monuments encouraged efforts to preserve the heritage of the landscape, in the form of its monuments, its towns, and its rural structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/933</http_url><id_number>933</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_933.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Loire Valley is noteworthy for the quality of its architectural heritage, in its historic towns such as Blois, Chinon, Orléans, Saumur, and Tours, but in particular in its world-famous castles, such as the Château de Chambord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Loire Valley is an outstanding cultural landscape along a major river which bears witness to an interchange of human values and to a harmonious development of interactions between human beings and their environment over two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The landscape of the Loire Valley, and more particularly its many cultural monuments, illustrate to an exceptional degree the ideals of the Renaissance and the Age of the Enlightenment on western European thought and design.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.3988900000</latitude><location></location><longitude>0.7027800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Loire Valley is an outstanding cultural landscape along a major river which bears witness to an interchange of human values and to a harmonious development of interactions between human beings and their environment over two millennia. It is noteworthy for the quality of its architectural heritage, in its historic towns such as Blois, Chinon, Orl&amp;eacute;ans, Saumur and Tours, but in particular in its world-famous castles, such as the Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Chambord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basin of the River Loire occupies a huge area in central and western France, stretching from the southern part of the Massif Central to an estuary on the Atlantic coast. Some 200&amp;nbsp;km of the central part of the main river valley, stretching from Sully east of Orleans to the junction of the Loire and the Maine near Angers in the west. Essentially this is the 'new' Loire, for the river originally drained north-eastwards into the Paris basin. This length now lies in two regions, Centre and Pays de la Loire, and four departments. Along the Loire between Orl&amp;eacute;ans and Angers, the valley is characterized by low cliffs of tufa and limestone and, often below one or more river terraces, there is a flood plain dissected by old channels. The valley has a long history of periodic catastrophic flooding, carefully recorded as stone-cut water levels at numerous places along it, and even today its inhabitants live perennially under threat of severe inundation. Much contemporary river management is concerned to minimize that risk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For most of its length in the World Heritage site the Loire is confined within dykes. Its banks are also punctuated at intervals of only a few kilometres by a series of villages, small towns and cities. Notable among the urban settlements are (from north-east to south-west) Sully, Orleans, Blois, Amboise, Tours, Saumur and Angers. Land use is extremely varied, from urban density through intense horticulture to vineyards (some reliant on flooding) to hunting forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman impact on the landscape was massive, and it today still strongly influences settlement location and urban form and road communications. The Loire was one of the most important arteries for communications and trade in Gaul. In the late Roman period St Martin, Bishop of Tours, founded an abbey at Marmoutier around 372, and this was to serve as the model for many other monastic settlements in the Loire Valley in the centuries that followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sanctuary at Tours was one of the most important pilgrimage centres in Europe until it was superseded by Santiago de Compostela. The many monasteries served as focal points for settlement in the Middle Ages. Seigniorial power developed in the 10th century and made a profound impression on the landscape. Land allotment followed the patterns of feudal society and strongly fortified residences were built by the overlords; these, too, acted as focal points for settlement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Loire Valley was a frontier zone during the Hundred Years' War and the scene of many confrontations between French and English. The castles were rebuilt and extended to become massive fortresses, the forerunners of the chateaux of today. The ever-present danger to Paris from the English during the war resulted in the royal court spending long periods at Tours. With the end of the war in the mid-15th century the valley was an ideal place for humanism and the Renaissance to take root in France. This involved &lt;em&gt;inter alia&lt;/em&gt; the dismantling of the massive medieval fortresses and their reconstruction as palaces for pleasure and recreation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 17th-18th centuries saw the development of a secular commercial economy based on industry, crafts, trade, shipping, the river, and the towns alongside the feudal survival of the Ancien R&amp;eacute;gime. The late 18th century also saw the first water-management controls introduced in the valley; these were intensified throughout the 19th century. The romantic representation of the valley in the 19th century by writers and painters led to the Loire becoming a magnet for tourists, first from France, then Europe, and then in the 20th century the rest of the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Loire Valley is an outstanding cultural landscape of great beauty, containing historic towns and villages, great architectural monuments (the châteaux), and cultivated lands formed by many centuries of interaction between their population and the physical environment, primarily the river Loire itself.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Loire Valley between Sully-sur-Loire and Chalonnes</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2250</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1434</http_url><id_number>1434</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1434.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.7793888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>2.9651111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the centre of France, the property comprises the long Limagne fault, the alignments of the Chaîne des Puys volcanoes and the inverted relief of the Montagne de la Serre. It is an emblematic segment of the West European Rift, created in the aftermath of the formation of the Alps, 35 million years ago. The geological features of the property demonstrate how the continental crust cracks, then collapses, allowing deep magma to rise and cause uplifting at the surface. The property is an exceptional illustration of continental break-up – or rifting – which is one of the five major stages of plate tectonics.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chaîne des Puys - Limagne fault tectonic arena</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2257</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/80</http_url><id_number>80</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_80.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.6355600000</latitude><location>Department of Manche, Region of Basse-Normandie</location><longitude>-1.5105600000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Perched on a rocky islet in the midst of vast sandbanks exposed to powerful tides between Normandy and Brittany stand the 'Wonder of the West', a Gothic-style Benedictine abbey dedicated to the archangel St Michael, and the village that grew up in the shadow of its great walls. Built between the 11th and 16th centuries, the abbey is a technical and artistic &lt;em&gt;tour de force&lt;/em&gt;, having had to adapt to the problems posed by this unique natural site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mont-Saint-Michel and its Bay</site><states>France</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2317</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1147</http_url><id_number>1147</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1147.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ga</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-0.5000000000</latitude><location>Ogoué-Ivindo and Ogoué-Lolo Provinces</location><longitude>11.5000000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ecosystem and Relict Cultural Landscape of Lopé-Okanda demonstrates an unusual interface between dense and well-conserved tropical rainforest and relict savannah environments with a great diversity of species, including endangered large mammals, and habitats. The site illustrates ecological and biological processes in terms of species and habitat adaptation to post-glacial climatic changes. It contains evidence of the successive passages of different peoples who have left extensive and comparatively well-preserved remains of habitation around hilltops, caves and shelters, evidence of iron-working and a remarkable collection of some 1,800 petroglyphs (rock carvings). The property’s collection of Neolithic and Iron Age sites, together with the rock art found there, reflects a major migration route of Bantu and other peoples from West Africa along the River Ogooué valley to the north of the dense evergreen Congo forests and to central east and southern Africa, that has shaped the development of the whole of sub-Saharan Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ecosystem and Relict Cultural Landscape of Lopé-Okanda</site><states>Gabon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1547</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/761</http_url><id_number>761</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_761.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gm</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: James Island and Related Sites on the River Gambia provide an exceptional testimony to the different facets of the African-European encounter, from the 15th to 20th centuries. The River Gambia formed the first trade route into the interior of Africa and became an early corridor for the slave trade. Criterion vi: James Island and Related Sites, the villages and the batteries, were directly and tangibly associated with the beginning and the conclusion of the slave trade, retaining its memory related to the African Diaspora.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>13.3161666700</latitude><location>Lower Niumi and Upper Niumi districts&lt;br&gt;&#xd;
&#xd;
 and Banjul Municipality</location><longitude>-16.3571944400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;James Island and the related sites on the Gambia River provide exceptional testimony to the different facets of the African-European encounter, from the 15th to the 20th centuries. The river formed the first trade route into the interior of Africa and became an early corridor for the slave trade. The sites were directly and tangibly associated with the beginning and the conclusion of the slave trade, retaining its memory related to the African diaspora.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property consists of seven separate sites: the whole of James Island, the remains of a Portuguese chapel and a colonial warehouse in the village of Albreda, the Maurel Fr&amp;egrave;res Building in the village of Juffureh, the remains of a small Portuguese settlement of San Domingo, as well as Fort Bullen and the Six-Gun Battery, which are located in three different districts in Gambia. Fort Bullen and the Battery are at the mouth of the Gambia River, while James Island and the other sites are some 30&amp;nbsp;km upstream. Albreda, Juffureh and San Domingo are contained within a large buffer zone, which stretches 12&amp;nbsp;km along the coastline of the Gambia River, extending some 500&amp;nbsp;m inland from the high-water line. James Island is a small island (0.3&amp;nbsp;ha) in the middle of the Gambia River, which made it a strategic place from which to control the waterway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original structures comprise the fort itself, the slave house, the governor's kitchen, the blacksmith's shop and a store, all now in ruins. The fort is situated in the middle of this low island and is vulnerable to flooding by the tidal waters. Albreda, a Mandingo village on the north bank of the river, is surrounded by agricultural land and is part of the buffer zone, but it contains two buildings that are included in the inscription. The chapel, built by the Portuguese in the late 15th century, is in ruins. Just 30&amp;nbsp;m to the west of the chapel is a free-standing wall, which is contemporaneous with the church. The Compagnie Fran&amp;ccedil;aise d'Afrique Occidentale Building, at the water's edge near the wharf, is a two-storey building with an adjacent warehouse. The ground floor served as a shop and store for goods and the top floor as a residence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Juffureh, a typical Mandingo village, consists of traditional buildings, family compounds surrounded by woven fences, and small public open spaces. The Maurel Fr&amp;egrave;res Building was constructed around 1840 by the British and was later used as a warehouse by a Lebanese trader named Maurel. Now it is a small museum on the Atlantic Slave Trade in the Senegambia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Domingo, 1&amp;nbsp;km east of Albreda, was a colonial settlement first established by the Portuguese in the late 15th century. It used to contain gardens, a church, a cemetery, and a well; today only ruins of a small house remain, built from lateritic stone and lime mortar. Close by there are remains of the former English settlement of Jillifree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Six-Gun Battery was completed in 1821 in Bathurst, founded in 1816, now Banjul, on Saint Mary Island. The Battery consists of six 24-pounder guns, installed on rails, and protected by a large parapet made from stone and lime mortar. Fort Bullen is at the end of Barra Point, opposite the city of Banjul, on the north bank of the river at the point where it meets the ocean. The fort is protected from the sea by a defensive wall of stone and boulders. The site is close to the Banjul-Barra ferry landing. The fort buildings include the Old Rest House built from mud, the residence of the Travelling Commissioner of the colonial administration at the beginning of the century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area of the Gambia River has long been inhabited. The territory was under the rule of the Kingdom of Kaabu, an offshoot of the Mali Empire (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1200-1867), and the Jollof Kingdom (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1300-1500). Kaabu played an important role in Atlantic-oriented trade before Europeans arrived, being in contact with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as well as the Arabs (from 1000 CE). The Portuguese reached the Senegambia between 1446 and 1456, when searching for the sea route to India. In the 16th century, English ships ventured into the Gambia region, and by the end of the century the Dutch also arrived. Slaves became another trading item, especially in the 18th century, until slavery was abolished.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;James Island and Related Sites present a testimony to the main periods and facets of the encounter between Africa and Europe along the River Gambia, a continuum stretching from pre-colonial and pre-slavery times to independence. The site is particularly significant for its relation to the beginning of the slave trade and its abolition. It also documents early access to the interior of Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kunta Kinteh Island and Related Sites</site><states>Gambia (the)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>897</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/709</http_url><id_number>709</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_709.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ge</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (iv) and (v), considering that the region of Upper Svaneti is of outstanding universal value being an exceptional landscape that has preserved to a remarkable degree its original medieval appearance, notable for the distribution, form, and architecture of its human settlements.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.9163900000</latitude><location>Village of Chajashi, Mestia district, Region of Samegrelo-Zemo Svateni</location><longitude>43.0113900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Upper Svaneti is an exceptional landscape that has preserved to a remarkable degree its original medieval appearance, notable for the distribution, form, and architecture of its human settlements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest references to Svaneti occur in the works of Strabo (66 BC-AD 24), when it had already been settled for many generations and had achieved a high level of culture. From the 4th century AD it was a vassal-state of the Kingdom of Lazika. In the 8th century the Abkhaz Kingdom was established in western Georgia, to be in its turn absorbed into the united Kingdom of Georgia that was finally consolidated by David the Builder (reigned 1089-1125). A strong movement for Svan independence developed, and its feudal lords often chose the side of forces opposed to the Georgian state. This did not hinder the political and economic growth of Georgia, which spread to cover much of the region between the Black and Caspian Seas under George II and his daughter Tamar in the succeeding centuries. This was accompanied by a cultural flowering, of which Svaneti was one of the main centres, famous for its schools of metalwork, painting, wood carving, and architecture. These skills were employed by the Church, which was also rich and powerful in this period; most of the churches in Upper Svaneti date from this period. Although not affected by the catastrophic Mongol invasion, Svaneti found itself increasingly isolated, and as a result its economy and culture declined in the 15th-18th centuries. Part of Svaneti was eventually overrun by Princess Dadeshkeliani in the 15th century, but further inland, on the upper reaches of the Inguri River, the people of Upper Svaneti preserved their independence, with Mestia as their capital, until the coming of the Russians in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mountainous region of Upper Svaneti occupies the upper reaches of the lnguri river basin, between the Caucasus and Svaneti ranges. The characteristic landscape of Upper Svaneti is formed by small villages, dominated by their church towers and situated on the mountain slopes, with a natural environment of gorges and alpine valleys and a backdrop of snow-covered mountains. The most notable feature of the settlements is the abundance of towers, especially in Mestia and the frontier villages, such as Ushguli and Latali. These towers usually have from three to five storeys and the thickness of the walls decreases, giving the towers a slender, tapering profile. The houses themselves are usually two-storeyed; the ground floor is a single hall with an open hearth and accommodation for both people and domestic animals, the latter being separated by a wooden partition, which is often lavishly decorated. A corridor annex helped the thermal insulation of the building. The upper floor was used by the human occupants in the summer, and also served as a store for fodder and tools. A door at this level provided access to the tower, which was also connected with the corridor that protected the entrance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many of the tower-houses have disappeared or are collapsing into ruins. The village of Chazhashi has, however, been preserved as a museum-reserve. Here more than 200 towers and 400 houses have survived. The village is situated at the confluence of the Black and lnguri rivers, an easily defensible location. It is protected by two castles above and below the village; the lower castle has a small hall church known as Lashkdash; another church known as Matskhvar in which medieval wall paintings are preserved stands on a nearby hill. The houses are built from irregularly sized stone blocks and sometimes local slate set in lime mortar. The churches of Upper Svaneti are generally very small and not ornamented with carved external decoration. Internally, however, they are noteworthy for their wealth of wall paintings, carved doors, processional and altar crosses, and illuminated manuscripts. They range in date of construction from the early 9th to the 17th centuries, with a creative peak in the 10th-12th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The excellent natural conditions and the unity of architecture and landscape give this region an original quality of its own. The wealth of monumental and minor art (metal work, manuscript illustrations, textiles and embroidery, wood-carving, icon painting, ancient forms of musical and oral folklore, vernacular architecture) are of paramount importance for the study of Georgia and the Caucasus. The monumental mural painting of Svaneti is of great importance in the study of the origins and development of Georgian and eastern Christian art.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Preserved by its long isolation, the Upper Svaneti region of the Caucasus is an exceptional example of mountain scenery with medieval-type villages and tower-houses. The village of Chazhashi still has more than 200 of these very unusual houses, which were used both as dwellings and as defence posts against the invaders who plagued the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Upper Svaneti</site><states>Georgia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>839</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2010</danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/710</http_url><id_number>710</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_710.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ge</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.2947222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>42.7683333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2017</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1106 in the west of Georgia, the Monastery of Gelati is a masterpiece of the Golden Age of medieval Georgia, a period of political strength and economic growth between the 11th and 13th centuries. It is characterized by the facades of smoothly hewn large blocks, balanced proportions and blind arches for exterior decoration. The Gelati monastery, one of the largest medieval Orthodox monasteries, was also a centre of science and education and the Academy it housed was one of the most important centres of culture in ancient Georgia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gelati Monastery</site><states>Georgia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2243</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2009</danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/708</http_url><id_number>708</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_708.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ge</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.8438900000</latitude><location>City of Mtskheta, Region of Mtskheta-Mtianeti</location><longitude>44.7163900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The group of churches at Mtskheta, outstanding examples of medieval ecclesiastical architecture in the Caucasus region, testify to the high level of art and culture in the vanished Kingdom of Georgia, which played an outstanding role in the medieval history of its region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The strategic location of Mtskheta at the crossing of ancient trade routes and the confluence of the Aragvi and Mtkvari rivers, its mild climate, and its fertile soil contributed to early human settlement in the area (3000-2000 BC). With the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great the east Georgian kingdom of Kartli-Iberia came into being with its capital at Mtskheta, which at this time straddled both banks of the river and was divided into several quarters. The Armaz-tsikhe (citadel and royal residence) was at the heart of the city and fortified quarters allocated to specialized trades clustered around it, making up 'Great Mtskheta'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city was destroyed by Pompey the Great after his defeat of Mithridates the Great of Pontus in 65 BC. In the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, Iberia played an important role in the politics of the region. Christianity was brought to Mtskheta in the 4th century by St Nino, and became the official state religion in 334. The first wooden church was built in the palace garden, where the Svetitskhoveli church now stands. Although the capital of Kartli was transferred to Tbilisi by Prince Dachi in the 6th century, Mtskheta retained a prominent role as the religious centre of the country and the seat of the Katolicos (later elevated to Patriarch).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Georgia became part of Russia in 1801 Mtskheta was no more than a village in the Dusheti district; however, its economic situation was improved when the Poti-Tbilisi railway was built in 1872.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The citadel (Armaz-tsikhe) of Great Mtskheta is located on the side of Bagineti mountain on the right bank of the river Mtkvari. The Hall of Columns, located on the lower internal terrace, is rectangular and contains an axial row of six columns. Other ruins from this period include a temple on the top of Bagineti mountain and an impressive barrel-vaulted tomb. Excavations in the Armaziskhevi valley have revealed many burials and structures from as early as the Neolithic, including a bath-house and fragmentary remains of what must have been a sumptuous palace in proto-Hellenistic style. Of special interest are the above-ground mortuary houses of the 1st century AD onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coming of Christianity resulted in intensive building activity to meet the requirements of the new religion, and many of these monuments have survived to the present day. The Svetitskhoveli complex in the centre of the town includes the 11th century cathedral, the palace and gates of the Katolikos Melchizedek from the same period, and the 18th-century gates of Irkali II. The cathedral is domed and cruciform in plan. The interior was originally covered with wall paintings, but these were whitewashed over and only recently have fragments of them been revealed again. The facades are ornamented with decorative arcading which unites the separate components of the structure. Severely damaged by Tamurlaine, it was rebuilt in the 15th century; more serious alterations took place in the 1830s on the occasion of a visit to the Caucasus by Tsar Nicholas II, when richly ornamented galleries and subsidiary chapels were ruthlessly swept away.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Opposite Svetitskhoveli on the top of the hill on the left bank of the Aragvi river is the Mtskhetis Jvari (Church of the Holy Rood), the most sacred place in Georgia, where a cross was erected by St Nino to replace heathen idols. The complex contains several buildings from different periods. The cruciform church, with porticos to north and south, dates from the mid-6th century. By the end of the century it was adjudged to be too small and so a new church (also cruciform, but much larger) was built on the site of the cross itself. The third important monument of Mtskheta is Samtavro (the Place of the Ruler) in the northern part of the town, where legend has it that St Nino lived. A small domed church was built in the 4th century and survives in a much-restored condition. The main church of Samtavro, built in the early 11th century, is cruciform and domed. The graves of Mirian, the Georgian king who adopted Christianity, and his wife are in the north-west comer of the church. In addition to these two churches, there is also a 16th-century two-storey bell tower and a number of monastic structures at Samtavro.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic churches of Mtskheta, former capital of Georgia, are outstanding examples of medieval religious architecture in the Caucasus. They show the high artistic and cultural level attained by this ancient kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historical Monuments of Mtskheta</site><states>Georgia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2251</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/168</http_url><id_number>168</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_168.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.3166666700</latitude><location>State of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz)</location><longitude>8.4430555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Speyer Cathedral exerted a considerable influence not only on the development of Romanesque architecture in the 11th and 12th centuries, but also on the evolution of the principles of restoration in Germany, in Europe, and in the world from the 18th century to the present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral, along with those of Worms and Mainz, is a major monument of Romanesque art. It is, by virtue of its proportions, the largest, and, by virtue of the history to which it is linked (the Salic emperors made it their place of burial), the most important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral, dedicated to St Mary and St Stephen, was founded by Conrad II and was built essentially between 1030 and 1106. It incorporates the general layout of St Michael of Hildesheim and brings to perfection a type of plan that was adopted generally in the Rhineland. This plan is characterized by the equilibrium of the eastern and western blocks and by the symmetrical and singular placement of the towers which frame the mass formed by the nave and the transept. Under Henry IV renovations and extensions were undertaken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Speyer Cathedral is the first known structure to be built with a gallery that encircles the whole building. The system of arcades added during these renovations was also a first in architectural history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1689 the cathedral was seriously damaged by fire. Following this disaster, the architect I.&amp;nbsp;M. Neumann attempted its reconstruction in the Romanesque style, in the 18th century, although not without inventing a Baroque Westwerk (1772-78). The Bavarian King Ludwig I commissioned the painting of the interior. From 1846 to 1853 painters of the school of Johannes Schraudolph and Josef Schwarzmann completed the work in late Nazarene style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This addition was replaced in 1854-58 by a western block, a pastiche of the Romanesque style in keeping with current ideas. During the same period, the entire interior was enhanced by heavy neo-Romanesque decorative paintings and large historical panels, attributed to Schraudolph and his atelier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Starting in 1957, the removal of the paintings and the layers of painted plaster was undertaken in order to restore the 11th-century form of the cathedral. The crypt is of special interest as it has retained its original condition to the present day. It houses the graves of no less than eight medieval German emperors and kings, buried there between 1039 and 1309. It also includes the grave of Emperor Konrad II, who had to be buried elsewhere for the first two years after he died because the crypt was not yet finished at the time of his death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A huge stone font, with a capacity of 1,560 litres, stands on the square in front of the main portal of the cathedral. This font once symbolized the borderline between the diocese and the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Speyer Cathedral is one of the most important Romanesque monuments from the time of the Holy Roman Empire and the imposing triple-aisled vaulted basilica is the culmination of a design that was to be very influential in the subsequent development of Romanesque architecture during the 11th and 12th centuries.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Speyer Cathedral, a basilica with four towers and two domes, was founded by Conrad II in 1030 and remodelled at the end of the 11th century. It is one of the most important Romanesque monuments from the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The cathedral was the burial place of the German emperors for almost 300 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Speyer Cathedral</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>186</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/288</http_url><id_number>288</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_288.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.8250277800</latitude><location>State of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen)</location><longitude>6.9097777780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Augustusburg and Falkenlust present the first important creations of the Rococo style in Germany. For more than a century, they served as models for most of the princely courts. Like the Residence of W&amp;uuml;rzburg, the castles and gardens are outstanding examples of the large princely residence of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Set in an idyllic garden landscape, Augustusburg Castle, the sumptuous residence of the prince-archbishops of Cologne, and the Falkenlust hunting lodge, a small rural folly, are among the earliest examples of Rococo architecture in 18th-century Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A Rococo masterpiece, the castle of Augustusburg is directly linked to the great European architecture of the first half of the 18th century. In 1715, Josef-Clemens of Bavaria, Prince-Elector of Cologne, planned to construct a large residence at Br&amp;uuml;hl, on the foundations of a medieval castle. He consulted a French architect, Robert de Cotte, who sent the plans. However, this project was not immediately followed up and Prince-Elector Clemens-August, who was less francophile than his father, rejected de Cotte's proposals and in 1725 called on a Westphalian architect, Johann Conrad Schlaun, to build the castle that was to carry his name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Schlaun's tenure lasted three years. Before his departure in 1728, he constructed, with less creative genius than economic sense, a building of three wings that incorporated the medieval ruins and the north tower of the earlier castle. Under the impulse of the architect who followed Schlaun, French influence manifested itself again. However, Fran&amp;ccedil;ois de Cuvillies, who had been lent by the Elector of Bavaria to his relative, represented tendencies distinct from the classicism of de Cotte. An architect at the court of Munich since 1724, he above all valued a type of ornament which was based on a system of asymmetry and invention, in imitation of Meissonier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;His Baroque tendencies, brought to life by the Rococo style of the years of the Regency, found fertile ground in the German Empire, where Rococo reigned at Vienna as at Munich, integrating in the same workshop Austrian, Bavarian, Italian, and French artists. The castle of Augustusburg, a bold and successful revamping of the lacklustre construction of Schlaun, and the hunting lodge of Falkenlust, a dazzling creation, ex nihilo, are among the best examples of this international art of unprecedented richness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At Augustusburg, around a piece of creative genius, the staircase of Balthasar Neumann, which is a rapturous structure that unites a lively movement of marble and stucco, jasper columns, and caryatids, culminating in the astonishing frescoed ceiling of Carlo Carlone, in the central block, the wings of the parade and the private apartments are organized in a hierarchy of effects of outstanding conception. The &lt;em&gt;bon enfant&lt;/em&gt; decor of the new grand summer apartments with its faience tiles from the Low Countries is in striking opposition to the 'official' programme.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Falkenlust is a country house with symmetrical avant-corps. On the ground floor, an oval salon is conceived in the same language, full of improvization, charm, and liberty. In the chapel, the Bordelais Laporterie created an astonishing marine grotto by facing the walls with shells and concretions. The large gardens, laid out in a single campaign, both oppose and complement each other. At Augustusburg, Dominique Girard, a pupil of Le N&amp;ocirc;tre, proved to be more sensitive to decorum, multiplying monumental ramps and symmetrical flower beds, like those of the gardens of Nymphenburg, Schleissheim, and the Belvedere of Vienna, of which he was also the designer. At Falkenlust the landscaping, although highly concerted, nonetheless endeavours to create the randomness of a natural site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Set in an idyllic garden landscape, Augustusburg Castle (the sumptuous residence of the prince-archbishops of Cologne) and the Falkenlust hunting lodge (a small rural folly) are among the earliest examples of Rococo architecture in 18th-century Germany.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Castles of Augustusburg and Falkenlust at Brühl</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>322</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/367</http_url><id_number>367</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_367.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.7500000000</latitude><location>State of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz)</location><longitude>6.6333333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Trier is an example of a large Roman capital after the division of the empire. The remains of the Imperial Palace, in addition to the Aula Palatina and the Imperial Thermae, are impressive in their dimensions. The city bears exceptional testimony to Roman civilization owing to the density and the quality of the monuments preserved: the bridge, the remains of the fortified wall, thermae, amphitheatre, storehouses, etc. In particular, funerary art and the craftsmanship of potters, glassworkers, and moneyers flourished in the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sometimes referred to as the 'second Rome', Trier had no claim to this title until the division of the empire by Diocletian in 286 and the institution of the Tetrarchy seven years later. However, even before this era, the Roman city was flourishing. The original centre of the colonial town, the regular insulae, for the most part built during the reign of Claudius (41-54), had extended so much by the mid-2nd century that a wall was built, enclosing the industrial quarters and the nearest &lt;em&gt;thermae&lt;/em&gt; (baths) to the south, the amphitheatre, which extended beyond the decumanus maximus to the east, and, most likely, a hippodrome. At the same time, a sandstone and basalt bridge was built over the Moselle, extending westward from the decumanus, which replaced an earlier construction, the foundations of which have been found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was between 258 and 268, when Postumus took up residence there in order to foil the threats of the Franks and the Alemans on the &lt;em&gt;limes&lt;/em&gt; (frontier) that Trier became a capital for the first time. When Constantius Chlorus, the ruler of Brittany and Gaul since the division of 293, moved there, it gave more permanence to this choice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reconstruction of the city, the name of which was changed to Treveris, was then undertaken on a large scale by Constantine the Great after 306. The restored amphitheatre and thermae, the Circus maximus, and what remains of an immense imperial palace, construction of which required the destruction of several &lt;em&gt;insulae&lt;/em&gt;, reflect a deliberate political choice that grew out of the new balance established by the Tetrarchy. Trier is directly and tangibly associated with one of the major events of human history, Constantine's march against Maxentius in 312, which was a prelude to the Edict of Milan (313) and which signalled the recognition of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was in Trier that in 326 Constantine founded the twin basilicas to commemorate his twenty years of power; they live on in the form of the Cathedral and the Church of Our Lady. After the death of the great emperor in 337, Trier was the place of residence of his son, Constantine II, and afterward of Valentinian and Gratian. As well as being the capital of the Empire, Trier was additionally the location of the Prefecture of Gaul, an immense administrative district which stretched from the &lt;em&gt;limes germanicus&lt;/em&gt; to the Atlantic and from Hadrian's Wall to Tingitana in Mauritania.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of Constantine the Great, the primordial role of Trier in the spread of Christianity became manifest. The invasions of the Goths ushered in the decline of Trier. The imperial capital was then moved to Milan, which was the capital of the Gallic Prefecture of Arles. However, the evolution of Trier has been marked by historical continuity. The layout of the city still corresponds to its 2nd-century configuration, with the major thoroughfares of the &lt;em&gt;cardo&lt;/em&gt; (Simeonstrasse) and the &lt;em&gt;decumanus&lt;/em&gt; (bridge). For a long time, the major monuments were used in their original capacity: for example, the Aula Palatina ,where Constantine gave audiences, became the palatium of the Frankish counts before falling around 1200 into the hands of the Bishops of Trier who, also Prince-Electors, made this great hall a part of their palace between 1615 and 1647. The surviving Roman gate, known as the Porta Nigra, has undergone several changes of use&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Others changed in terms of form but not in terms of use, such as Constantine's two basilicas, which were almost completely reconstructed between the 11th and 13th centuries and which fossilize, as it were, the primitive religious centre whose location has endured.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Trier, which stands on the Moselle River, was a Roman colony from the 1st century AD and then a great trading centre beginning in the next century. It became one of the capitals of the Tetrarchy at the end of the 3rd century, when it was known as the &amp;lsquo;second Rome&amp;rsquo;. The number and quality of the surviving monuments are an outstanding testimony to Roman civilization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Roman Monuments, Cathedral of St Peter and Church of Our Lady in Trier</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>420</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sacrow estate includes the 18th century seigneurial residence (converted from a 14th century castle), the Church of St Saviour, built to the designs of the architect Ludwig Persius in 1841-44, and the park, created for Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia by Persius and the gardener Peter Joseph Lenne. This was integrated into the overall landscape of chateaux and gardens of Potsdam and Babelsberg, most of which survives relatively intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The estate stood until recently on the boundary between the former German Democratic Republic and the territory of West Berlin and was in consequence seriously neglected. Access to the church was prohibited and the building was abandoned. It was only following the intervention of the West Berlin authorities, strongly supported by the press, who demanded that restoration work be carried out and supplied the necessary funding, that work began to put at least the roof of the church into repair in 1981-82. Work is continuing in the interior of the church, the chateau and the gardens, under the management of the Berlin- Potsdam chateaux and parks administration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/532</http_url><id_number>532</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_532.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.4000000000</latitude><location>States of Brandenburg and Berlin</location><longitude>13.0333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of the chateaux and parks of Potsdam is an exceptional artistic achievement whose eclectic and evolutionary features reinforce its uniqueness: from Knobelsdorff to Schinkel and from Eyserbeck to Lenn&amp;eacute;, a series of architectural and landscaping masterpieces were built within a single space, illustrating opposing and reputedly irreconcilable styles without detracting from the harmony of a general composition, designed progressively over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Potsdam, mentioned first in the 10th century, acquired some importance when the Great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William (1620-88) established his residence there. Potsdam housed a small garrison from 1640 onwards; the site's military function was strengthened by the young Prussian monarchy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under Frederick II the Great (1712-86) Potsdam was radically changed. The new king wished to establish next to the garrison town and settlement colony of the 'Sergeant King' a 'Prussian Versailles', which was to be his main residence. In 1744 Frederick II ordered a vineyard to be planted on six terraces on the southern side of a hill, Bald Mountain. Sanssouci, a name which reflects the king's desire for intimacy and simplicity, translates the theme of a rustic villa into the marble, mirrors and gold of a Rococo-style palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Postdam-Sanssouci is the crystallization of a great number of influences from Italy, England, Flanders, Paris and Dresden. A synthesis of art trends in European cities and courts in the 18th century, the castle and the park offer new models that greatly influenced the development of the monumental arts and the organization of space east of the Oder. The one-storey palace included a rotunda with a projected axis and, on either side, a suite of five rooms. The east suite was the royal apartment; the west suite, guest rooms. The architect Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff, for whom the king was both friend and patron, owed to Frederick II his training in Rome, Venice, Florence, Dresden and Paris. The iconographic programme evokes a winegrower's house; the southern facade was punctuated with 36 bacchantes by the sculptor Christian Glume. They are arranged as caryatids which support the cornice under the roofs of the wings and the cupola of the axial rotunda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 290&amp;nbsp;ha park was laid out around several buildings. Symmetrically flanking the castle to the east and west there were, first, the picture gallery and the old orangery, which was redesigned as a guest house in 1771-74. During this first stage a number of constructions were built, the most remarkable of which are Neptune Grotto, the last work by Knobelsdorff, which was begun during his lifetime but completed after his death, and the Chinese Tea House, built under the supervision of the architect Bering.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Seven Years War (1756-63) Frederick the Great ordered the construction of the New Palace, a huge Rococo-style construction with over 200 rooms, including the famous Shell Room. Other buildings were constructed in the park, including the Antique Temple, the Friendship Temple, Belvedere and the Dragon Pavilion. Frederick William IV (1795-1861) devoted himself to enlarging the park of Sanssouci; as Crown Prince he bought a domain to the south. He commissioned Karl-Friedrich Schinkel to build the small neoclassical Chateau of Charlottenhof and Peter Josef Lenn&amp;eacute; to design a romantic park. Lenn&amp;eacute; also designed the Sicilian Garden and the Nordic Garden, north of the Hauptallee. New constructions continued to be built until 1860. The orangery transposes the elevation of the Villa Medicis in Rome and the Friedenskirche that of the San Clemente Basilica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site covers two other ensembles that include parks, chateaux and buildings, in the middle of which stands the Marble Palace, the king's summer residence built by C. von Gontard and fitted out by K.&amp;nbsp;G. Langhaus. At the northern end of the park, the Chateau of Cecilienhof, a pastiche of an English cottage, was chosen in August 1945 as the site of the signing of the Potsdam Agreements.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1992, 1999</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;With 500 ha of parks and 150 buildings constructed between 1730 and 1916, Potsdam's complex of palaces and parks forms an artistic whole, whose eclectic nature reinforces its sense of uniqueness. It extends into the district of Berlin-Zehlendorf, with the palaces and parks lining the banks of the River Havel and Lake Glienicke. Voltaire stayed at the Sans-Souci Palace, built under Frederick II between 1745 and 1747.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>624</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The region between Dessau and Wörlitz has been settled since prehistory. Dessau later became one of the earliest centres of the Lutheran Reformation. A dynastic marriage in 1658 brought Anhalt-Dessau into close cultural and commercial contact with the Netherlands, and dikes were constructed along the Elbe by Dutch engineers, to reduce the periodic flooding. Tobacco growing and glass making became established in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first essays in landscape design began with the foundation of Oranienbaum, with its unified layout of town, palace, and park from 1683 onwards. The resulting complete Baroque ensemble, with obvious Dutch connections deriving from its designer, Cornelis Ryckwaert, has survived to the present day. Further developments on these lines took place around 1700 with the reclamation of marshy areas along the Elbe and the creation of planned villages and farmsteads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of Prince Leopold III Friedrich Franz of Anhalt-Dessau (1740-1817), an extensive landscape design project was begun around 1765 over the entire principality. The ruler had paid several visits to England, the Netherlands, and Italy, and his ambitious programme was launched in close collaboration with the architect and art theorist Friedrich Wilhelm von Erdmannsdorff (1736-1800). Landscape design, public education, and encouragement of the arts were closely integrated in this scheme.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wörlitz became the point of departure for wide-ranging improvements based on English landscape gardens and Neo- Classical architecture. Over the four decades starting in 1764, 112.5ha of landscape garden, the first in continental Europe, were laid out. It was a unified scheme of buildings, gardens, and works of art, with a pervasive educational theme (influenced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Bernhard Basedow) and model working practices. It became the outward expression of the Enlightenment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Schloss Wörlitz was built in 1769-73 and was open to visitors from the outset; it was the first Neo-Classical building in Germany, two generations before Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The Gothic House (1774) established a vogue for Gothic Revival buildings all across Europe. The influence of the Wörlitz buildings can be detected in the architecture and landscape design of, for example, Weimar, Berlin, Potsdam, Braunschweig, Gotha, and elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A number of other landscape projects in the principality date from this period. One of the most innovatory was the Chinese garden at Oranienbaum (1790), based on the theories of the English architect Sir William Chambers. A dense network of sightlines and avenues progressively connected the various gardens and their buildings. At the same time the agricultural use of the countryside was integrated with the gardens, drawing the aesthetic, educational, and economic aspects of the entire landscape into a coherent whole. The roads and dikes that were essential for infrastructural development were planted with avenues of fruit trees, giving them an ornamental aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the time Prince Franz died in 1817 virtually the entire principality had become a unified garden. His successors maintained this quality intact throughout the 19th century. When the system of local roads was upgraded in the second half of the century, no new routes were cut through the Garden Kingdom, and the characteristic avenues of fruit trees were maintained when widening took place. Despite industrialization and the consequent expansion of Dessau since 1900, the characteristic features of the landscape have been preserved. Regrettably, however, the construction of the Autobahn in 1937-38 and the railway to serve the coal-fired power station at Vockerode in 1937-42 divided the Garden Kingdom into four parts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dessau suffered during World War II, but the Garden Kingdom escaped relatively unscathed. Subsequently, there has been some degradation of the agricultural landscape from the removal of field boundaries and the construction of large buildings for livestock. However, closure of the power station and the 1970s glasshouse complex at Vockerode in 1994-95 has resulted in a process of ecological stabilization, which has been favourable for the Garden Kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/534</http_url><id_number>534</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_534.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Garden Kingdom of Dessau-Wörlitz is an outstanding example of the application of the philosophical principles of the Age of the Enlightenment to the design of a landscape that integrates art, education, and economy in a harmonious whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The 18th century was a seminal period for landscape design, of which the Garden Kingdom of Dessau-Wörlitz is an exceptional and wide-ranging illustration.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.8425000000</latitude><location>State of Saxony-Anhalt (Sachsen-Anhalt)</location><longitude>12.4208300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Garden Kingdom of Dessau-Wörlitz is an outstanding example of the application of the philosophical principles of the Age of the Enlightenment to the design of a landscape that integrates art, education and economy in a harmonious whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first essays in landscape design began with the foundation of Oranienbaum, with its unified layout of town, palace, and park from 1683 onwards. The resulting complete Baroque ensemble, with obvious Dutch connections deriving from its designer, Cornelis Ryckwaert, has survived to the present day. Further developments on these lines took place around 1700 with the reclamation of marshy areas along the Elbe and the creation of planned villages and farmsteads. During the reign of Prince Leopold III Friedrich Franz of Anhalt-Dessau (1740-1817), an extensive landscape design project was begun around 1765 over the entire principality. This ambitious programme was launched in close collaboration with the architect and art theorist Friedrich Wilhelm von Erdmannsdorff (1736-1800). Landscape design, public education, and encouragement of the arts were closely integrated in this scheme. Wörlitz became the point of departure for wide-ranging improvements based on English landscape gardens and neoclassical architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This unified scheme of buildings, gardens, and works of art, with a pervasive educational theme became the outward expression of the Enlightenment. Schloss Wörlitz was built in 1769-73 and it was the first neoclassical building in Germany. The Gothic House (1774) established a vogue for Gothic Revival buildings all across Europe. A number of other landscape projects in the principality date from this period. One of the most innovatory was the Chinese garden at Oranienbaum (1790), based on the theories of the English architect Sir William Chambers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The roads and dykes that were essential for infrastructural development were planted with avenues of fruit trees, giving them an ornamental aspect. By the time Prince Franz died in 1817 virtually the entire principality had become a unified garden. Despite industrialization and the consequent expansion of Dessau since 1900, the characteristic features of the landscape have been preserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Garden Kingdom lies in the meadow landscape of the rivers Elbe and Mulde, the floodplains of which reach in places to the parklands. The core of the Garden Kingdom is the historic gardens, with their buildings and sculpture. In addition to the historic garden enclosures, neoclassical and neo-Gothic structures such as dyke watchtowers, hostelries, statues and bridges are to be found widely distributed, acting as key features of the landscape. The agricultural areas, such as fields, meadows, and orchards, have been improved by ornamental tree plantings, so as to enhance the aesthetic appearance of the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The western group consists of the Kühnauer Park, the Georgium, and the Beckerbruch. The Kühnauer Park, on the southern shore of the Kühnauersee, is a narrow elongated garden laid out in 1805 with views over the lake and its islands. Its orchards and vineyard have been partially restored. The main viewpoint is the Vineyard House, an Italianate classical building of 1818-20. Other buildings are the neoclassical Schloss Kühnau (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1780) and the Romano-Byzantine Church (1828-30). The Georgium or Georgengarten is a small neoclassical country house surrounded by a garden of 21.3 ha in the English style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The garden contains a number of buildings and monuments, including the Roman Ruin and an open rotunda temple. The adjacent area of the Beckenbruch was left relatively untouched as a landscape of marsh and meadows, with a few statues and small structures inserted into it. It is designed so as to merge gradually into the Georgengarten. The central group is made up of the Luisium, the Sieglitzer Berg, the Tiergarten (part), and the villages of Mildensee and Waldersee. A wetland to the north-east of Dessau forms part of this group. The area of meadows in the bend of the Mulde was originally part of the system of dykes surrounding Dessau, laid out as garden scenery; it is now the Schillerpark.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Garden Kingdom of Dessau-Wörlitz is an exceptional example of landscape design and planning of the Age of the Enlightenment, the 18th century. Its diverse components - outstanding buildings, landscaped parks and gardens in the English style, and subtly modified expanses of agricultural land - serve aesthetic, educational, and economic purposes in an exemplary manner.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Garden Kingdom of Dessau-Wörlitz</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>627</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in a hilly region to the north of the Harz Mountains, the villa Quitilingaburg is first mentioned in 922 in an official document of Henry I (the Fowler), who was elected German King in 919. He built a castle on what became known as the Castle Hill (Burgberg), one of the two sandstone hills that overlook the Harz valley, and this became one of his favourite residences. It became the capital of the East Franconian German Empire and was the place where many important political and religious assemblies and festivals took place. The town owes its wealth and importance during the Middle Ages to Henry I and his successors. German Kings are known to have stayed at Quedlinburg on 69 occasions between 922 and 1207.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the death of Henry I in 936 his widow Mathilde remained in Quedlinburg at the collegiate church of St Servatius on the Castle Hill, founded by Henry's son and successor Otto I as a collegial establishment for unmarried daughters of the nobility. It was to become one of the most influential foundations of its type in the Holy Roman Empire. From 944 the abbesses (many of whom were members of the Imperial family and were buried in the crypt of the church) had the right to mint coins at Quedlinburg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Westendorf, the area around the Burgberg, quickly attracted a settlement of merchants and craftsmen, which was granted market rights in 994, and these were confirmed in 1040 and again in 1134. Several other settlements also developed in what was to become the early town centre, which was granted special privileges by the Emperors Henry Ill and Lothar IV in the 11th and 12th centuries. A Benedictine monastery was founded in 946 on the second hill, the Mtinzenberg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Quedlinburg merchants were given the right to trade without restriction or payment of duties from the North Sea to the Alps, being subject only to their own law-courts. The resulting prosperity led to a rapid expansion of the town. A new town (Neustadt) was founded in the 12th century on the eastern bank of the river Bode, laid out on a regular plan - a familiar pattern in medieval European towns. The two towns were merged in 1330 and were surrounded by a common city wall. Suburbs such as "Am neuen Weg" and "In den Gropem" quickly grew up outside the city walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new, enlarged town joined the Lower Saxon Town Alliance (Stiidtebund) in 1384. and in 1426 it became a member of the Hanseatic League. It seemed destined to play a major role in 15th century Germany, but it joined the losing side in one of the many political and economic conflicts that characterized this period and as a result it lost its franchises and communal privileges in 1477. However, despite this setback Quedlinburg retained an important economic role, as evidenced by the many elaborate timber-framed houses from the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The protectorate (Vogtei) of the town was sold by its hereditary owner, the Elector of Saxony, to the house of Brandenburg-Prussia in 1698, and in 1802 its special free status as an Imperial foundation came to an end when it was formally incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia. During the 19th and 20th centuries it developed steadily, with the addition of new residential and industrial areas and important administrative buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/535</http_url><id_number>535</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_535.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.7833300000</latitude><location>State of Saxony-Anhalt (Sachsen-Anhalt)</location><longitude>11.1500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The importance of Quedlinburg rests on three main elements: the preservation of the medieval street pattern; the wealth of urban vernacular buildings, especially timber-framed houses of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the important Romanesque collegiate church of St Servatius. The original urban layout is remarkably well preserved: it is a classic example of the growth of European medieval towns. The history of the medieval and early modern town is perfectly illustrated by the street pattern of the present-day town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated in a hilly region to the north of the Harz Mountains, villa Quitilingaburg is first mentioned in 922 in an official document of Henry I (the Fowler), who was elected German King in 919. The town owes its wealth and importance during the Middle Ages to Henry I and his successors. On the death of Henry I in 936 his widow Mathilde remained in Quedlinburg at the collegiate church of St Servatius on the Castle Hill, founded by Henry's son and successor Otto I as a collegial establishment for unmarried daughters of the nobility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Westendorf, the area around the Burgberg, quickly attracted a settlement of merchants and craftsmen, which was granted market rights in 994. Several other settlements also developed in what was to become the early town centre, which was granted special privileges by the Emperors Henry III and Lothar IV in the 11th and 12th centuries. A Benedictine monastery was founded in 946 on the second hill, the Münzenberg. The Quedlinburg merchants were given the right to trade without restriction or payment of duties from the North Sea to the Alps. The resulting prosperity led to a rapid expansion of the town. A new town (Neustadt) was founded in the 12th century on the eastern bank of the river Bode, laid out on a regular plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two towns were merged in 1330 and were surrounded by a common city wall. The new, enlarged town joined the Lower Saxon Town Alliance (Städtebund) in 1384, and in 1426 it became a member of the Hanseatic League. Quedlinburg retained an important economic role, as evidenced by the many elaborate timber-framed houses from the 16th and 17th centuries. The protectorate (Vogtei) of the town was sold by its hereditary owner, the Elector of Saxony, to the House of Brandenburg-Prussia in 1698, and in 1802 its special free status as an imperial foundation came to an end when it was formally incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area comprises the historic town enclosed within the city walls, consisting of the old (10th century) and new (12th century) towns, the Westendorf district with the collegiate church and the buildings of the imperial foundation, St Wipert's Church, and the Münzenberg. The nucleus of the town is the castle hill, with its administrative and religious buildings, around which settlements of craftsmen and traders quickly grew up to service the requirements of the rulers and their households. As was so often the case in central Europe, an independent mercantile settlement with civic rights was founded on the opposite side of the river, which was to be merged after a short time with the original town to create a new administrative unit whose integrity was demonstrated with the construction of an encircling town wall. To this in turn were accreted new extra-mural suburbs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original collegiate church of St Servatius was built when Henry the Fowler established his residence on the castle hill. The first basilica, in the crypt of which Henry and his wife Mathilde were buried, was destroyed by a disastrous fire in 1070. The crypt was incorporated into the new structure, also basilican in plan, that was constructed between 1070 and 1129. The two western bays of the three-aisled crypt survive, with their remarkable Ottonian 'mushroom' capitals. The groined vaulting of the new, raised crypt, stucco capitals, imperial and other tombs, and wall paintings make this one of the key monuments of the history of art from the 10th to the 12th centuries. The twin-towered western facade was added at the time of the reconstruction. Much of the decoration is in northern Italian style, emphasizing the imperial connections of the church.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Quedlinburg, in the &lt;em&gt;Land&lt;/em&gt; of Sachsen-Anhalt, was a capital of the East Franconian German Empire at the time of the Saxonian-Ottonian ruling dynasty. It has been a prosperous trading town since the Middle Ages. The number and high quality of the timber-framed buildings make Quedlinburg an exceptional example of a medieval European town. The Collegiate Church of St Servatius is one of the masterpieces of Romanesque architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Collegiate Church, Castle and Old Town of Quedlinburg</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>629</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/546</http_url><id_number>546</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_546.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.0008300000</latitude><location>District of Enz, State of Baden-Württemberg</location><longitude>8.8130600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cistercian Maulbronn Monastery is considered the most complete and best preserved medieval monastic complex north of the Alps. The monastery's church, mainly in Transitional Gothic style, had a major influence on the spread of Gothic architecture over much of northern and central Europe. The water-management system at Maulbronn, with its elaborate network of drains, irrigation canals, and reservoirs, is of exceptional interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After their lack of success in building a new monastery at Eckenweiher, land in the Salzach valley belonging to the Bishop of Speyer was donated to a small community of twelve monks led by Abbot Dieter from the Cistercian abbey of Neubourg (Alsace). Here in 1147 they began building their monastery of Maulbronn, under the protection of the Holy See. Nine years later it was taken under the direct protection of the Holy Roman Empire by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The church was completed in 1178 and consecrated by Arnold, Bishop of Speyer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over the next century the temporary wooden buildings of the community were progressively rebuilt in stone. The Reformation was a time of great turmoil, not least for the Monastery of Maulbronn. It was seized in 1504 by Ulrich, Duke of W&amp;uuml;rttemberg, who reformed and secularized it 30 years later, after it had twice been plundered during periods of unrest. The Emperor Charles V returned it to the Cistercians in 1547, only for it to be reformed again in 1556 by Christoph, Duke of W&amp;uuml;rttemberg, who established a Protestant monastery school there and allowed private owners to acquire some of the buildings. During the Thirty Years' War it was once again handed back to the Cistercians by the Emperor Maximilian in 1630, but they were to stay only three years, and it finally became a Protestant establishment with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.The entire church property was secularized by King Friedrich I of W&amp;uuml;rttemberg in 1806 and in the following year it became a Protestant theological seminary, which it has remained to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architectural ensemble reflects developments within the Cistercian 0rder in the 12th-16th centuries, and the effect of secularization and conversion to Protestant use. It is clearly defined and separated from the town by its fortifications and its location on the outskirts of the town. The church is typical of first-generation Cistercian architecture: a two-storey Romanesque nave and a low chevet leading to a transept with three rectangular chapels opening off each arm. A stone screen separated the monks from the lay brethren. The Gothic vaulting of 1424 that replaced the original wooden beams modified the rigorous spatial divisions practised during the lifetime of St Bernard of Clairvaux, incorporating the Romanesque traditions of the Hirsau region into the Cistercian requirements of austerity and renunciation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortifications consist of a wall and an inner wall, with a ward between the two. They attained their present form between the 13th and 15th centuries. The outbuildings of the former monastery comprise both stone and timber-framed buildings; the latter are mostly from the 16th-18th centuries, although often incorporating substantial remains of the medieval buildings that they replaced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basic medieval layout and structure of the central complex, which is typical of the Cistercian tradition, is virtually complete. The 13th-century buildings, in the transitional style of the Master of the Paradise, provided a decisive stimulus for the development of Gothic architecture in Germany. Only the monks' refectory and the lay brethren's dormitories have undergone transformations since the Reformation, in order to adapt them for use as a Protestant seminary. There are several post-monastic buildings within the nominated area, mostly in plastered stone. They include the former hunting lodge of Ludwig, Duke of W&amp;uuml;rttemberg, and the ducal stables, which have Renaissance elements in their design and decoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cistercian Order was notable for its innovations in the field of hydraulic engineering, and this is admirably illustrated in the Maulbronn monastery complex. There is an elaborate system of reservoirs, irrigation canals, and drains, used to provide water for the use of the community, for fish farming, and for irrigating its extensive agricultural holdings. It was only after the secularization of the monastery's land-holdings in the 19th century that this was significantly changed, with the drainage of several of the reservoirs, and also the expansion of the town of Maulbronn.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1147, the Cistercian Maulbronn Monastery is considered the most complete and best-preserved medieval monastic complex north of the Alps. Surrounded by fortified walls, the main buildings were constructed between the 12th and 16th centuries. The monastery's church, mainly in Transitional Gothic style, had a major influence in the spread of Gothic architecture over much of northern and central Europe. The water-management system at Maulbronn, with its elaborate network of drains, irrigation canals and reservoirs, is of exceptional interest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Maulbronn Monastery Complex</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>642</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/624</http_url><id_number>624</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_624.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.8916666700</latitude><location>District of Upper Franconia</location><longitude>10.8888888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The layout and architecture of medieval and Baroque Bamberg exerted a strong influence on urban form and evolution in the lands of central Europe from the 11th century onwards. Bamberg is an outstanding and representative example of an early medieval town in central Europe, both in its plan and in its many surviving ecclesiastical and secular buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Counts of Babenberg had a castle on the hill around which Bamberg developed as early as the late Carolingian period. This became royal property in 906, and then passed to the Dukes of Bavaria. When Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, became King of Germany in 1007 he made Bamberg the seat of a bishopric, intended to become a 'second Rome'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It played a significant role as a link with the Slav peoples of Eastern Europe, especially in modern Poland and Pomerania. The town was laid out according to medieval planning rules as a cross, with the churches of St Michael, St Stephen, St Gangolf, and St Jacob at the four cardinal points. With the advent of Bishop Otto I it became the seat of a powerful Prince-Bishopric in the early 12th century. This marked the beginning of a period of great prosperity, as demonstrated by the lavish restoration of the cathedral in the early 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This prosperity continued into the later Middle Ages, being helped by the fact that it was the starting point for shipping on the Main, as well as a renowned cultural centre. The late 17th and early 18th centuries saw a remarkable cultural flowering, represented by artists such as Dientzenhofer and Balthasar Neumann. This cultural role became even more important in the late 18th century, when Bamberg was the centre of the Enlightenment for Southern Germany under Prince-Bishop Franz-Ludwig von Erthal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This intellectual supremacy continued after Bamberg was ceded to the Elector of Bavaria in 1803, through such eminent writers as Hegel and Hoffmann. Bamberg was not affected to any great extent by 19th-century industrialization: Its economic basis continued to be trade, particularly in hops. It will be remembered as the birthplace of the first democratic constitution for Germany after the First World War.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site covers the three centres of settlement that coalesced when the town was founded. These are the Bergstadt, with the cathedral and its precincts, the former Prince-Bishop's Residence, and the burgher area with the Parish Church of Our Lady and the former vintners' settlement; the Inselstadt, defined by the two-arms of the Regnitz River, which was founded in the 12th century with a market and pre-urban settlement; and the Theuerstadt, a late medieval area of market gardens with scattered houses and large open spaces, which has retained this character to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bamberg is a good example of a Central European town with a basically early medieval plan and many surviving buildings. Of particular interest is the way in which the present town illustrates the link between agriculture (vineyards, hop gardens, market gardens) and the urban distribution centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town had early cultural links with Eastern Europe. Its architecture had strong influences on north Germany and Hungary in the Gothic period, whereas its Baroque element is intimately linked with developments in Bohemia. The street layouts of the three historic core areas retain their medieval features.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 10th century onwards, this town became an important link with the Slav peoples, especially those of Poland and Pomerania. During its period of greatest prosperity, from the 12th century onwards, the architecture of Bamberg strongly influenced northern Germany and Hungary. In the late 18th century it was the centre of the Enlightenment in southern Germany, with eminent philosophers and writers such as Hegel and Hoffmann living there.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Town of Bamberg</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>742</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first works was established on the site by the Cologne engineer Julius Buch in 1873 to produce girder iron and railway sleepers by the puddling process from Luxembourg ore. It ceased operations in 1879 and was acquired by Kart Rochling two years later. The first blast-furnace (now No 3) was built in 1882/3, and four more furnaces were added between 1885 and 1893. A coking plant was added in 1897, and three years later the first gas-blowing engines were introduced. Volklingen was the first ironworks in the world to use furnace gas on a large scale to drive enormous blowers providing blast to the furnaces. The initial pair of engines was eventually increased to nine. By the end of the century Volklingen had become one of the most productive works in Europe and Germany's largest producer of steel beams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A sixth blast-furnace was built in 1903, and in 1911 the new charging platform was constructed, supplied by an electrically driven suspended conveyor system for coke and ore; this was the largest system of its kind when it was built. Volklingen was the first ironworks in the world to take dry gas purification technology beyond the experimental stage, installing the plant in 1911. The final major addition to the Volldingen complex was the large ore-sintering plant; after experimenting with ladle-type sintering, the company installed a large belt-type system in 1928-30. This pioneering plant became a model for many other similar installations throughout the world. In 1935 the coking plant was rebuilt and enlarged. From the end of World War II until pig-iron production ceased in 1986 only minor modernization and maintenance took place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gas-blowing engine hall, with its unique battery of machines, the dry gas purification plant, the suspended conveyor system, and the sinter plant were all pioneering installations in their day. These processes influenced pig-iron production throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/687</http_url><id_number>687</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_687.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.2444400000</latitude><location>State of Saarland</location><longitude>6.8500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Although the V&amp;ouml;lklingen Ironworks went out of production comparatively recently, they are the only intact example, in the whole of western Europe and North America, of an integrated ironworks that was built and equipped in the 19th and 20th centuries and has remained intact. Historically this plant was a model for many other similar installations throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first works was established on the site by the Cologne engineer Julius Buch in 1873 to produce girder iron and railway sleepers by the puddling process from Luxembourg ore. It ceased operations in 1879 and was acquired by Karl R&amp;uuml;chling two years later. The first blast furnace (now No. 3) was built in 1882-83, and four more furnaces were added between 1885 and 1893. A coking plant was added in 1897, and three years later the first gas-blowing engines were introduced. V&amp;ouml;lklingen was the first ironworks in the world to use blast-furnace gas on a large scale to drive enormous blowers providing blast to the furnaces. The initial pair of engines was eventually increased to nine. By the end of the century V&amp;ouml;lklingen had become one of the most productive works in Europe and Germany's largest producer of steel beams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A sixth blast furnace was built in 1903, and in 1911 the new charging platform was constructed, supplied by an electrically driven suspended conveyor system for coke and ore; this was the largest system of its kind when it was built. V&amp;ouml;lklingen was the first ironworks in the world to take dry gas purification technology beyond the experimental stage, installing the plant in 1911. The final major addition to the V&amp;ouml;lklingen complex was the large ore-sintering plant; after experimenting with ladle-type sintering, the company installed a large belt-type system in 1928-30. This pioneering plant became a model for many other similar installations throughout the world. In 1935 the coking plant was rebuilt and enlarged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the end of the Second World War until pig-iron production ceased in 1986, only minor modernization and maintenance took place. The gas-blowing engine hall, with its unique battery of machines, the dry gas purification plant, the suspended conveyor system, and the sinter plant were all pioneering installations in their day. These processes influenced pig-iron production throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ironmaking complex, which covers some 6&amp;nbsp;ha, dominates the townscape of V&amp;ouml;lklingen. It contains installations covering every stage in the pig-iron production process, from raw materials handling and processing equipment for coal and iron ore through to blast-furnace iron production, with all the ancillary equipment such as gas purification and blowing equipment. The installations are exactly as they were when production ceased in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The overall appearance is that of an ironworks of the 193Os, as no new installations were added after the rebuilding of the coking plant. There is considerable evidence of the history of the works in the form of individual items that have preserved substantial elements of their original form. Large sections of the frames and platforms of the blast furnaces, for example, have not altered since their installation at the turn of the century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much of the original coking plant survives, despite the 1935 reconstruction, notably the coal tower of 1898. Six of the gas blowing engines, built between 1905 and 1914, are preserved, as are the suspended conveyor system of 1911 and the dry gas purification plant of the same time. In addition, remains of Buch's puddled ironworks of 1873 are preserved in the power station below the blast furnaces.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ironworks, which cover some 6 ha, dominate the city of Völklingen. Although they have recently gone out of production, they are the only intact example, in the whole of western Europe and North America, of an integrated ironworks that was built and equipped in the 19th and 20th centuries and has remained intact.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Völklingen Ironworks</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>813</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 15tn and 16th centuries Eisleben owed its great prosperity to copper and Silver mining, and this drew Hans Luder, father of the Reformer, there in 1483, to settle in the Petriviertel district.  Martin Luther was born on 10 November 1483 at lodgings in a house in a street then known as Lange Gasse. The family moved in the following year to Mansfeld, some 10 km distant from Eisleben.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After studying philosophy at Erfurt University, Martin Luther joined the Augustinian Order in 1505. He stayed there until1510 when, following a visit to Rome, he transferred to the newly built Augustinian monastery at Wittenberg, where he also held the chair of Bible studies at the university. He lived in a cell in the southwestern part of the monastery, in a tower-like annex projecting over the town wall, and it was here that he began his study of the Epistles of St Paul in 1515. Two years later, on 31 October 1517, he launched the Reformation by nailing his 95 Propositions to the north door of the castle Church in Wittenberg. They were intended as an appeal to scholars to exchange opinions on the vexed question of indulgences, and resulted from his long study of human guilt, repentance, and possible absolution, which had been the subject of numerous sermons over the preceding two years from the pulpit of the Town Church, where he had been the preacher since 1514 (and where he was to remain in the same post for the rest of his life).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Luther developed his views on the authority of Holy scripture and the doctrine of salvation by faith in publications in the years that followed, actions which led to his being excommunicated and banished from the Empire by the Imperial Diet of worms in 1521. Frederick of Saxony extended his protection to Luther, whom he sheltered in his Castle of Wartburg, enabling him to begin his translation of the Bible into German. He returned to Wittenberg in March 1522, where his duties as preacher at the Town Church had been taken over by the radical reformer Andreas Bodenstein, known as Karlstadt. Karlstadt, unlike Luther, did not eschew violence and encouraged the disruption of church services. Luther's leading disciple, Philip Melanchthon, called the Reformer back to Wittenberg, where he restored the policy of non-violence in his famous invocative sermons. He followed these up with a long series of sermons devoted to his beliefs. A crucial event was the installation of Johannes Bugenhagen, one of Luther's supporters, as parish priest of Wittenberg in 1523, elected not by the Chapter of the All Saints' Foundation as was customary, but by the parish and the town council &amp;quot;according to St Paul's evangelical teaching.&amp;quot; Luther devoted himself to the replacement of the Latin Mass by a version in the vernacular, and his German Mass, first used in October 1525 in the Town Church, is still in use today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;1525 was also the year of another decisive gesture on Luther's part, when he broke finally with his monastic vows and married the former nun, Katharina von Bora. They continued to live in the monastery, which had been dissolved following an assembly of German Augustinians in 1522 who declared themselves in favour of the principles of Evangelical freedom. Luther's household became the centre for reformists from all over Europe, and the family room that he created on the first floor of the building (now known as Luther's Room) was the setting for his &amp;bull;table talks,&amp;quot; which were later to be published.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From this time onwards Luther devoted himself to the organization of the Evangelical parishes and their administration, taking the situation in Wittenberg as a model that has survived to the present day. Visitations were introduced to determine the size and number of parishes and their income. With the abolition of the consecration of priests, a method of examination and inauguration of clergymen was developed, the first ordinations being carried out by Luther in the Town Church in October 1535. He was also tireless in evolving the theology and liturgy for the new institution. The statutes of the Lutheran Church, the so-called Augsburg confession, were published in 1530, edited by Melanchthon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Luther returned to the town of his birth, Eisleben, on 28 January 1546 to assist in an arbitration, and he took lodgings in the house of his friend Dr Drachstedt. His health deteriorated alarmingly while he was there, but he remained active until the end: only three days before his death on 18 February he preached a sermon at St Andrew's Church and ordained two clergymen. After lying in state in the church throughout the following day, his body was conveyed in solemn procession via Halle to Wittenberg, where it was laid to rest on 22 February&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/783</http_url><id_number>783</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_783.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (iv) and (vi)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that it is of outstanding universal value bearing unique testimony to the Protestant Reformation, which was one of the most significant events in the religious and political history of the world and constitutes outstanding examples of 19th century historicism. The Committee congratulated the German authorities on this nomination and considered that its symbolic value clearly justifies inscription under cultural criterion (vi).&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.8647200000</latitude><location>States of Saxony-Anhalt (Sachsen-Anhalt) and Thuringia (Thüringen)</location><longitude>12.6527800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;These memorials are of outstanding universal value as bearing unique testimony to the Protestant Reformation, which was one of the most significant events in the religious and political history of the world, and as outstanding examples of 19th-century historicism. They are all associated with the lives of Martin Luther and his fellow-reformer Melanchthon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 15th and 16th centuries Eisleben owed its great prosperity to copper and silver mining, Martin Luther was born there on 10 November 1483 at lodgings in a house in a street then known as Lange Gasse. The family moved in the following year to Mansfeld, some 10&amp;nbsp;km distant from Eisleben. After studying philosophy at Erfurt University, Martin Luther joined the Augustinian Order in 1505. He stayed there until 1510, when he transferred to the newly built Augustinian monastery at Wittenberg, where he also held the chair of Bible studies at the University. Two years later, on 31&amp;nbsp;October 1517, he launched the Reformation by nailing his 95 Propositions to the north door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Luther developed his views on the authority of Holy Scripture and the doctrine of salvation by faith in publications in the years that followed, actions which led to his being excommunicated and banished from the empire by the imperial Diet of Worms in 1521. Frederick of Saxony extended his protection to Luther, whom he sheltered in his castle of Wartburg, enabling him to begin translating of the Bible into German. He returned to Wittenberg in March 1522, and in 1525 he broke with his monastic vows and married the former nun, Katharina von Bora.His household became the centre for reformists from all over Europe, and the family room that he created on the first floor was the setting for his 'table talks,' which were later to be published.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The following individual sites and monuments are included in the World Heritage site:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Luther's birthplace (1483), Eisleben&lt;/em&gt; : one of the oldest town houses but heavily restored; it is noteworthy for a special mixture of historical importance and 19th-century historicism.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;House in which Luther died (1546), Meben&lt;/em&gt; : now used as a museum and offices for the Luther Memorials organization. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Luther Hall, Wittenberg&lt;/em&gt; : a three-storey building housing the Luther Hall, part of the early 16th-century monastery. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Melanchthon's house, Wittenberg&lt;/em&gt; : built in 1536 in typical Renaissance style - a narrow three-storey building crowned by a tripartite round-arched staggered gable. The internal arrangement of rooms is original; unlike the previous houses; it retains much of its 16th-century character. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Town Church, Wittenberg&lt;/em&gt; : located near the Market Place in the centre of the old town;in late Gothic Style, with two massive towers. The most striking feature is the main altar, the work of Lucas Cranach the Elder and the Younger, and strongly influenced by Luther and Melanchthon in its iconography.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Castle Church, Wittenberg&lt;/em&gt; : the castle rises above the medieval town, to the west, and the spire of its church crowns the north-western corner. Much of the original character of the castle has been lost, as a result of its having been reused as a barracks in the 19th century, but the church is largely as it was at the time of Luther. It is a long basilical structure with an eastern apse, a typical example of the German Hallenkirche in very late Gothic style. Access is through the western door; because of its symbolic importance, the second door on the north side, the famous Propositions Portal, is only used on special occasions. Its ogival arch is contemporary with the original construction in 1499, as an inscription testifies. The decoration around the door includes representations of Luther and Melanchthon, and the Latin text of the 95 Propositions is displayed on the bronze doors. The church houses the tombs of Luther and Melanchthon. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These places in Saxony-Anhalt are all associated with the lives of Martin Luther and his fellow-reformer Melanchthon. They include Melanchthon's house in Wittenberg, the houses in Eisleben where Luther was born in 1483 and died in 1546, his room in Wittenberg, the local church and the castle church where, on 31 October 1517, Luther posted his famous '95 Theses', which launched the Reformation and a new era in the religious and political history of the Western world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>926</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest documentary reference to Weimar dates from 899, when it was the seat of the Weimar- Orlam&amp;uuml;nde dukedom. It passed in the 14th century to a branch of the royal house of Saxony, becoming the capital of the Duchy of Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach in 1572. The Ducal Court encouraged Martin Luther, who visited the town on several occasions. For many years the painter Lucas Cranach the Elder worked in Weimar, where he died in 1553. This marked the start of a long period of growing cultural importance. Johann Sebastian Bach was invited to the town by Duke Wilhelm Ernst in 1709 and spent nine years there, a very important formative period in his artistic development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was during the lifetime of Duchess Anna Amalia (1739-1809) that its Classical period began. She appointed the poet Christoph Martin Wieland (1733- 1813) as tutor to her sons in 1772. It was after Carl August (1757-1828) had succeeded to the Duchy that Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) settled in the town (1775). Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) came to Weimar in the following year. The high point of the town's cultural influence resulted from the creative relationship between Goethe and Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) that began in 1794 and was intensified when Schiller moved to Weimar in 1799.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Weimar's cultural importance did not disappear on the death of Goethe there in 1832. It was favoured by Franz Liszt, who wrote a number of his most important works in Weimar. Later it became a seminal centre for the development of new movements in the fine arts and architecture. One of the leading exponents of Art Nouveau, Henry van de Velde (1863-1957), was Director of the School of Arts and Crafts, and it was on his recommendation that Walter Gropius (1883-1969) was appointed to succeed him in 1919, when he gave it a new name, the Bauhaus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/846</http_url><id_number>846</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_846.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The high artistic quality of the public and private buildings and parks in and around the town testify to the remarkable cultural flowering of the Weimar Classical Period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Enlightened ducal patronage attracted many of the leading writers and thinkers in Germany, such as Goethe, Schiller, and Herder to Weimar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, making it the cultural centre of the Europe of the day.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.9775000000</latitude><location>State of Thuringia (Thüringen)</location><longitude>11.3286100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The high artistic quality of the public and private buildings and parks in and around the town testify to the remarkable cultural flowering of the Weimar classical period. Enlightened ducal patronage attracted many of the leading writers and thinkers in Germany, such as Goethe, Schiller and Herder, to Weimar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, making it the cultural centre of the Europe of the day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Weimar became the capital of the Duchy of Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach in 1572. For many years the painter Lucas Cranach the Elder worked in Weimar, where he died in 1553. This marked the start of a long period of growing cultural importance in which many painters, writers, poets, and philosopher lived in the city - Johann Sebastian Bach, Christoph Martin Wieland, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Johann Gottfried Herder, Friedrich Schiller, Franz Liszt, Henry van de Velde, and Walter Gropius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site comprises eleven separate buildings or ensembles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Goethe's House&lt;/em&gt; : A Baroque town house was built in 1707-9 and underwent a number of alterations during Goethe's occupancy. The original interior furnishings are preserved in a number of rooms. Schiller's House: A simple late Baroque house built in 1777 incorporating part of a 16th-century outbuilding (the Mint). Most of the rooms are furnished as they were during the lifetime of the poet.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;City Church, Herder House and Old High School&lt;/em&gt; : A three-aisled hall church with five bays and a pentagonal chancel and a west tower surmounted by an octagonal spire, containing an altar triptych by Lucas Cranach the Elder. The three-storey Herder House was built in the mid-16th century on the foundations of an earlier Renaissance structure. The Old High School, commissioned by Duke Wilhelm Ernst, was built in simple Baroque style.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;City Castle&lt;/em&gt; : The present ensemble is an imposing slightly irregular four-winged building round a large courtyard. The decorations and furnishings of the interior are in classical style.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Dowager's Palace: The centre of intellectual life at the height of classical Weimar consists of a group of relatively plain Baroque two- and three-storey buildings round a courtyard. The Duchess Anna Amalia Library: in 1761 Duchess Anna Amalia commissioned the State Architect to convert the Renaissance 'Little French Castle' into a library. The main central section is a three-storey building on a rectangular plan in Baroque style. The Princes' Tomb and the Historic Cemetery: Grand Duke Carl August commissioned the construction of a family tomb from Clemens Wenzeslaus Coundray in 1823. In addition to members of the family, Schiller and Goethe were also buried in this mausoleum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Park on the Ilm with the Roman House, Goethe's Garden, and Garden House&lt;/em&gt; : South of the town in the valley through which the Ilm flows. It is dominated in the north by Goethe's Garden House and in the south by the Roman House.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Belvedere Castle, Orangery and Park&lt;/em&gt; : The castle is a two-storey Baroque structure; the central section is square in plan and has a small tower surmounted by a cupola. On either side there are connecting buildings leading to oval-plan pavilions with pointed cupolas. The orangery is U-shaped in plan, with the house of the head gardener in the centre.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tiefurt Castle and Park&lt;/em&gt; : A modest two-storey Baroque building linked by a wooden-framed to the former farm building, with buildings and memorials within the park.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ettersburg Castle and Park&lt;/em&gt; : the Old Castle consists of three wings round a spacious courtyard. The shorter east wing abuts the castle church. The New Castle is a more compact four-storey structure. The park is relatively small and abuts the surrounding forest.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the late 18th and early 19th centuries the small Thuringian town of Weimar witnessed a remarkable cultural flowering, attracting many writers and scholars, notably Goethe and Schiller. This development is reflected in the high quality of many of the buildings and of the parks in the surrounding area.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Classical Weimar</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>997</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Development of the part of the Spreeinsel now known as the Museumsinsel began when the pleasure garden (Lustgarten) for the Stadtschlo&amp;szlig; (palace) in the 16th century. However, its present importance began when the Altes Museum was built to the designs of Karl Friedrich Schinkel in 1824-28.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A plan to develop the part of the island behind this museum, hitherto used for commercial purposes as a "sanctuary for the arts and sciences," was drawn up in 1841 by the court architect, Friedrich August St&amp;uuml;ler, on the orders of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The first element of this plan to be built was the Neues Museum (1843-47). The next step did not take place until 1866, when the Nationalgalerie, the work of Johann Heinrich Strack, was built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Another two decades passed before the Kaiser-Friedrich- Museum (now the Bodemuseum) was built in 1897-1904 to the designs of Ernst von Ihne, and St&amp;uuml;ler's plan was completed in 1909-30 with the construction of Alfred Messel's Pergamonmuseum..&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/896</http_url><id_number>896</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_896.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Berlin Museumsinsel is a unique ensemble of museum buildings which illustrates the evolution of modern museum design over more than a century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The art museum is a social phenomenon that owes its origins to the Age of Enlightenment and its extension to all people to the French Revolution. The Museumsinsel is the most outstanding example of this concept given material form and a symbolic central urban setting.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>52.5197222200</latitude><location>Berlin (city-state)</location><longitude>13.3986111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The art museum is a social phenomenon that owes its origins to the Age of Enlightenment and its extension to all people to the French Revolution. The Museumsinsel is the most outstanding example of this concept given material form and a symbolic central urban setting, and one that illustrates the evolution of modern museum design over more than a century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present importance of the Museumsinsel began when the Altes Museum was built to the designs of Karl Friedrich Schinkel in 1824-28. A plan to develop the part of the island behind this museum was drawn up in 1841 by the court architect, Friedrich August St&amp;uuml;ler, on the orders of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. The first element of this plan to be built was the Neues Museum (1843-47). The next step did not take place until 1866, when the Nationalgalerie, the work of Johann Heinrich Strack, was built. Another two decades passed before the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (now the Bodemuseum) was built in 1897-1904 to the designs of Ernst von Ihne, and St&amp;uuml;ler's plan was completed in 1909-30 with the construction of Alfred Messel's Pergamonmuseum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex of the Museumsinsel consists of five museum buildings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Altes Museum is a two-storey structure with a rectangular ground plan on a high base with its exhibition rooms ranged round two inner courts and a central two-storey domed rotunda with skylight. The side and rear elevations are relatively plain, but that facing the site of the former Schloss is a high portico supported on eighteen sandstone Ionic columns and two corner pilasters. Access is by means of a seven-bay wide stairway with broad stringers.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The layout of the Neues Museum is comparable with that of the Altes Museum, but the rotunda of the latter is replaced by the monumental main staircase. Unlike the Altes Museum, to which it was originally linked by a passageway, it is a relatively plain structure, more in the style of the Schinkel School. The richly decorated interior contrasts with the plain exterior. There is an interesting innovative structural feature. The traditional low-vaulted ceilings of timber beams and masonry are replaced on the third floor by an arch-chord construction using cast-iron arches and pairs of wrought-iron chords. This lightweight form of construction was necessitated by the poor foundation parameters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Nationalgalerie, a high ashlar block-like base with rectangular windows, is surmounted by a Corinthian pseudo-dipteral temple of in antis type with an open portico. There are also high rectangular windows in the exterior wall set back behind the columns. The rear is in the form of a semi-circular conch. A double-winged open staircase with five flights of steps leads up to the pedimented portico with its Corinthian columns. The building is clad throughout with Nebra sandstone. The four-storey building has a rectangular ground plan with apse-like terminal features. There is a cellar and an exhibition floor in the basement section and two exhibition halls in the superstructure. It is lavishly decorated with symbolic imagery in the form of sculptures, reliefs, and paintings. The upper exhibition floor was originally laid out as a vast banqueting hall, but is now converted for displays.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Bodemuseum is a neo-Baroque structure in a commanding position on the north-western tip of the island. Clad in sandstone and with a low stone base, it rises to two storeys, linked by Corinthian pilasters and crowned with a balustrade. The rounded entrance frontage is decorated with the same columns and with rounded open arches. The entrance with its impressive staircase is beneath the smaller of the two domes. It gives on to two lateral wings and a centre section which are linked by transverse sections so as to form five inner courtyards.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The three-winged Pergamonmuseum was built to exhibit the greatly expanded collections of antiquities resulting from German excavations at Pergamon and other Greek sites in Asia Minor as well as those from Mesopotamia formerly housed in the Vorderasiatisches Museum. It rises directly from the Spree, like the Bodemuseum, with which it is harmonized in scale and proportions. The centre block and the side wings are windowless, given structure by flat giant pilasters and steep pediments.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The museum as a social phenomenon owes its origins to the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century. The five museums on the Museumsinsel in Berlin, built between 1824 and 1930, are the realization of a visionary project and show the evolution of approaches to museum design over the course of the 20th century. Each museum was designed so as to establish an organic connection with the art it houses. The importance of the museum's collections &amp;ndash; which trace the development of civilizations throughout the ages &amp;ndash; is enhanced by the urban and architectural quality of the buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1047</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The legendary creation of Wartburg Castle is attributed to Count Ludwig der Springer. The first steps in its construction were taken in 1067, following the troubles caused by the Investiture Contest, troubles which encouraged the birth of feudalism. The castle is mentioned for the first time in 1080 as a strategic base, one of the key points in the early years of Ludovician sovereignty. This sovereignty grew more firmly established during the first half of the 12th century. Raised to the dignity of landgraves, the Ludovicians supported the policies of the Stauffen emperors. The building of the palace in the second half of the 12th century illustrates their status as Princes of the Empire. Towards the end of the 12th century, a literary court developed at Wartburg castle, attracted by Landgrave Hermann I, who surrounded himself with poets and musicians. The poetry of Walther von der Vogelweide describes the brilliant society life which gave rise to the episode of the singers' tourney at Wartburg Castle, a romanticized version of which inspired Richard Wagner's opera, Tannh&amp;auml;user.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1221 Landgrave Ludwig IV, the son of Hermann, married Elizabeth of Hungary. Widowed in 1227, Elizabeth devoted herself to charitable works to which the Landgrave's family took exception. Driven out of Wartburg Castle with her three children, she founded a hospital in Marburg and lived her life by Franciscan principles. She was canonized in 1235, four years after her death.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Heinrich Raspe IV, the brother of Ludwig IV, succeeded him and, espousing the Pope's cause, was appointed King of Germany on the initiative of Innocent IV. His death in 1247 ended the Ludovician dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Margrave of Wettin, Heinrich von Meissen, took possession of Wartburg Castle. Over the next century, the site was to receive a series of new buildings. The transfer of the seat of power to Gotha and subsequently to Weimar at the beginning of the 15th century marked the beginning of the castle's decline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the protection of the Prince Elector of Saxony, Martin Luther stayed at Wartburg Castle in secret. Here he devoted himself to literature, producing a considerable body of work attested by his correspondence, from which many letters have survived. It was at Wartburg Castle that he made his translation of the New Testament into German. His exile came to an end in March 1522 and by the end of the 16th century, the memory of Luther was already attracting large numbers of pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century onwards, the castle was kept more or less in a state of repair: though abandoned as a seat of power, its strategic importance was nonetheless highlighted several times. The events that had taken place there, and in particular the memory of St Elizabeth and of Luther, were also arguments for its preservation, but neglect gradually led to inevitable dilapidation, which was almost total by the end of the 18th century. Goethe paid a visit in 1777 and made a drawing of the ruin which shows only the palace remaining partially intact. The poet suggested the creation of a museum, justified by the ever-growing numbers of pilgrims. After the Napoleonic wars, a national sentiment emerged which revelled in the image of ancient Germany as symbolized by Wartburg Castle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1817, the students' associations organized an event which set the seal on this tendency, further confirmed by the revolution of March 1848. Wartburg Castle was to remain the headquarters of students' associations for the whole of Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the first half of the 19th century, on the initiative of the Grand Duke of Saxony, the entire site was completely renovated: the remains of the palace were raised from their ruins, the curtain wall restored, and the remainder of the buildings reconstructed under the supervision of architect Hugo von Ritgen. The large part necessarily played by assumptions in the reconstruction have rather more to do with the romantic imagination than with historical reality. The involvement of renowned artists such as Moritz von Schwind, particularly in his illustration of the life of St Elizabeth, underlines the symbolic nature of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This allegorical monument was for a short time the object of attention from the Nazi regime, but no event of importance was held there over the period, apart from the subjection of the students' associations to the principles of the regime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1945, the bombing of Eisenach spared Wartburg, although the castle was later pillaged by Soviet troops. The German Democratic Republic made Wartburg Castle a national monument, major restoration work was carried out, and numerous commemorative ceremonies were held in connection with the religious connotations and symbolic value of the monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the reunification of Germany, restoration work has concentrated primarily on the interiors and on the problems of preserving the stonework on the palace facades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/897</http_url><id_number>897</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_897.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Castle of Wartburg is an outstanding monument of the feudal period in central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Castle of Wartburg is rich in cultural associations, most notably its role as the place of exile of Martin Luther, who composed his German translation of the New Testament there. It is also a powerful symbol of German integration and unity.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.9667777800</latitude><location>Eisenach, State of Thuringia (Thüringen)</location><longitude>10.3070000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Castle of Wartburg is an outstanding monument of the feudal period in central Europe. It is rich in cultural associations, most notably its role as the place of exile of Martin Luther, who composed his German translation of the New Testament there. It is also a powerful symbol of German integration and unity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The legendary creation of the castle is attributed to Count Ludwig der Springer. The first steps in its construction were taken in 1067, and it became one of the key points in the early years of Ludovician sovereignty. This sovereignty grew more firmly established during the first half of the 12th century. Raised to the dignity of Landgraves, the Ludovicians supported the policies of the Stauffen emperors. The building of the palace in the second half of the 12th century illustrates their status as Princes of the Empire. In 1227 Heinrich Raspe IV, the brother of Ludwig IV, succeeded him and, espousing the pope's cause, was appointed King of Germany on the initiative of Innocent IV. His death in 1247 ended the Ludovician dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Margrave of Wettin, Heinrich von Meissen, took possession of Wartburg. The transfer of the seat of power to Gotha and subsequently to Weimar at the beginning of the 15th century marked the beginning of the castle's decline. From the 16th century onwards, the castle was kept more or less in a state of repair; although abandoned as a seat of power, its strategic importance was nonetheless highlighted several times. After the Napoleonic wars, a national sentiment emerged which revelled in the image of ancient Germany as symbolized by Wartburg Castle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the first half of the 19th century, on the initiative of the Grand Duke of Saxony, the entire site was completely renovated: the remains of the palace were raised from their ruins, the curtain wall restored, and the remainder of the buildings reconstructed under the supervision of architect Hugo von Ritgen. The large parts played by assumptions in the reconstruction have rather more to do with the romantic imagination than with historical reality. In 1945, the bombing of Eisenach spared Wartburg, although the castle was later pillaged by Soviet troops. The German Democratic Republic made Wartburg Castle a national monument; since the reunification of Germany, restoration work has concentrated primarily on the interiors and on the problems of preserving the stonework on the palace facades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle occupies a rocky spur looking north and south, in the midst of the forest that looks down over the city of Eisenach. Its layout corresponds in essence to that of the original fortress, particularly the palace, the ramparts, the South Tower, and the outworks, which are now partially buried or in ruins. In architectural terms, The rocky spur is reached from the northern end, occupied by a tower with a drawbridge, followed by a number of outbuildings which form an outer courtyard. Next follows the lower courtyard, the main features of which are the keep and the palace, onto which the Knights' Baths back. The South Tower marks the farther end of the spur. The centre of the lower courtyard is occupied by a cistern. The fortress is made up of the following constructions:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The outworks: all that remain are archaeological traces, outlines of the foundations and ditch of the Fischerturm, the escarpments of the access ramp, and the road, carved from the living rock, leading up to the fortress, as well as the spring of fresh water.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The outer defences - the postern gate and drawbridge; the knights' lodging and the commissary buildings; the Marguerite and St Elisabeth wall-walks, the coping of the Wartburg Castle well, worked stone balustrades, stairs also of dressed stone, paved floors, and the surface of the courtyards of the outer wards.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The castle comprising the following buildings: belfry; new apartments with fireplace; new monumental staircase; the palace; Knights' Baths; South Tower; west and south curtain walls; cistern; lower castle courtyard; commandant's garden.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Wartburg Castle blends superbly into its forest surroundings and is in many ways 'the ideal castle'. Although it has retained some original sections from the feudal period, the form it acquired during the 19th-century reconstitution gives a good idea of what this fortress might have been at the height of its military and seigneurial power. It was during his exile at Wartburg Castle that Martin Luther translated the New Testament into German.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wartburg Castle</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1048</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;For over a thousand years the history of the island of Reichenau, which lies in the northern reaches of Lake Constance, was closely intertwined with that of the monastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The deed of foundation of the Benedictine abbey is dated 25 April 724. The first Abbot, Pirmin, probably from Meaux, was given the task of building a monastery in honour of the Virgin Mary and Saints Peter and Paul. Abbot Pirmin no doubt received endowments from the Alaman princes, although tradition established in the 12th century dated the foundation back to the Carolingian ruler Charles Martel (714-41). Pirmin oversaw the building of the first abbey, a wooden building, at Mittelzell on the northern shore of the island, as well as a three-winged cloister against the north side of the church. The whole building was gradually rebuilt in stone by 746. The single nave of the church was considerably extended by a porch at one end and a rectangular choir at the other. The choir for the monks was separate from that of the laity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From modest beginnings, the abbey prospered under the authority of abbots who served as counsellors on matters of church and state and as tutors, particularly to the Carolingian emperors Charlemagne (768-814) and Louis the Pious (814-40). The monastery, an ideal staging-post between Germany and Italy, enjoyed the protection of Carolingian and Othonian rulers. It received generous endowments of land and the island, an integral part of the abbey lands, was given over to agriculture. The monastery became a centre for teaching and creativity in literature (poet Walafrid Strabo served as abbot from 838 to 849), science (Hermann the Lame, 1013-54), and the arts (10th-11th century schools of illumination and wall paintings in particular) renowned far and wide.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On his return from a voyage to Byzantium, Abbot Heito had the abbey rebuilt as a cruciform basilica with three aisles in which the square form of the transept crossing is reflected in the whole. The main choir is made up of two apsidal hemicycles and a system of alternating supports was added to the nave. The new building was consecrated in 816. The monastic buildings were redesigned and their new disposition served as the model for the Plan of St Gall, the standard plan of a Benedictine abbey, produced at Reichenau in about 825.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;His successor Abbot Erlebald (823-38) extended the church to the west. The arrival in 830 of the relics of St Mark the Evangelist, brought to the abbey by Bishop Ratolf of Verona, sparked a series of acquisitions of other relics and the creation of new altars. Abbot Heito III (888-913) replaced the antechurch with a square choir and a broad western transept flanked by two towers. The new western church was dedicated to St Mark. A round axial chapel of the Holy Cross was built to the east of the main choir which housed the relics of the Precious Blood. Heito's original church was altered around the year 1000, and again in the early 11th century when Abbot Bernon (1008-48) replaced the western portion with the present-day transept opening into an apse lodged within a rectangular tower. The church was consecrated on 24 April 1048, in the presence of the Emperor Henry III. A new nave was built in the 12th century and was given a new roof after a fire in 1235. To the east, a polygonal Gothic choir and a new sacristy replaced the chapel of the Holy Cross (1443- 47). Much later, the church acquired a new roodscreen (1742) and a new sacristy (1779).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 15th century, a wall separated Mittelzell from the dwellings of the farmers, wine-growers, fishermen, and stewards that collected around the abbey. It came under the authority of the Bishops of Constance in 1542 and new monastery buildings were constructed to the south of the church (around 1605- 10).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the western end of the island of Reichenau, Egino, a former Bishop of Verona, built the first church of St Peter at Niederzell, which was consecrated in 799. The church was twice rebuilt and slightly altered in the 9th-10th century, the apse being made larger and a porch being added to the nave. The monastery buildings lay to the north, fairly near the lake. In the late 11th-early 12th century the church with its three aisles and no transept was rebuilt and its two east towers were completed in the 15th century. Now dedicated to St Peter and St Paul, it became a parish church and was decorated in rococo style in the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Abbot Heito III built the church of St George at Oberzell in the eastern part of the island in honour of the relic of the saint's head, which he brought back from a voyage to Rome in 896, the year of the church's consecration. The church was quickly rebuilt with three aisles, a raised crossing, a crypt, and a square choir. A century later the church was decorated with wall paintings and later, between the 10th century and the early 11th century, a large apse was built on the west side with a gateway and porch entrance. Several other changes were made over the centuries that followed: a tower was built over the crossing (1385), which was then given a vaulted roof (around 1435), the two side arms were converted into sacristies, the west apse was redecorated (1708), and the tall windows were enlarged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In total 25 churches and chapels were built on the island. From the 14th and 15th centuries the island became home to communities of nuns. Most of these buildings, demolished in the 19th century following the secularization of the estate of the Bishop of Constance (1803), survive in the form of archaeological remains. The Abbey's manuscripts and archives were transferred to Karlsruhe and the University of Heidelberg library. The monastery's vineyards and farmland were parcelled out and sold off. Traditional agriculture such as the growing of grapes and peaches continued, while a hundred or so new houses were built between the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century. In 1838-39 the island of Reichenau was linked to the mainland by a causeway and from the end of the 19th century it attracted numerous artists and intellectuals. Today the island's around 120 farms are given over primarily to vines, horticulture, and orchards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/974</http_url><id_number>974</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_974.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The remains of the Reichenau foundation bear outstanding witness to the religious and cultural role of a great Benedictine monastery in the early Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The churches on the island of Reichenau retain remarkable elements of several stages of construction and thus offer outstanding examples of monastic architecture in Central Europe from the 9th to the 11th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The monastery of Reichenau was a highly significant artistic centre of great significance to the history of art in Europe in the 10th and 11th centuries, as is superbly illustrated by its monumental wall paintings and its illuminations.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.6987222200</latitude><location>District of Freiburg, State of Baden-Württemberg</location><longitude>9.0613055560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of the Reichenau foundation bear outstanding witness to the religious and cultural role of a great Benedictine monastery in the early Middle Ages. The Monastery of Reichenau was a highly significant artistic centre of great significance to the history of art in Europe in the 10th and 11th centuries, as is superbly illustrated by its monumental wall paintings and its illuminations. The churches retain remarkable elements of several stages of construction and thus offer outstanding examples of monastic architecture in Central Europe from the 9th to the 11th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For over 1,000 years the history of the island of Reichenau, which lies in the northern reaches of Lake Constance, was closely intertwined with that of the monastery. The first Abbot, Pirmin, was given the task of building a monastery in honour of the Virgin Mary and Saints Peter and Paul. He oversaw the building of the first abbey, a wooden building, at Mittelzell on the northern shore of the island, as well as a three-winged cloister against the north side of the church. The whole building was gradually rebuilt in stone by 746. The monastery received generous endowments of land, and the island, an integral part of the abbey lands, was given over to agriculture. The monastery became a famous centre for teaching and creativity in literature, science, and the arts. The church was consecrated in 1048, in the presence of Emperor Henry III.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the western end of the island of Reichenau, Egino, a former Bishop of Verona, built the first church of St Peter at Niederzell, consecrated in 799. The church was twice rebuilt and slightly altered in the 9th-10th centuries. The monastery buildings lay to the north, near the lake. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries the church was rebuilt and its two east towers were completed in the 15th century. Now dedicated to St Peter and St Paul, it became a parish church and was decorated in Rococo style in the 18th century. Abbot Heito III built the church of St George at Oberzell in the eastern part of the island in honour of the relic of the saint's head, which he brought back from a voyage to Rome in 896, the year of the church's consecration&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The former abbey of St Mary at Mittelzell features three aisles and opposed transepts. It retains its rectangular west tower, flanked by narrow porches and the broad west transept dating from the mid-11th century. Beneath this high tower lies the apse, in front of which stands the altar. The 12th-century nave with its wooden roof opens out into the east transept whose crossing is defined by four identical broad arches and the liturgical choir of the church dedicated in 816, the oldest parts of the church. The Flamboyant Gothic choir is flanked by a sacristy and treasury. The monastery built in the 17th century on the southern side of the church now houses the town hall and the presbytery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church of St Peter and St Paul at Niederzell is a Romanesque structure of three aisles culminating at the eastern end in three hemispherical apses concealed within a central block and flanked by two impressive bell towers. The central apse retains fine wall paintings from 1104-34 laid out in three rows. A figure of Christ in Majesty in a mandorla is surrounded by symbols of the Evangelists, the patron saints of the church, and cherubim. Above stands a row of Apostles and another of the Prophets. Other fragments of 12th-century wall paintings survive, particularly in the north chapel where they represent the Passion Cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the church of St George at Oberzell a two-storey porch and a western apse dating from the early Romanesque period lead into the Carolingian church consisting of three aisles and a west choir of complex structure topped by a tower. The walls of the nave are decorated with remarkable early medieval wall paintings depicting the miracles of Christ. Each of the scenes is framed by decorative bands while painted busts feature between the arches of the arcade and figures of the Apostles between the windows. The chapel of St Michael on the first floor of the porch is also decorated with wall paintings depicting the Last Supper.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The island of Reichenau on Lake Constance preserves the traces of the Benedictine monastery, founded in 724, which exercised remarkable spiritual, intellectual and artistic influence. The churches of St Mary and Marcus, St Peter and St Paul, and St George, mainly built between the 9th and 11th centuries, provide a panorama of early medieval monastic architecture in central Europe. Their wall paintings bear witness to impressive artistic activity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastic Island of Reichenau</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1138</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Consolidation of the mining claim area was completed in December 1847: the area concerned covered 13.2km2. At that time it was the northernmost mine in the region. It belongs to the Gelsenkirchen anticline, in which the coal seams, averaging 1.17m thick, are deeply stratified. Mining began in the mid 19th century at a depth of c 120m and finished at the fourteenth level (1200m). By the end of mining the underground roadways extended over 120km; they were accessed by twelve shafts, opened up progressively between 1847 and 1932. When Zollverein XII was opened, the earlier shafts were used solely for the movement of men and supplies; all the extracted coal was handled by the new shaft until the mine closed in 1986. The methods of mining evolved as technology developed from hand picks to mechanized coal cutting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coals being extracted at Zollverein were especially suitable for coking. Consequently, the first stack-type cokeovens were built there in 1857. The coking plant expanded considerably over the decades that followed. However, when the Zollverein mine was taken over by the steel company, Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG, in 1926, a new coking plant (the Nordstern plant) was built to process all the coal from its pits in the region. Coke production returned to Zollverein in the late 1950s, when the then holding company for the mines in the region, Gelsenkirchen Bergwerks AG, decided to build a new coking plant to supplement the Nordstern plant. It began production in 1961 from eight batteries, each of 24 ovens, producing 8600t per day; there were also facilities for processing by-products such as tar, sulphuric acid, benzene, ammonium compounds, and gas. This plant closed down in 1993 because of the fall in the demand for coke.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the stretch of the Cologne-Minden railway between Oberhausen and Hamm in 1847 was decisive for the location of the early Zollverein shafts, which were sunk 500m from the new line so as to facilitate transport of the coal and coke produced. The first passenger station did not open until forty years later. There were also links with the Emscher Valley line, also opened in 1847, which cut the north-western corner of the Zollverein concession. There followed a series of internal link lines during the next eighty years. It was connected with that of the neighbouring Bonifacius mine after Zollverein was taken over by Vereinigte Stahlwerke in 1926.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Coal mining produces enormous quantities of waste material, which is deposited in the characteristic pit heaps. The earliest of these, to the east of shaft 1/2, was planted with trees in 1895 and used as a recreational area for the mine officials. A second grew to the west of shaft 1/2 from that time, and in 1932 was used for pond management, to dry out the boiler-ash and coal slurries from Zollverein XII. A heap begun in 1880 was partially cleared in 1958 to provide land for miners' housing. Other heaps were used for filling areas where coal had been removed from a steeply dipping seam and on an abandoned airfield.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Intensive mining resulted in a number of subsidences, in some places as deep as 25m. This necessitated clearance of irretrievably damaged housing and other facilities. Subsidence exacerbated the water problems in the so-called Emscher Zone, where mining adversely affected the gravitational flow and created large areas of swamp. Local industries and municipalities created the Emscher Association, which carried out a number of projects using pumping stations and creating polders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The workforce steadily increased to c 5000 by the end of the 19th century. During the 20th century it fluctuated between 5000 and 8000. Because there were no alternative property developers when work began in 1847, Zollverein began to construct housing for its workers. Building projects were integrated with the mine operating programmes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Large building sites were purchased and by 1860 146 flats were ready for occupancy; at that time the mine employed 710 workers. This "Hegemannshof Colony" expanded steadily (by the turn of the century it covered around 90ha), and subsequently two more colonies, "Ottekampshof" and "Beisen," were added. By World War I the property owned by the mine had grown to over 720ha. However, this was by no means adequate for a workforce that numbered some 5000 at that time. Between the two World Wars new workers' housing developed, notably the housing estate built by the Trust Agency for Miners' Housing. In the late 1920s the mine could provide each of its salaried employees and officials with an apartment, but only some 3000 were available for the 8000 workers. After World War II new estates consisting of apartment blocks were built by the housing association established by Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG, such as the Kaldekirche, Westerbruch, and Kapitlacker estates from the 1950s. The Gl&amp;uuml;ckauf estate was built by the miners themselves working in collaboration. The houses were owned by private individuals. Two Pestalozzi villages were also built for apprentices. In 1958 there were 7061 dwellings available for a workforce of 8000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the start the mine provided consumer services for its employees, selling food and manufactured goods at low prices. They began on a "cooperative" basis, profits being returned to consumers in the form of an annual dividend. This scheme, with its six outlets, was taken over as a company enterprise by Vereinigte Stahlwerke. The system gradually declined after World War II because of competition from commercial stores, and the remaining outlets were bought out in the 1970s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the mid-1920s the mine provided welfare services for its employees. The first welfare centre was set up in 1928 (it was rehoused in 1938) and the second in 1934. A large modern welfare centre designed by Fritz Schupp was built in 1953. However, Zollverein closed its welfare facilities in the early 1960s, in line with the current trend in the Ruhr.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/975</http_url><id_number>975</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_975.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Zollverein XII Coal Mine Industrial Complex is an exceptional industrial monument by virtue of the fact that its buildings are outstanding examples of the application of the design concepts of the Modern Movement in architecture in a wholly industrial context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The technological and other structures of Zollverein XII is representative of a crucial period in the development of traditional heavy industries in Europe, when sympathetic and positive use was made of architectural designs of outstanding quality.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.4913888900</latitude><location>State of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen)</location><longitude>7.0461111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The technological and other structures of the Zollverein XII Coal Mine Industrial Complex are representative of a crucial period in the development of traditional heavy industries in Europe, when sympathetic and positive use was made of architectural designs of outstanding quality. Zollverein is an exceptional industrial monument by virtue of the fact that its buildings are outstanding examples of the application of the design concepts of the Modern Movement in architecture in a wholly industrial context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Consolidation of the Zollverein mining claim area was completed in December 1847, when it was the northernmost mine in the region. It belongs to the Gelsenkirchen anticline, in which the coal seams are deeply stratified. Mining began in the mid-19th century at a depth of some 120&amp;nbsp;m and finished at 1,200&amp;nbsp;m. By the end of mining the underground roadways extended over 120&amp;nbsp;km; they were accessed by 12 shafts, opened up progressively between 1847 and 1932. When Zollverein XII was opened, the earlier shafts were used solely for the movement of men and supplies; all the extracted coal was handled by the new shaft until the mine closed in 1986. The methods of mining evolved as technology developed from hand picks to mechanized coal cutting. The coals being extracted at Zollverein were especially suitable for coking. Consequently, the first stack-type coke-ovens were built there in 1857. The coking plant expanded considerably over the decades that followed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, when the Zollverein mine was taken over by the steel company Vereinigte Stahlwerke AG in 1926, a new coking plant was built to process all the coal from its pits in the region. Coke production returned to Zollverein in the late 1950s, when the then holding company for the mines in the region, Gelsenkirchen Bergwerks AG, decided to build a new coking plant to supplement the Nordstern plant. This plant closed down in 1993 because of the fall in the demand for coke. Coal mining produces enormous quantities of waste material, which is deposited in the characteristic pit heaps. The earliest of these was planted with trees in 1895 and used as a recreational area for the mine officials. Intensive mining resulted in a number of subsidences, which necessitated clearance of damaged housing and other facilities. Subsidence exacerbated the water problems in the so-called Emscher Zone, where mining adversely affected the gravitational flow and created large areas of swamp. The workforce steadily increased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;The pits&lt;/em&gt; : only the foundations of the Malakow towers of the original pit survive; they are built over by the present headgear, both designed by Fritz Schupp in Bauhaus style. The 1922 main store has a reinforced-concrete frame. The pithead baths are in the form of a brick hall, capable of providing facilities for 3,000 miners. The ensemble is completed by the imposing administrative building (1906), the director's villa (1898), and the mine officials' residence (1878).&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The &lt;em&gt;coking plants&lt;/em&gt; at the individual Zollverein pits have all been demolished, but the central plant has been conserved since it closed down in 1993. The ovens extend over a distance of about 1km, parallel to the former Cologne-Minden railway line. Their equipment (pushers, quenching station, screening plant, and loading stations) are all intact, as are the gas-treatment and by-products installations, and ancillary buildings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Railway lines&lt;/em&gt; : the original main railway lines (Cologne-Minden and the Bergische-M&amp;auml;rkische line) are still in use, as part of the Bahn AG network. The railway connection between the Cologne-Minden lines via the mine to the Rhein-Herne Canal is also preserved.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Pit heaps&lt;/em&gt; : most of the mine-refuse heaps are still visible, several having been planted with trees and used as local recreational areas.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Miners' housing&lt;/em&gt; : a considerable number of houses survive in the former Hegemannshof and Ottekampshof colonies. These are for the most part four-dwelling buildings on a cross-shaped ground plan. They are built from brick, with large gardens attached.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Consumer and welfare facilities&lt;/em&gt; : two of the consumer facilities survive, although one had to be undergo extensive rebuilding after wartime damage.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Zollverein industrial complex in Land Nordrhein-Westfalen consists of the complete infrastructure of a historical coal-mining site, with some 20th-century buildings of outstanding architectural merit. It constitutes remarkable material evidence of the evolution and decline of an essential industry over the past 150 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex in Essen</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1139</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement on the terraces of the Middle Rhine Valley since the last Ice Age. It came under Roman rule in the 1st century BCE, as a frontier province, and a military road was constructed on the left bank, linking military fortress and camps. The Rhine was also a major shipping route during this period, linking northern Europe with the Alpine massif and the Mediterranean lands, a role that exerted a major influence on the subsequent history of the Middle Rhine Valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was continuity of settlement following the departure of the Romans in the 5th century. The Roman settlements were taken over by the Frankish kings and most of the area from Bingen downstream to Koblenz was crown property until well into the Carolingian era. However, the process of divesting the state of this property began in the 8th century and was not to be completed until the beginning of the 14th century. Much of it was donated to the church and the monastic orders. As bailiffs of the abbey of Pr&amp;uuml;m the Counts of Katzenelnbogen established control in the area around St Goar and Rheinfels, and this was to pass to the Landgraves of Hesse in 1479.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the partition of Charlemagne's empire in 842 the left bank of the Rhine was assigned to the Middle Kingdom. Lorraine was not to be united with the East Frankish Kingdom until 925. It remained a heartland of royal power until the election of the Hohenstaufen King Konrad III in 1138. This saw the fragmentation of power in the Middle Rhine area, with parcels of land being distributed among the bishop-electors of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier and the counts palatine. Some forty castles were constructed between Bingen and Koblenz, as symbols of power and also as customs stations on this flourishing trade route. Towns such as Boppard and Oberwesel struggled to maintain their independent status as free towns, as testified by the remains of their defensive walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Middle Rhine Valley was a core region of the Holy Roman Empire. Four of the seven Electors, the highest ranking rulers within the Empire, held portions of the area and it was here that they would meet to determine the succession.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bacharach was the centre of the Rhine wine trade in the later Middle Ages. Vines had been cultivated on the lower slopes since Roman times, and this expanded greatly from the 10th century onwards. Some 3000ha of vineyards were under cultivation by 1600, five times as much as at the present time. The Thirty Years' War (1618-48) witnessed a substantial decline in viticulture, the land being converted partly into orchards and partly into coppice forest. The 14th-16th centuries were the golden age of art in the Middle Rhine, which saw the convergence of artistic influences from the Upper Rhine (Strasbourg) and the Lower Rhine (Cologne). Gothic masterpieces such as the Werner Chapel above Bacharach, the Church of Our Lady in Oberwesel, and the former collegiate church of St Goar date from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the 17th century the Middle Rhine has been the scene of conflict between Germany and France. During the War of the Palatine Succession (1688-92) there was extensive destruction of fortresses and town fortifications, and much of Koblenz was destroyed. In the late 18th century the left bank of the Rhine became part of, first, the French Republic, and then the French Empire. This came to end in 1814, when the region came under Prussian rule. Extensive fortifications were constructed, including the fortress at Koblenz, and trade was fostered by the construction of the Rhine highway from Bingen to Koblenz, the widening of the shipping channel, the abolition of tolls over long stretches of the river, and the introduction of steam navigation. Railways were constructed on both the left and the right bank in the 1850s and 1860s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A deliberate policy of promoting the Rhine as a "German" landscape was adopted by the Prussian state. This led to the renovation of fortress ruins in the Romantic style and the reconstruction of historic monuments, and also to the beginnings of the modern monument conservation movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 20th century has seen major structural changes, notably the decline of the traditional winemaking sector and of mining and quarrying. Freight traffic has become concentrated on a small number of large harbours. The most important economic sector is now tourism. Ordinances of 1953 and 1978 have focused on the preservation of the cultural landscape, which is the main economic asset of the Middle Rhine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1066</http_url><id_number>1066</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1066.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; As one of the most important transport routes in Europe, the Middle Rhine Valley has for two millennia facilitated the exchange of culture between the Mediterranean region and the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Middle Rhine Valley is an outstanding organic cultural landscape, the present-day character of which is determined both by its geomorphological and geological setting and by the human interventions, such as settlements, transport infrastructure, and land-use, that it has undergone over two thousand years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Middle Rhine Valley is an outstanding example of an evolving traditional way of life and means of communication in a narrow river valley. The terracing of its steep slopes in particular has shaped the landscape in many ways for more than two millennia. However, this form of land-use is under threat from the socio-economic pressures of the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.1736111100</latitude><location>States of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz) and  Hesse (Hessen)&#xd;
</location><longitude>7.6941666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;As one of the most important transport routes in Europe, the Middle Rhine Valley has for two millennia facilitated the exchange of culture between the Mediterranean region and the north. It is an outstanding organic cultural landscape, the present-day character of which is determined both by its geomorphological and geological setting and by the human interventions such as settlements, transport infrastructure, and land use that it has undergone over 2,000 years. As a result, it is an outstanding example of an evolving traditional way of life and means of communication in a narrow river valley. The terracing of its steep slopes in particular has shaped the landscape in many ways for more than two millennia. However, this form of land use is under threat from today's socio-economic pressures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The appearance of the Middle Rhine Valley is characterized by the interaction between its physical natural features, the human interventions, and its 'tourist' image. In the 65&amp;nbsp;km stretch of the valley the river breaks through the Rhenish Slate Mountains, connecting the broad floodplain of the Oberrheingraben with the lowland basin of the Lower Rhine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the 5&amp;nbsp;km long Bingen Gate (Bingen Pforte), widened in the 19th and 20th centuries, the Rhine enters the upper canyon stretch of the river. Just before the Gate there are two small towns: Bingen on the left bank noteworthy for 'political' symbols, R&amp;uuml;desheim on the right dominated by the 12th-century Br&amp;ouml;mserberg fortress. The vineyards of the R&amp;uuml;desheimer Berg are among the best in the Rheingau. After the Bingen Gate comes the 15&amp;nbsp;km long Bacharach valley, which is indented with smaller V-shaped side valleys. The small town of Lorch extends at right angles to the Rhine up the valley, lined with terraced vineyards. It is notable for its fine Gothic parish church of St Martin. Bacharach, at the entrance of the Steeger valley contains many timber-framed houses and retains its medieval appearance. Kaub and its environs contain a number of monuments, among them the Pfalzgrafenstein castle, the town wall of Kaub itself, and the terraced vineyards, created in the Middle Ages. Oberwesel has preserved a number of fine early houses, as well as two Gothic churches, the medieval Sch&amp;ouml;nburg castle, and its medieval town wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The valley landscape begins to change at Oberwesel with the transition from soft clay-slates to hard sandstone. The result is a series of narrows, the most famous of which is the Loreley. This stretch of river was once hazardous for shipping and is reputed to be the place where the fabulous treasure of the Niebelungs lies hidden. Across the river on the right bank is St Goarshausen, with its castle of Neu-Katzenelnbogen. The third Katzenelnbogen fortress is Burg Reichenberg; its design suggests that it may have been inspired by Crusader fortresses in Syria and Palestine. Bad Salzig on the left bank marks the beginning of the section known as the Boppard Loops (Bopparder Schlingen). On the right bank is the twin town of Kamp Bornhofen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located at the start of a horseshoe loop in the river, Boppard originated as a Roman way-station, and was replaced in the 4th century by a military fort. Beyond Boppard is Osterspai with its timber-framed houses from the 16th-18th centuries and a ruined moated castle. Oberspay and Niederspay have fused into a single town and contain more timber-framed houses than anywhere else on the Middle Rhine: there is a particularly fine group on the waterfront. On the left bank, Rhens is where the German Emperors were enthroned after being elected in Frankfurt and crowned in Aachen Cathedral. The fortress of Marksburg, along with Pfalzgrafenstein the only surviving medieval fortifications on the Middle Rhine, towers above Braubach. Although much altered after the coming of the railway in 1860, Lahnstein preserves its imposing parish church of St John the Baptist. The castle of Stolzenfels, which belonged to the Elector of Trier, was restored in 1835 by the Prussians. Of the buildings in Koblenz that survived severe aerial bombardment during the Second World War mention should be made of the Romanesque basilicas of St Kastor, Our Lady, and St Florin, and the New Castle, the first and most important early classicist building in the Rhineland.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 65km-stretch of the Middle Rhine Valley, with its castles, historic towns and vineyards, graphically illustrates the long history of human involvement with a dramatic and varied natural landscape. It is intimately associated with history and legend and for centuries has exercised a powerful influence on writers, artists and composers.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Upper Middle Rhine Valley</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1243</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic towns of Wismar and Stralsund are situated in north-eastern Germany on the Baltic Sea coast. The cities were founded as part of the German colonization of the Slav territories in the late 12th or early 13th centuries. Both cities emerged as important trading places in the 14th century as part of the Hanseatic League. After the Thirty Years' War the towns came under Swedish rule from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. Under the subsequent changing political situations there was a period of stagnation, but from the second half of the 19th century a gradual economic improvement began. The historic centres survived the World War II bombardments and were part of the German Democratic Republic until German unification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Foundation&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Both Wismar and Stralsund were founded in places that were known to be good anchorages. Wismar emerged at the beginning of the 13th century, 5km from Mecklenburg, an old centre of the Slav Obodrites. It was close to a Wendish fishing village on the seacoast, along an old trade route, the Via Regia. In the early 13th century it developed rapidly owing to its favourable location and excellent harbour. The position of Stralsund, further to the east of Wismar, was also chosen for the potential of its harbour, and it gained additional merit from the off-shore island of Strela (later D&amp;auml;nholm). Wismar is first mentioned in 1229 and Stralsund in 1234, already well established in a period when the towns were probably granted corporation statutes. These statutes, known as the L&amp;uuml;beck Law, were aimed at towns in the Baltic region and covered all necessary legal instruments, including common law, commercial law, market law, and building law. Having obtained corporation statutes, both towns also built defence systems, which completed by the end of the 13th or early 14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Hanseatic period&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hanseatic League emerged in the 13th century, first as an association of north German merchants who resided in foreign countries. From the end of the 13th century, this association developed into the Hanseatic League of Towns. It soon assumed leadership in the region of the North Sea and the Baltic. In its heyday the League extended to some 200 towns. Centred on L&amp;uuml;beck, the League was organized in four sections: Wendish, Westphalian, Saxon, and Prussian. The most important of these was the Wendish section, which included Wismar and Stralsund. From the 1470s, the power of the Hansa started diminishing, when sea traffic was shifted from the Baltic to the Atlantic with the growing importance of the Netherlands and England. Wismar and Stralsund joined the League in 1293, together with L&amp;uuml;beck, Rostock, and Greifswald.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 13th century Wismar and Stralsund had developed commercial activities, involving intermediate trade in cloth from Flanders, wool from England, metal goods from Westphalia, wood, tar, ash, honey, furs, and wax from Latvia and the Rus, salt, at first from L&amp;uuml;neburg, then from the bay of Bourgneuf, wine from the Rhine, France, Spain, and Portugal, and fish from Norway and Schonen. The production of beer became particularly important, especially in Wismar. Beer was a leading product that was used not only as a drink but also as a basic ingredient in food and even in medicine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 14th century, conflicts between Wismar and Mecklenburg gave rise to a war between the coalition of north German princes and the Danish King and the emerging towns of L&amp;uuml;beck, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, and Greifswald, which were striving for independence. While Wismar suffered a defeat, Stralsund emerged as a leader in 1316, becoming the most powerful city in Pomerania and the capital of the entire region. From here started the heyday of the Hanseatic League, resulting in important building activities, especially from 1330 to 1380. This building boom brought forth the so-called Sundische Gotik, a particular form of brick architecture and an expression of the economic growth and increasing political power of Stralsund. The treaty of the Peace of Stralsund, on 24 March 1370, resulted from the negotiation between the Cologne Federation (1367), consisting of the Hanseatic and Dutch towns, on the one side and the Imperial Council of the Kingdom of Denmark on the other. This treaty further strengthened the power of Hansa as a significant actor at the European level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Swedish period&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the late 15th century, with the diminishing power of the Hansa, the commercial and political importance of Wismar and Stralsund was considerably weakened. As a result of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), both towns came under Swedish rule, later playing a decisive role as administrative centres in the Swedish power system. As the supreme court for all the German possessions of the Kingdom of Sweden, the Royal Swedish Tribunal was set up in the princely court (F&amp;uuml;rstenhof) of Wismar. Under Swedish rule the fortifications of the towns were rebuilt reflecting the new requirements in warfare. Owing to the lack of hinterland, commercial activities were limited, although there was a brief flourishing from 1651 due to exemption from customs duties. With the defeat of the Swedes in the Nordic War of 1700-21, Wismar was occupied by Danish, Prussian, and Hanoverian troops and all its defensive structures were demolished. Wismar remained under Swedish rule after the peace treaty of 1720 but had already lost its importance. Stralsund, however, became the political capital of Swedish Western Pomerania. A number of Baroque gabled houses, as well as a series of factories, survive from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The 19th and 20th centuries&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Swedish era ended in both cities at the beginning of the 19th century and the political situation changed. Wismar initially returned to the Duchy of Mecklenburg, but its position remained ambiguous and it still retained a Swedish link until 1903. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Stralsund became part of Prussia, but there was little improvement in the economy. In 1848 Wismar acquired a railway link, which led to the building of a new harbour and improved development but left the medieval part untouched. Stralsund had a railway in 1863, which allowed industrial development to begin, and it also became the chief port of the Prussian navy. From the early 19th to the early 20th centuries the populations of the two cities doubled (Stralsund from 15,000 to 32,000 and Wismar from 10,000 to 19,000). Towards the end of World War II the towns suffered air raids but the historic centres remained largely intact. From 1945 both towns were part of the Soviet zone, from which the German Democratic Republic emerged. This period saw important economic development, the establishment of small industrial companies, the construction of shipyards, and the expansion of the seaport activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1067</http_url><id_number>1067</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1067.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Wismar and Stralsund, leading centres of the Wendish section of the Hanseatic League from the 13th to 15th centuries and major administrative and defence centres in the Swedish kingdom in the 17th and 18th centuries, contributed to the development and diffusion of brick construction techniques and building types, characteristic features of Hanseatic towns in the Baltic region, as well as the development of defence systems in the Swedish period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Stralsund and Wismar have crucial importance in the development of the building techniques and urban form that became typical of the Hanseatic trading towns, well documented in the major parish churches, the town hall of Stralsund, and the commercial building types, such as the Dielenhaus.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>54.3025000000</latitude><location>State of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern)</location><longitude>13.0852777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Wismar and Stralsund, leading centres of the Wendish section of the Hanseatic League from the 13th to the 15th centuries and major administrative and defence centres in the Swedish kingdom in the 17th and 18th centuries, contributed to the development and diffusion of brick construction techniques and building types, characteristic features of Hanseatic towns in the Baltic region, as well as the development of defence systems in the Swedish period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic towns of Wismar and Stralsund are situated in north-eastern Germany on the Baltic Sea coast. The cities were founded as part of the German colonization of the Slav territories in the late 12th or early 13th centuries. Both cities emerged as important trading places in the 14th century as part of the Hanseatic League. After the Thirty Years' War, the towns came under Swedish rule from the 17th to the early 19th centuries. Under the subsequent changing political situations there was a period of stagnation, but from the second half of the 19th century a gradual economic improvement began. The historic centres survived the Second World War bombardments and were part of the German Democratic Republic until unification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two towns demonstrate features that are often similar, although there are also differences that make them complementary. The town of Wismar was originally surrounded by moats, but these were filled on the landward side. The medieval port on the north side has been largely preserved. The so-called Grube is today testimony of the old man-made canal that used to link the harbour area in the north with ponds in the south-east. The almost circular old town is now surrounded by urban development that began in the second half of the 19th century. The streets of the old town retain their medieval form; the main east-west street is the L&amp;uuml;bsche Strasse, tracing the ancient trade route of the Via Regia, which passes through the central market place with the town hall. The overall form and the silhouette of the town have retained their historic aspect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Stralsund was built on an island slightly oval in shape. The overall form and silhouette of the town have been particularly well preserved for this reason. The two focal points in the town are the old market in the north and the new market in the south. The old market is delimited by the rather exceptional ensemble of the Church of St Nicholas and the town hall. Both towns were subject to the L&amp;uuml;beck Building Code, which regulated the size and form of each lot. The cities differed somewhat in their economic structures. Stralsund was oriented towards the long-distance and intermediate trade of the Hanseatic League, requiring more warehouse space, whereas Wismar laid emphasis on production and so housed large numbers of craftsmen and agriculturalists. As a result the houses of Stralsund are larger than those of Wismar, where the total number of gabled houses is more numerous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The characteristic building material in this region was fired brick, which gave the opportunity to develop a particular type of 'Gothic Brick' which is typical in the countries of the North Sea and the Baltic. On the main elevations the bricks could be moulded in different decorative forms, thus permitting some very elaborate architecture. In its economic position as a leader in the Hanseatic League in its heyday, Stralsund led the way in developing a particular form of construction, an independent architectural language identified as Sundische Gothik (i.e. the Gothic of the region of Sund). The 14th-century town hall of Stralsund is located in front of the west facade of St Nicholas Church and forms a unique synthesis of great variety. The town hall with its outstanding decorated brick elevation facing the old market is the most eloquent example of Sundische Gothik. The building has also some important Baroque additions, such as the two-storeyed colonnade in the courtyard built in the late 17th century. Building activities continued throughout the Renaissance and the later Swedish period and several civic constructions were added. These reflect the architectural forms of the Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassicism, which give their flavour to the townscape, but they respect the medieval rhythm established on the basis of the L&amp;uuml;beck Building Code. The sumptuous Wismar F&amp;uuml;rstenhof is an example of these buildings. The new town hall of Wismar was built in the Classicist style in 1817-19, integrating parts of the earlier medieval town hall.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The medieval towns of Wismar and Stralsund, on the Baltic coast of northern Germany, were major trading centres of the Hanseatic League in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 17th and 18th centuries they became Swedish administrative and defensive centres for the German territories. They contributed to the development of the characteristic building types and techniques of Brick Gothic in the Baltic region, as exemplified in several important brick cathedrals, the Town Hall of Stralsund, and the series of houses for residential, commercial and crafts use, representing its evolution over several centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centres of Stralsund and Wismar</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1244</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of Bremen go back to the 8th and 9th centuries, when it became a seat for a bishop. Its foundation is referred to Bishop Willehad and Emperor Charlemagne who supposedly granted the initial privileges. In 965, Bremen was given the rights to raise customs and to mint. The citizenry was united in a corporate body, universitas civium, as recognized in a diploma in 1186. There is reference to a city council whose members are called consules, in 1225. The City Council prepared a civic code as a law of the people, of which the 1303-04 version became the principal reference. The town entered the Hanseatic League in 1358. Though having already obtained privileges of civic autonomy, it was formally recognized as Freie Reichstadt (free imperial town) in 1646. From 1947, it is one of the Lands of the Federal Republic of Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roland statue in stone was erected in 1404, replacing an earlier wooden statue, and is considered the oldest Roland statue still in place in Germany. The statue used to have a shelter, which was removed in 1885. In 1938, the statue was subject to a major repair, and other restorations followed in 1959 and 1969. In 1983-84, the Roland was again provided by a protective fence as originally; the head was replaced with a copy. Over the years, the statue has had various colour schemes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first Rathaus of Bremen existed in the 14th century. The current Old Town Hall was built in 1405-1409, and renovated in 1595-1612. The master builder was L&amp;uuml;der von Bentheim (ca. 1555-1612), who already had other projects in Bremen, as well as reconstructing the exterior of the Gothic town hall of Leiden (Netherlands) beginning in 1585. The new architectural elements were designed following the plans by Hans Vredeman de Vries, Hendrik Goltzius, Jacob Floris and other masters of the Dutch Renaissance. The New Town Hall was added in 1909- 1913.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Bremen was heavily bombed during the Second World War, and some 62% of the buildings were lost. However, the area of the town hall survived relatively well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1087</http_url><id_number>1087</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1087.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; the Bremen Town Hall and Roland bear an exceptional testimony to the civic autonomy and sovereignty, as these developed in the Holy Roman Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Bremen Town Hall and Roland are an outstanding ensemble representing civic autonomy and market freedom. The town hall represents the medieval Saalgeschossbau-type of hall construction, as well as being an outstanding example of the so-called Weser Renaissance in Northern Germany. The Bremen Roland is the most representative and one of the oldest of Roland statues erected as a symbol of market rights and freedom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; the ensemble of the town hall and Roland of Bremen with its symbolism is directly associated with the development of the ideas of civic autonomy and market freedom in the Holy Roman Empire. The Bremen Roland is referred to a historical figure, paladin of Charlemagne, who became the source for the French &amp;lsquo;chanson de geste&amp;rsquo; and other medieval and Renaissance epic poetry.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.0759722200</latitude><location>Bremen (city-state)</location><longitude>8.8074722220</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Bremen Town Hall and Roland are an outstanding ensemble representing civic autonomy and market freedom, as developed in the Holy Roman Empire. The town hall represents the medieval Saalgeschossbau-type of hall construction, as well as being an outstanding example of the so-called Weser Renaissance in northern Germany. The Bremen Roland is the most representative and one of the oldest of the Roland statues erected as a symbol of commercial rights and freedom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Bremen is situated in north-western Germany, on the river Weser. The site of the medieval town has an oblong form, limited by the river on the south side and by the Stadtgraben, the water moat of the ancient defence system, on the north side. The town hall is situated in the centre of the eastern part of the old city area, separating the market in the south from the Domshof, the cathedral square in the north. The statue of Roland is located in the centre of the market place. The town hall is placed between two churches: the Dom (cathedral church of St Peter) is located on the east side, and the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady) on the west. Across the market is the Sch&amp;uuml;tting, the seat of the ancient merchant guilds. On the east side of the market is the Modernist building for the municipal institutions, the Haus der B&amp;uuml;rgerschaft, built in the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site consists of the town hall and the Roland statue; the buffer zone encloses the market and the cathedral square. The town hall has two parts: the Old Town Hall, on the north side of the market place, which was built in 1405-9, and renovated in 1595-1612, and the New Town Hall that was built in the early 20th century as an addition facing the cathedral square.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Old Town Hall is a two-storey hall building with a rectangular floor plan. It has brick walls and wooden floor structures. The exterior is in exposed brick with alternating dark and light layers; the roof is covered by green copper. The ground floor served for merchants and for theatrical performances. The upper floor is the main festivity hall, of the same dimensions. Between the windows, there are stone statues representing the emperor and prince-electors, which date from the original Gothic phase, integrated with late Renaissance sculptural decoration symbolizing civic autonomy. In the 17th century the town hall was renovated, and the middle three of the eleven axes of the colonnade were accentuated by a bay construction with large rectangular windows and a high gable, an example of the so-called Weser Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The New Town Hall was the result of an architectural competition, and it was built in 1909-13, designed by Gabriel von Seidl from Munich. The building has three main floors, and it was intended for representation and chancellery. The elevations are covered in tiles (clinker); windows and details are built from south German limestone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The stone statue of Roland is about 5.5&amp;nbsp;m tall, and it was initially erected in 1404 to symbolize the rights and privileges of the free and imperial city of Bremen. Such statues were common in German towns and townships, representing a martyr who died in the struggle against heathens. The statue of Bremen is associated with the Margrave of Brittany, a paladin of Charlemagne.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of Bremen go back to the 8th and 9th centuries, when it became the seat of a bishop. In 965, Bremen was given the rights to raise customs and to mint. There is a reference in 1225 to a city council whose members are known as consules; this council prepared a civic code as a law of the people. The town joined the Hanseatic League in 1358. Although having already obtained privileges of civic autonomy, it was formally recognized as a Freie Reichstadt (free imperial town) in 1646. Since 1947 it has been one of the L&amp;auml;nder of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Roland statue in stone was erected in 1404, replacing an earlier wooden statue, and is considered the oldest Roland statue still in place in Germany.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Town Hall and the statue of Roland on the marketplace of Bremen in north-west Germany are outstanding representations of civic autonomy and sovereignty, as these developed in the Holy Roman Empire in Europe. The old town hall was built in the Gothic style in the early 15th century, after Bremen joined the Hanseatic League. The building was renovated in the so-called Weser Renaissance style in the early 17th century. A new town hall was built next to the old one in the early 20th century as part of an ensemble that survived bombardment during the Second World War. The statue stands 5.5 m tall and dates back to 1404.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Town Hall and Roland on the Marketplace of Bremen</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1265</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of Regensburg is complex ranging from the Roman Empire to the modern times. The following are the main periods:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; Antiquity: from AD 179, the site became a strong military base (Castra Regina), built in stone. It developed into a considerable trading post with workshops and also had a large temple. The fort had to resist continuous attacks from 230 until the fall of the Roman period in 476, when it finally passed to the hands of the Teutonic tribes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; Early Middle Ages: the Roman buildings were not demolished, but continued being used and gradually adapted to evolving needs. It became the main centre for the Bavarians. From the 6th century, it was governed by the Agilolfinger dukes, whose palace was in the north-east corner of the Roman fort (Alter Kornmarkt). In 739, Regensburg was made the permanent seat of one of the four old Bavarian bishoprics. The last Carolingian king, Louis the Child, held the last Imperial Diet in the city in 901.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; Later Middle Ages: There followed a period of power struggle, but the importance of Regensburg continued growing. From the 10th to the 13th century, it often hosted royal sojourns, including the christening of Duke Miesko I of Poland, in 966, thus marking the beginning of Polish history. In the 11th century, Bavaria remained royal property, and from 1096 it was again ruled by dukes; the Welf dynasty. In 1139, Duke Leopold IV took over the Bavarian duchy, but he failed to get the support of the Regensburg citizens, who were increasingly involved in decision making.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; Imperial Free City: throughout the 12th century Regensburg was administered by outside rulers, marked also by the struggle between the Bishop and the Duke. With the help of King Philip of Swabia (1198-1208), the citizens of Regensburg finally established a stronger position as an urban commune. In 1245, Emperor Frederick II laid the legal foundation for the establishment of the municipal rule, the election of the Council, Mayor, and the municipal officers. At the crossroads of important trade routes, Regensburg played a leading role in trading with eastern Central Europe and the Balkans. It then developed its contacts especially to Northern Italy and especially Venice. In the 15th century, Regensburg fell behind in comparison to growing cities such as Nuremberg, Augsburg and Ulm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; 15th century: After long negotiations, a royal governor was appointed by the Emperor to rule Regensburg, in 1499. The first governor prepared the Imperial Government Regulations to guide all important administrative issues. In 1514, in keeping with the city's constitution, an inner and an outer council were established. With some modifications, the constitution remained legally binding until 1802.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; 16th to 18th centuries: Protestantism began officially in Regensburg, with a sermon in the Dominican church, 14-15 October 1542. Rapidly the citizens took over the new faith even though the city council was trying to counteract the trend. During the Thirty Year War, Regensburg was made into a garrison city. There was a bitter conflict between Regensburg and Bavaria, and the city suffered of plundering. In 1633, it was under the siege by the Swedes, but was saved from the worst. However, its economy suffered seriously. After the war, in 1663, Regensburg hosted the Imperial Diet, with some interruptions, until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1806.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; 19th century: during the Napoleonic wars, Regensburg suffered some bombardment. After the peace treaty between France and Austria, in 1809, Bavaria was able to push its claim to Regensburg, which was handed over to Bavaria in 1810 becoming a provincial city. The destroyed buildings were now rebuilt. After the inauguration of Walhalla in 1842, it was decided to convert the Cathedral, which had baroque interiors, back into its Gothic form, and complete its western towers with Gothic spires. The city started expanding and, by 1878, most of its medieval walls had been demolished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;bull; 20th century: in the 1930s, some industry was introduced to the city, but outside the medieval city. During the Second World War the town was also subject to bombing, but the Old City remained the only intact historic city in Germany. The population had grown from 29,000 in 1871 to 53,000 in 1914. After the Second World War, due to a flood of immigration, the population grew to 147,000. In the 1950s, the city was subject to restoration and improvement works. The protection of the historic area was integrated into city planning legislation in 1973-75.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1155</http_url><id_number>1155</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1155.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.0205555600</latitude><location>Bavaria</location><longitude>12.0991666700</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the Danube River in Bavaria, this medieval town contains many buildings of exceptional quality that testify to its history as a trading centre and to its influence on the region from the 9th century. A notable number of historic structures span some two millennia and include ancient Roman, Romanesque and Gothic buildings. Regensburg&amp;rsquo;s 11th- to 13th-century architecture &amp;ndash; including the market, city hall and cathedral &amp;ndash; still defines the character of the town marked by tall buildings, dark and narrow lanes, and strong fortifications. The buildings include medieval patrician houses and towers, a large number of churches and monastic ensembles as well as the 12th-century Old Bridge. The town is also remarkable for the vestiges testifing to its rich history as one of the centres of the Holy Roman Empire that turned to Protestantism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old town of Regensburg with Stadtamhof</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1335</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The builders of the Berlin Garden towns and large housing estates found the land they needed for implementing the housing policy at the quality needed in the rural outer districts of Berlin. The intense development in that part of the city required the existence of the city itself with its economy and strong infrastructure. The new housing estates were situated near the stations of the tightly knit, expanding Berlin commuter transport network. All nominated estates were built by cooperatives and nonprofit organisations. Closed tenements with densely packed structures were replaced by the concept of open housing, created as garden towns and cities. This new concept represents a radical break from urban development of the 19th century with its corridor-like streets and reserved spaces for squares.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The effect of World War I on social policy and the founding of the Weimar republic had a great impact on the development of the city of Berlin. For the urban development plan the transition to the republic in 1918/19 brought a major change to working conditions. The democratic electoral law for regional and local parliaments opened the way to a more socially focussed development and planning policy. The new order also made it possible to implement long overdue changes in the administrative structure. This created the precondition for applying uniform planning principles to the entire area. The economic expansion of Berlin, mainly through electrical engineering, supported by municipal investment, facilitated Berlin's rise to the rank of an acknowledged metropolis. Planning works were dominated by the Berlin central government. The guidelines for housing policy and urban development were mainly determined by two urban councillors: Ludwig Hoffman and Martin Wagner. Wagner was a social democrat and architect, who pushed for the construction of reformed housing estates. This was most significant as the lack of housing in Berlin had been further aggravated by war. The political and economic consequence of World War I, in conjunction with the new building laws of the Weimar Republic, ended entirely private housing construction. The demand for small flats was from 100,000 to 130,000 units. Housing construction was finally re-activated, after inflation and currency reform, by the introduction of a mortgage servicing tax in 1924.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reform building regulation, which became effective in 1925, provided the basis for new social housing. It aimed to reduce the density of buildings in residential estates and to separate the functions of individual zones. It divided the entire area of the city into different development zones - starting in the city centre where buildings were allowed 5 storeys in density, it decreased towards the outskirts where larger housing estates were built. Here buildings were allowed to reach a maximum of two to three storeys. The density of buildings was much reduced in these areas, where cross buildings and wings were prohibited. Berlin now had the opportunity to implement housing development in accordance with the models of neues bauen. Within only seven years (1924-1931) more than 146,000 flats were built. Such volume of construction was never again reached, not even during the post-war period of the 1950s. Wagner played a central role in non-profit housing welfare in Berlin during the Weimar Republic. For the development of the city he created a polycentric model, dissolving the division between town and countryside. Inside the railway ring, which surrounded the dense Berlin inner-city area, residential quarters were built of open multi-storey design within greenery, to fill the remaining gaps within the city's structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the early phase of the mortgage servicing tax era, the main focus of housing policy was on developing estates of small single-family houses in suburban areas. By this means the responsible politicians wished to counteract the effect of proletarian mass housing and to re-create the people's link with houses and nature, which had been lost. They also wished to give the inhabitants of these housing estates the opportunity of self-sufficient food production. When the income from mortgage servicing tax decreased in the late 1920s, the city of Berlin mobilised its own finance to alleviate the still pressing shortage of housing with further estates built in multi-storey ribbon form. Although the economic crises of 1928-29 had an impact on housing construction, the Berlin government was still able to erect two large estates on the city own-land in 1929-31. When the Nazis took power in 1933, the structures of organisation and personnel in the municipal administration of Berlin completely changed and ended the democratic housing development, which was largely influenced by social-democracy, left-wing trade unions and cooperatives. Martin Wagner had to resign from office. The Nazis' building policy was based on a different idea of the arts. Modernity and neues bauen were no longer sought. Bruno Taut, Martin Wagner, Walter Gropius and many other authors of modern housing had to emigrate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1930s and 1940s, no major changes were made to the housing estates and they suffered very little destruction during the war. Their appearance was occasionally altered by early repair works after the war, when in some cases the works did not re-establish the original design. From the 1980s, many of these changes were replaced by new works re-establishing the original monuments. Refurbishment and modernisation programmes were introduced from the 1950s to maintain the basic fabric of the housing estates of Britz, Schillerpark, Weisse Stadt and Siemensstadt in West Berlin. These programmes did not take into account the principles of restoration and conservation. In the estates on East Berlin territory (Gartenstadt Falkenberg and Wohnstadt Carl Legien) only occasional repair works were carried out. In the western part of the city thorough restoration works began in the 1980s. These works were carried out in close cooperation among authorities, conservation experts, resident communities and the architects hired for the project. This process began in the eastern parts of the city in the 1990s after the reunification of Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1239</http_url><id_number>1239</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1239.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.4483333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>13.4500000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Berlin Modernism Housing Estates. The property consists of six housing estates that testify to innovative housing policies from 1910 to 1933, especially during the Weimar Republic, when the city of Berlin was particularly progressive socially, politically and culturally. The property is an outstanding example of the building reform movement that contributed to improving housing and living conditions for people with low incomes through novel approaches to town planning, architecture and garden design. The estates also provide exceptional examples of new urban and architectural typologies, featuring fresh design solutions, as well as technical and aesthetic innovations. Bruno Taut, Martin Wagner and Walter Gropius were among the leading architects of these projects which exercised considerable influence on the development of housing around the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Berlin Modernism Housing Estates</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1416</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/623</http_url><id_number>623</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_623.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.8200000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>10.3400000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rammelsberg-Goslar is the largest and longest-lived mining and metallurgical complex in the central European metal-producing region whose role was paramount in the economy of Europe for many centuries. It is a very characteristic form of urban-industrial ensemble which has its most complete and best preserved expression in Europe at Rammelsberg-Goslar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rammelsberg lies 1&amp;nbsp;km south-east of Goslar, in the Harz Mountains. It has been the site of mining for metalliferous ores and metal production (silver, copper, lead, zinc and gold) since as early as the 3rd century BC. The first documentary mention of Rammelsberg is from the beginning of the 11th century. The rich deposits of silver ore there were one of the main reasons for siting an imperial residence at the foot of the Rammelsberg mountain by Emperor Henry II; he held his first Imperial Assembly there in 1009. The town of Goslar grew up around the imperial residence. The town was to play an important role in the economic operations of the Hanseatic League and achieved great prosperity, which reached a peak around 1450. The revenues from mining, metal production, and trade financed the creation of the late medieval townscape of fortifications, churches, public buildings, and richly decorated mine-owners' residences which distinguish the present-day town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1552 Rammelsberg was taken from the town of Goslar by the Duchy of Brandenburg, which managed it until 1866, when the mining area was seized by the Kingdom of Prussia. Mining and metallurgical operations continued there until the last mine closed in 1988.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remains of the mining industries include waste heaps from the 10th century and excavated remains of the installations that produced them: the St Johanniskirche (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 970); ore-transportation tracks of the 12th century: the Rathstiefster tunnel or adit (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1150); mining structures of the 13th century: the Tiefer-Julius-Fortunatus tunnel (1585); the overseer's house (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1700); Communion Quarry (1768), the Roeder tunnel system, including two well-preserved underground water-wheels (1805): the old office building (1902); the haulage way and vertical shaft with technical equipment (1905); the Gelenbeeker tunnel (1927); the Winkler ventilation shaft (1936); the surface plant complex of 1935-42: and mineworkers' houses from 1878 to 1950.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Goslar likewise preserves evidence of its growth and long identification with the mining industry, with remains from many periods. Among these are the Imperial Palace and the Palatine chapel of St Ulrich (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1100): the Frankenburger Church (1130); the antechurch of the former Stiftskapelle (1160), containing the 11th-century imperial throne; the market place fountain (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1200); the Frankenburg miners' settlement (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1500); many houses of mine-owners from the 14th-16th centuries; and the miners' infirmary (1537).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was not significantly damaged in the Second World War and so the historic centre has survived intact, with its original medieval layout and many Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque buildings of high quality.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Upper Harz mining water management system, which lies south of the Rammelsberg mines and the town of Goslar, has been developed over a period of some 800 years to assist in the process of extracting ore for the production of non-ferrous metals. Its construction was first undertaken in the Middle Ages by Cistercian monks, and it was then developed on a vast scale from the end of the 16th century until the 19th century. It is made up of an extremely complex but perfectly coherent system of artificial ponds, small channels, tunnels and underground drains. It enabled the development of water power for use in mining and metallurgical processes. It is a major site for mining innovation in the western world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mines of Rammelsberg, Historic Town of Goslar and Upper Harz Water Management  System</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1576</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/187</http_url><id_number>187</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_187.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.1527800000</latitude><location>District of Hanover, State of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen)</location><longitude>9.9438900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;St Michael's Church has exerted great influence on developments in architecture. The complex bears exceptional testimony to a civilization that has disappeared. These two edifices and their artistic treasures give a better overall and more immediate understanding than any other decoration in Romanesque churches in the Christian West.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient Benedictine abbey church of St Michael, built between 1010 and 1022 by Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim, is one of the key monuments of medieval art. Of basilical layout with opposed apses, the church is characterized by its symmetrical design: the east and west choirs are each preceded by a transept which protrudes substantially from the side aisles; elegant circular turrets on the axis of the gable of both transept arms contrast with the silhouettes of the massive lantern towers located at the crossing. In the nave, the presence of square impost pillars alternating in a original rhythm with columns having cubic capitals creates a type of elevation which was prove very successful in Ottonian and Romanesque art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Mary's Cathedral, rebuilt after the fire of 1046, still retains its original crypt. The nave arrangement, with the familiar alternation of two consecutive columns for every pillar, was modelled after that of St Michael's, but its proportions are more slender.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church of St Michael and the cathedral contain an exceptional series of elements of interior decoration that together are quite unique for the understanding of layouts used during the Romanesque era. First come the bronze doors dating to 1015, which retrace the events from the book of Genesis and the life of Christ, and the bronze column dating from around 1020, the spiral decor of which, inspired by Trajan's Column, depicts scenes from the New Testament.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These two exceptional castings, the first of this size since antiquity, were commissioned by Bishop Bernward for St Michael's; they are now preserved in the cathedral. Also of special significance are the corona of light of Bishop Hezilon and the baptismal fonts of gold-plated bronze of Bishop Conrad.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;St Michael's Church was built between 1010 and 1020 on a symmetrical plan with two apses that was characteristic of Ottonian Romanesque art in Old Saxony. Its interior, in particular the wooden ceiling and painted stucco-work, its famous bronze doors and the Bernward bronze column, are &amp;ndash; together with the treasures of St Mary's Cathedral &amp;ndash; of exceptional interest as examples of the Romanesque churches of the Holy Roman Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>St Mary's Cathedral and St Michael's Church at Hildesheim</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1627</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2004-2006</danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Christians met for worship in a private house in the north-east quarter of Roman Cologne near the city wall. Following the Edict of Milan in AD 313, when Constantine proclaimed religious freedom, this building was enlarged as a church. Alongside it were an atrium, a baptistery, and a dwelling-house, possibly for the bishop. This modest ensemble was extended and enlarged in the following centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Credit for inspiring the construction of the first great Romanesque cathedral on the site is given to Archbishop Hildebold, a friend and advisor of Charlemagne. This immense building, known by the 13th century as "the mother and master of all churches in Germany; was consecrated by Archbishop Willibert in September 870. Post-world war II excavations, as well as contemporary documents, provide evidence of its form and decoration. It was a basilica, with a central nave flanked by two aisles, c. 95 m in length (two further flanking aisles were added in the mid-10th century, making it the first five-aisled church outside Rome) and with a large atrium in front of its western facade. A two-storeyed Chapel of the Palatinate, in the style of Charlemagne's chapel in Aachen, was added to the south transept at the beginning of the 11th century, and in the second half of that century it was connected by two lofty arcades at the east end with the Collegiate Church of St Mary ad Gradus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite its generous dimensions, this cathedral was found to be too small to accommodate the throngs of pilgrims who visited it after the relics of the Magi were brought there from Milan in 1164 by Archbishop Reinald von Dassel. The ambition of Engelbert to make his archiepiscopal cathedral into one of the most important in the Holy Roman Empire led him to urge the construction of an entirely new building, but the start of the work was delayed by his murder in 1225, and it was not until1248 that work began.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original intention had been to demolish only the west transept of the existing building, so that the remainder could continue as an archiepiscopal church, but careless demolition led to the destruction of the entire building by fire, and so the way was clear for the creation of an entirely new building under the master-builder Gerhard. It would appear that he was familiar with the great French cathedrals, especially Amiens; however, it is unlikely that he had worked there, since he incorporated the artistic components of Amiens without the technical innovations that took place there. Gerhard died around 1260 and work continued under his assistant Arnold, who was in charge until 1299. work continued steadily at the chevet (east end), where the painted windows were installed around 1310; the cathedral Chapter was able to install itself there and consecrate the high altar in 1322, after 74 years of construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Meanwhile, work was under way on the western part of the cathedral, and continued under successive master-builders until1560, when all work ceased on the instructions of the Chapter, for reasons that have never been satisfactorily explained. By this time much of the nave and the four side-aisles (continuing the plan of the Romanesque building) had been completed, along with the main structure of the lofty south tower of the west end. Despite numerous efforts, the cathedral remained in an uncompleted state for the following centuries, although some additions were made to the furnishings and decoration. When the French seized Cologne in 1794 the Archbishop and Chapter moved to Aachen, and the building was used first for storage of grain and fodder and then as a parish church. However, interest rekindled and a movement for its completion got under way. work was to begin again after Cologne passed to Prussia in 1815. Karl Friedrich Schinkel visited the cathedral in 1816 and sent his talented pupil Ernst Friedrich Zwirner there as Cathedral Architect. Work did not begin, however, until 1840, financed jointly by the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV and an independent Society of Friends of the Cathedral (which raised enormous sums from a series of lotteries). By 1880 the building was complete, after 632 years and two months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During World War II the cathedral suffered tremendous damage during air-raids: no fewer than fourteen heavy bombs reduced it to a pitiful state. Restoration and reconstruction work rendered the chevet usable in time for the centenary celebrations in 1948, but the remainder of the building was not restored fully until1956.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/292</http_url><id_number>292</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_292.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (i), (ii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the monument is of outstanding universal value being an exceptional work of human creative genius, constructed over more than six centuries and a powerful testimony to the strength and persistence of Christian belief in medieval and modern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.9411111100</latitude><location>State of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen)</location><longitude>6.9572222220</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cologne Cathedral, constructed over more than six centuries, has an exceptional intrinsic value and contains artistic masterpieces. It is a powerful testimony to the strength and persistence of Christian belief in medieval and modern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Christians met for worship in a private house in Roman Cologne near the city wall. Following the Edict of Milan in 313, when Constantine proclaimed religious freedom, this building was enlarged as a church. Alongside it were an atrium, a baptistry and a dwelling-house, possibly for the bishop. This modest ensemble was extended and enlarged in the following centuries. This immense building, known by the 13th century as 'the mother and master of all churches in Germany', was consecrated in September 70.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Post-Second World War excavations, as well as contemporary documents, provide evidence of its form and decoration - a basilica, with a central nave flanked by two aisles and a large atrium in front of its western facade. A two-storeyed Chapel of the Palatinate, in the style of Charlemagne's chapel in Aachen, was added to the south transept at the beginning of the 11th century, and later that century it was connected by two lofty arcades at the east end with the Collegiate Church of St Mary ad Gradus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite its generous dimensions, this cathedral was found to be too small to accommodate the throngs of pilgrims who visited it after the relics of the Magi were brought there from Milan in 1164. The ambition of Engelbert to make his archiepiscopal cathedral into one of the most important in the Holy Roman Empire led him to urge the construction of an entirely new building, but the start of the work was delayed by his murder in 1225, and it was not until 1248 that work began. In 1560 much of the nave and the four side-aisles had been completed, along with the main structure of the lofty south tower of the west end. Despite numerous efforts, the cathedral remained in an uncompleted state for the following centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the French seized Cologne in 1794 the Archbishop and Chapter moved to Aachen, and the building was used first for storage of grain and fodder and then as a parish church. Work was to begin again after Cologne passed to Prussia in 1815. Karl Friedrich Schinkel visited the cathedral in 1816 and sent his talented pupil Ernst Friedrich Zwirner there as cathedral architect. The work did not begin, however, until 1840. By 1880 the building was complete, after 632 years and two months.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cologne Cathedral is a High Gothic five-aisled basilica, with a projecting transept and a two-tower facade. The construction is totally unified. The western section, begun in 1330, changes in style, but this is not perceptible in the overall building. The 19th-century work followed the medieval forms and techniques faithfully. The original liturgical appointments of the choir are still extant to a considerable degree. These include the high altar on an enormous monolithic slab of black marble, the carved-oak choir stalls (1308-11), the painted choir screens (1332-40), the 14 statues on the pillars in the choir (1270-90), and the stained-glass windows, the largest extant cycle of 14th-century windows in Europe. There is an outstanding series of tombs of 12 archbishops between 976 and 1612.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Begun in 1248, the construction of this Gothic masterpiece took place in several stages and was not completed until 1880. Over seven centuries, successive builders were inspired by the same faith and a spirit of absolute fidelity to the original plans. Apart from its exceptional intrinsic value and the artistic masterpieces it contains, Cologne Cathedral testifies to the enduring strength of European Christianity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cologne Cathedral</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1628</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/272</http_url><id_number>272</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_272.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>53.8666700000</latitude><location>State of Schleswig-Holstein</location><longitude>10.6916700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;L&amp;uuml;beck is the city which, more than any other, exemplifies the power and historic role of the Hanseatic League. Founded in 1143 by Heinrich der L&amp;ouml;we (Henry the Lion) on a small island of the Baltic coast, L&amp;uuml;beck was the former capital and Queen City of the Hanseatic League from 1230 to 1535. As such it was one of the principal cities of this league of merchant cities which monopolized the trade of the Baltic and the North Sea, just as Venice and Genoa exerted their control over the Mediterranean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plan of L&amp;uuml;beck, with its blade-like outline determined by two parallel traffic routes running along the crest of the island, dates to the beginnings of the site and testifies to the expansion of the commercial centre of Northern Europe. To the west lay the richest quarters with the trading houses and the homes of the rich merchants and to the east were small traders and artisans. The very strict socio-economic organization emerges through the singular disposition of the Buden (small workshops) set in the back courtyards of the rich homes, which were accessed through a narrow network of alleyways (G&amp;auml;nge); other lots on the courtyard (Stiftungsh&amp;ouml;fe) illustrated the charity of the merchants who housed there the impoverished widows of their colleagues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;L&amp;uuml;beck remained an urban monument characteristic of a significant historical structure, but the city was severely damaged during the Second World War, in which almost 20% of it, including the most famous monumental complexes, were destroyed - the cathedral, the churches of St Peter and St Mary and especially the Gr&amp;uuml;ndungsviertel, the hilltop quarter where the gabled houses of the rich merchants clustered. Selective reconstruction has permitted the replacement of the most important churches and monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Omitting the zones that have been entirely reconstructed, the World Heritage site includes several areas of significance in the history of L&amp;uuml;beck:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Zone 1: The site of the Burgkloster, a Dominican convent built in fulfilment of a vow made at the battle of Bornh&amp;ouml;ved (1227), contains the original foundations of the castle built by Count Adolf von Schauenburg on the Buku isthmus. The Koberg site preserves an entire late 18th-century neighbourhood built around a public square bordered by two important monuments, the Jakobikirche and the Heilig-Geist-Hospital. The sections between the Glockengiesserstrasse and the Aegidienstrasse retain their original layout and contain a remarkable number of medieval structures. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Zone 2: Between the two large churches that mark its boundaries - the Petrikirche to the north and the cathedral to the south - this area includes rows of superb patrician residences from the 15th and 16th centuries. The enclave on the left bank of the Trave, with its salt storehouses and the Holstentor, reinforces the monumental aspect of an area that was entirely renovated at the height of the Hansa epoch, when L&amp;uuml;beck dominated trade in Northern Europe. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Zone 3: Located at the heart of the medieval city, the Marienkirche, the Rathaus, and the Marktplatz bear the tragic scars of the heavy bombing suffered during the Second World War.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;L&amp;uuml;beck &amp;ndash; the former capital and Queen City of the Hanseatic League &amp;ndash; was founded in the 12th century and prospered until the 16th century as the major trading centre for northern Europe. It has remained a centre for maritime commerce to this day, particularly with the Nordic countries. Despite the damage it suffered during the Second World War, the basic structure of the old city, consisting mainly of 15th- and 16th-century patrician residences, public monuments (the famous Holstentor brick gate), churches and salt storehouses, remains unaltered.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hanseatic City of Lübeck</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1706</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/720</http_url><id_number>720</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_720.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.9166700000</latitude><location>District of Darmstadt-Dieburg, State of Hesse (Hessen)</location><longitude>8.7538900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Messel Pit has provided a wealth of fossils that have greatly increased understanding of the Eocene Age. It is a small site approximately 1,000&amp;nbsp;m long (north to south) and 700&amp;nbsp;m wide (east to west).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Eocene ('dawn of new times') epoch (57-36 million years ago) was a remarkable period in the evolution of life on Earth. This was the time when mammals became firmly established in all the principal land ecosystems. They also reinvaded the seas (e.g. whales) and took to the air (e.g. bats). During this period of geological time, North America, Europe and Asia were in continuous land contact and the partial explanation of current distribution patterns is provided by the Eocene fossil record.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Messel Pit provides the single best site which contributes to the understanding of the middle part of this period. Messel is also exceptional in the quality of preservation, quantity and diversity of fossils. Messel offers fully articulated skeletons and the outline of the entire body as well as feathers, hairs and stomach contents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sediments of the Messel formation lie on deposits of 270-290&amp;nbsp;million-year-old Red Sandstone and crystalline magmatic primary rock outcrops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Eocene epoch, subsidence along faults in the Earth's crust led to the formation of a lake basin. The gradual subsidence of old sediments resulted in the formation of new sediments above them, and over time immense deposits accumulated. The oil-shale bed at Messel originally extended to a depth of 190&amp;nbsp;m. The subsidence of the deposits preserved them from erosion. Outcrops of older seams from the Eocene succession are found on the slopes of the pit. The location of the Eocene Lake Messel lay south of its present position. This accounts for the site appearing to have had a tropical to subtropical climate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fossils found here are providing a unique insight into an early stage of mammal, evolution when many of the basic steps in diversification were being achieved. But mammals were not the only component of the fauna - birds, reptiles, fish, insects and plant remains all contribute to an extraordinary fossil assemblage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In terms of fossil localities which provide a window into the Eocene Age, Messel is the best and most productive example discovered to date. In contrast to other fossil sites that are marine, Messel can be considered as the single best 'classic' locality snapshot of life as it was in the Eocene. It has been identified as one of the four most significant fossil sites in the world by several senior palaeontologists.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Messel Pit is the richest site in the world for understanding the living environment of the Eocene, between 57 million and 36 million years ago. In particular, it provides unique information about the early stages of the evolution of mammals and includes exceptionally well-preserved mammal fossils, ranging from fully articulated skeletons to the contents of stomachs of animals of this period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Messel Pit Fossil Site</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1733</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/169</http_url><id_number>169</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_169.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.7927800000</latitude><location>District of Lower Franconia, State of Bavaria (Bayern)</location><longitude>9.9388900000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This magnificent Baroque palace – one of the largest and most beautiful in Germany and surrounded by wonderful gardens – was created under the patronage of the prince-bishops Lothar Franz and Friedrich Carl von Schönborn. It was built and decorated in the 18th century by an international team of architects, painters (including Tiepolo), sculptors and stucco-workers, led by Balthasar Neumann.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Würzburg Residence with the Court Gardens and Residence Square</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1735</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1368</http_url><id_number>1368</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1368.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.9836111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.8111111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Fagus Factory in Alfeld is a 10-building complex - began around 1910 to the design of Walter Gropius, which is a landmark in the development of modern architecture and industrial design. Serving all stages of manufacture, storage and dispatch of lasts used by the shoe industry, the complex, which is still operational today, is situated in Alfeld an der Leine in Lower Saxony. With its groundbreaking vast expanses of glass panels and functionalist aesthetics, the complex foreshadowed the work of the Bauhaus school and is a landmark in the development of architecture in Europe and North America.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fagus Factory in Alfeld</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1778</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1379</http_url><id_number>1379</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1379.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;It is today the most important and best preserved example of court opera house architecture and of the Baroque opera culture. The theatre is a masterwork of Baroque court theatre architecture by Giuseppe Galli Bibiena in terms of its tiered loge form and acoustic, decorative and iconological properties. It marks a specific point in the development of opera houses, being a court opera house located not within a palace but as an urban element in the public space, foreshadowing the great public opera houses of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.9444444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>11.5786111111</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Opera House built 1745-50 faces west across a carefully contrived open space to create an urban focal point between existing buildings. The property boundary is formed by the outer peripheral walls of the theatre and covers 0.19 ha. The building is 71.5 metres long, 30.8 metres wide and 26.2 metres high. The monumental entrance fa&amp;ccedil;ade design by the Italian architect of the Opera House interior, Giuseppe Galli Bibiena was not used; instead a design by Bayreuth&amp;rsquo;s French court architect Joseph Saint-Pierre was built. The stone fa&amp;ccedil;ade has giant-order Corinthian columns on the first floor above a rusticated stone ground floor with three arched doors beneath a cantilevered balcony. A balustrade supporting full-size figures runs along the top of the fa&amp;ccedil;ade in front of a hipped mansard roof. Entrance is via a low vestibule to the full height foyer where the Margrave&amp;acute;s arrival was celebrated. Here twin flights of stairs lead up to the Court Loge (Box). The upward progress of the ruling couple could be observed by the audience from three concave tiers of balustrade galleries on either side, which match the height of the loges (boxes) within the auditorium and accommodated the staircases for the audience in the corners. These galleries continue as corridors around the auditorium. From the corridors there is access to the passageways leading to the rear of the loges.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The auditorium&amp;acute;s bell-shaped ground plan lined with three tiers of loges is typical of Italian opera houses of the period. Together with the seating in the stalls on the floor of the auditorium, the opera house can accommodate an audience of around 500. A balustrade balcony accessible from the ground floor runs around the auditorium and gives access to the Court Loge. The distance from the original front edge of the stage to the rear wall of the Court Loge is around 22 metres. The span of the roofing structure was a considerable engineering feat at the time. Within the building&amp;rsquo;s shell the auditorium and proscenium arch were constructed as a building within a building. The tiers of loges are encased in a half-timbered structure, and supported by the ceiling beams of the galleries. The interior of the building consists solely of wood, but the rear walls of the loges and the coffered ceiling are covered in canvas to avoid cracks and achieve improved acoustics.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The heavy half-timbered wall between the corridors and the loges contributes to the environment and sound insulation of the auditorium from the corridors running along the outer walls. The parquet flooring on the ground floor is a replacement, dating from 1935, of an older wooden floor, which was probably predated by flagstones. The Court Loge rises to the height of two tiers and is emphasised by Corinthian columns, as are the proscenium and the trumpeters&amp;rsquo; loges. The lower loges are ornamented with laughing heads adorned with baskets of fruits and flowers. In contrast to this, the loges of the upper tiers are more simply ornamented.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The balustraded central bay of the Court Loge forms a triumphal arch with the bays on each side also accentuated by Corinthian columns with spiral garlands. It is crowned by a baldachin carrying the Brandenburg heraldic eagle. The three loges above are emphasized by caryatids on the supports and balustrades. Above are rocailles over the side bays and a centrally-placed cartouche with a dedication to the Margraves. The stuccoed stove recesses in the Court Loge were installed in the second half of the 18th century in order to heat the loge, since it quickly became evident that heating the building would be a problem (traditionally concerts were held during the cold months of the year). The red eagle of the Margraves of Brandenburg appears in the centre of the coffered ceiling with the heart-shaped shield of the Hohenzollern.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The proscenium loges were converted into stage exits in 1935. Due to this intervention the balustrade trumpeters&amp;rsquo; loges have a greater emphasis today. Forming diagonal splays to the proscenium, they housed trumpeters and drummers who announced the Margrave&amp;acute;s entrance. Spirally garlanded Corinthian columns frame the proscenium arch, echoing the treatment of the Court Loge and emphasising the relationship between the stage action and the watching princely couple. Up until the late 18th century the stage portal opened up fully and created a direct spatial connection between the auditorium and the stage, and the audience and the theatrical action. Depicted on the centre of the auditorium ceiling is a view of the heavens. The illusion is assisted by an enormous painted trompe l&amp;rsquo;oeil entablature. As a prince of peace and active supporter of the arts, it was Apollo whom Margrave Frederick chose as his iconological model. In the sculptural programme on the fa&amp;ccedil;ade of the opera building, Athena, goddess of wisdom in war and peace, is at his side representing the Margravine.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A masterpiece of Baroque theatre architecture, built between 1745 and 1750, the Opera House is the only entirely preserved example of its type where an audience of 500 can experience Baroque court opera culture and acoustics authentically, as its auditorium retains its original materials, i.e. wood and canvas. Commissioned by Margravine Wilhelmine, wife of Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg&amp;ndash;Bayreuth, it was designed by the renowned theatre architect Giuseppe Galli Bibiena. As a court opera house in a public space, it foreshadowed the large public theatres of the 19th century. The highly decorated theatre&amp;rsquo;s tiered loge structure of wood with illusionistic painted canvas represents the ephemeral ceremonial architectural tradition that was employed in pageants and celebrations for princely self-representation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Margravial Opera House Bayreuth</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1799</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/271</http_url><id_number>271</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_271.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.6812777800</latitude><location>Town of Steingaden, District of Weilheim-Schongau, Region of Upper Bavaria, State of Bavaria (Bayern)</location><longitude>10.9001388900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The sanctuary of Wies, a pilgrimage church miraculously preserved in the beautiful setting of an Alpine valley, is a perfect masterpiece of Rococo art and a masterpiece of creative genius, as well as an exceptional testimony to a civilization that has disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hamlet of Wies, near Steingaden in Bavaria, was the setting of a miracle in 1738: a simple wooden image of Christ mounted on a column, which was no longer venerated by the Premonstratensians, appeared to some of the faithful to be in tears. A wooden chapel constructed in the fields housed the miraculous statue for some time. However, pilgrims from Germany, Austria, Bohemia, and even Italy became so numerous that the Abbot of the Premonstratensians of Steingaden decided to construct a splendid sanctuary. Accordingly, work began in 1745 under the direction of the celebrated architect, Dominikus Zimmermann, who was to construct in this pastoral setting in the foothills of the Alps one of the most polished creations of Bavarian Rococo. The choir was consecrated in 1749 and the remainder of the church finished by 1754. That year Dominikus Zimmermann left the city of Landsberg where he lived to settle in Wies near his masterpiece, in a new house where he died in 1766.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church, which is oval in plan, is preceded to the west by a semi-circular narthex. Inside, twin columns placed in front of the walls support the capriciously cut-out cornice and the wooden vaulting with its flattened profile; this defines a second interior volume where the light from the windows and the oculi is cleverly diffused both directly and indirectly. To the east, a long deep choir is surrounded by an upper and a lower gallery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prodigious stucco decoration is the work of Dominikus Zimmermann, assisted by his brother Johann Baptist, who was the painter of the Elector of Bavaria, Max-Emmanuel, from 1720. The lively colours of the paintings bring out the sculpted detail and, in the upper zones, the frescoes and stuccowork interpenetrate to produce a light and living decor of an unprecedented richness and refinement. The abundance of motifs and of figures, the fluidity of the lines, the skilful opening of surfaces, and the 'lights' continually offer the observer fresh surprises. The ceilings, painted as trompe-l'&amp;oelig;il, appear to open on an iridescent sky, across which angels fly; these, too, contribute to the lightness of the whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Moreover, the preservation is perfect: the colours have retained all their freshness and nothing is lacking in the Rococo whole that is Wies - the splendid asymmetrical ironwork of the choir, the pews of sculpted wood for the faithful, the pulpit, and the elegant and amply modelled saints that inhabit the architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Miraculously preserved in the beautiful setting of an Alpine valley, the Church of Wies (1745&amp;ndash;54), the work of architect Dominikus Zimmermann, is a masterpiece of Bavarian Rococo &amp;ndash; exuberant, colourful and joyful.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pilgrimage Church of Wies</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1864</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/515</http_url><id_number>515</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_515.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.6536900000</latitude><location>District of Bergstrasse, State of Hesse (Hessen)</location><longitude>8.5685800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The religious complex represented by the former Lorsch Abbey with its 1,200-year-old gatehouse, which is unique and in excellent condition, comprises a rare architectural document of the Carolingian era with impressively preserved sculpture and painting of that period. It gives architectural evidence of the awakening of the West to the spirit of the early and high Middle Ages under the first king and emperor, Charlemagne.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the small town of Lorsch, between Worms and Darmstadt, is the renowned Torhalle, one of the rare Carolingian buildings that has retained its original appearance. It is a reminder of the past grandeur of an abbey founded around 760-64. The first Abbot was the Bishop of Metz, Chrodegang (died 766). Sometime before 764 he brought monks from Gorze to live there and in 765 he donated the relics of St Nazarius, which he had acquired in Rome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 767, Thurincbert, one of the founder's brothers, donated new land in sand dunes safe from floods about 500&amp;nbsp;m from the original site. The monastery was placed under the Emperor's protection in 772. In 774, with Charlemagne in attendance, the Archbishop of Mainz consecrated the new church, dedicated to Saints Peter, Paul and Nazarius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Codex Laureshamensis&lt;/em&gt;, a chronicle of the abbey, lists the improvements made by three of the most important abbots, Helmerich, Richbod and Adelog, between 778 and 837. The monastery's zenith was probably in 876 when, on the death of Louis II the German (876) it became the burial place for the Carolingian kings of Germany. To be a worthy resting place for the remains of his father, Louis III the Young (876-82) had a crypt built, an &lt;em&gt;ecclesia varia&lt;/em&gt;, where he was also buried, as were his son Hugo and Cunegonde, wife of Conrad I (the Duke of Franconia elected King of Germany at the death of the last of the German Carolingians, Louis IV the Child).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery flourished throughout the 10th century, but in 1090 was ravaged by fire. In the 12th century a first reconstruction was carried out. In the 13th century, after Lorsch had been incorporated in the Electorate of Mainz (1232), it lost a large part of its privileges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Benedictines were replaced first by Cistercians and later by Premonstratensians. Moreover, the church had to be restored and reconstructed after yet another fire. The glorious Carolingian establishment slowly deteriorated under the impact of the vagaries of politics and war: Lorsch was attached to the Palatinate in 1461, returned to the Electorate of Mainz in 1623, and incorporated in the Electorate of Hesse in 1803. During the Thirty Years' War in 1620-21, the Spanish armies pillaged the monastic buildings, which had been in a state of abandon since the Reformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only the Torhalle, part of the Romanesque church, insignificant vestiges of the medieval monastery, and classical buildings dating from the period when the Electors of Mainz administered the town still survive within its boundaries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The abbey, together with its monumental entrance, the famous 'Torhall', are rare architectural vestiges of the Carolingian era. The sculptures and paintings from this period are still in remarkably good condition.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Abbey and Altenmünster of Lorsch</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1865</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1413</http_url><id_number>1413</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1413.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.3158333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.3930555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Descending a long hill dominated by a giant statue of Hercules, the monumental water displays of Wilhelmsh&amp;ouml;he&amp;nbsp;were begun by Landgrave Carl of Hesse-Kassel in 1689 around an east-west axis and were developed further into the 19th century. Reservoirs and channels behind the Hercules Monument supply water to a complex system of hydro-pneumatic devices that supply the site&amp;rsquo;s large Baroque water theatre, grotto, fountains and 350-metre long Grand Cascade. Beyond this, channels and waterways wind across the axis, feeding a series of dramatic waterfalls and wild rapids, the geyser-like Grand Fountain which leaps 50m high, the lake and secluded ponds that enliven the Romantic garden created in the 18th century by Carl&amp;rsquo;s great-grandson, Elector Wilhelm I. The great size of the park and its waterworks along with the towering Hercules statue constitute an expression of the ideals of absolutist Monarchy while the ensemble is a remarkable testimony to the aesthetics of the Baroque and Romantic periods.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bergpark Wilhelmshöhe</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1875</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/3</http_url><id_number>3</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_3.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.7744444400</latitude><location>State of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen)</location><longitude>6.0844444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;With its columns of Greek and Italian marble, its bronze doors, the largest mosaic of its dome (now destroyed), the Palatine Chapel of Aachen has, from its inception, been perceived as an exceptional artistic creation. It was the first vaulted structure to be constructed north of the Alps since antiquity. It remained, during the Carolingian Renaissance and even at the beginning of the medieval period, one of the prototypes of religious architecture which led to copies or imitations (Mettlach, Nijmegen). It is an excellent and distinctive example of the family of aularian chapels based on a central plan with tribunes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the chapel of the Emperor at Aachen symbolized the unification of the west and its spiritual and political revival under the aegis of Charlemagne. In 814, Charlemagne was buried here, and throughout the Middle Ages until 1531 the Germanic emperors continued to be crowned here. The collection of the treasury of the cathedral is of incalculable archaeological, aesthetic, and historic interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important historical epoch of Aachen started with the takeover of the government by Charlemagne in AD 768. The imperial palace by the hot springs soon became his permanent residence and so developed into a spiritual and cultural centre. Two hundred years later he was canonized, which resulted in a flow of pilgrims wishing to see Charlemagne's tomb and the relics he gathered during his life. The town's ties with Charlemagne are reflected in numerous architectural heirlooms and memorials in the townscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When he began work on his Palatine Chapel in 786, Charlemagne's dream was to create a 'new Rome'. The core of Aachen Cathedral at the time of its construction was the largest dome north of the Alps. Its fascinating architecture, with classical, Byzantine and Germanic-Franconian elements, is the essence of a monumental building of the greatest importance. For 600 years, from 936 to 1531, Aachen Cathedral was the coronation church for thirty German kings, and even today it retains much of the glamour of its historic past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its present form has evolved over the course of more than a millennium. Two parts of the original complex have survived: the Coronation Hall (Aula Regia), which is currently located in the Town Hall, built in the 14th century, and the Palatine Chapel, around which the cathedral would later be built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palatine Chapel, constructed about 790-800, is based on an octagonal ground plan, which is ringed by an aisle, surmounted by tribunes and roofed with a dome; the chapel itself is easily distinguished from later additions by its distinctive structure. An atrium on the western side led, through a portico, to the imperial apartments. The Gothic choir and a series of chapels that were added throughout the Middle Ages created the composite array of features that characterized the cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interior is punctuated on the lower storey by round arches set upon eight stout cruciform pillars, and on the upper storey by the matroneum, a gallery for women. The populace was admitted in the lower part of the chapel; the Emperor sat up high, facing the altar, on the stone throne upon which the kings of Germany would be crowned. The high dome gathers light from eight open-arched windows above the drum; it was originally entirely covered with a great mosaic depicting Christ Enthroned, in purple robes and surrounded by the Elders of the Apocalypse. The present-day mosaic date back to 1870-73. The interior of the chapel is embellished by coloured marbles that Charlemagne probably ordered to be brought from Rome and Ravenna. Despite the subsequent additions, the Palatine Chapel constitutes a unitary nucleus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral Treasury in Aachen is regarded as one of the most important ecclesiastical treasuries in northern Europe. The crypt of the cathedral contains the cross of Lothar (990), made from gold and inlaid with precious stones, the dark-blue velvet chasuble with embroidered pearls, a reliquary-bust of Charlemagne made from silver and gold, and a marble sarcophagus decorated with a relief of the Abduction of Proserpine, which once&amp;nbsp;contained the body of Charlemagne.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Construction of this palatine chapel, with its octagonal basilica and cupola, began c. 790–800 under the Emperor Charlemagne. Originally inspired by the churches of the Eastern part of the Holy Roman Empire, it was splendidly enlarged in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aachen Cathedral </site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1953</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1447</http_url><id_number>1447</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1447.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.7782777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.4102500000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is located along the Weser River on the outskirts of Höxter where the Carolingian Westwork and Civitas Corvey were erected between AD 822 and 885 in a largely preserved rural setting. The Westwork is the only standing structure that dates back to the Carolingian era, while the original imperial abbey complex is preserved as archaeological remains that are only partially excavated. The Westwork of Corvey uniquely illustrates one of the most important Carolingian architectural expressions. It is a genuine creation of this period, and its architectural articulation and decoration clearly illustrate the role played within the Frankish empire by imperial monasteries in securing territorial control and administration, as well as the propagation of Christianity and the Carolingian cultural and political order throughout Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Carolingian Westwork and Civitas Corvey</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1990</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1467</http_url><id_number>1467</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1467.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>53.5455555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.9994444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Speicherstadt and the adjacent Kontorhaus district are two densely built urban areas in the centre of the port city of Hamburg. Speicherstadt, originally developed on a group of narrow islands in the Elbe River between 1885 and 1927, was partly rebuilt from 1949 to 1967. It is one of the largest coherent historic ensembles of port warehouses in the world (300,000 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). It includes 15 very large warehouse blocks as well as six ancillary buildings and a connecting network of short canals. Adjacent to the modernist Chilehaus office building, the Kontorhaus district is an area of over five hectares featuring six very large office complexes built from the 1920s to the 1940s to house port-related businesses. The complex exemplifies the effects of the rapid growth in international trade in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Speicherstadt and Kontorhaus District with Chilehaus</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2028</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1527</http_url><id_number>1527</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1527.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.3877777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.7655555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Modern humans first arrived in Europe 43,000 years ago during the last ice age. One of the areas where they took up residence was the Swabian Jura in southern Germany. Excavated from the 1860s, six caves have revealed items dating from 43,000 to 33,000 years ago. Among them are carved figurines of animals (including cave lions, mammoths, horses and bovids), musical instruments and items of personal adornment. Other figurines depict creatures that are half animal, half human and there is one statuette of a woman. These archaeological sites feature some of the oldest figurative art worldwide and help shed light on the origins of human artistic development.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2157</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/729</http_url><id_number>729</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_729.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.9747777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>11.3295000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2017</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Between 1919 and 1933 the Bauhaus movement revolutionized architectural and aesthetic thinking and practice in the 20th century. The Bauhaus buildings in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau are fundamental representatives of Classical Modernism, directed towards a radical renewal of architecture and design. This property, which was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1996, originally comprised buildings located in Weimar (Former Art School, the Applied Art School and the Haus Am Horn) and Dessau (Bauhaus Building, the group of seven Masters' Houses). The 2017 extension includes the Houses with Balcony Access in Dessau and the ADGB Trade Union School in Bernau as important contributions to the Bauhaus ideas of austere design, functionalism and social reform.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2158</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1553</http_url><id_number>1553</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1553.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.4619444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.4541111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Hedeby consists of the remains of an emporium – or trading town – containing traces of roads, buildings, cemeteries and a harbour dating back to the 1st and early 2nd millennia CE. It is enclosed by part of the Danevirke, a line of fortification crossing the Schleswig isthmus, which separates the Jutland Peninsula from the rest of the European mainland. Because of its unique situation between the Frankish Empire in the South and the Danish Kingdom in the North, Hedeby became a trading hub between continental Europe and Scandinavia and between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Because of its rich and well preserved archaeological material, it has become a key site for the interpretation of economic, social and historical developments in Europe during the Viking age.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Border complex of Hedeby and the Danevirke</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2206</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1470</http_url><id_number>1470</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1470.jpg</image_url><iso_code>de</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.1548055556</latitude><location></location><longitude>11.8040000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the eastern part of the Thuringian Basin, the Cathedral of Naumburg, whose construction began in 1028, is an outstanding testimony to medieval art and architecture. Its Romanesque structure, flanked by two Gothic choirs, demonstrates the stylistic transition from late Romanesque to early Gothic. The west choir, dating to the first half of the 13th century, reflects changes in religious practice and the appearance of science and nature in the figurative arts. The choir and life-size sculptures of the founders of the Cathedral are masterpieces of the workshop known as the ‘Naumburg Master’.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Naumburg Cathedral</site><states>Germany</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2288</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/34</http_url><id_number>34</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_34.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.3910300000</latitude><location>Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions</location><longitude>-0.4936100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of fortified trading-posts established between 1482 and 1786 can still be seen along the coast of Ghana between Keta and Beyin. They were links in the trade routes established by the Portuguese in many areas of the world during their era of great maritime exploration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Accra was first settled at the end of the 16th century when the Ga people migrated there. The site allowed them to engage in trade with the Europeans who had built forts nearby, the most important of these being James Fort and Ussher Fort. These early inhabitants also engaged in farming and lagoon fishing, with sea fishing taken up during the middle of the 18th century. During the slave trade Accra took on greater importance owing to the nearby forts, many of which were owned and controlled by the Dutch, a prominence that lasted until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Accra, competition between the different European states was strong and having a fort at Accra was of great strategic value, as it lay at the end of an important inland trade route. The forts and castles were built and occupied at different times by European traders and adventurers from Portugal, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, Germany and Britain to safeguard trading posts. The castles defended the European merchants and their local allies and trading partners against competition; they were used as entrep&amp;ocirc;ts for slaves and trade-goods, and they were the centres of European administration on the Gold Coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ussher Fort is one of three European forts in Accra which have survived to the present day, the others being Christiansborg Castle (known locally as 'The Castle') and James Fort. It was built as Fort Cr&amp;ecirc;vecoeur by the Dutch in 1649. In the 18th century Fort Cr&amp;ecirc;vecoeur played an important role in the slave trade. Afterwards, its history remained closely linked to the history of what was formerly known as Dutch Accra, nowadays Ussher Town, just north of the fort. Fort Cr&amp;ecirc;vecoeur was once more destroyed in 1862, when an earthquake hit Accra. Partly reconstructed, the fort was handed over to the British in 1868 and renamed Ussher Fort. Soon after, the British started using Ussher Fort, as well as the nearby James Fort, as a prison. They enlarged the fort considerably and the original Dutch fort is now almost indistinguishable. In 1993, the fort ceased to function as a prison, when it was taken over by the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board, who now uses part of the building as offices. &lt;a name="References"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1652 the Swedes built a lodge in Accra that in 1660 was taken by the Dutch. In 1661 the Danes occupied the place and built a fort named Fort Christiansborg, located on a rock cliff near the African town of Osu. The fort was in Danish hands for some 200 years apart from a short Portuguese occupation. In 1680 a Portuguese ship arrived at the Danish fort and its Governor sold it to the Portuguese commander of the ship. The Portuguese renamed it Fort S&amp;atilde;o Francisco Xavier and built a chapel. In 1683 the Danes from nearby Fort Fredriksborg reoccupied it and moved their headquarters there. The fort was square in plan, with four bastions. The Danes made several attempt to establish plantations near the fort and they also established in the early 1800s a hill-station and a plantation at Frederiksborg. In 1850 it was sold to the English.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of fortified trading-posts, erected between 1482 and 1786, can still be seen along the coast of Ghana between Keta and Beyin. They were links in the trade routes established by the Portuguese in many areas of the world during their era of great maritime exploration.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions</site><states>Ghana</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>38</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/35</http_url><id_number>35</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_35.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>6.4011111111</latitude><location>Asante Region</location><longitude>-1.6258333333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;To the north-east of Kumasi are to be found the last material remains of the great Asante civilization, which reached its high point in the 18th century. As the dwellings are made from earth, wood and straw, they are vulnerable to the onslaught of time and weather. These buildings are the last remaining material testament of the great Asante civilization, of which they are a perfect illustration.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional Asante (Ashanti) buildings are spread throughout the north and north-east of Kumasi. The majority of the Asante villages were destroyed during the 19th century in the wars undertaken by this people against English domination between 1806 and 1901. It was during this period that the royal mausoleum (Barem) was burned by Baden-Powell in 1895. There exists today only a small number of the traditional structures, habitats of men and gods, of which the majority are less than 100 years old.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The disposition of these structures is well known through eyewitness reports by early European travellers as well as contemporary studies. A series of poles and wooden imposts linked by bamboo slats form the framework which supports the thatched roof. The floor is of puddled clay. A rich decor of earth-facing over a core of wood reigns over the principal facade; this is comprised of a balustrade, imposts, and sometimes windows whose decorative openwork may be likened to that of the transenna (a heavy grill-work used for closing off the tombs of Christian martyrs). The decoration consists of geometric, floral, animal, or anthropomorphic motives.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The preservation of these structures built from heterogeneous material poses a difficult, if not insoluble, problem. The thatched roofs are made from obviously fragile material. At the time of the publication of Michael Swithenbank's basic book, &lt;em&gt;Ashanti Fetish Houses&lt;/em&gt;, the majority of the houses had been given a roofing of corrugated iron. Since then, maintenance efforts have been agreed to by the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The wood of the framework of the roof, essentially derived from two tropical species (&lt;em&gt;Hippocrates africana&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Hippocrates rowlandii&lt;/em&gt;), is known for its resistance against termites. However, it does not appear to be very durable, owing to the process of biological deterioration at this latitude. The existence of the clay facings covering the wood core can likewise not be guaranteed over the coming decades.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;To the north-east of Kumasi, these are the last material remains of the great Asante civilization, which reached its high point in the 18th century. Since the dwellings are made of earth, wood and straw, they are vulnerable to the onslaught of time and weather.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Asante Traditional Buildings</site><states>Ghana</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>39</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/392</http_url><id_number>392</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_392.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.4349800000</latitude><location>Prefectures of Messenia, Arcadia, and Ilia in the  Western Peloponnese</location><longitude>21.8969400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Isolated as it is in a conserved environment, the Temple of Bassae is an outstanding example of a Hellenic votive sanctuary in a rural setting. It represents a unique artistic achievement, remarkable for its archaic features (elongated surface, an exceptional proportion of 15 columns on the longer side and 6 columns on the facade, and a north-south exposure), and for its daring innovations (the use of Ionic and Corinthian orders for a Doric edifice, the variety of materials used, and the originality of the layout of the cella and the adyton).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Temple was dedicated by the inhabitants of Philagia to Apollo Epicurius, the god-healer who had come to their aid when they were beset by the plague. Its ruins rise majestically to 1,130&amp;nbsp;m high in the mountainous region of Arcadia in the heart of the Peloponnese, near Andritsaina. Built in the second half of the 5th century BC (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 420-410 BC?), it belongs to the first generation of post-Parthenonian edifices. Pausanias admired its beauty and harmony and, moreover, attributed it to the architect Ictinos, although contemporary archaeologists have been unable to provide confirmation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With its elongated dimensions (39.87&amp;nbsp;m by 16.13&amp;nbsp;m), the peripteral structure is built mainly in grey limestone of local origin. The outer colonnade of the hexastyle temple respects an extremely strict Doric order (the metopes are not sculptured). Inside, however, fine-quality sculpturing blends with a more sophisticated architectural style. The front of the pronaos and the opisthodomos, with two in antis columns, restate the Doric order. In the cella, however, a series of embedded Ionic columns stand against low support walls. On the southern side, where an adyton is located, the last two Ionic columns standing in the cella at the far end of the oblique walls flank one Corinthian column which stands alone in the centre of the temple. The decoration is notable, particularly by virtue of the different materials used: the walls and the bases and tambours of the columns are limestone, and the Ionic capitals and the Corinthian capital are in Doliana marble, as are the sculptured metopes of the exterior frieze of the cella, the plates of the Ionic frieze which runs along the inside of the sanctuary, the guttae, the roof supports and the roofing tiles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The capital of the central column of the Temple of Bassae is the most ancient conserved Corinthian capital, and as such the temple may be considered a model for all 'Corinthian' monuments of Greek, Roman and subsequent civilizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Being located away from the city, the temple long remained undiscovered. A French architect came upon it accidentally in 1765 and brought it to the attention of the academic world. The first archaeological investigation in 1812 was profitable but at the same time prejudicial for the integrity of the site. The discovery of the Ionic frieze's 22 sculptured plates ultimately divested the site of these remarkable sculptures, which were acquired in 1814 by order of the future King George IV of England and transferred to the British Museum along with the Corinthian capital. Deprived of decorations of exceptional quality (a Centauromachy and an Amazonomachy), the Temple of Bassae was carefully restored in 1902, but in 1965 the critical state of the monument called for renewed renovation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This famous temple to the god of healing and the sun was built towards the middle of the 5th century B.C. in the lonely heights of the Arcadian mountains. The temple, which has the oldest Corinthian capital yet found, combines the Archaic style and the serenity of the Doric style with some daring architectural features.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>452</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/393</http_url><id_number>393</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_393.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.4814900000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Phokis, Region of Central Greece</location><longitude>22.4961700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The layout of Delphi is a unique artistic achievement. Mount Parnassus is a masterpiece where a series of monuments were built whose modular elements - terraces, temples, treasuries, etc. - combine to form a strong expression of the physical and moral values of a site which may be described as magical. Situated in a magnificent natural setting which is still intact, it is an outstanding example of a great Pan-Hellenic sanctuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Mycenaean period, the female deity of Earth was worshipped in the small settlement of Delphi. The development of the sanctuary and oracle were to begin in the 8th century BC with the establishment of the cult of Apollo. Under the protection and administration of the Amphictyony, the sanctuary continued to be autonomous after the First Sacred War and, as a result, increased its Pan-Hellenic religious and political influence. The Pythian Games were reorganized, the sanctuary was enlarged, and it was enriched with fine buildings, statues, and other offerings. In the 3rd century BC it came under the domination of the Aetolians and later, in 191 BC, was conquered by the Romans. During the Roman period the site was plundered on occasions, but it was also favoured by some of the Emperors. With the spread of Christianity, the sanctuary lost its religious meaning and was closed down by Theodosius the Great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the most important monuments of the site:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Temple of Apollo&lt;/em&gt;: dated to the 4th century BC, the temple was erected precisely on the remains of an earlier temple of the 6th century BC. Inside was the &lt;em&gt;adyton&lt;/em&gt;, the centre of the Delphic oracle and seat of Pythia. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Treasury of the Athenians&lt;/em&gt;: A small building in Doric order, with two columns in antis and rich relief decoration, built by the Athenians at the end of the 6th century BC to house their offerings to Apollo. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Altar of the Chians&lt;/em&gt;: The large altar of the sanctuary, in front of the temple of Apollo, erected by the people of Chios in the 5th century BC, according to an inscription. The monument was made from black marble, apart from the base and cornice in white marble, resulting in an impressive colour contrast. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Stoa of the Athenians&lt;/em&gt;: Built in the Ionic order, has seven fluted columns, each made from a single stone. According to an inscription cut on the stylobate, it was erected by the Athenians after 478 BC, to house the trophies taken in their naval victories over the Persians. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Theatre&lt;/em&gt;: Originally built in the 4th century BC, but the visible ruins date from the Roman imperial period. The cavea had 35 rows of stone benches; the foundations of the skene are preserved on the paved orchestra. The theatre was used mostly for the theatrical performances during the great festivals. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Stadium&lt;/em&gt;: Constructed in the 5th century BC and remodelled in the 2nd century AD at the expense of Herodes Atticus; at this time the stone seats and the arched monumental entrance were added. It was in this Stadium that the Pan-Hellenic Pythian Games took place. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Castalian Spring&lt;/em&gt;: The preserved remains of two monumental fountains that received the water from the spring in the ravine of the Phaedriades date to the archaic period and the Roman era. The later one is cut in the rock and has niches cut high in the cliff, which probably held the offerings to the Nymph Castalia. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Tholos&lt;/em&gt;: A circular building in Doric order, built around 380 BC: its function is unknown but it must have been an important one, judging from the fine workmanship, and the high-standard relief decoration. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;Polygonal Wall&lt;/em&gt;: Built after the destruction of the old temple of Apollo in 548 BC, to support the terrace on which the new temple was to be erected. The masonry is polygonal and the curved joints of the stones fit perfectly in place. Many inscriptions, mostly manumissions, are carved on the stones of the wall. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The pan-Hellenic sanctuary of Delphi, where the oracle of Apollo spoke, was the site of the omphalos, the 'navel of the world'. Blending harmoniously with the superb landscape and charged with sacred meaning, Delphi in the 6th century B.C. was indeed the religious centre and symbol of unity of the ancient Greek world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Delphi</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>453</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404</http_url><id_number>404</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_404.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.9708700000</latitude><location>Prefecture and Region of Attica</location><longitude>23.7261800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Athenian Acropolis is the supreme expression of the adaptation of architecture to a natural site. This grand composition of perfectly balanced massive structures creates a monumental landscape of unique beauty consisting of a complete series of masterpieces of the 5th century BC. The monuments of the Acropolis have exerted an exceptional influence, not only in Graeco-Roman antiquity, a time when in the Mediterranean world they were considered exemplary models, but in contemporary times as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From myth to institutionalized cult, the Acropolis, by virtue of its precision and diversity, bears a unique testimony to the religions of ancient Greece. It is the sacred temple from which sprang fundamental legends about the city. It illustrates the civilizations of Greece over more than a millennium. From the royal palace of kings in the 15th century BC and the Pelasgic walls of the first fortification, to the Odeon constructed in AD 161 by Herod Atticus, a unique series of public monuments was built and conserved in one of the densest spaces of the Mediterranean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Acropolis is located on a rocky promontory 156m above the valley of Ilissos; it covers a surface area of less than 3ha. From the 2nd millennium BC it was a fortress protecting places of worship and royal palaces. Access to the plateau was protected by a wall, the Pelasgicon, which existed prior to the invasions of the Dorians who threatened Athens beginning in 1200. After the fall of the tyrants, Hipparchus in 514 and Hippias in 510, the Acropolis was reconstructed. The Pelasgicon, which a Delphic oracle declared cursed, was destroyed. The upper town, deprived of its ramparts, was weakened, and in 480 the Persians under Xerxes took it over, looting and burning the sanctuaries. Paradoxically, the looting of the Acropolis in 480 BC guaranteed the conservation of one of the most impressive collections of archaic sculpture in the Greek world. The rampart was destroyed in 472-471, at the same time as the 'Long Walls,' which enclosed Athens and its port at Piraeus. With Pericles the 5th century BC marks the apogee of Athenian democracy. A period of several decades, 447-406 BC, saw the successive building of the main temple dedicated to Athena, the Parthenon; the Propylaea, the monumental entrance which replaced the Gate of Pisistratus, built on the very site of one of the entrances to the citadel of the ancient kings; the temple of Athena Nike; and the Erechtheion - the four masterpieces of classical Greek art. Although the disastrous Peloponnesian War and the capitulation of Athens in April 404 BC caused the demolition of the Long Walls, they did not affect the Acropolis monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sacred hill of Athens, whose monuments were the admiration of all, continued to be beautified by the powerful personalities of the moment, including the sovereigns of Pergamon, Cappadocia, and Egypt, Roman Emperors such as Claudius and Hadrian, and wealthy private citizens like Herod Atticus, the private tutor of Marcus Aurelius. The first incidence of damage to the monumental heritage of the Acropolis came at the time of the Herulian raid in AD 267. Since then and in spite of long periods of relative calm, the monuments and the site have been damaged many times. The Byzantines converted the temples into churches and removed their art treasures to Constantinople. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, Athens was put into the hands of Frankish lords who had little respect for its ruins. When the Turks took over the city in 1456, it became a mosque, and the Erechtheion was used from time to time as the harem of the Turkish governor. In 1687, the most tragic of dates, the siege of the Acropolis by the Venetian armies of Morosini resulted in the explosion of the Parthenon, which the Turks used as a powder magazine. In the 19th century, with official authorization from the Sultan, Lord Elgin, ambassador of the King of England to the Sublime Porte, completed the pillaging by acquiring marble sections which since 1815 have been the pride of the British Museum. After a century of excavations and improvements of the site, the Acropolis is now a testing ground for the most innovative open-air conservation techniques aimed at safeguarding the marble sections, which have been affected by heavy atmospheric pollution.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Acropolis of Athens and its monuments are universal symbols of the classical spirit and civilization and form the greatest architectural and artistic complex bequeathed by Greek Antiquity to the world. In the second half of the fifth century bc, Athens, following the victory against the Persians and the establishment of democracy, took a leading position amongst the other city-states of the ancient world. In the age that followed, as thought and art flourished, an exceptional group of artists put into effect the ambitious plans of Athenian statesman Pericles and, under the inspired guidance of the sculptor Pheidias, transformed the rocky hill into a unique monument of thought and the arts. The most important monuments were built during that time: the Parthenon, built by Ictinus, the Erechtheon, the Propylaea, the monumental entrance to the Acropolis, designed by Mnesicles and the small temple Athena Nike.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Acropolis, Athens</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>467</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(v)(vi)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/454</http_url><id_number>454</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_454.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.2666700000</latitude><location>Autonomous region of Mount Athos</location><longitude>24.2166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The transformation of a mountain into a sacred place made Mount Athos a unique artistic creation combining the natural beauty of the site with the expanded forms of architectural creation. Moreover, the monasteries of Athos are a veritable conservatory of masterpieces, ranging from wall paintings by Frangos Castellanos at the Great Lavra to portable icons, gold objects, embroideries, or illuminated manuscripts which each monastery jealously preserves. Mount Athos exerted a lasting influence in the Orthodox world, of which it is the spiritual centre, and on the development of religious architecture and monumental painting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monasteries of Athos display the typical layout of orthodox monastic establishments (to be found as far away as Russia): a square, rectangular, or trapezoidal wall flanked by towers, which constitutes the periobolus of a consecrated place, in the centre of which the community's church (&lt;em&gt;catholicon&lt;/em&gt;) stands alone. Strictly organized according to principles dating from the 10th century are the areas reserved for communal activities (refectory, cells, hospital, library), those reserved solely for liturgical purposes (chapels, fountains), and the defensive structures (arsenal, fortified tower). The organization of agricultural lands in the &lt;em&gt;idiorrythmic&lt;/em&gt; &lt;em&gt;skites&lt;/em&gt; (daughter houses of the main monasteries), and the &lt;em&gt;kellia&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;kathismata&lt;/em&gt; (farms operated by monks) is also very characteristic of the medieval period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastic ideal has at Mount Athos preserved traditional human habitations, which are representative of the agrarian cultures of the Mediterranean world and have become vulnerable through the impact of change within contemporary society. Mount Athos is also a conservatory of vernacular architecture and agricultural and craft traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The northernmost of the three peninsulas jutting into the Aegean Sea from Chalkidi is a narrow rocky strip approximately 50&amp;nbsp;km long and 10&amp;nbsp;km wide, rising to 2,033&amp;nbsp;m. In ancient Greek mythology the peninsula was said to be the stone thrown at Poseidon by the giant Athos. For Christians it was the Garden of the Virgin, the priceless gift that Christ gave his mother. The precise date of the first Christian establishments on Mount Athos is unknown. However, the monastic movement began to intensify in 963, when the future St Athanasius the Athonite, having left the Theme of Rithynia, founded Great Lavra on the tip of the peninsula. In 972 the first Typikon (agreement) was concluded at Karyes between the Emperor Jean Tsimitzes and the monks of Mount Athos. It provided the basis of the exceptional status still enjoyed by the 'Holy Mount' today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1926, the Greek Government ratified a charter based on the long tradition of the Typika. In 1977, when Greece became a member of the European Common Market, the signatory states recognized the specificity of the self-governing region of Athos and its special status. The 360&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of Athos are exclusively inhabited by men, the majority of them monks living in coenobitic or idiorrythmic establishments, anchorites, or wandering brothers. The Typikon granted by the Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus in 1046 and signed by more than 100 heads of religious communities, banned women and more generally all 'smooth-faced persons' from entering the mountainous region. Power in this monastic republic is strictly divided between three assemblies: the Synaxe, or the Holy Assembly, which meets twice a year, holds the legislative power; the Holy Community holds the administrative power, and the Holy Epistasie holds the executive power. At Karyes, a civil governor of Athos, under the Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry, ensures that the Charter of 1926 is respected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today Athos includes 20 monasteries, 12 skites, and about 700 houses, cells, or hermitages. Over 1,000 monks live there in communities or alone, as well as in the 'desert' of Karoulia where cells cling to the cliff face rising steeply above the sea.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;An Orthodox spiritual centre since 1054, Mount Athos has enjoyed an autonomous statute since Byzantine times. The 'Holy Mountain', which is forbidden to women and children, is also a recognized artistic site. The layout of the monasteries (about 20 of which are presently inhabited by some 1,400 monks) had an influence as far afield as Russia, and its school of painting influenced the history of Orthodox art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Athos</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>526</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(v)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/455</http_url><id_number>455</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_455.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.7166700000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Trikala, Region of Thessaly</location><longitude>21.6333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;'Suspended in the air' (the meaning of Meteora in Greek), these monasteries represent a unique artistic achievement and are one of the most powerful examples of the architectural transformation of a site into a place of retreat, meditation and prayer. The Meteora provide an outstanding example of the types of monastic construction which illustrate a significant stage in history, that of the 14th and 15th centuries when the eremitic ideals of early Christianity were restored to a place of honour by monastic communities, both in the Western world (in Tuscany, for example) and in the Orthodox Church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built under impossible conditions, with no practicable roads, permanent though precarious human habitations subsist to this day in the Meteora, but have become vulnerable under the impact of time. The net in which intrepid pilgrims were hoisted up vertically alongside the 373&amp;nbsp;m cliff where the Varlaam monastery dominates the valley symbolizes the fragility of a traditional way of life that is threatened with extinction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monasteries are built on rock pinnacles of deltaic origin, known as Meteora, which rise starkly over 400&amp;nbsp;m above the Peneas valley and the small town of Kalambaka on the Thessalian plain. Chemical analysis suggests that the pinnacles were created some 60&amp;nbsp;million years ago in the Tertiary period, emerging from the cone of a river and further transformed by earthquakes. The Meteora are enormous residual masses of sandstone and conglomerate which appeared through fluvial erosion. Seismic activity increased the number of fault lines and fissures and hewed the shapeless masses into individual sheer rock columns. Hermits and ascetics probably began settling in this extraordinary area in the 11th century. In the late 12th century a small church called the Panaghia Doupiani or Skete was built at the foot of one of these 'heavenly columns', where monks had already taken up residence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the fearsome time of political instability in 14th century Thessaly, monasteries were systematically built on top of the inaccessible peaks so that by the end of the 15th century there were 24 of them. They continued to flourish until the 17th century. Today, only four monasteries - Aghios Stephanos, Aghia Trias, Varlaam and Meteoron - still house religious communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area includes forested hills and river valley with riverine forests of &lt;em&gt;Platanus orientalis&lt;/em&gt; and species such as the endemic &lt;em&gt;Centaurea lactifolia&lt;/em&gt; (found near Koniskos village) and &lt;em&gt;Centaurea kalambakensi&lt;/em&gt;. The nearest protected area is Trikala Aesthetic Forest (28&amp;nbsp;ha), created in 1979, which has been planted with &lt;em&gt;Pinus halepensis&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Cupressus sempervivens&lt;/em&gt;. The potential vegetation cover is described as supra-Mediterranean, with climax cover of &lt;em&gt;Quercus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Ostrya&lt;/em&gt; species and &lt;em&gt;Fagus sylvatica&lt;/em&gt; beech forest above 700&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In a region of almost inaccessible sandstone peaks, monks settled on these 'columns of the sky' from the 11th century onwards. Twenty-four of these monasteries were built, despite incredible difficulties, at the time of the great revival of the eremetic ideal in the 15th century. Their 16th-century frescoes mark a key stage in the development of post-Byzantine painting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Meteora</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>527</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/456</http_url><id_number>456</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_456.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.6383300000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Thessaloniki, Region of Central Macedonia</location><longitude>22.9650000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Christian monuments of Thessalonika are outstanding examples of churches built according to central, basilical and intermediary plans from the 4th to the 15th centuries. For this reason, they constitute a series which is a typological point of reference. The influence of the Thessalonian churches on the development of the monumental arts was considerable, first in the Byzantine and later the Serbian world, whether in the early Christian period of the high Middle Ages or the Palaeologan Renaissance. The mosaics of the Rotunda, St Demetrius and St David's are among the great masterpieces of early Christian art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thessalonika was founded in 315 BC by Cassander, who named it after his wife Thessalonik, just a short time after the new cities of Alexander. Following the Roman conquest of Macedonia, it became one of the Empire's provincial capitals. A cosmopolitan and prosperous seaport, the city grew in commercial and strategic importance during the Roman period and was one of the first bases for the spread of Christianity. St Paul first travelled there in AD 50, and he returned in 56 to visit the church he had founded and for which he exhibited great concern in his Epistles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Imperial splendour and the changing fortunes of the Thessalonian church were inextricably linked during the early centuries of Christianity. It was during the period that the palatial complex of Galerius was being built (298-311) that St Demetrius was martyred (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 303). Some time later the rotunda, which Galerius had probably planned as his mausoleum, was taken over by the Christians who converted it to a church dedicated to St George. North of the Forum, on the ruins of the &lt;em&gt;thermae&lt;/em&gt; (baths) where tradition has it that St Demetrius was imprisoned and tortured, they built the Basilica of St Demetrius. Rebuilt in 412-13 by the eparch Leontius and enlarged in 629-34 according to a grandiose plan that included five naves, the church, despite having been ravaged by fire in 1917, remains one of the most notable monuments of the early Christian era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other churches of archaeological interest were built during the Byzantine period. These include the Basilica of the Virgin, called Acheiropoietos, after 448, St David's (late 5th or early 6th centuries), and particularly St Sophia (8th century), which is a harmonious blend of the Greek cross plan and a three-nave basilica plan. After the Latin conquest in 1205 it became the Cathedral of Thessalonika. When the city was returned to Byzantium in 1246, new churches were built, among which were St Panteleimon, the Holy Apostles, St Nicholas Orphanos, and the present St Catherine's.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Ottomans gained control of the city in 1430, most of the churches, new or old, were converted to mosques, and other Islamic sanctuaries were built (Hamza Bey Cami in 1467-68, Alaca Imaret in 1484). Under Ottoman rule (1430-1912), Thessalonika regained the status of major cosmopolitan city it had enjoyed during the early Christian era. This was particularly due to the arrival in 1492 of 20,000 Jews driven from Spain by the Edict of Alhambra. The multitude of cultural influences is reflected in the city's wealth of monuments, now sadly depleted, which were described by travellers such as Robert de Dreux (1665), Evliya Celebi (1668), Paul Lucas (1714), F&amp;eacute;lix de Beaujour (1797), and Abdul Mecid (1858).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 315 B.C., the provincial capital and sea port of Thessalonika was one of the first bases for the spread of Christianity. Among its Christian monuments are fine churches, some built on the Greek cross plan and others on the three-nave basilica plan. Constructed over a long period, from the 4th to the 15th century, they constitute a diachronic typological series, which had considerable influence in the Byzantine world. The mosaics of the rotunda, St Demetrius and St David are among the great masterpieces of early Christian art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Paleochristian and Byzantine Monuments of Thessalonika</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>528</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/491</http_url><id_number>491</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_491.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.6666666700</latitude><location>Prefecture of Argolis, Region of the Peloponnesos</location><longitude>23.1166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In a small inner Argolid valley surrounded by rocky heights only thinly covered by the meagre vegetation of Mediterranean scrub, the archaeological site of Epidaurus sprawls over several levels. At an altitude of 430&amp;nbsp;m, the Sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas overlooks the rest of the ruins. Lower down, to the south-west, at approximately 360&amp;nbsp;m, is the Theatre. Finally, the Sanctuary of Asclepios and its various buildings - baths, gymnasium, &lt;em&gt;palaestra&lt;/em&gt;, stadium and &lt;em&gt;katagogeion&lt;/em&gt; (dormitories for patients) - stretch over a western shelf located at between 320&amp;nbsp;m and 330&amp;nbsp;m altitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This vast site (although only an area of 520,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is state property, construction has been forbidden throughout the entire valley from floor to crest) is a tribute to the healing gods of Epidaurus - Apollo, Asclepios, and Hygeia. Legend has it that Asclepios was the fruit of Apollo's love for a daughter of the king of Orchomenes. In the 6th century a cult dedicated to him was established at Epidaurus, where archaeological excavations uncovered a sanctuary dating from the much earlier Mycenaen period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 5th century the sanctuary already enjoyed great renown, both for the miraculous cures that occurred there and for the games held every four years and the stadium dates from that time. Epidaurus entered its greatest period in the 4th century BC, when the Temple of Apollo Maneates and the great monuments of the Hieron were built. The Hieron includes the Temple of Asclepios, the Tholos, the Enkoimeterion, where the sick awaited their cures, the Baths of Asclepios, and above all the incomparable Theatre, rightfully considered one of the purest masterpieces of Greek architecture. Epidaurus continued to flourish during the Hellenistic period. Despite pillaging by Sulla in 87 BC and by Cilician pirates, the restored sanctuary prospered during the Roman period, as witnessed by the famous description by Pausanias in AD 150.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The group of buildings comprising the Sanctuary of Epidaurus bears exceptional testimony to the healing cults of the Hellenic and Roman worlds. The temples and the hospital facilities dedicated to the healing gods constitute a coherent and complete ensemble. . It exerted an influence on all the &lt;em&gt;asclepieia&lt;/em&gt; in the Hellenic world, and later on all the Roman sanctuaries of Esculape. The emergence of modern medicine in a sanctuary originally reputed for the psychology-based miraculous healing of supposedly incurable patients is directly and tangibly illustrated by the functional evolution of the Hieron of Epidaurus and is strikingly described by the engraved inscription on the remarkable steles preserved in the Museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Theatre, the Temples of Artemis and Asclepios, the Tholos, the Enkoimeterion, and the Propylaea make the Hieron of Epidaurus an eminent example of a Hellenic architectural ensemble of the 4th century BC. In particular, the theatre, an architectural masterpiece by Polycletes the Younger of Argos, represents a unique artistic achievement through its admirable integration into the site and the perfection of its proportions and acoustics.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In a small valley in the Peloponnesus, the shrine of Asklepios, the god of medicine, developed out of a much earlier cult of Apollo (Maleatas), during the 6th century BC at the latest, as the official cult of the city state of Epidaurus. Its principal monuments, particularly the temple of Asklepios, the Tholos and the Theatre - considered one of the purest masterpieces of Greek architecture &amp;ndash; date from the 4th century. The vast site, with its temples and hospital buildings devoted to its healing gods, provides valuable insight into the healing cults of Greek and Roman times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>571</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/493</http_url><id_number>493</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_493.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.4472200000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Dodecanese, Region of the South Aegean</location><longitude>28.2277800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rhodes is an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble illustrating the significant period of history in which a military hospital order founded during the Crusades survived in the eastern Mediterranean area in a context characterized by an obsessive fear of siege. The fortifications of Rhodes, a 'Frankish' town long considered to be impregnable, exerted an influence throughout the eastern Mediterranean basin at the end of the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With its Frankish and Ottoman buildings the old town of Rhodes is an important ensemble of traditional human settlement, characterized by successive and complex phenomena of acculturation. Contact with the traditions of the Dodecanese changed the forms of Gothic architecture, and building after 1523 combined vernacular forms resulting from the meeting of two worlds with decorative elements of Ottoman origin. All the built-up elements dating before 1912 have become vulnerable because of the evolution in living conditions and they must be protected as much as the great religious, civil and military monuments, the churches, monasteries, mosques, baths, palaces, forts, gates and ramparts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1309 to 1523 Rhodes was occupied by the Knightly Order of St John of Jerusalem, who had lost their last stronghold in Palestine, St John of Acre, in 1291. They proceeded to transform the island capital into a fortified city able to withstand sieges as terrible as those led by the Sultan of Egypt in 1444 and Mehmet II in 1480. An anachronic vestige of the Crusades, Rhodes finally fell in 1522 after a six-month siege carried out by Suleyman II, heading forces reportedly numbering 100,000 men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The medieval city is located within a wall 4&amp;nbsp;km long. It is divided according to the Western classical style, with the high town to the north and the lower town south-south-west. Originally separated from the town by a fortified wall, the high town (Collachium) was entirely built by the Knights Hospitallers who, following the dissolution of the Templars in 1312, became the strongest military order in all Christendom. The order was organized into seven 'Tongues', each having its own seat. The inns of the Tongues of Italy, France, Spain and Provence lined both sides of the principal east-west axis, the famous Street of the Knights, one of the finest testimonies to Gothic urbanism. Somewhat removed to the north, close to the site of the Knights' first hospice, stands the Inn of Auvergne, whose facade bears the arms of Guy de Blanchefort, Grand Master from 1512 to 1513.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original hospice was replaced in the 15th century by the Great Hospital, built between 1440 and 1489, on the south side of the Street of the Knights; today the building is used as the archaeological museum. Located north-west of the Collachium are the Grand Masters' Palace and St John's Church. At the far eastern end of the Street of the Knights, built against the wall, is St Mary's Church, which the Knights transformed into a cathedral in the 15th century. The lower town is almost as dense with monuments as the Collachium. In 1522, with a population of 5,000, it was replete with churches, some of Byzantine construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After 1523, most were converted into Islamic mosques, like the Mosques of Soliman, Kavakli Mestchiti, Demirli Djami, Peial ed Din Djami, Abdul Djelil Djami, and Dolapli Mestchiti. Throughout the years, the number of palaces and charitable foundations multiplied in the south-south-east area: the Court of Commerce, the Archbishop's Palace, the Hospice of St Catherine, and others. The ramparts of the medieval city, partially erected on the foundations of the Byzantine enclosure, were constantly maintained and remodeled between the 14th and 16th centuries under the Grand Masters Giovanni Battista degli Orsini (1467-76), Pierre d'Aubusson (1476-1505), Aim&amp;eacute;ry d'Amboise (1505-12), and Fabrizio del Carretto (1513-21). Artillery firing posts were the final features to be added. At the beginning of the 16th century, in the section of the Amboise Gate, which was built on the north-western angle in 1512, the curtain wall was 12&amp;nbsp;m thick with a 4&amp;nbsp;m high parapet pierced with gun holes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Order of St John of Jerusalem occupied Rhodes from 1309 to 1523 and set about transforming the city into a stronghold. It subsequently came under Turkish and Italian rule. With the Palace of the Grand Masters, the Great Hospital and the Street of the Knights, the Upper Town is one of the most beautiful urban ensembles of the Gothic period. In the Lower Town, Gothic architecture coexists with mosques, public baths and other buildings dating from the Ottoman period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medieval City of Rhodes</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>574</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/511</http_url><id_number>511</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_511.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.0805600000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Laconia, Region of the Peloponnesos</location><longitude>22.3666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Mystras, the 'Wonder of the Morea', was built as an amphitheatre around the fortress erected in 1249 by William of Villehardouin. Reconquered by the Byzantines, then occupied by the Turks and the Venetians, the city was abandoned in 1832, leaving only the breathtaking medieval ruins, standing in a beautiful landscape. The complex of the ruins of Mystras offers the image of a city with a brilliant destiny that was deserted by men and threatened by the return of encroaching vegetation, which is splitting the walls and covering the slopes, thus destroying here and there fragile traces of history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mystras came into existence in 1248-49 when the Frankish lord, William II of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaia, resolved to build a great castle on the top of the 620&amp;nbsp;m hill overlooking Sparta. The castle would be able to withstand attacks by the Byzantines, and also contain the Esclavons, the Slavic tribes of the Melinges and the Lezerites who inhabited the Taygete. Although a few inhabitants continued to live in the ruins, the city was not abandoned until after 1832, when King Otto I founded the new city of Sparta. For almost six centuries, Mystras lived a troubled existence. However, several times and under different regimes it assumed a leading political and cultural role. The vicissitudes of history did not spare the construction built by William II of Villehardouin. The castle had barely been completed when the Prince of Achaia, defeated by Michael VIII Palaeologus at the battle of Pelagonia and made prisoner, was forced to cede as ransom to the basileus the three strongholds of Monemvasia, Mania and Mystras (1261-62). When the favour of victory momentarily shined upon him once again, in 1265, Villehardouin found that the inhabitants of Sparta had deserted that vulnerable city and taken refuge around the castle of Mystras. From 1262 to 1348, because of many wars in which it was often the prize, Mystras was the seat of the Byzantine military governor, first named for a year then, after 1308, for life. The bishopric of Sparta was transferred to the new city, and the Metropolis, dedicated to St Demetrios, was built in 1264, and reconstructed after 1310. Convents, such as those of the Theodore Saints (prior to 196) and those of Brontochion (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1310) were built and richly decorated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1348 to 1460 Mystras became the capital of the Despotate of Morea. The despotate was the expression of the relative desire for decentralization of the Cantacuzenes (1348-84) and the Paleologi (1384-1460), who, according to a system modelled on feudalism, conferred power to family, in most cases to sons or brothers. During this period - the zenith of Mystras, when the Peribleptos and the Pantanassa were built around 1350 and 1428 respectively - the cosmopolitan city was a major piece on the political chessboard on the Mediterranean. Most of the despots married Frankish princesses; some made necessary alliances with the Turks, others with the Venetians. In 1402 Theodore I Paleologus sold Mystras to the Knights of Rhodes; only the hostile reaction of the population forced him to cancel the transaction. After paying a tribute to Murad II at the time of his victorious expedition in 1446, Mystras fell to Mohammed II on 30 May 1460. The event was seen in the West and in the East as being almost equal in importance to the fall of Constantinople in 1453.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The beauty of the churches of Mystras, which during the Paleologus Renaissance had been covered with dramatic frescoes, the renown of the libraries of Mystras and the glory of its writers (including Georges Gemiste Plethon and Jean Bessarion who brought neo-Platonic humanism to Italy) gave substance thereafter for the legend of the 'Wonder of Morea.' Dominated by the Turks, conquered briefly by the Venetians In 1669, then occupied for a longer period from 1687 to 1715, and recaptured in 1715 by the Ottoman Empire, Mystras never recovered its past grandeur, although it still numbered some 40,000 inhabitants. The silk industry was the manufacturing and trading city's only resource. Mystras was burned by the Albanians during the Magna Revolt in 1770 and was in a state of decadence when it was definitively abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mystras, the 'wonder of the Morea', was built as an amphitheatre around the fortress erected in 1249 by the prince of Achaia, William of Villehardouin. Reconquered by the Byzantines, then occupied by the Turks and the Venetians, the city was abandoned in 1832, leaving only the breathtaking medieval ruins, standing in a beautiful landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Mystras</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>595</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/517</http_url><id_number>517</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_517.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.6500000000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Ilia, Region of West Greece in the Western Peloponnese</location><longitude>21.6666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Olympia bears exceptional testimony to the ancient civilizations of Peloponnesos, in terms of both duration and quality. The first human settlements date back to prehistoric times; the Middle Helladic and Mycenaean periods are represented at the site. Consecrated to Zeus, the Altis is a major sanctuary from the 10th century BC to the 4th century AD corresponding to the zenith of Olympia. A Christian settlement survived for a time at the site of the ruins of the great Pan-Hellenic sanctuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In north-western Peloponnesos the archaeological site of Olympia at the foot of the Kronion Hill stretches over a triangular alluvial terrace at the confluence of the Alpheios and the Kladeos. In this area of very ancient settlement, religious centres of worship succeeded one another during the Hellenic period: those to Kronos, Gala, and other Chtonian divinities, those to Pelops, the hero who gave his name to Peloponnesus, and those to Hippodamia, whose hand Pelops won in a chariot race against Oenomaos, her father. Olympia became a centre of worship to Zeus in the 10th century BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The name Olympia, which described the wooded valley where the site was located, referred to the sacred mountain of Olympus, the habitual residence of Zeus. Placed under the protection of the cities of Pisa and later Elis, the Olympian sanctuary experienced an enormous renown in the 8th century BC, with the Pan-Hellenic games which were held every fifth year. Beginning in 776 BC, the games regularly brought together athletes. Later, orators, poets and musicians also came to celebrate Zeus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Altis (the sanctuary to the gods) includes the ruins of the two principal temples: the Temple of Hera (6th century BC) and the Temple of Zeus (5th century BC). The sanctuary contained one of the highest concentrations of masterpieces of the ancient Mediterranean world. Many have been lost, such as the Olympian Zeus, a gold-and-ivory cult statue which was probably executed by Pheidias between 438 and 430 BC. Other masterpieces have survived: large votive Archaic bronzes, sculptures of tympanums and metopes from the Temple of Zeus, and the Hermes by Praxiteles, found along with its base in the Temple of Hera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the north stood a row of Archaic Treasuries (6thand 5th centuries BC), several of which were built by residents of the distant Greek colonies of Selinus, Cyrene, and Byzantium. More recent structures - the Metroon and the Echo Colonnade (4th century BC), the Philippeion in honour of the victory at Chaeronea in 338 BC, and the Exedra of Herodes Atticus (157-60 AD)- gradually added to the complex topography of the sanctuary whose precinct overlooks an area of prehistoric settlements. The density of buildings outside the Altis is even greater: the built-up zone combines official housing and assembly rooms for the clergy and administrators, sports structures, thermal baths, and lodgings and accommodation for guests. To the north-west the Palaestra and the Gymnasium (3rd century BC), and to the east the old Stadium, rebuilt during the 1st century AD and remodelled in 1961-62, highlight a landscape of ruins of majestic beauty. Flooding of the Alpheios carried the Hippodrome away: only its original location is known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The influence of the monuments of Olympia has been considerable. To mention just three examples, the Temple of Zeus, built in 470-457 BC, is a model of the great Doric temples constructed in southern Italy and in Sicily during the 5th century BC; the Nike by Paeonios, sculptured around 420 BC, so lastingly influenced iconographic allegories of Victory that neoclassical art of the 19th century is still much indebted to it; with reference to the Roman period, the Olympian Palaestra is undoubtedly the typological reference made by Vitruvius in De Architectura.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Olympia is directly and tangibly associated with an event of universal significance. The Olympic Games were celebrated regularly beginning in 776 BC. The Olympiad - the four-year period between two successive celebrations falling every fifth year - became a chronological measurement and system of dating used in the Greek world. The significance of the Olympic Games demonstrates the lofty ideals of Hellenic humanism: peaceful and loyal competition between free and equal men, who are prepared to surpass their physical strength in a supreme effort, with their only ambition being the symbolic reward of an olive wreath.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of Olympia, in a valley in the Peloponnesus, has been inhabited since prehistoric times. In the 10th century B.C., Olympia became a centre for the worship of Zeus. The Altis &amp;ndash; the sanctuary to the gods &amp;ndash; has one of the highest concentrations of masterpieces from the ancient Greek world. In addition to temples, there are the remains of all the sports structures erected for the Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia every four years beginning in 776 B.C.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Olympia</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>603</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/530</http_url><id_number>530</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_530.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.4000000000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Cyclades, Region of the South Aegean</location><longitude>25.2666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The island of Delos bears unique witness to the civilizations of the Aegean world in the 3rd millennium BC. During the palaeo-Christian era, it was the seat of the bishopric of the Cyclades which ruled over the islands of Mykonos, Syros, Seriphos, Kythnos and Keos. From the 7th century BC to the pillage by Athenodoros, Delos was one of the principal Pan-Hellenic sanctuaries. The feast of the Delians, which was celebrated every four years in May until 316 BC, included gymnastic, equestrian, and musical competitions, dances, theatrical productions, and banquets. It was one of the major events in the Greek world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Delos is a minuscule island stretching only 5&amp;nbsp;km north to south and a scant 1.3&amp;nbsp;km from east to west. It was here, that Apollo, son of Zeus and Leto, was born: like Delphi, Delos is the major sanctuary dedicated to Apollo, the Titan god par excellence, one of the most important in the Hellenic pantheon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the island, which had already been the site of earlier human settlements (sparse during the Neolithic age, more dense during the Mycenaean period), everything revolved around the sanctuary of Apollo, the seat of the Ionian Amphictyonia. The Naxians, the Parians, and the Athenians disputed the site, with the last-named triumphing under Pisistratus (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 540-528 BC). They ordered the first purification of the place. In 454, the treasure of the Delian Confederacy, which replaced the Amphictyonia, was moved to Athens. In 426 a second purification decree forbade being born or dying at Delos. Pregnant women and terminally ill persons were transported to the island of Rheneia. The decision, motivated by religious reasons, was not without political considerations. In 422 BC in a move to strengthen Athenian domination, the Delians were deported en masse. Except for some short reprieves and truces, their exile lasted until 314, when Delos regained its independence in principle and again became the centre of an island confederation that was tolerated and more or less controlled by the Lagides of Egypt and later by the Macedonians. It became a very important cosmopolitan Mediterranean port ,reaching outstanding levels during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, when the average population is estimated to have been 25,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 166 BC the Delians were again ousted, this time by the Roman Senate, which wished to supplant trade at Rhodes by making Delos a free port. It was a landmark decision that signalled the end of a period dominated by religious and political considerations and the beginning of a phase of economic expansion as had presaged the extent of diplomatic and commercial relations reflected in the honorific decrees of the late 3rd century BC in favour of the rich foreign benefactors of the sanctuary. The great era of maritime trade ended only in 69 BC with the sacking of the island by Athenodoros, the last of a series of disastrous events. Abandoned in the 6th century, captured successively by Byzantines (727), Slavs (769), Saracens (821), Venetians, the Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem, and the Ottoman Turks, Delos was turned into a quarry site. The columns of its temples were consumed by the lime kilns, the walls of its houses left in ruins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today the island's landscape consists solely of ruins unearthed systematically since 1872. On an archaeological site estimated at 95&amp;nbsp;ha, 25&amp;nbsp;ha have been excavated. The principal zones are the north-east coastal plain (Sanctuary of Apollo, Agora of the Compitaliasts, Agora of the Delians); the Sacred Lake region (Agora of Theophrastos, Agora of the Italians, the renowned Terrace of Lions, the Institution of the Poseidoniasts of Berytos (Beirut); the Mount Kynthos area (Terrace of the Sanctuaries of the Foreign Gods, Heraion); and the theatre quarter, whose poignant ruins have been overrun by vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island of Delos is among the first important Greek sites in the Aegean world to have captured the attention of archaeologists. Delos had considerable influence on the development of architecture and monumental arts during the Graeco-Roman period; this influence was matched later by the important role it has played since the 15th century in furthering our knowledge of ancient Greek art from a widely renowned site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;According to Greek mythology, Apollo was born on this tiny island in the Cyclades archipelago. Apollo's sanctuary attracted pilgrims from all over Greece and Delos was a prosperous trading port. The island bears traces of the succeeding civilizations in the Aegean world, from the 3rd millennium B.C. to the palaeochristian era. The archaeological site is exceptionally extensive and rich and conveys the image of a great cosmopolitan Mediterranean port.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Delos</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>620</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/537</http_url><id_number>537</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_537.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.4000000000</latitude><location>Regions of Attica, Central Greece, North Aegean</location><longitude>22.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Although geographically distant from each other (Daphni is located in Attica, 11&amp;nbsp;km from Athens; Hossios Luckas in Phocis, 67&amp;nbsp;km from the capital, and Nea Moni in the centre of the island of Chios), the three properties belong to the same typological series and share the same aesthetic characteristics. These three monasteries are outstanding examples of a type of construction characteristic of the middle period of Byzantine religious architecture. Nea Moni illustrates the simplest expression, an octagonal church with no added spaces. Hossios Luckas and Daphni are more complex: they have a central octagonal space surrounded by a series of bays that form a square. This more elaborate structure defines a hierarchy of volumes and functions and permits the implementation of an extensive iconographic and decorative plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Daphni, located on the ancient sacred road from Athens to Eleusis, replaced a temple dedicated to Apollo Daphneios which had been destroyed in 396 AD. In the 5th century a basilica was built adjoining a wall that had been restored and completed under the reign of Justinian (527-65). It formed a square enceinte, 97&amp;nbsp;m on a side; a large part of the north wall, originally 8&amp;nbsp;m high, survives. This first monastery, discovered through a series of archaeological remains, was abandoned during the Slav invasions in the 7th and 8th centuries. It was not until 1100, when the Byzantine Empire was at its apogee under Alexis I Comnenus, that it rose out of its ruins. The church was built at that time. It had a narthex, to which a two-storey exonarthex was added a short time later. Other monastic buildings such as the refectory, cells and a well were built during the same building campaign and the church was sumptuously decorated with mosaics portraying the Dormition of the Virgin Mary. In 1205 the monastery was sacked by Frankish crusaders. In 1207 the Duke of Athens, Otho de la Roche, gave it to the Cistercians of the Abbey of Bellevaux. They built a cloister and remodelled the exonarthex and the enceinte wall but without altering the mosaics. Daphni was returned to Orthodox monks after Athens was taken by the Ottoman sultan Mehmet II in 1458. Deconsecrated in 1821, the monastery has been undergoing restoration work since 1888.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Hossios Luckas is 37&amp;nbsp;km from Delphi on the western slope of the Helicon: here a hermit named Lukas the Stiriote made his home in 946 among the ruins of a temple dedicated to Demeter. The holy man died in 953. A work on his life mentions a primitive church dedicated to St Barbara. In the latter half of the 10th century, construction on another church for pilgrims was begun. The topography of the vast polygonal enclosure of the monastery, which extends haphazardly on an east-west axis, still bears traces of successive additions and testifies to the enduring success of the cult to St Luke of Phocis. The immense central volume of the dome, 9&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, which rests on a drum pierced with sixteen windows, is supported on three sides by groin-vaulted bays. The bema and the apse define the cross-in-square plan of the church, which is one of the most perfect creations of Byzantine architecture. The church is filled with iconographic treasures of a magnitude and coherence rarely equalled. Its complex, compartmentalized plan is unified into a harmonious and luxurious whole by the rich decor of mosaics, frescoes, and marble slabs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the monastery of Nea Moni of Chios is fully documented as it was linked to a major event in Byzantine history. Constantine the Gladiator, a nobleman living in exile, was told by two monks of Chios, Nicetas and John, that he would become Emperor. When Constantine Monomachos married the twice-widowed 64-year-old Empress Zoe in 1042, thus becoming Basileus, he remembered the prediction. In 1045 he founded the monastery, choosing as its site a valley on Chios on the slopes of Mount Aetos and bestowing it with possessions and privileges. The dome, approximately 7&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, has no lateral bays but is placed between a triconch sanctuary and a narthex preceded by an exonarthex with lateral absides. The fairly rustic architectural design is carried over into in the more primitive style of the mosaics, which have a slightly Oriental flavour. Far from the somewhat abstract humanism of the decor at Daphni and Hossios Luckas, the typical characters portrayed at Nea Moni offer the stimulating counterpoint of more na&amp;iuml;ve art, a folk transcription of the great models of Constantinople.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Although geographically distant from each other, these three monasteries (the first is in Attica, near Athens, the second in Phocida near Delphi, and the third on an island in the Aegean Sea, near Asia Minor) belong to the same typological series and share the same aesthetic characteristics. The churches are built on a cross-in-square plan with a large dome supported by squinches defining an octagonal space. In the 11th and 12th centuries they were decorated with superb marble works as well as mosaics on a gold background, all characteristic of the 'second golden age of Byzantine art'.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monasteries of Daphni, Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni of Chios</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>632</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The nomination is for an area on the NE coast of the island that is clearly defined by the surrounding mountains. It consists of the ancient city (Pythagoreion) and the classical temple of Hera (Heraion).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pythagoreion is a classic site from the period of Greek colonization, situated round a good natural harbour on a peninsula that is protected by steep mountains behind it. It also had the advantage of being very close to the mainland of Asia Minor. The earliest finds are pre-classical, dating back to the 4th or 3rd millennium BC, but the main settlement began in the 16th century BC, when it was colonized by Minoans from Crete, later to be supplanted by Mycenaeans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancestors of the classical Samians arrived from the Epidauros region in the 11th century BC, following the turmoil of the Trojan War. By the 6th century BC Samos had become a major nautical power in the eastern Mediterranean, with close trade links with Asia Minor and the Greek mainland. It was strong enough to establish trading colonies on the coast of Ionia, in Thrace, and even in the western Mediterranean. Samian political influence waned after the island was conquered by the Persians at the end of the 6th century BC, but it continued to be an important mercantile city throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The city was sacked by Germanie peoples in the 3rd century AD and never properly recovered thereafter. Samos alternated between Byzantine, Turkish, and Venetian rule for many centuries, not being fully united with Greece until 1910.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortifications round the ancient town date back to the classical period, with Hellenistic additions. Excavations over many years have revealed a great deal of the street plan of the ancient city, together with its aqueduct, sewage system, public buildings, sanctuaries and temples, agora (market place), public baths (Roman), stadium, and town houses (Roman and Hellenistic). One of the most dramatic and famous features is the Eupalineio, a tunnel running for 1040 m through the mountainside to bring water to the city, the work of Eupalinos of Megara in the 6th century BC. It is described by one authority as &amp;quot;a miracle of ancient surveying [which] was begun at both ends running level, and the miners met in the middle with only the smallest of errors.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great Temple of Hera, or Heraion, had its origins in the 8th century BC, when it was the first Greek temple to be surrounded by a peristyle of columns; its 7th century successor was also innovatory in that it was the first temple to have a double row of columns across the front. But these were surpassed by the temple begun around 570 BC by Rhoecus and Theodorus, who built a colossal structure measuring sorne 45 m by 80 m. the earliest in the new Ionic order. It was supported by at least 100 columns, whose moulded bases were turned on a lathe designed by Theodorus. Thirty years later this temple was destroyed in a Persian raid and a replacement was planned on an even vaster scale, but it was never to be completed. The complex around the Heraion includes altars, smaller temples, stoas, and statue bases, all located inside the sanctuary, along with the remains of a 5th century Christian basilica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/595</http_url><id_number>595</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_595.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.6908300000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Samos, Region of the North Aegean</location><longitude>26.9433300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Samos was the leading maritime and mercantile power in the Greek world in the 6th century BC, and this importance is reflected in the extent and richness of the archaeological remains, which are largely untouched by subsequent developmentThe site is an area on the north-east coast of the island that is clearly defined by the surrounding mountains. It consists of the ancient city (Pythagoreion) and the classical Temple of Hera (Heraion). Pythagoreion is a classic site from the period of Greek colonization, situated round a good natural harbour on a peninsula that is protected by steep mountains behind it. It also had the advantage of being very close to the mainland of Asia Minor. The earliest finds are pre-classical; dating back to the 4th or 3rd millennium BC, but the main settlement began in the 16th century BC, when it was colonized by Minoans from Crete, later to be supplanted by Mycenaeans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancestors of the classical Samians arrived from the Epidauros region in the 11th century BC, following the turmoil of the Trojan War. By the 6th century BC, Samos had become a major nautical power in the eastern Mediterranean, with close trade links with Asia Minor and the Greek mainland. It was strong enough to establish trading colonies on the coast of Ionia, in Thrace, and even in the western Mediterranean. Samian political influence waned after the island was conquered by the Persians at the end of the 6th century BC, but it continued to be an important mercantile city throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The city was sacked by Germanic peoples in the 3rd century AD and never properly recovered thereafter. Samos alternated between Byzantine, Turkish, and Venetian rule for many centuries, not being fully united with Greece until 1910.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortifications round the ancient town date back to the classical period, with Hellenistic additions. Excavations over many years have revealed a great deal of the street plan of the ancient city, together with its aqueduct, sewage system, public buildings, sanctuaries and temples, agora, public baths (Roman), stadium and town houses (Roman and Hellenistic). One of the most famous features is the Eupalineio, a tunnel running for 1,040&amp;nbsp;m through the mountainside to bring water to the city, the work of Eupalinos of Megara in the 6th century BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great Temple of Hera (Heraion) had its origins in the 8th century BC, when it was the first Greek temple to be surrounded by a peristyle of columns; its 7th-century successor was also innovatory in that it was the first temple to have a double row of columns across the front. These were both surpassed by the temple begun around 570 BC by Rhoecus and Theodorus, who built a colossal structure measuring some 45&amp;nbsp;m by 80&amp;nbsp;m, the earliest in the new Ionic order. It was supported by at least 100 columns, whose moulded bases were turned on a lathe designed by Theodorus. Thirty years later this temple was destroyed in a Persian raid and a replacement was planned on an even vaster scale, but it was never to be completed. The complex around the Heraion includes altars, smaller temples, stoas, and statue bases, all located inside the sanctuary, along with the remains of a 5th-century Christian basilica. The temple is fundamental to an understanding of classical architecture. The stylistic and structural innovations in each of its successive phases strongly influenced the design of temples and public buildings throughout the Greek world. The technological mastery of the Eupalineio similarly served as a model for engineering and public works.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Many civilizations have inhabited this small Aegean island, near Asia Minor, since the 3rd millennium B.C. The remains of Pythagoreion, an ancient fortified port with Greek and Roman monuments and a spectacular tunnel-aqueduct, as well as the Heraion, temple of the Samian Hera, can still be seen.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>703</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The ancient city in the northern foothills of the Pierian range has been identified with certainty as the capital of the kingdom of Lower Macedonia, Aigai According to tradition it was founded by Perdiccas I when the Macedonians of the Argive spread northwards over the plain of Emathia. This region was already settled in the Early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC), as evidenced by a tumulus (grave-mound) near the river Haliakmon. The wealth and density of over three hundred grave-mounds in the cemetery of the Tumuli testifies to the importance of Aigai in the Early Iron Age (1100-700 BC). The quality of the grave-goods shows that this was a period of highly developed culture and technological skills in the community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the capital of the Argive Macedonian kingdom and site of the royal court, Algal was the most important urban centre in the region throughout the Archaic Period &amp;lt;800-500 BO and the century that followed. The grave-goods in a series of tombs dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC demonstrate commercial and cultural links with the Greek centres of eastern Ionia and the south, such as Athens, Samos, and Corinth, and illustrate the wealth and sophistication of the royal court. At the end of the 5th century Archelaus brought to his court artists, poets, and philosophers from all over the Greek world: it was, for example, at Algal that Euripides wrote and presented his last tragedies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the administrative centre was transferred to Pella in the 4th century BC, Algal retained its role as the sacred city of the Macedonian kingdom, the site of the traditional cult centres and the royal tombs. lt was during the marriage here in 336 BC of Alexander, King of Epirus, to Princess Cleopatra that Philip II was assassinated in the theatre and Alexander the Great was proclaimed king.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bitter struggles between the heirs of Alexander, the Diadochoi, in the 3rd century adversely affected the city, and it was further slighted after the overthrow of the Macedonian kingdom by the Romans in 168 BC. Nevertheless, it was rebuilt and survived into early Imperial times. However, between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD the population progressively moved down from the foothills of the Pierian range to the plain, so that all that remained was a small settlement whose name, Palatitsia (&amp;quot;Palace&amp;quot;), alone indicated its former importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/780</http_url><id_number>780</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_780.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i) and (iii) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value representing an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from classical city-state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents. The Committee decided to add to the proposed criteria cultural criterion (i), since the paintings found at Vergina are of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.4713900000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Imathia, Region of Central Macedonia</location><longitude>22.3183300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vergina represents exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city-state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents. The paintings found at Vergina are of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient city in the northern foothills of the Pierian range is the capital of the kingdom of Lower Macedonia, Aigai, traditionally founded by Perdiccas I when the Macedonians of the Argive spread northwards over the plain of Emathia. This region was already settled in the early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BC), as evidenced by a tumulus (grave-mound) near the river Haliakmon. The wealth and density of over 300 grave-mounds in the Cemetery of the Tumuli testifies to the importance of Aigai in the early Iron Age (1100-700 BC). As the capital of the Macedonian kingdom and site of the royal court, Aigai was the most important urban centre in the region throughout the archaic period (800-500 BC) and the following century. The grave-goods in a series of tombs dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC demonstrate commercial and cultural links with Greek centres of eastern lonia and the south. At the end of the 5th century, Archelaus brought to his court artists, poets and philosophers from all over the Greek world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the administrative centre was transferred to Pella in the 4th century BC, Aigai retained its role as the sacred city of the Macedonian kingdom, the site of the traditional cult centres, and the royal tombs. It was here in 336 BC that Philip II was assassinated in the theatre and Alexander the Great was proclaimed king. The bitter struggles between the heirs of Alexander, the Diadochoi, in the 3rd century adversely affected the city, and it was further slighted after the overthrow of the Macedonian kingdom by the Romans in 168 BC. Nevertheless, it was rebuilt and survived into early imperial times. However, between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD the population progressively moved down from the foothills of the Pierian range to the plain, so that all that remained was a small settlement whose name, Palatitsia (palace), alone indicated its former importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important building so far discovered is the monumental palace, located on a plateau directly below the acropolis. This building, which rose to two and perhaps three storeys, is centred on a large open courtyard flanked by stone Doric colonnades. The rooms were used for religious, administrative, and political functions. On the north side was a large gallery that commanded the stage of the neighbouring theatre and the whole Macedonian plain. It was sumptuously decorated, with mosaic floors, painted plastered walls, and fine relief tiles. The theatre, from the second half of the 4th century BC, forms an integral part of the palace complex. Just to the north there is a sanctuary of the goddess Eukleia, with small 4th and 3rd centuries BC temples containing statue bases inscribed with the names of members of the Macedonian royal family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The best known feature of the site is the necropolis, which extends for over 3&amp;nbsp;km, with the Cemetery of the Tumuli at its heart. This contains over 300 grave-mounds, some as early as the 11th century BC. To the north-west of the ancient city there is an important group of tombs from the 6th and 5th centuries BC belonging to members of the Macedonian dynasty and their courts. These contained rich funerary deposits, along with imported materials. One from around 340 BC with an imposing marble throne, is believed to be that of Euridike, mother of Philip II. The most impressive funerary monument is the Great Tumulus, an artificial mound 110&amp;nbsp;m in diameter and 13&amp;nbsp;m high, beneath which four elaborate royal tombs were discovered. One contains wall paintings representing the rape of Persephone, believed to be the work of the famous painter Nikomachos. Two of the tombs were undisturbed in antiquity and both contained rich grave-goods. In Tomb II the body was found in a solid gold casket weighing some 11&amp;nbsp;kg; the occupant has been identified as Philip II, father of Alexander the Great and consolidator of Macedonian power. This tomb is especially noteworthy for the frieze that adorns it, believed to be the work of the celebrated Philoxenos of Eretria.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>923</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mycenaean civilization developed on the Greek mainland in the Late Bronze Age (16th century BC). It was essentially a continuation of the Middle Helladic culture, transformed by Minoan influences from Crete. Knowledge of its two earlier periods I (c 1580-1500 BC) and II (c 1500-1400 BC ) comes mainly from burials, notably the shaft graves at Mycenae. Towards the end of Period II more elaborate tomb types developed - large chamber tombs for families and beehive-shaped (tholos) tombs for royalty. The apogee of the Mycenaean civilization came in Period III (c 1400-1120 BC), when strong citadels and elaborate palaces were built. Towards the end of this period a script, known as Linear B, came into use; the language used has been shown to be an early form of Greek, confirming that the Mycenaeans were Greek speakers of Indo-European origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The political structure was that of an autocratic monarchy, the ruler of which was known as the wanax, who administered his territory by means of an hierarchical structure of officials. There was a special class of priests and priestesses. The people were organized in an elaborate class system, and slavery was widely practised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Mycenae is known from excavations to have been occupied from the Neolithic period (c 4000 BC). During the Middle Helladic Period a cemetery was established on the southern slopes of the natural hill which included Grave Circle B (dated to the 17th century BC) and Grave Circle A (16th century BC). The Palace was constructed on the summit of the hill and surrounded by massive cyclopean walls in three stages (c 1350, 1250, and 1225 BC respectively). In the final stage the underground reservoir was also fortified. A series of tholos tombs were built on the southern and south-western slopes of the hill during the Mycenaean Period - the so-called Tomb of Aegisthos (c 1500 BC), the Lion Tholos Tomb (c 1350 BC), the Tomb of Clytemnestra (c 1220 BC), culminating in the Treasury of Atreus, at some distance from the others. Four large buildings, believed to have been royal workshops, were built in the 13th century BC in the vicinity of Grave Circle B.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palace was abandoned at the end of the 12th century BC and a number of buildings were damaged by fire. However, the site continued to be occupied until 498 BC, when it was conquered by Argos and its inhabitants were expelled. The top of the hill was levelled at this time for the construction of an Archaic temple. The site was re-occupied briefly in the Hellenistic period, when another temple was built and a theatre constructed over the Tomb of Clytemnestra. By the time the Greek traveller Pausanias visited Mycenae in the 2nd century AD it had been completely abandoned for many years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As at Mycenae, the earliest human occupation known at Tiryns is from the Neolithic period. The oldest architectural remains, on the Upper Citadel, are from the early Bronze Age (c 3000 BC). The level of this area was built up in the Middle Bronze Age (1900-1600 BC) to accommodate new buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tiryns flourished during the Mycenaean period. A new fortified palace complex was constructed in the 14th century BC. The defences were extended in the early 13th century BC, and the Lower Citadel was also fortified. Following earthquake and fire damage, the site was reconstructed, the new defences enclosing an area of 20ha; the extra-mural settlement covered more than 25ha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fate of Tiryns with the decline of the Mycenaean civilization paralleled that of Mycenae. It was not finally abandoned until the deportation of the 5th century BC, by which time it had lost its power and influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/941</http_url><id_number>941</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_941.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The architecture and design of Mycenae and Tiryns, such as the Lion Gate and the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae and the walls of Tiryns, are outstanding examples of human creative genius.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Mycenaean civilization, as exemplified by Mycenae and Tiryns, had a profound effect on the development of classical Greek architecture and urban design, and consequently also on contemporary cultural forms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (iii) and (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Mycenae and Tiryns represent the apogee of the Mycenaean civilization, which laid the foundations for the evolution of later European cultures.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Mycenae and Tiryns are indissolubly linked with the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the influence of which upon European literature and the arts has been profound for more than three millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.7333333300</latitude><location>Prefecture of Argolis, Region of the Peloponnesos</location><longitude>22.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Mycenae and Tiryns represent the apogee of the Mycenaean civilization, which laid the foundations for the evolution of later European cultures, including classical Greek architecture and urban design, and consequently also on contemporary cultural forms. Moreover, the two sites are indissolubly linked with the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the influence of which upon European literature and the arts has been profound for more than three millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mycenaean civilization developed on the Greek mainland in the late Bronze Age (16th century BC). It was essentially a continuation of the Middle Helladic culture, transformed by Minoan influences from Crete. Knowledge of its two earlier periods I (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1580-1500 BC) and II (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1500-1400 BC) comes mainly from burials, notably the shaft graves at Mycenae. Towards the end of Period II more elaborate tomb types developed - large chamber tombs for families and beehive-shaped (tholos) tombs for royalty. The apogee of the Mycenaean civilization came in Period III (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1400-1120 BC), when strong citadels and elaborate palaces were built. Towards the end of this period a script, known as Linear B, came into use; the language used has been shown to be an early form of Greek, confirming that the Mycenaeans were Greek speakers of Indo-European origin. The political structure was that of an autocratic monarchy, the ruler of which was known as the wanax, who administered his territory by means of a hierarchical structure of officials. There was a special class of priests and priestesses. The people were organized in an elaborate class system, and slavery was widely practised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Mycenae is known from excavations to have been occupied from the Neolithic period (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 4000 BC). During the Middle Helladic period a cemetery was established on the southern slopes of the natural hill which included Grave Circle B (dated to the 17th century BC) and Grave Circle A (16th century BC). The Palace was constructed on the summit of the hill and surrounded by massive cyclopean walls in three stages (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1350, 1250 and 1225 BC respectively). In the final stage the underground reservoir was also fortified. A series of tholos tombs were built on the southern and south-western slopes of the hill during the Mycenaean period: the so-called Tomb of Aegisthos (&lt;em&gt;c.&lt;/em&gt; 1500 BC), the Lion Tholos Tomb (&lt;em&gt;c.&lt;/em&gt; 1350 BC), the Tomb of Clytemnestra (&lt;em&gt;c.&lt;/em&gt; 1220 BC), culminating in the Treasury of Atreus, at some distance from the others. Four large buildings, believed to have been royal workshops, were built in the 13th century BC in the vicinity of Grave Circle B. The palace was abandoned at the end of the 12th century BC and a number of buildings were damaged by fire. However, the site continued to be occupied until 498 BC, when it was conquered by Argos and its inhabitants were expelled. The top of the hill was levelled at this time for the construction of an Archaic temple. The site was reoccupied briefly in the Hellenistic period, when another temple was built and a theatre constructed over the Tomb of Clytemnestra. By the time the Greek traveller Pausanias visited Mycenae in the 2nd century AD it had been completely abandoned for many years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As at Mycenae, the earliest human occupation known at Tiryns is from the Neolithic period. The oldest architectural remains, on the Upper Citadel, are from the early Bronze Age (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 3000 BC). The level of this area was built up in the middle Bronze Age (1900-1600 BC) to accommodate new buildings. Tiryns flourished during the Mycenaean period. A new fortified palace complex was constructed in the 14th century BC. The defences were extended in the early 13th century BC, and the Lower Citadel was also fortified. Following earthquake and fire damage, the site was reconstructed, the new defences enclosing an area of 20&amp;nbsp;ha; the extra-mural settlement covered more than 25&amp;nbsp;ha. The fate of Tiryns with the decline of the Mycenaean civilization paralleled that of Mycenae. It was not finally abandoned until the deportation of the 5th century BC, by which time it had lost its power and influence.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological sites of Mycenae and Tiryns are the imposing ruins of the two greatest cities of the Mycenaean civilization, which dominated the eastern Mediterranean world from the 15th to the 12th century B.C. and played a vital role in the development of classical Greek culture. These two cities are indissolubly linked to the Homeric epics, the &lt;em&gt;Iliad&lt;/em&gt; and the &lt;em&gt;Odyssey&lt;/em&gt; , which have influenced European art and literature for more than three millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Sites of Mycenae and Tiryns</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1097</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;P&amp;aacute;tmos was colonized first by Dorian and then Ionian Greeks. When it was absorbed into the Roman Empire it was used, like other Aegean islands, as a place of exile for political prisoners. Among them was the Evangelist St John the Theologian (also known as St John the Divine), who was brought to the island in AD 95 during the reign of Domitian, and it was during his long sojourn on P&amp;aacute;tmos that he wrote both the Apocalypse and his Gospel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like so many of the Aegean islands P&amp;aacute;tmos was devastated by Saracen raiders in the 7th century, and it was virtually uninhabited for the next two centuries. In 1088 Hosios Christodoulos, a Bithynian abbot who had already founded monasteries on L&amp;eacute;ros and Kos, obtained permission from the Byzantine Emperor Alexis I Comnenus to found a monastery on the island dedicated to St John. This was at a time when the Imperial state was encouraging the resettlement on the islands and shores of the Aegean, a policy which included the establishment of fortified monasteries (eg N&amp;eacute;a Moni on the island of Chios and the monasteries of Mount &amp;Aacute;thos).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island was captured by the Venetians in 1208. It is around this period that the oldest settlement on P&amp;aacute;tmos was founded, that of Chor&amp;aacute;, when married lay brothers and other people working for the monastic community settled around the monastery. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 about a hundred families were resettled in Chor&amp;aacute;, to the west of the monastery, where they established the wealthy area known as Alloteina. At this time the appearance of the settlement was that of dispersed houses essentially rural in nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;P&amp;aacute;tmos came under Turkish control in the early 16th century. Paradoxically, this marked the beginning of a period of prosperity for the islanders, who were granted certain tax privileges in exchange for their submission. The inhabitants of Chor&amp;aacute; took advantage of these to engage in shipping and trade, and this is reflected in the fine houses built by wealthy merchants in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a number of which survive to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This period of prosperity ended when the island was sacked by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini in 1659. Following the fall of Candia to the Turks in 1669, Venetians refugees were settled on the island. They created a new residential area, known as Kretika, the main square of which was named Agialesvia, dedicated to a female Cretan saint. The urban tissue began to change, the new properties being much smaller and densely packed. It was slowly to recover its former mercantile role, but in the later 18th century and throughout the 19th century P&amp;aacute;tmos was once again a major trading centre. In the mid 18th century the Aporthiana quarters were formed as the town expanded. Many of the old houses were rehabilitated and new mansions were built.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/942</http_url><id_number>942</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_942.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The town of Chor&amp;aacute; on the island of P&amp;aacute;tmos is one of the few settlements in Greece that have evolved uninterruptedly since the 12th century. There are few other places in the world where religious ceremonies that date back to the early Christian times are still being practised unchanged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt; Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Monastery of Hagios Ioannis Theologos (Saint John the Theologian) and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the island of P&amp;aacute;tmos, together with the associated medieval settlement of Chor&amp;aacute;, constitute an exceptional example of a traditional Greek Orthodox pilgrimage centre of outstanding architectural interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Monastery of Hagios Ioannis Theologos and the Cave of the Apocalypse commemorate the site where St John the Theologian (Divine), the &amp;ldquo;Beloved Disciple&amp;rdquo;, composed two of the most sacred Christian works, his Gospel and the Apocalypse.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.3000000000</latitude><location>Prefecture of Dodecanese, Region of the South Aegean</location><longitude>26.5500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Hagios Ioannis Theologos (Saint John the Theologian) and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the island of P&amp;aacute;tmos, together with the associated medieval settlement of Chor&amp;aacute;, constitute an exceptional example of a traditional Greek Orthodox pilgrimage centre of outstanding architectural interest. The town of Chor&amp;aacute; is one of the few settlements in Greece that have evolved uninterruptedly since the 12th century. There are few other places in the world where religious ceremonies that date back to the early Christian times are still being practised unchanged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Hagios Ioannis Theologos and the Cave of the Apocalypse commemorate the site where St John the Theologian (Divine), the 'Beloved Disciple', composed two of the most sacred Christian works, his Gospel and the Apocalypse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;P&amp;aacute;tmos is the northernmost island of the Dodecanese group with an area of some 88&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , is largely barren, formed from three volcanic masses connected by narrow isthmuses. There are three settlements: the medieval Chor&amp;aacute;, the 19th-century harbour of Sk&amp;aacute;la, and the small rural Kampos. The site selected by Christodoulos for his Monastery of Hagios Ioannis Theologos dominates the whole island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;P&amp;aacute;tmos was colonized first by Dorian and then Ionian Greeks. When it was absorbed into the Roman Empire it was used, like other Aegean islands, as a place of exile for political prisoners. Among them was the Evangelist St John the Theologian (also known as St John the Divine), who was brought to the island in AD 95 during the reign of Domitian. Like so many of the Aegean islands P&amp;aacute;tmos was devastated by Saracen raiders in the 7th century, and it was virtually uninhabited for the next two centuries. In 1088 Hosios Christodoulos, a Bithynian abbot who had already founded monasteries on L&amp;eacute;ros and Kos, obtained permission from the Byzantine Emperor Alexis I Comnenus to found a monastery on the island dedicated to St John. This was at a time when the imperial state was encouraging resettlement on the islands and shores of the Aegean, a policy that included the establishment of fortified monasteries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island was captured by the Venetians in 1208. It is around this period that the oldest settlement on P&amp;aacute;tmos was founded, that of Chor&amp;aacute;, when married lay brothers and other people working for the monastic community settled around the monastery. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 about 100 families were resettled in Chor&amp;aacute;, to the west of the monastery, where they established the wealthy area known as Alloteina. At this time the appearance of the settlement was that of dispersed houses essentially rural in nature. P&amp;aacute;tmos came under Turkish control in the early 16th century. Paradoxically, this marked the beginning of a period of prosperity for the islanders, who were granted certain tax privileges in exchange for their submission. The inhabitants of Chor&amp;aacute; took advantage of these to engage in shipping and trade, and this is reflected in the fine houses built by wealthy merchants in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a number of which survive to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This prosperity ended when the island was sacked by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini in 1659. Following the fall of Candia to the Turks in 1669, Venetians refugees were settled on the island. They created a new residential area, known as Kretika, the main square of which was named Agialesvia, dedicated to a female Cretan saint. The urban tissue began to change, the new properties being much smaller and densely packed. It was slowly to recover its former mercantile role, but in the later 18th century and throughout the 19th century P&amp;aacute;tmos was once again a major trading centre. In the mid-18th century the Aporthiana quarters were formed as the town expanded. Many of the old houses were rehabilitated and new mansions were built.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The small island of P&amp;aacute;tmos in the Dodecanese is reputed to be where St John the Theologian wrote both his Gospel and the Apocalypse. A monastery dedicated to the &amp;lsquo;beloved disciple&amp;rsquo; was founded there in the late 10th century and it has been a place of pilgrimage and Greek Orthodox learning ever since. The fine monastic complex dominates the island. The old settlement of Chor&amp;aacute;, associated with it, contains many religious and secular buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Historic Centre (Chorá) with the Monastery of Saint-John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the Island of Pátmos</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1098</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Corfu, the first of the Ionian Islands encountered at the entrance to the Adriatic, was annexed to Greece by a group of Eretrians (775-750 BCE). In 734 BCE the Corinthians founded a colony known as Kerkyra to the south of where the Old Town now stands. The town became a trading post on the way to Sicily and founded further colonies in Illyria and Epirus. The coast of Epirus and Corfu itself came under the sway of the Roman Republic (229 BCE) and served as the jumping-off point for Rome's expansion into the east. In the reign of Caligula two disciples of the Apostle Paul, St Jason, Bishop of Iconium, and Sosipater, Bishop of Tarsus, introduced Christianity to the island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Corfu fell to the lot of the Eastern Empire at the time of the division in 336 and entered a long period of unsettled fortunes, beginning with the invasion of the Goths (551).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The population gradually abandoned the old town and moved to the peninsula surmounted by two peaks (the korifi) where the ancient citadel now stands. The Venetians, who were beginning to play a more decisive role in the southern Adriatic, came to the aid of a failing Byzantium, thereby conveniently defending their own trade with Constantinople against the Norman prince Robert Guiscard. Corfu was taken by the Normans in 1081 and returned to the Byzantine Empire in 1084.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204, the Byzantine Empire was broken up and, in return for their military support, the Venetians obtained all the naval bases they needed to control the Aegean and the Ionian Seas, including Corfu, which they occupied briefly from 1204 to 1214. For the next half-century, the island fell under the sway of the Despots of Epirus (1214-67) and then that of the Angevins of Naples (1267-1368), who used it to further their policies against both the Byzantine Empire now re-established in Constantinople and the Republic of Venice. The tiny medieval town grew up between the two fortified peaks, the Byzantine Castel da Mare and the Angevin Castel di Terra, in the shelter of a defensive wall fortified with towers. Writings from the first half of the 13th century tell of a separation of administrative and religious powers between the inhabitants of the citadel and those of the outlying parts of the town occupying what is now the Spianada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In order to assert its naval and commercial power in the Southern Adriatic, the Republic of Venice took advantage of the internal conflicts raging in the Kingdom of Naples to take control of Corfu (1386-1797). Alongside Negropont (Chalcis), Crete, and Modon (Methoni), it would form one of the bases from which to counter the Ottoman maritime offensive and serve as a revictualling station for ships en route to Romania and the Black Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ongoing work on defining, improving, and expanding the medieval fortified perimeter reflects the economic and strategic role of Corfu during the four centuries of Venetian occupation. In the early 15th century activity concentrated on the medieval town, with the development of harbour facilities (docks, quays and arsenals) and continued with the renovation of the defence works. Early in the following century a canal was dug, cutting off the medieval town from its suburbs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the siege of the town by the Turks in 1537 and the burning of the suburbs, a new programme of works was launched to isolate the citadel further and strengthen its defences. The strip of land (now the Spianada) cleared in 1516 was widened by demolishing houses facing the citadel walls, two new bastions were raised on the banks of the canal, the elevation of the perimeter walls was lowered, and the two castelli were replaced by new structures. The work, based on plans drawn by Veronese architect Michele Sanmicheli (1487-1559), were completed in 1558, bringing the town's defences up to date with the rapid progress made in artillery in recent decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yet another siege by the Turks in 1571 decided the Venetians to embark on a vast project covering the medieval town, its suburbs, the harbour, and all the military buildings (1576-88). Ferrante Vitelli, architect to the Duke of Savoy, sited a fort (the New Fort) on the low hill of St Mark to the west of the old town to command the surrounding land and at sea, and also the 24 suburbs enclosed by a ditched wall with bastions and four gates. More buildings, both military and civil, were erected and the 15th century Mandraki harbour was restructured and enlarged. At the same time, the medieval town was converted to more specifically military uses (the cathedral was transferred to the new town in the 17th century) to become the Old Citadel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1669 and 1682 the system of defences was further strengthened to the west by a second wall, the work of military engineer Filippo Vernada. In 1714 the Turks sought to reconquer Morea (the Peloponnese) but Venetian resistance hardened when the Turkish forces headed towards Corfu. The support of Christian naval fleets and an Austrian victory in Hungary in 1716 helped to save the town. The commander of the Venetian forces on Corfu, Giovanni Maria von Schulenburg, was inspired by the designs of Filippo Vernada to put the final touches to this great fortified ensemble. The outer western defences were reinforced by a complex system of outworks on the heights of two mountains, Abraham and Salvatore, and on the intermediate fort of San Rocco (1717-30).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The treaty of Campo Formio (1797) marked the end of the Republic of Venice and saw Corfu come under French control (1797-99) until France withdrew before the Russian-Turkish alliance that founded the State of the Ionian Islands, of which Corfu would become the capital (1799-1807). The redrawing of territorial boundaries in Europe after the fall of Napoleon made Corfu, after a brief interlude of renewed French control (1807-14), a British protectorate for the next half-century (1814-64).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the capital of the United States of the Ionian Islands, Corfu lost its strategic importance. Under the governance of the British High Commissioner Sir Thomas Maitland (1816-24), development activity concentrated on the Spianada; his successor, Sir Frederic Adam (1824-32), turned his attention towards public works (building an aqueduct, restructuring the Old Citadel and adding new military buildings at the expense of the Venetian buildings, reconstruction and raising of the town's dwellings) and the reorganisation of the educational system (the new Ionian Academy was opened in 1824), contributing to the upsurge in intellectual interests sparked during the French occupation. At the same time, the British began demolishing the outer fortifications on the western edge of the town and planning residential areas outside the defensive walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1864 the island was attached to the Kingdom of the Hellenes. The fortresses were disarmed and several sections of the perimeter wall and the defences were gradually demolished. The island became a favoured holiday destination for the aristocracy of Europe. The Old Town was badly damaged by bombing in 1943. Added to the loss of life was the destruction of many houses and public buildings (the Ionian Parliament, the theatre, and the library), fourteen churches, and a number of buildings in the Old Citadel. In recent decades the gradual growth of the new town has accelerated with the expansion of tourism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/978</http_url><id_number>978</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_978.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.6239413889</latitude><location>Ionian Islands, Corfu Prefecture </location><longitude>19.9275000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Old Town of Corfu, on the Island of Corfu off the western coasts of Albania and Greece, is located in a strategic position at the entrance of the Adriatic Sea, and has its roots in the 8th century BC. The three forts of the town, designed by renowned Venetian engineers, were used for four centuries to defend the maritime trading interests of the Republic of Venice against the Ottoman Empire. In the course of time, the forts were repaired and partly rebuilt several times, more recently under British rule in the 19th century. The mainly neoclassical housing stock of the Old Town is partly from the Venetian period, partly of later construction, notably the 19th century. As a fortified Mediterranean port, Corfu&amp;rsquo;s urban and port ensemble is notable for its high level of integrity and authenticity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Corfu</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1477</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1517</http_url><id_number>1517</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1517.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.0147222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>24.2852777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of this walled city lie at the foot of an acropolis in north-eastern Greece, on the ancient route linking Europe and Asia, the&lt;span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;Via Egnatia&lt;/em&gt;. Founded in 356 BC by the Macedonian King Philip II, the city developed as a “small Rome” with the establishment of the Roman Empire in the decades following the Battle of Philippi, in 42 BCE. The vibrant Hellenistic city of Philip II, of which the walls and their gates, the theatre and the funerary heroon (temple) are to be seen, was supplemented with Roman public buildings such as the Forum and a monumental terrace with temples to its north&lt;span&gt;. Later the city became a centre of the Christian faith following the visit of the Apostle Paul in 49-50 CE. The remains of its basilicas constitute an exceptional testimony to the early establishment of Christianity.  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Philippi</site><states>Greece</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2109</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Declared a national park on 26 May 1955, having originally been established as a national monument in 1931. Tikal National Park (accepted as a World Heritage site in 1979) and Laguna del Tigre (a Ramsar site) are located within the biosphere reserve. Declared a biosphere reserve on 30 January 1990 by congressional Decree No. 5-90, based on Article 12 of Congressional Decree No. 4-89 of the Protected Areas Law (Lehnhoff Temme, 1990).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/64</http_url><id_number>64</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_64.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.2166666700</latitude><location>Department of El Peten</location><longitude>-89.6166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Together with Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, Maya is the most important reserve in the country, because of its archaeological and bio/ecological interest. Rivers, lakes, swamps and flooding savannas are important for biodiversity and for migratory birds. The reserve contains the largest area of tropical rainforest in Guatemala and Central America, with a wide range of unspoilt natural habitats. A large area of the reserve still comprises dense broadleaved forests with more than 300 species of commercially useful trees, such as cedar, mahogany, &lt;em&gt;ramon&lt;/em&gt; (bread-nut tree), &lt;em&gt;Araceae&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;(osier for furniture), chicle, pepper and others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The soils of El Pet&amp;eacute;n-Caribbean form a sedimentary basin with deposits from the Mesozoic and the Tertiary periods. They contain limestone and dolomites showing Cretaceous characteristics of karst formations with a broken relief. Soils are clayey and slightly permeable, with internal drainage, and easily compactable. Two types are found in the reserve: the Yucatan shelf to the north, formed by small hills, and the Lacandon mountain chain in the centre, consisting of rounded hills of calcareous origin, mountain chains, lagoons and alluvial plains. In the Lacandon area, soils are poor and there are abrupt cliffs. In the Tikal, Uaxactun and Dos Lagunas areas, the topography is undulating and soils are well drained. Laguna del Tigre and Laguna de Yaxha are the main lagoons found in the wetland area, where there are a large number of 'aguadas' or superficial swamps. The rivers in the reserve are part of the drainage basin of the Usumacinta River in the Gulf of Mexico. This is one of the most extensive wetland systems in Central America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tikal protects some 22,100&amp;nbsp;ha of rainforest. The rich vegetation includes; species of savannah such as nance; high altitude forest with chicle, &lt;em&gt;ramon&lt;/em&gt; , West Indian mahogany, cedar, &lt;em&gt;palma de botan &lt;/em&gt;(palm) and &lt;em&gt;palma de escobo&lt;/em&gt; , 'tinto' lowland forest. Other common tree species include cedar and the palm. Over 2,000 plant species were identified in the park area. Local people use forest species such as chicle, pepper, cedar, mahogany and &lt;em&gt;ramon&lt;/em&gt; and the use of leaves and flowers from &lt;em&gt;Chamaedorea&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Araceae&lt;/em&gt; spp. are used for ornamental purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fifty-four species of mammal occur, including mantled howler monkey, spider monkey, giant anteater, lesser anteater, dwarf anteater, three-toed sloth, nine-banded armadillo, squirrel, pocket gopher, raccoon, brown coati, kinkajou, tayra, paca, long-tailed weasel, hooded skunk, otter, puma, margay, ocelot, jaguarundi, jaguar, Baird's tapir which is limited by water availability, collared and white-lipped peccaries, white-tailed deer and red brocket deer. The avifauna comprises 333 species, representing 63 of the 74 families in Guatemala, and includes ocellated turkey, red macaw, jaribu stork and many others, including crested eagle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reptiles and amphibians include Morelet's crocodile, the Central American river turtle, nine families of amphibian and six genera of turtles, as well as 38 species of non-poisonous and poisonous snakes including coral snake, four species of Bothrops and two subspecies of rattlesnake Crotalus. A rich invertebrate fauna, especially arthropods, also occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the heart of this jungle, surrounded by lush vegetation, lies one of the major sites of the Mayan civilization. The ceremonial centre contains superb temples and palaces, and public squares accessed by means of ramps. Remains of dwellings are scattered throughout the surrounding countryside. The ruined city reflects the cultural evolution of Mayan society from hunter- gathering to farming, with an elaborate religious, artistic and scientific culture which finally collapsed in the late 9th century. At its height, AD 700-800, the city supported a population of 90,000 Mayan Indians. There are over 3,000 separate buildings dating from 600 BC to AD 900, including temples, residences, religious monuments decorated with hieroglyphic inscriptions and tombs. Excavations have yielded remains of cotton, tobacco, beans, pumpkins, peppers and many fruits of pre-Columbian origin. Large areas are still to be excavated.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the heart of the jungle, surrounded by lush vegetation, lies one of the major sites of Mayan civilization, inhabited from the 6th century B.C. to the 10th century A.D. The ceremonial centre contains superb temples and palaces, and public squares accessed by means of ramps. Remains of dwellings are scattered throughout the surrounding countryside.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tikal National Park</site><states>Guatemala</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>68</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/65</http_url><id_number>65</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_65.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.5666666700</latitude><location>Department of Sacatepéquez, Panchoy Valley</location><longitude>-90.6666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Antigua Guatemala is an outstanding example of preserved colonial architecture and of cultural value. The religious, private and government buildings bear exceptional testimony to the Spanish colonial architecture in Antigua.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built 1,500&amp;nbsp;m above sea level in an earthquake-prone region, Antigua, the capital of the Captaincy-General of Guatemala, was founded in the early 16th century as Santiago de Guatemala. The conquerors chose this location as the previous capital had flooded in 1541 and the valley provided an adequate source of water and a fertile soil. Antigua Guatemala was the seat of Spanish colonial government for the Kingdom of Guatemala, which included Chiapas (southern Mexico), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. It was the cultural, economic, religious, political and educational centre for the entire region until the capital was moved to present-day Guatemala City after the damaging earthquakes of 1773, but its principal monuments are still preserved as ruins. In the space of under three centuries the city, which was built on a grid pattern inspired by the Italian Renaissance, acquired a number of superb monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much of the architecture today dates from the 17th and 18th centuries and provides us with a colonial jewel in the Americas. The construction of the Palace of the Captains-General was begun on the original building in 1549 and completed in 1558, but the building has been repeatedly reconstructed following damaging earthquakes. In 1735 the Casa de la Moneda was inaugurated in this large complex, but most of the structure was destroyed in the 1773 quakes. On the east side of the Plaza de Armas stood the cathedral, inaugurated in 1680, after 11 years of construction. The cathedral was laid out with three aisles and salient transepts in a cruciform plan. Bays off the side aisles contained chapels. The present day church is a reconstruction of a small portion of the front of the cathedral. In the centre of the Plaza stands the Fountain of the Sirens, designed in 1739 by architect Miguel Porras. On the north side of the Plaza stands the Ayuntamiento or City Hall dating from 1743 which was little damaged by the 1773 earthquakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Universidad de San Carlos was built around 1763, when the university, founded in 1676, was moved to this site. By the end of the 18th century the building required extensive renovations. The present portal was built in 1832 when the building was turned into a public school, the university having been moved to Guatemala City where it remains today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the masterpiece of religious architecture, one of the most fascinating colonial sites in Antigua is Las Capuchinas (the Capuchin Convent) completed in 1736 under the direction of Diego de Porres, the chief architect of the city. Today the convent is partially intact and partially in ruins. The present church of La Merced was finished in 1767; the facade is one of the most beautiful in Antigua, featuring intricate and ornate patterns in white stucco on a yellow background. The church has short squat bell towers different from the churches built in seismically less active Mexico during the same epoch. The monastery attached to La Merced was totally destroyed by the Santa Marta quakes, and never rebuilt. Another very special ruin is that of the convent of Santa Clara founded in 1699 by the arrival of five nuns and one legate from Mexico. The convent's first church was completed in 1705, but destroyed in 1717. The remains standing today are those of a new church and convent started in 1723 and finished in 1734. The church of El Carmen, completed in 1728, is the third to occupy this site. The main facade of the church is ornate Baroque, and unique in Antigua with its triple pairs of columns set on podia projecting forward from the main wall in place of the niches and saints usually occurring here on Antigua's churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Religious and government buildings do not hold a monopoly on Spanish colonial architecture in Antigua, however: colonial architecture and modern construction in colonial style is found throughout Antigua in mansions and in humbler homes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Antigua, the capital of the Captaincy-General of Guatemala, was founded in the early 16th century. Built 1,500 m above sea-level, in an earthquake-prone region, it was largely destroyed by an earthquake in 1773 but its principal monuments are still preserved as ruins. In the space of under three centuries the city, which was built on a grid pattern inspired by the Italian Renaissance, acquired a number of superb monuments.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Antigua Guatemala</site><states>Guatemala</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>69</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/149</http_url><id_number>149</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_149.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.2705900000</latitude><location>Department of Izabal</location><longitude>-89.0402500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Quirigua retain an impressive series of stelae and sculpted calendars, partially deciphered, which constitute a remarkable and unique source of the history of the social, political and economic events of the Mayan civilization. The zoomorphic and anthropomorphic sculptures are among the most attractive pre-Columbian works known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Quirigua is, together with that of Cop&amp;aacute;n (Honduras), one of the major testimonies to the Mayan civilization. At Quirigua, traces of human occupation are attested to from about AD 200, but the zenith of the city may be placed during the period known as Late Classic, about AD 600-900.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inhabited since the 2nd century AD, Quirigua had become during the reign of Cauac Sky (723-84), the first sovereign of the historic period who has been identified with certainty, the capital of an autonomous and prosperous state. The extraction of jade and obsidian in the upper valley of the Rio Motagua, which was tightly controlled, gave rise to a profitable goods trade with the coastal ports of the Caribbean. This monopoly remained in existence during the 9th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Quirigua contain some outstanding 8th-century monuments and an impressive series of carved stelae and sculpted calendars that constitute an essential source for the study of Mayan civilization. However, Quirigua is a zone of high seismic risk; in addition, several monuments have undergone accelerated erosion owing to the tropical climate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For reasons which are not clear, Quirigua then entered a period of decline. It is known that, at the time of the arrival of the European conquistadores, the control of the jade route had been taken over by Nito, a city closer to the Caribbean coast. Although Quirigua has retained ruins and vestiges of dwellings ranging from between AD 200 and AD 900, most of the monuments that ensure Quirigua its world-wide renown date from the 8th century, the period during which the city was entirely remodelled in accordance with its function as royal residence and administrative centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monumental complexes which are set out around the Central Plaza, the Ceremonial Plaza and the Plaza of the Temple are remarkable for the complexity of their structure - a highly elaborate system of pyramids, terraces, and staircases which results in a complete remodelling of the natural relief and which creates, as at Cop&amp;aacute;n, a singular dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The production of monolithic stone monuments, called stelae with their dated texts of hieroglyphs, defines the beginnings and the end of the Classic period of Maya civilization. The stelae remain the principal written chronicles of this lost civilization, as well as the key to their highly advanced calendar system. Like most Mayan monuments, they were erected to commemorate the passage of time, and significant historic events. During its brief time of erecting stelae, Quirigua was one of only two cities to regularly erect monuments marking the end of five-year periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These huge stone monolithic sculptures were artfully carved without the benefit of metal tools; stone chisels, driven by other stones or wooden mallets, were the only tools available. Most of the monuments face north, allowing the early morning sun to highlight the relief of the carvings. Stele E was dedicated at Quirigua in 771 AD, and is the largest known quarried stone in the Maya world. It stands 35 feet (10.6&amp;nbsp;m) tall, 5 feet (1.5&amp;nbsp;m) wide and 4 feet (1.2&amp;nbsp;m) thick; it weighs in at 130,000 pounds (about 59,000 kg). [I haven't deleted the imperial measurements here as they are so precise, in case you want to keep them.] This gigantic marker stands as a monument to the Ancient Maya Civilization, and to the Mayan lord of the forgotten city of Quirigua who is depicted, over three times life size, on its face. Nearby stand 21 other monuments, the finest examples of Classic Mayan stone carving.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inhabited since the 2nd century A.D., Quirigua had become during the reign of Cauac Sky (723&amp;ndash;84) the capital of an autonomous and prosperous state. The ruins of Quirigua contain some outstanding 8th-century monuments and an impressive series of carved stelae and sculpted calendars that constitute an essential source for the study of Mayan civilization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Park and Ruins of Quirigua</site><states>Guatemala</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>167</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/180</http_url><id_number>180</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_180.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ht</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.5736100000</latitude><location>Département du Nord</location><longitude>-72.2441700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This property is an eminent example of a type of structure illustrating the historical situation of Haiti at the dawn of its independence. These Haitian monuments date from the beginning of the 19th century, when Haiti proclaimed its independence. The Palace of Sans Souci, the buildings at Ramiers, and, in particular, the Citadel serve as universal symbols of liberty, being the first monuments to be constructed by black slaves who had gained their freedom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated within the National History Park created by presidential decree in 1978, in a splendid natural setting of mountainous peaks covered with luxuriant vegetation, the Citadelle Henry, the Site des Ramiers, and the Palais San-Souci represent for the Haitians the first monuments of their independence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 1&amp;nbsp;January 1804, after 14 years of struggle by the island's black slaves against the colonists, Jean-Jacques Dessallines, the principal leader of the revolution, proclaimed the independent Republic of Haiti. The Emperor Dessallines immediately entrusted to Henry Christophe, one of his generals, the task of constructing an immense fortress on the Pic Laferri&amp;egrave;re, or Pic Henry, 28&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Cap Haitien.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the death of Dessallines in 1806, the Haitian Republic was divided into two states: the southern part governed by P&amp;eacute;tion, and the north, where Christophe proclaimed himself king in 1811. The Citadelle Henry originally conceived as the monument to the defence of liberty was maintained as a fortress by the despot and was inaugurated only in 1813.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time, King Christophe (Henry I) undertook the construction of an astonishing palace surrounded by gardens, situated at the foot of the access road to the citadel near the village of Milot. The Palais Sans-Souci, mainly in a state of ruin but currently being restored, owes its bizarre beauty to an exceptional harmony with the mountainous setting, as well as its recourse to diverse and yet reputedly irreconcilable architectural models. The Baroque staircase and the classical terraces, the stepped gardens reminiscent of Potsdam and Vienna, the canals and basins freely inspired by Versailles, impart an indefinable hallucinatory quality to the creation of the megalomaniac king.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Both military installation and political statement, the Citadelle Henry, constructed at an altitude of 970&amp;nbsp;m and covering a surface area of about 1&amp;nbsp;ha, is one of the best examples of the art of military engineering of the early 19th century. The plans are the work of the Haitian Henri Barr&amp;eacute;, but it is probable that General Christophe played the preponderant role in their formulation: the projecting masses remarkably articulated to allow an integrated use of artillery capabilities; an elaborate system of water supply and cisterns; and colossal defensive walls which render this citadel impregnable. It can shelter a garrison of 2,000 men, or 5,000 if necessary.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These Haitian monuments date from the beginning of the 19th century, when Haiti proclaimed its independence. The Palace of Sans Souci, the buildings at Ramiers and, in particular, the Citadel serve as universal symbols of liberty, being the first monuments to be constructed by black slaves who had gained their freedom.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>National History Park – Citadel, Sans Souci, Ramiers</site><states>Haiti</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>199</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/286</http_url><id_number>286</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_286.jpg</image_url><iso_code>va</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.9021600000</latitude><location>Vatican City State</location><longitude>12.4573600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;As the site of the tomb of Saint Peter and a pilgrimage centre, the Vatican is directly and materially linked with the history of Christianity. Furthermore, it is both an ideal and an exemplary creation of the Renaissance and of Baroque art. It exerted an underlying influence on the development of art from the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The independent state defined by the Lateran Treaty of 11 February 1929 extends its territorial sovereignty over an integral area of less than 50ha: the Vatican City. However, this tiny enclave of Rome has, within the heritage of mankind, an importance which is inversely proportional to its derisory area. Centre of Christianity since Constantine (4th century), first the occasional, and then the permanent seat of papal power, the Vatican is at once an important archaeological site of the Roman world, the pre-eminently holy city of the Catholics and one of the major cultural reference points of both Christians and non-Christians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its prestigious past explains the development of an architectural and artistic ensemble, of exceptional value. The churches and palaces rest on a substratum impregnated with history. Beneath the basilica of Saint Peter, reconstructed in the 16th century under the guidance of the most brilliant architects of the Renaissance, remains of the first basilica founded by Constantine still exist, as well as fragments of the circus of Caligula and Nero, and an entire Roman necropolis of the 1st century AD, where Christian sepulchres are placed side-by-side with pagans. Saint Peter's was founded as a longitudinal basilica with five aisles, with a transept, apse, and large atrium with quadriporticus. The edifice was erected in 315 over a tomb of Saint Peter. The apse area was subjected to a lengthy renovation which, entrusted by Pope Nicholas V in 1452 to Bernardo Rossellino, over the course of the following two centuries led a total revamping of the basilica's structural appearance. Julius II inaugurated a massive artistic project for the refoundation of the entire basilica, along with the decoration of the Stanze Vaticane and the Sistine Chapel and the construction of his own tomb. In 1606, finally, Carlo Maderno built the monumental facade and in 1626 the church was consecrated. Lorenzo Bernini was entrusted in 1656 for the renovation of the area in front of the basilica. He built two enormous hemicycles with Doric porticoes linked to the church through a trapezoidal plaza that frames the facade between two inclined perspectival backdrops. It represents the Church's embrace of all Christianity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vatican Palace, built on a residence of Pope Symmachus (498-514), renewed during the Carolingian period and in the 12th century, is the result of a long series of construction campaigns in which, from the Middle Ages successive popes rivalled each other in their munificence. The building of Nicholas III (1272-80) was enlarged principally by Nicholas V (1447-55), Sixtus IV (1471-84) preceding the major works of Innocent VIII, Julius II and Leo X (Belvedere and Belvedere Court, San Damaso Court and Loggia of Raphael).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Renaissance art and of the Baroque period merges freely with the later additions to the palace, from Paul III (1534-49) to Alexander VII (1665-67). The works of the 18th century (the foundation of the Pio-Clementino Musem by Pius VI), of the 19th century (the Antiquities Museum of Pius VII and Gregory XVI) and of the 20th century (the new Picture Gallery) fit within the tradition of papal patronage.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vatican City, one of the most sacred places in Christendom, attests to a great history and a formidable spiritual venture. A unique collection of artistic and architectural masterpieces lie within the boundaries of this small state. At its centre is St Peter's Basilica, with its double colonnade and a circular piazza in front and bordered by palaces and gardens. The basilica, erected over the tomb of St Peter the Apostle, is the largest religious building in the world, the fruit of the combined genius of Bramante, Raphael, Michelangelo, Bernini and Maderno.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vatican City</site><states>Holy See</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>320</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/129</http_url><id_number>129</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_129.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.8500000000</latitude><location>Copán; westernmost part of the country</location><longitude>-89.1333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cop&amp;aacute;n with its temples, plazas and terraces, comprises a type of architectural complex among the most characteristic of the Mayan civilization. The lengthy inscription on the Hieroglyphic Stairway Plaza is of considerable historical significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is evidence that Cop&amp;aacute;n was inhabited during the American Formative period (2000 BC-AD 300), although few remains exist today which attest to this occupation. The great period of Cop&amp;aacute;n, paralleling that of other major Mayan cities, occurred during the Classical period, AD 300-900. Major cultural developments took place with significant achievements in mathematics, astronomy and hieroglyphic writing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Architectural activity, as well, made strides during this period. The site of Cop&amp;aacute;n went through three principal stages of development during which evolved the temples, plazas, altar complexes and ball courts that can be seen today. Shortly after 900, the site was abandoned. Although Cop&amp;aacute;n was discovered in 1570 by Diego Garcia de Palacio, its existence did not receive worldwide attention until the work of John Lloyd Stephens from 1839 to 1841. Since then, numerous archaeological expeditions have explored and excavated various parts of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mayan city of Cop&amp;aacute;n as it exists today is composed of a main complex of ruins with several secondary complexes encircling it. The main complex consists of the Acropolis and important plazas. Among the five plazas are the Ceremonial Plaza, with an impressive stadium opening onto a mound with numerous richly sculptured monoliths and altars; the Hieroglyphic Stairway Plaza, with a monumental stairway at its eastern end that is one of the outstanding structures of Mayan culture. On the risers of this 100&amp;nbsp;m wide stairway are more than 1,800 individual glyphs which constitute the longest known Mayan inscription. The Easter Plaza rises a considerable height above the valley floor. On its western side is a stairway sculptured with figures of jaguars originally inlaid with black obsidian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From what is known today, the sculpture of Cop&amp;aacute;n appears to have attained a high degree of perfection. The Acropolis, a magnificent architectural complex, appears today as a large mass of rubble which came about through successive additions of pyramids, terraces and temples. The world's largest archaeological cut runs through the Acropolis. In the walls of the cut, it is possible to distinguish floor levels of previous plazas and covered water outlets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the period when Mayan civilization spread across Central America, Cop&amp;aacute;n was the largest and most influential city in the south-eastern sector.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cop&amp;aacute;n remains endangered by continued erosion of the river, microflora; and the outlying complexes, by continued agricultural practices. The site is a seismic zone and had suffered damage from at least two earthquakes. Further, the natural surroundings of the area are being threatened by the infringement of the neighbouring town of Cop&amp;aacute;n Ruins.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Discovered in 1570 by Diego García de Palacio, the ruins of Copán, one of the most important sites of the Mayan civilization, were not excavated until the 19th century. The ruined citadel and imposing public squares reveal the three main stages of development before the city was abandoned in the early 10th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Maya Site of Copan</site><states>Honduras</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>141</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2011 P 1996-2007</danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/196</http_url><id_number>196</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_196.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.7444444400</latitude><location>Northeast of the country in the area known as the “Mosquitia Hondureña”</location><longitude>-84.6750000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Mosquita region of north-east Honduras, the site comprises a belt of approximately 15&amp;nbsp;km by 150&amp;nbsp;km which extends inland from Laguna de Ibans and Laguna de Brus on the Caribbean coast in a south-westerly direction. The coastal towns of Palacios and Brus Laguna lie approximately 5&amp;nbsp;km from the park boundaries on either side of the reserve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve protects virtually the entire watershed of the 100&amp;nbsp;km long Pl&amp;aacute;tano River, as well as major portions of the Paulaya, Guampu and Sicre rivers. These three waterways and the Caribbean form the boundaries of the reserve. Topographic relief falls into two broad categories: the rugged mountainous headwaters region which encompasses almost 75% of the reserve, flanked by the Pl&amp;aacute;tano River and rising to Punta Piedra, and the coastal plains. The mountainous area has remarkable rock formations (e.g. Dama Peak) and a waterfall of 500&amp;nbsp;m. The coastal area is flat or undulating with a number of lagoons such as Ibans and Cartina and grasslands subject to winter flooding. The river basin drains an area of some 130,000&amp;nbsp;ha and meanders considerably in the lowland region, marooning several oxbow lakes. Natural levees have built up along much of this stretch and are preferred terrain for small agricultural plots. The upper two-thirds of the river course are through mountainous terrain. Part of the river is subterranean below huge basalt rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is the largest surviving area of virgin tropical rainforest in Honduras and topographical diversity has resulted in a wild array of ecosystem types. The two dominant life zones are Humid Tropical Forest and Very Humid Subtropical Forest. The majority of the reserve (about 85%) lies within the tropical moist-forest zone, and 10-15% in the subtropical wet-forest zone. Mangrove ecosystems fringe the coastal lagoons of Brus (brackish) and Ibans (freshwater). Inland from the beach is a broad coastal savannah which consists of sedge prairie in the wetter areas, grasses in drier areas, and pine savannahs. Hardwood gallery forest occurs along the Pl&amp;aacute;tano River and other alluvial tributaries. On land disturbed by agriculture dominates the secondary forest. The greatest portion of the watershed is blanketed by mature broadleaf forest. Important timber trees occur within the reserve. Pines and several palm species are used locally for construction, and some timber species are made into dugout canoes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;39 species of mammal, 377 species of bird and 126 reptiles and amphibians have been recorded. Threatened species include giant anteater, Baird's (Central American) tapir, jaguar, ocelot, puma, margay, jaguarondi, Central American otter, Caribbean manatee, American crocodile, brown caiman, red brocket deer, harpy eagle, scarlet macaw, green macaw, military macaw, king vulture, great curassow and crested guan. Reptiles include green turtle, loggerhead turtle and leatherback turtle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Ciudad Blanca (White City) within the protected area constitutes one of the most important archaeological sites of Mayan civilization. Archaeological remains include the Piedras Pintadas petroglyphs on the bed of the Pl&amp;aacute;tano River, believed to belong to an unknown pre-Columbian culture. The reserve also contains the site where Christopher Colombus first landed in the Americas in 1492. There are some 200 sites of archaeological importance.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the watershed of the R&amp;iacute;o Pl&amp;aacute;tano, the reserve is one of the few remains of a tropical rainforest in Central America and has an abundant and varied plant and wildlife. In its mountainous landscape sloping down to the Caribbean coast, over 2,000 indigenous people have preserved their traditional way of life.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve</site><states>Honduras</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>217</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 17th century a wall surrounded the city of Pest and for the most part Germans lived along the banks of the Danube. The areas outside of the city were arable land with fruit orchards, but by 1699 craftsmen had begun to establish suburban communities. From 1730 they began to settle an area then called Pacsirtamezq. In 1777 it was renamed Terezvaros after Saint Theresa and in honour of Maria Theresa. The parish church of Terezvaros was built in 1801-09 and by 1805 the current street grid had taken shape. Most of the merchants in the area settled and established themselves along Kiraly Street. At the beginning of the 20th century the areas of Erzsebetvaros and the City Park split off from this district. In 1841 Lajos Kossuth took up the idea of a large-scale promenade for Terezvaros. With the Union of Pest and Buda in 1873, Budapest truly became the nation's capital, developing at a faster rhythm than earlier; by the turn of the century it had become a modern metropolis with more than a million inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The symbol of this development is the radial Andrassy Avenue. There had been no attempts at organized urban development since the Middle Ages, and the Hungarian capital needed to make up for this lack in a single great leap in terms of public services, transportation, and city planning. To execute this great leap forward a special commission, the Capital Communal Labour Board, was established on the model of the London Metropolitan Board of Works. This commission planned and partially carried out construction of the avenue, as the modern city's stately promenade, along with the creation of essential infrastructure (transportation and utilities). The commission's establishment was decreed by a national act in 1870 and the state gave funds for its realization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The route of the avenue cut straight through an unregulated suburban area, thereby radically transforming its urban structure. Construction of the road began in 1872, the route was opened in 1876, and in one decade, by 1885, it was completed with 131 buildings. The Siemens and Halske companies built the first underground railway on the European continent there in 1893-96. It starts in the heart of the city, near the banks of the Danube, and runs just beneath the surface for the length of Andrassy Avenue to the City Park. The railway served the Millennial Exhibition, organized in 1896 to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the Hungarian conquest. This also led to the construction of a memorial on Heroes' Square (1894- 1906), the development and extension of the landscape garden, the development of the Szechenyi Baths as an establishment for spa culture, and the Vajdahunyad Castle that displayed the different periods of Hungarian architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/400</http_url><id_number>400</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_400.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.4824200000</latitude><location>Budapest</location><longitude>19.0706700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Within the unified perspective of an immense urban panorama the Danube is the dividing line between two cities, which were quite separate originally: Buda on the spur on the right bank, and Pest in the plain on the left bank. Human occupation of both sites is extremely ancient as it can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period; Celtic populations also established themselves here, attracted by the abundance of thermal springs. But the historic importance of the city is certainly prior to the medieval period, when the two urban developments received their present names. It dates back to the foundation of Aquincum by the Romans, the capital of Lower Pannonia, one of the border provinces of the Empire in the 2nd century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aquincum played an essential role in the diffusion of Roman architectural forms in Pannonia, then in Dacia. Remains of Aquincum and of the camp Contra Aquincum have been revealed by archaeological excavations on both sides of the river and can be seen today, together with a few arches of the aqueduct which supplied the Roman colony, but the present city did not develop on the ruins of the ancient city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Hungarian invasion in the 9th century, Pest became the first medieval urban centre, only to be devastated by the Mongol raids of 1241-42. A few years later the castle of Buda was built on a rocky spur on the right bank by Bela IV and the inhabitants of Pest found shelter within its fortified outer walls. The castle is an architectural ensemble illustrating two significant periods of history separated by an interval corresponding to the Turkish invasion. Buda Castle played an essential role in the diffusion of Gothic art in the Magyar region from the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Buda became closely identified with that of the Hungarian monarchy and followed their changing fortunes. There was a brilliant period, corresponding with the Angevin dynasty, from the reign of Charles-Robert (1308-42) to that of Sigismund of Luxembourg (1382-1432). After the end of Hungarian independence, a second golden age coincided with the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458-90), the humanist king who not only founded the university, the library and the royal printing office, but also attracted Italian architects, sculptors and painters, making Buda one of the main centres of Renaissance art in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the city was ransacked by the Turks in 1526 and its final fall in 1541, the two original cities were rebuilt and led a semi-lethargic existence until 1686. Recovery did not really begin again until the 18th century, when the Empress Maria Theresa and the Emperor Joseph II took an interest in the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary: the city was then influenced by late Baroque architecture, soon to be supplanted by the more sober lines of discreet neoclassicism. In the 19th century, the city's role as capital became enhanced by the foundation of the Hungarian Academy (1830), after 1862 housed in a neo-Renaissance palace, and especially by the construction of the imposing neo-Gothic Parliament building (1884-1904). The parliament is an outstanding example of a great official building on a par with those of London, Munich, Vienna and Athens. It exemplifies the eclectic architecture of the 19th century, while symbolizing the political function of the second capital of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Since 1849, W.&amp;nbsp;T. Clark's suspension bridge has symbolized the reunification of Buda and Pest (which did not become official until 1873).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the Union of Pest and Buda in 1873, Budapest truly became the nation's capital, developing at a faster rhythm than earlier. The symbol of this development is the radial Andr&amp;agrave;ssy Avenue. There had been no attempts at organized urban development since the Middle Ages, and the Hungarian capital needed to make up for this lack in a single great leap in terms of public services, transportation, and city planning. The route of the avenue cut straight through an unregulated suburban area, thereby radically transforming its urban structure. The Siemens and Halske companies built the first underground railway on the European continent there in 1893-96. This also led to the construction of a memorial on Heroes' Square (1894- 1906), the development and extension of the landscape garden, the development of the Szechenyi Baths as an establishment for spa culture, and the Vajdahunyad Castle that displayed the different periods of Hungarian architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2002</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site has the remains of monuments such as the Roman city of Aquincum and the Gothic castle of Buda, which have had a considerable influence on the architecture of various periods. It is one of the world's outstanding urban landscapes and illustrates the great periods in the history of the Hungarian capital.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy Avenue</site><states>Hungary</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>462</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/401</http_url><id_number>401</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_401.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.9944400000</latitude><location>County of Nógrád</location><longitude>19.5291700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Holl&amp;oacute;k&amp;ouml; is an exceptional example of a deliberately preserved traditional human settlement representative of a culture that has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change. This village, which developed mainly during the 17th and 18th centuries, is a living example of rural life before the agricultural revolution of the 20th century. Located about 100&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Budapest, Holl&amp;oacute;k&amp;ouml; is a small rural community whose 126 houses and farm buildings, strip-field farming, orchards, vineyards, meadows and woods cover 141&amp;nbsp;ha. The village and the surrounding area are given the same protection as a historic monument such as the castle. Mentioned as early as 1310, this castle, whose ruins lie to the north-west of the village today, played a decisive part in the feudal wars of the Palocz and the Hussite wars. It served as protection for the village whose ruins have been found a little way from its walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the Ottoman occupation (1683) the castle and the village were finally abandoned and the present village grew up below. It developed gradually throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. As was customary in the region, the first generation of inhabitants settled on either side of the main street. In this one-street village, subsequent generations built their houses at the back of the narrow family plots, thus progressively enlarging the built-up area. The barns were built apart from the village, on the edges of the fields, according to Palocz custom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The development of the village and the soil can be traced from various documents. In 1782 it was still a typical one-street village. Later, a second street developed to the east of the main street. A plan of 1885 shows the topography was already like that of the present-day plan: the amount of cultivated land had reached its maximum by the mid-19th century and the village could therefore grow no further. Some limited growth started again in 1960 and is now strictly controlled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The inhabitants of Holl&amp;oacute;k&amp;ouml; never heeded a 1783 decree prohibiting the use of wood for building, which considered it to be too inflammable. Consequently the village was periodically devastated by fire. The last of these fires dates back to 1909 but the houses were again built according to the traditional techniques of Palocz rural architecture: half-timbered houses on a stone base with roughcast white-washed walls, enhanced by high wooden pillared galleries and balconies on the street side protected by overhanging porch roofs. The church with its shingled tower is simply a transposition of this domestic architectural style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Holl&amp;oacute;k&amp;ouml; is a living community whose conservation not only includes farming activity but also ensures its success. It provides a certainly exceptional and maybe unique example of voluntary conservation of a traditional village with its soil. The plots that were modified by the regrouping of land were returned to their original strip shape. The vineyards, orchards and vegetable gardens have been recreated; the ecological balance has been restored, even in the forestry environment, taking infinite care to respect historical authenticity. Holl&amp;oacute;k&amp;ouml; not only represents the Palocz subgroup within the Magyar entity, but also bears witness, for the whole of Central Europe, to the traditional forms of rural life, which were generally abolished by the agricultural revolution in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Hollok&amp;ouml; is an outstanding example of a deliberately preserved traditional settlement. This village, which developed mainly during the 17th and 18th centuries, is a living example of rural life before the agricultural revolution of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Village of Hollókő and its Surroundings</site><states>Hungary</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>464</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/474</http_url><id_number>474</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_474.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Hungarian Puszta is an outstanding example of a cultural landscape shaped by a pastoral human society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The landscape of the Hortob&amp;aacute;gy National Park preserves intact and visible the evidence of its traditional use over more than two millennia and represents the harmonious interaction between human beings and nature.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.5945800000</latitude><location>Counties of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Heves, Hajdú-Bihar and Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok</location><longitude>21.1567800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The landscape of the Hungarian &lt;em&gt;Puszta&lt;/em&gt; , an outstanding example of a cultural landscape shaped by a pastoral human society, preserves intact and visible the evidence of its traditional use over more than two millennia and represents the harmonious interaction between human beings and nature. The &lt;em&gt;Puszta&lt;/em&gt; consists of a vast area of plains and wetlands in eastern Hungary. Traditional forms of land use, such as the grazing of domestic animals, have been present in this pastoral society for more than two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hortob&amp;aacute;gy National Park is part of the Tisza plain of eastern Hungary. It is surrounded by settlements to the south, east and west. The two main settlements are Tiszaf&amp;uuml;red on the Tisza River and the city of Debrecen. The two are linked by the main historic communication ridge route.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Numerous peoples migrated from the east into the Carpathian Basin in prehistory. The nomadic group who arrived around 2000 BC at the end of the Bronze Age were the first to leave their imprint on the natural landscape in the form of many burial mounds (&lt;em&gt;kurgans&lt;/em&gt; ). Their dimensions are variable - 5-10&amp;nbsp;m high and 20-50&amp;nbsp;m in diameter - and they are generally conical or hemispherical. They are always to be found on dry land, but located near a source of water. They were often used for secondary burials by later peoples, and in some cases Christian churches were built on them by the Hungarians. Also to found in the park are the low mounds (tells) that mark the sites of ancient settlements, now disappeared. Settlement in the Middle Ages followed the Debrecen-Tiszaf&amp;uuml;red route. The main group was in the area defined by the existing settlements of Hortob&amp;aacute;gy, Naghegyes, N&amp;aacute;duvdar and Nagyiv&amp;aacute;n. Documentary records have shown that many of these had churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hungarians arrived in what is now Hungary at the end of the 9th century under their leader, Arp&amp;aacute;d. As the area was ideal for animal husbandry, they occupied the lands around the Tisza River in the 10th and 11th centuries, and by the early 13th century there was a dense network of settlements, whose economic base was pastoralism, in the Hortob&amp;aacute;gy, the main axis of which was the trading route from Buda through Tiszaf&amp;uacute;red and Debrecen into Transylvania.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the progressive depopulation of the region from the 14th century onwards, the settlements disappeared. The only manmade features in the wide plains of the &lt;em&gt;Puszta&lt;/em&gt; were light temporary structures of reeds and branches, used to provide winter shelter for animals and men. The sole surviving structures from this time, which were public buildings built from stone, are the bridges and the &lt;em&gt;cs&amp;aacute;rdas&lt;/em&gt; . The Nine Arch Bridge at Hortob&amp;aacute;gy is the longest stone bridge in Hungary. A wooden bridge known to have been in existence as early as the 14th century was replaced in 1827-33 by the existing structure in classical style. The Z&amp;aacute;dor Bridge in the southern part of the National Park was built in 1809 with nine arches, but the two side piers were swept away by a flood on the Z&amp;aacute;dor River in 1830 and never replaced. The &lt;em&gt;cs&amp;aacute;rdas&lt;/em&gt; were provincial inns built in the 18th and 19th centuries to provide food and lodging for travellers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The typical &lt;em&gt;cs&amp;aacute;rda&lt;/em&gt; consists of two buildings facing one another, both single-storeyed and thatched or, occasionally, roofed with shingles or tiles. A tavern was normally set up on the side of the road with a railed-off counter in a room that had access to the wine cellar. A few also had one or two guest rooms. On the opposite side of the road from the &lt;em&gt;cs&amp;aacute;rda&lt;/em&gt; was provision for horses and carriages. The best known of the &lt;em&gt;cs&amp;aacute;rdas&lt;/em&gt; are at Balmaz&amp;uacute;jv&amp;aacute;ros (18th century), Hortob&amp;aacute;gy (first built in 1699 and reconstructed on several occasions), Nagyhegyes (early 19th century), Nagyiv&amp;aacute;n (mid-18th century), and Tiszaf&amp;uuml;red (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1770).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 19th century, water regulation systems were set up, notably control over flooding of the Tisza River: this resulted in the draining of former wetlands, which were converted to arable farming. Reduction of the water available for the natural pastures decreased their fertility, which was the cause of serious overgrazing in the early part of the 20th century. Efforts were made to diversify the land use of the Hortob&amp;aacute;gy, the most successful of which was the creation of artificial fishponds between 1914 and 1918 and again in the 1950s.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of the Hortob&amp;aacute;gy &lt;em&gt;Puszta&lt;/em&gt; consists of a vast area of plains and wetlands in eastern Hungary. Traditional forms of land use, such as the grazing of domestic animals, have been present in this pastoral society for more than two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hortobágy National Park - the &lt;i&gt;Puszta&lt;/i&gt;</site><states>Hungary</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>552</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of the present monastery has been settled since prehistoric times. when the monastery was created the area was occupied by Bavarian and Slav farmers, who came were in the wake of Charlemagne's armies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Benedictine monks came in 996 from Italy and the Bohemian and German lands to this sacred mountain in the former Roman province of Pannonia. They came to the aid of Prince G&amp;eacute;za and his son Stephen I, the first king of Hungary. In their efforts to humanize the Hungarians, who were terrorizing the settled peoples of Europe and pillaging and sacking the towns and monasteries of northern Italy, Bavaria, and Franconia. Bruno of Saint-Gall, St Wolfgang, Bishop of Regensburg, St Adalbert, Bishop of Prague, Bruno de Querfurt, and St Gerard of Venice were among those who instructed the Hungarians settled on the eastern edge of Europe not only in the Christian faith but also in the European culture of the turn of the 10th century. Certain medieval sources claim that St Martin, Bishop of Tours and protector of the nascent monastic movement was born here. It is of great historical and religious importance that the Benedictine monks founded their first ho use here, where St Martin was born.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery set up here as the eastern bridgehead of medieval European culture retained that role for a thousand years, with only brief interruptions. It exercised an important cultural and juridical role in Hungary, and its abbots played a leading role in public life. The first monastery is known only from records, since it was burned down at the beginning of the 12th century. Reconstruction took place slowly, until Uros became Abbot (1207-43). He was assiduous in obtaining status for the monastery independent of the Hungarian hierarchy (nu mus dioscesis) and in creating an integrated and prosperous unit out of the monastery's dispersed properties. He spent one and a half years in Jtaly for the IVth Lateran council, when he took the opportunity to study constructions in progress there, and on his return spurred the builders on to complete their work. He was successful in repulsing the Mongol attack in 1241.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many men and women were given hospitality and asylum at Pannonhalma over the centuries. Godefroy and his Crusaders stayed there on their way to the Holy Land. Throughout the Ottoman occupation (1526-1686&amp;gt; the monastery shielded many fugitives from persecution, as it did once again in 1944-45.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;ln 1472 the king took over the monastery for his own use and undertook an extensive renovation. The present cloister and other buildings with a religious function were built, despite the fact that there was only a handful of monks in residence. After the defeat of the Hungarian forces by S&amp;uuml;leyman the Magnificent at Moha cs in 1526, the monastery was fortified. However, monastic life became difficult; the monastery was badly damaged by fire and largely abandoned by the monks in 1575, and it was occupied by the Turks in 1594. The community returned in 1638, but it was not to recover until Mathias Palfy became Abbot in 1683. The Baroque elements of the monastery, such as the refectory, were added in the 18th century du ring the Abbacy of Benedek Sajgh&amp;oacute;. Plans for the demolition of the entire enceinte in order to construct a monumental monastery came to nothing with the dissolution of 1786.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &amp;quot;Enlightenment&amp;quot; of the 18th century had its impact on the monastic communities, which were judged according to their contribution to the state. Accordingly, Joseph II closed all the Benedictine houses in Hungary in 1786. some of the monks continued their teaching work, whilst ethers moved into parish pastoral work. The Order was re-established in 1802, on condition that it undertook secondary education. In most cases the monks moved out into houses in neighbouring towns and the monastic buildings were turned over to education, but at Pannonhalma monastic life continued, with the school being incorporated into the monastery itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the needs of society changed, the monks moved outside the confines of the monastery to serve the needs of their neighbours. During and after the Turkish occupation they were active in re-establishing villages and reorganizing agriculture as well as developing the ecclesiastical structure. From the 16th century onwards they acted as spiritual counsellors to the parishes on their lands, something which continued even after the nationalizations of 1950. Education was always one of their major preoccupations, both the training of postulants to the Order and higher education for existing members.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new library was added at the beginning of the 19th century, and there was a major reconstruction of the cloister and church in 1868-76. A secondary school and students' house were added in 1939-41, the gift of the Italian government of the period. At the present time there are 360 secondary students, taught by eleven Benedictine monks assisted by some thirty lay teachers. There are in all 68 monks at Pannonhalma, where ether activities include a theological academy and an institution for old people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/758</http_url><id_number>758</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_758.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (iv) and (vi) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value illustrating in an exceptional manner the structure and setting of an early Christian Monastery that has evolved over a thousand years of continuous use. Its location and the early date of its foundation bear unique witness to the propagation and continuity of Christianity in Central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.5588900000</latitude><location>County of Györ-Moson-Sopron</location><longitude>17.7844400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Pannonhalma illustrates in an exceptional manner the structure and setting of an early Christian Monastery that has evolved over 1,000 years of continuous use. Its location and the early date of its foundation bear exceptional witness to the propagation and cvontinuity of Christianity in Eastern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the monastery was created the area was occupied by Bavarian and Slav farmers, who came here in the wake of Charlemagne's armies. Benedictine monks came in 996 from Italy and the Bohemian and German lands to this sacred mountain in the former Roman province of Pannonia. They came to the aid of Prince Geza and his son Stephen I, the first king of Hungary, in their efforts to humanize the Hungarians, who were terrorizing the settled peoples of Europe and sacking the towns and monasteries of northern Italy, Bavaria, and Franconia. The Benedictine monastery set up here as the eastern bridgehead of medieval European culture retained that role for 1,000 years, with only brief interruptions. It exercised an Important cultural and juridical role in Hungary, and its abbots played a leading role in public life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first monastery is known only from records, as it was burned down at the beginning of the 12th century. Reconstruction took place slowly, until Uros became Abbot (1207-43). In 1472 the king took over the monastery and undertook an extensive renovation. The present cloister and other buildings with a religious function were built, and the monastery was fortified. However, monastic life became difficult; the monastery was badly damaged by fire and largely abandoned in 1575, to be occupied by the Turks in 1594. The Community returned in 1638, and the Baroque elements of the monastery, such as the refectory, were added. The 'Enlightenment' of the 18th century had its impact on the monastic communities, which were judged according to their contribution to the state. The order was re-established in 1802. In most cases the monks moved out into houses in neighbouring towns and the monastic buildings were turned over to education, but at Pannonhalma monastic life continued, with the school being incorporated into the monastery itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area consists of the main group of monastic buildings, the Calvary and Chapel of Our Lady, the Millenary Monument, and the lands surrounding them. The present church, of 1224, is the third on the site; it contains remains of its predecessors. The elevated three-aisled choir, the oldest part of the building, overlies a three-aisled crypt, part of the earlier church. The nave aisle is formed of richly decorated columns, supporting sexpartite vaulting; the roof of the choir is decorated with stars, of late 15th-century work. The chapels and the baptistry, with its Renaissance door and window frames, date from the same period. This door gives access to the cloister, a typical square late Gothic ensemble built in 1486. The building contains a series of mural paintings by Antonio Fossati. The main Monastery consist of a group of buildings dating from the 13th-15th centuries that were originally single-storey but raised to two storeys in 1912, erected in part over the medieval cloister.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Chapel of Our Lady, building of which began in 1714, is situated at the top of the southern hill. The nave is barrel-vaulted, and is joined to the Sanctuary by a large triumphal arch. Its original Baroque interior was restored in Romantic Style in 1865. The Millenary Monument is one of seven erected to commemorate the 1,000th anniversary of the conquest of Hungary in 896. It is located at the crest of the central hill, where it replaced the Calvary that is now located in front of the Chapel of our Lady. It consists of a single block, constructed in brick and limestone. The stone portico is formed of a tympanum bearing a symbolic relief, supported on two pairs of iconic columns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The principal elements of the area around the monastic complex are the forest and the botanical garden. The forest, on the eastern slopes of the Pannonhalma landscape, is largely the traditional oak forest of this region. The flora of the botanical garden is composed of two groups: half forest trees and plants, of mixed age, and half hedgerow and park species, both native and exotic. Both the forest and the botanic garden are seen as illustrating the landscape value of the region as a whole and also to set off the aesthetic values of the man-made element represented by the buildings of the monastery.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The first Benedictine monks settled here in 996. They went on to convert the Hungarians, to found the country's first school and, in 1055, to write the first document in Hungarian. From the time of its founding, this monastic community has promoted culture throughout central Europe. Its 1,000-year history can be seen in the succession of architectural styles of the monastic buildings (the oldest dating from 1224), which still today house a school and the monastic community.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Millenary Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma and its Natural Environment</site><states>Hungary</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>893</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The part of modern Hungary west of the Danube, which was first settled in the Neolithic period, came into the Roman Empire in the 1st century CE. It formed part of the Roman province of Pannonia. The town of Sopianae was founded on the southern slope of the Mecsek massif in the 2nd century by colonists coming from western Pannonia and Italy, who intermarried with the indigenous Illyrian-Celtic peoples. It became the headquarters of the civil governor (praeses) of the new province of Valeria at the end of the 3rd century. Sopianae was especially prosperous in the 4th century because of its situation at the junction of several important trading and military routes. Archaeological excavations have revealed a number of new public buildings in the forum area from this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was also probably made the seat of an archbishopric around this time. There was a cemetery to the north of the town, with many Christian burials from the 4th century; in the post-Roman period, up to the 8th century, the imposing tombs probably served as shelters for different incoming groups of Huns, Germans, and Avars. It was not until the 9th century that Christianity was re-established in the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Istv&amp;aacute;n (King Stephen I), founder of the Hungarian state, established one of his ten bishoprics there in 1009, no doubt influenced by the monumental Christian sepulchral buildings; the Cella Trichora was restored to its original use as a chapel. The fortified episcopal complex was to be expanded and reconstructed in the succeeding centuries, and it was within this enceinte that the Angevin King Laszlo I the Great established the first university in Hungary (1367). The medieval town grew outside the walls of the episcopal castle complex, and it was in turn fortified in the 15th century as protection against the growing Turkish threat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the heroic struggles of successive Hungarian monarchs over more than a century, the whole of the central part of the country was taken by the Ottomans in the mid 16th century. The episcopal castle of P&amp;eacute;cs became the administrative centre of a sandjak. Most of the Hungarian inhabitants of the town fled, to be replaced by Moslems from Turkey or the Balkans, who demolished the churches and monasteries (with the exception of the cathedral) and used their stones for the construction of mosques and other Islamic buildings. The town walls were strengthened with bastions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;P&amp;eacute;cs was freed from Ottoman rule in 1686, becoming part of the Habsburg lands. The bishopric was re-established and the town was repopulated with Hungarians and German colonists. The mosques and other Moslem buildings were converted for Christian purposes, although the baths (hammams) continued in use for a considerable time. The fortifications around the castle were demolished and the town began to take on a Baroque appearance. It was designated the administrative centre of a county and fine public buildings were added.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;P&amp;eacute;cs secured its independence from episcopal rule in 1780. During the 19th century it witnessed a spectacular development as a commercial centre, and was graced with many buildings in the architectural styles of the period - classical, romantic, historicizing, and eventually Art Nouveau. Fortunately, it was spared from inappropriate insertions during the second half of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/853</http_url><id_number>853</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_853.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The burial chambers and memorial chapels of the Sopianae cemetery bear outstanding testimony to the strength and faith of the Christian communities of Late Roman Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The unique Early Christian sepulchral art and architecture of the northern and western Roman provinces is exceptionally well and fully illustrated by the Sopianae cemetery at Pécs.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>46.0744400000</latitude><location>County of Baranya</location><longitude>18.2277800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The burial chambers and memorial chapels of the Sopianae cemetery bear outstanding testimony to the strength and faith of the Christian communities of late Roman Europe, and well illustrate the unique early Christian sepulchral art and architecture of the northern and western Roman provinces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The part of modern Hungary west of the Danube came into the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD, as part of the Roman province of Pannonia. The town of Sopianae was founded on the southern slope of the Mecsek massif in the 2nd century by colonists from western Pannonia and Italy, who intermarried with the indigenous Illyrian-Celtic peoples. Sopianae was especially prosperous in the 4th century because of its situation at the junction of several important trading and military routes. St Istv&amp;aacute;n (King Stephen I), founder of the Hungarian state, established one of his ten bishoprics there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The medieval town grew outside the walls of the episcopal castle complex, and it was in turn fortified in the 15th century as protection against the growing Turkish threat. The central part of the country was taken by the Ottomans in the mid-16th century and the episcopal castle of P&amp;eacute;cs became the administrative centre of a &lt;em&gt;sandjak&lt;/em&gt; . Most of the Hungarian inhabitants of the town fled, to be replaced by Muslims from Turkey or the Balkans, who demolished the churches and monasteries (with the exception of the cathedral) and used their stones for the construction of mosques and other Islamic buildings. P&amp;eacute;cs was freed from Ottoman rule in 1686, becoming part of the Habsburg lands. The bishopric was re-established and the town was repopulated with Hungarians and German colonists. The mosques and other Muslim buildings were converted for Christian purposes, although the baths (&lt;em&gt;hammams&lt;/em&gt; ) continued in use for a considerable time. The fortifications around the castle were demolished and the town began to take on a Baroque appearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman cemetery was found by archaeological excavations, which began two centuries ago, in the area now immediately in front of the cathedral, which had been terraced in antiquity. The World Heritage site consists of 16 funerary monuments, of which the most outstanding are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Burial chamber I (Peter-Paul): discovered in 1782, this late 4th-century chamber consists of an above-ground chapel, the subterranean burial chamber proper, with religious wall paintings, and a small vestibule leading to the burial chamber. It is cut into the slope of the Mecsek hills.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Burial chamber II (Wine Pitcher Chamber): a two-storey structure, with limestone walls and brick vaulting. On the wall of the niche carved above the sarcophagus there is a painting of a wine pitcher and glass, symbolizing the thirst of the soul journeying to the netherworld.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Cella Trichora: this elaborate chapel has a rectangular central space with three apses and a southern vestibule (narthex); the eastern apse has a raised floor and was probably an altar.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Cella Septichora, a sepulchral building with a unique floor plan with seven apses; it was not used for burial purposes. It dates from the end of the Roman period, in the 430s.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Early Christian Mausoleum, a subterranean burial chamber entered from a vestibule or narthex surmounted by a single-nave church with an apse at its east end. The northern, eastern and southern walls are all decorated with mural paintings of biblical subjects.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Early Christian Burial Chapel was used solely as a chapel. There is a cluster of more than 100 graves from the late 4th and early 5th centuries around it.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Painted Twin Grave: a gabled double grave contains wall paintings of Christian symbols in red, carmine and yellow on a white background.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Communal burial containing fourteen graves, separated from one another by stones and bricks. Stone and brick fragments bear names, presumed to be members of a single family.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 4th century, a remarkable series of decorated tombs were constructed in the cemetery of the Roman provincial town of Sopianae (modern Pécs). These are important both structurally and architecturally, since they were built as underground burial chambers with memorial chapels above the ground. The tombs are important also in artistic terms, since they are richly decorated with murals of outstanding quality depicting Christian themes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Early Christian Necropolis of Pécs (Sopianae)</site><states>Hungary</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1004</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1063</http_url><id_number>1063</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1063.jpg</image_url><iso_code>hu</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; &amp;nbsp;The Tokaji wine region represents a distinct viticultural tradition that has existed for at least a thousand years and which has survived intact up to the present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The entire landscape of the Tokaji wine region, including both vineyards and long established settlements, vividly illustrates the specialized form of traditional land-use that it represents.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>48.1500000000</latitude><location>County of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén</location><longitude>21.3500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The entire landscape of the Tokaji wine region, including both vineyards and long established settlements, vividly illustrates a specialized form of traditional land use and represents a distinct viticultural tradition that has existed for at least 1,000 years and which has survived intact to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Magyar tribes who entered the area at the end of the 9th century assigned special significance to the region, as they believed (with some justification) that it was the centre of the empire of Attila the Hun, with whom they closely identified themselves. It became a protected refuge for Hungarians in the centuries that followed in the face of pressure from invading Mongols and others, as well as an important commercial crossroads for Polish merchants travelling to the Balkans and elsewhere. Settlers were welcomed from as early as the 12th century, when Walloon and Italian immigrants were invited in, joining the Germans who had been there since the beginning of the Hungarian kingdom. In the 16th century the region came under Bohemian Hussite domination for a while, but was reunited with the Hungarian kingdom by the last great Hungarian king, Hunyadi Matyas (Matthias Corvinus). It was during the Ottoman period that the Tokaji Aszu for which the region became world famous was first produced. Legend has it that fears of Turkish raiders delayed the harvest in Lorantffy Mihaly's domain until the grapes had shrivelled and Botrytis infection had set in, creating the 'noble rot' (&lt;em&gt;pourriture noble&lt;/em&gt; ). Nonetheless, the pastor Szepsi Laczko Mate made wine from them, presenting the result to the daughter of the overlord.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mild climate makes coupled with the soil quality and aspects of the slopes make Tokaj perfect for cultivating grapes. The settlement system and forms of the Tokaji Wine Region are dictated by the morphological and hydrographic features of the area. There are two main axes of settlement, one the river Bodrog and the other the Szerencs stream and the river Hern&amp;aacute;d at the western edge. There is a chain of settlements along the right bank of the Bodrog as it meanders at the foot of the Zemplen mountain range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other settlements are to be found in the valleys of the streams that feed into the Bodrog, which in its turn joins the Tisza at Tokaj, an ancient crossing point of the main river. The Szerencs opens wide into the Takta and has settlements on both banks. The name 'Tokaj' is derived from an Armenian word for grape that came into the Hungarian language as early as the 10th century, thus giving a date for the creation of the settlement. It is also evidence that viticulture was already being practised here at that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The built heritage of the region is symbolic of its history and its socio-economic structure. There are to be found medieval Roman Catholic churches (one in each settlement), 18th- to 19th-century Orthodox churches, and Jewish synagogues, princely and aristocratic castles and mansions, and more humble houses, wine stores, and workshops. Evidence of early settlement is the 12th century Romanesque church at Bodrogalszi (in the buffer zone). There are ruined 14th-century castles at Tokaj and Tallya in the nominated area and Monok, Sarospatak, and Szerencs in the buffer zone. Noble mansions from the 18th and 19th centuries are to be found at Tarcal and in the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most characteristic structures in Tokaj are the wine cellars: that of King Kalman in Tarcal is known to have been in existence as early as 1110. There are two basic types of cellar in Tokaj: the vaulted and the excavated. The former was essentially an open space below a residential building, excavated before the house was built and accessed from the porch. The grapes were processed in a room at the rear of the house, immediately above the cellar. The excavated cellars were not connected directly with the residential buildings. All that is visible on the surface is a stone entrance structure with a latticed wooden or steel gate. Cellars carved into the volcanic tuff did not require reinforcement by vaulting. Some 80-85% of the cellars in Tokaj were made in this way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of special interest are the multi-level labyrinthine cellars with unsystematic floors plans in which wine was stored and matured in casks made from sessile oak. The most famous is the cellar network in the Ungvari district of Satoraljaujhely, the result of interconnecting no fewer than 27 cellars at different levels.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of Tokaj graphically demonstrates the long tradition of wine production in this region of low hills and river valleys. The intricate pattern of vineyards, farms, villages and small towns, with their historic networks of deep wine cellars, illustrates every facet of the production of the famous Tokaj wines, the quality and management of which have been strictly regulated for nearly three centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tokaj Wine Region Historic Cultural Landscape</site><states>Hungary</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1240</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1152</http_url><id_number>1152</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1152.jpg</image_url><iso_code>is</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Althing and its hinterland, the Þingvellir National Park, represent, through the remains of the assembly ground, the booths for those who attended, and through landscape evidence of settlement extending back possibly to the time the assembly was established, a unique reflection of mediaeval Norse/Germanic culture and one that persisted in essence from its foundation in 980 AD until the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Pride in the strong association of the Althing to mediaeval Germanic/Norse governance, known through the 12th century Icelandic sagas, and reinforced during the fight for independence in the 19th century, have, together with the powerful natural setting of the assembly grounds, given the site iconic status as a shrine for the national.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>64.2538055600</latitude><location>Bláskógabyggð municipality, district of Arnessysla</location><longitude>-21.0372500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Althing and its hinterland, Þingvellir National Park, represent, through the remains of the assembly ground, the booths for those who attended, and through landscape evidence of settlement extending back possibly to the time the assembly was established, a unique reflection of medieval Norse/Germanic culture and one that persisted from its foundation in 980 AD until the 18th century. Pride in the strong association of the Althing to medieval Germanic/Norse governance, known through the 12th-century Icelandic sagas, and reinforced during the fight for independence in the 19th century, have, together with the powerful natural setting of the assembly grounds, given the site iconic status as a shrine for the nation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Þingvellir (Thingvellir) is where the Althing - an open-air assembly that represented the whole of Iceland - was established in 930 and continued to meet until 1798. Over two weeks a year, the assembly set laws, seen as a covenant between free men, and settled disputes. The Althing has deep historical and symbolic associations for the people of Iceland. Located on an active volcanic site, the World Heritage site includes the Þingvellir National Park and the remains of the Althing itself: fragments of around 50 booths built from turf and stone. Remains from the 10th century are thought to be buried underground. The site also includes remains of agricultural use from 18th and 19th centuries, the Thingvellir Church and adjacent farm, and the population of arctic char in Lake Thingvallavatn. The park shows evidence of the way the landscape was husbanded over 1,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The assembly had several institutions: the Law Council, five courts and the Lawspeaker. The principal task of the Council was to 'frame the law'. The 12th-century chronicles, the Book of Icelanders (&lt;em&gt;Islendlingabok&lt;/em&gt; ) describes the search for a suitable assembly site, convenient for the routes across the island. The site chosen, although towards the south of the island formed a suitable focus for the greatest concentration of the farming population. Remains at Thingvellir include fragments of around 50 attenders' booths. These booths, built from turf and stone with a canvas roof, provided temporary accommodation for those attending the assembly. They were frequently repaired or rebuilt on the same site. Those remaining seem to date from the 17th and 18th centuries (the final flourishing of the Assembly) and to have been built on top of earlier remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hinterland of the Althing was agricultural land on which the prosperity of the island depended. No one now lives in what is now the National Park; three farms in the area when the park was established were bought out and the houses and buildings gradually abandoned. The last residents left in the 1960s. The park landscape contains abundant remains of structures associated with earlier agricultural use of the land, such as houses, outhouses and sheep pens, surrounded by their small subsistence home fields for arable crops and perhaps hay, and a network of tracks linking the farms to each other and to the Assembly site on which they converged. The vast open expanses of land around the enclosed fields was grazing land - for the sheep and cattle of the farms but also to be used by the horses of those attending the Assemblies. There are the remains of six farms, a summer farm or sheiling, a chapel and a brew-house. It is surmised that most of the remains date from the 18th and 19th centuries, although documentary evidence for specific settlements such as the Grimsstadir farm goes back to the 10th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present Thingvellir Church, a protected building, dates from the 1850s, but it is on the site of a much larger church dating from the early 11th century. The neighbouring Thingvellir Farm is a relatively modern building in classic Icelandic form, which now serves as a country residence for the President of Iceland.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Þingvellir (Thingvellir) is the National Park where the Althing, an open-air assembly representing the whole of Iceland, was established in 930 and continued to meet until 1798. Over two weeks a year, the assembly set laws - seen as a covenant between free men - and settled disputes. The Althing has deep historical and symbolic associations for the people of Iceland. The property includes the Þingvellir National Park and the remains of the Althing itself: fragments of around 50 booths built from turf and stone. Remains from the 10th century are thought to be buried underground. The site also includes remains of agricultural use from the 18th and 19th centuries. The park shows evidence of the way the landscape was husbanded over 1,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Þingvellir National Park</site><states>Iceland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1333</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1267</http_url><id_number>1267</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1267.jpg</image_url><iso_code>is</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>63.3030555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>-20.6022222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Surtsey, a volcanic island approximately 32 km from the south coast of Iceland, is a new island formed by volcanic eruptions that took place from 1963 to 1967. It is all the more outstanding for having been protected since its birth, providing the world with a pristine natural laboratory. Free from human interference, Surtsey has been producing unique long-term information on the colonisation process of new land by plant and animal life. Since they began studying the island in 1964, scientists have observed the arrival of seeds carried by ocean currents, the appearance of moulds, bacteria and fungi, followed in 1965 by the first vascular plant, of which there were 10 species by the end of the first decade. By 2004, they numbered 60 together with 75 bryophytes, 71 lichens and 24 fungi. Eighty-nine species of birds have been recorded on Surtsey, 57 of which breed elsewhere in Iceland. The 141 ha island is also home to 335 species of invertebrates.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Surtsey</site><states>Iceland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1532</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/233</http_url><id_number>233</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_233.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the site on the World Heritage List under criterion (iv)&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>28.5258300000</latitude><location>Delhi</location><longitude>77.1852800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lalkot is the first of the seven cities of Delhi, established by the Tomar Rajput ruler, Anang Pal, in 1060. The Qutb complex lies in the middle of the eastern part of Lalkot. Building of the Quwwatu'l-Islam (Might of Islam) congregational mosque was begun in 1192 by Qutbu'd-Din Aibak and completed in 1198, using the demolished remains of Hindu temples. It was enlarged by Iltutmish (1211-36) and again by Alauld-Din Khalji (1296-1316).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Qutb Minar was also begun by Qutbu'd-Din Aibak, in around 1202 and completed by his successor, Muhammad-bin-Sam. It was damaged by lightning in 1326 and again in 1368, and was repaired by the rulers of the day, Muhammad-bin-Tughluq (1325-51) and Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351-88). In 1503 Sikandar Lodi carried out some restoration and enlargement of the upper storeys. The iron pillar in the mosque compound was brought from elsewhere in India. It bears a Sanskrit inscription from the 4th century AD describing the exploits of a ruler named Chandra, believed to be the Gupta King Chandragupta II (375-413). Of the other monuments, the Tomb of Iltutmish was built in 1235 by the ruler himself and Alai Darwaja was built in 1311 by Alauld-Din Khalji, who also began the construction of the Alai Minar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Quwwatu'l-Islam mosque consists of a courtyard, cloisters, and a prayer hall. The high arched screen facing the prayer hall was added in the 14th century. The Qutb Minar is a column built from red and buff sandstone blocks rising to a height of 72.5&amp;nbsp;m, tapering from 2.75&amp;nbsp;m diameter at the top to 14.32&amp;nbsp;m at the base, making it the highest stone tower in India. In addition to its traditional use for calling the faithful to prayer, it also has a monumental purpose, since a later Nagari inscription calls it Alauld-Din's 'victory monument' (&lt;em&gt;Vijava-stambha&lt;/em&gt;). In its present form it consists of five storeys, the topmost of the original four storeys having been replaced by two storeys during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq. Each storey is separated from the next by highly decorated balconies, with pendentives and inscribed bands. The three earlier storeys are each decorated differently, the lowest being of alternating angular and rounded flutings, the second with rounded flutings alone, and the third with angular flutings alone; the same vertical alignment continues, however, through all three storeys. The whole structure was originally surmounted by a cupola, which fell during an earthquake and was replaced by a new cupola in late Mughal style in the early 19th century. This was so incongruous that it was removed in 1848 and now stands on the lawns to the south-east of the minaret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Iron Pillar is 7.02&amp;nbsp;m long, 0.93&amp;nbsp;m of which is below ground. It is built up of many hundreds of small wrought-iron blooms welded together and is the largest known composite iron object from so early a period. The remarkable lack of corrosion is attributable to the combination of several factors, among them the high corrosion-resistance of wrought iron, the climatic conditions in Delhi, and the likelihood that it was frequently anointed with ghee (melted butter). The deep cavity at the top suggests that it may at one time have been crowned by a Garuda image. The ornate Tomb of Iltutmish is in the north-west corner of the mosque. It consists of a square chamber of red sandstone with the tomb itself in the centre on a raised platform. The lower part of the interior is covered with fine Islamic carvings and arabesques. There is a marble &lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; (prayer niche) in the centre of the interior west wall. The Alai Darwaza, built from red sandstone and elaborately carved, is the southern entrance to the enlarged enclosure of the Qutb complex. The Alai Minar, to the north of the enclosure, is the base of a second minaret which was to overtop the Qutb Minar. It was begun by Alau'd-Din-Khalji, but he died before it reached the first storey and work on the structure was abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the early 13th century a few kilometres south of Delhi, the red sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m high, tapering from 2.75 m in diameter at its peak to 14.32 m at its base, and alternating angular and rounded flutings. The surrounding archaeological area contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of Indo-Muslim art (built in 1311), and two mosques, including the Quwwatu'l-Islam, the oldest in northern India, built of materials reused from some 20 Brahman temples.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>259</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234</http_url><id_number>234</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_234.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.5022200000</latitude><location>State of Goa</location><longitude>73.9116700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;These monuments of Goa exerted great influence in the 16th-18th centuries on the development of architecture, sculpture, and painting by spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art throughout the countries of Asia where Catholic missions were established. In so doing they illustrate the work of missionaries in Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Portuguese explorer Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in 1510 and the Portuguese ruled the territory until 1961. The colony of Goa, which has its centre in Old Goa, became the capital of the vast eastern Portuguese Empire, sharing the same civic privileges as Lisbon. By 1635, the successive waves of Europeans brought about the inevitable decline of Goa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1542 the Jesuits, who were driven by the ardour of medieval crusaders, arrived in the city and Francis Xavier, one of the founders of the Society of Jesus, rapidly became the patron saint of Goa. The churches in Old Goa aimed to awe the local population into conversion and to impress upon them the superiority of the foreign religion. The facades were accordingly made tall and lofty and the interiors were magnificent, with twisted Bernini columns, decorated pediments, profusely carved and gilded altars, and colourful wall paintings and frescoes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Local laterite was used in the construction of the churches, which had to be plastered and finished with a lime whitewash, while the trimmings were sometimes of basalt. The colour white was so identified with churches that the local administration ruled that no house could be painted that colour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the 60 churches inventoried in the 18th century before the city was abandoned, seven major examples survive. The S&amp;eacute; Cathedral with its Tuscan exterior, Corinthian columns, raised platform with steps leading to the entrance, and barrel-vault is another example of Renaissance architecture. The paintings in the church were executed on wooden boards and fixed between panels with floral designs. Except for a few statues which are in stone, most of the other statues of the saints, the Virgin Mary, and Jesus were first carved in wood and then painted to adorn the altars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Chapel of St Catherine dating from 1510, the Church and Convent of Saint Francis of Assisi (which now houses the Archaeological Museum), and the Church of Bom Jesus where the mortal remains of St Francis Xavier rest, are some of the best in terms of design and style. Also of importance are St Gagtan and its seminary, Our Lady of the Rosary (one of the earliest churches to be built), and the Tower of St Augustine, all that remains of a convent built in 1572. The Church of St Cajetan has a facade decorated with lonic, Doric, and Corinthian pilasters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other monuments are partially or completely in ruins, but they nonetheless constitute an archaeological reserve of considerable interest.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The churches and convents of Goa, the former capital of the Portuguese Indies &amp;ndash; particularly the Church of Bom Jesus, which contains the tomb of St Francis-Xavier &amp;ndash; illustrate the evangelization of Asia. These monuments were influential in spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in all the countries of Asia where missions were established.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Churches and Convents of Goa</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>260</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239</http_url><id_number>239</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_239.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.9483300000</latitude><location>State of Karnataka, Bijapur District, Badami Taluk</location><longitude>75.8166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Pattadakal represents the high point of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya dynasty, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India. An impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary, can be seen there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three very closely located sites in the State of Karnataka provide a remarkable concentration of religious monuments dating from the great dynasty of the Chalukya (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 543-757). There are the two successive capital cities - Aihole (ancient Aryapura), Badami, and Pattadakal, the 'City of the Crown Rubies' (Pattada Kisuvolal). The latter was, moreover, for a brief time the third capital city of the Chalukya kingdom; at the time the Pallava occupied Badami (642-55). While Aihole is traditionally considered the 'laboratory' of Chalukya architecture, with such monuments as the Temple of Ladkhan (&lt;em&gt;c.&lt;/em&gt; 450) which antedate the dynasty's political successes during the reign of King Pulakeshin I, the city of Pattadakal illustrates the apogee of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from the north and south of India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated between the Malaprabha River to the north, and a minuscule village to the south, Pattadakal possesses a sort of holy city comprised of an impressive series of eight Hindu temples dedicated to Siva. Somewhat off to the side, towards the village, is the ninth Sivaite sanctuary, the Temple of Papanatha, as well as a Jain temple. In the monumental complex of the central zone are structures whose design was strongly influenced by the architecture of northern India: the temples of Galaganatha and of Kashi Vishveshvara, which are noteworthy for their square-shaped &lt;em&gt;shikharas&lt;/em&gt; with curved edges. They stand along with other temples of a pure Dravidian style - Sangameshvara, built between 696 and 733, and Mallikarjuna, built consecutively from 733-44. Cornices decorate the walls of these temples and the roofs are the complex, storeyed type found in southern architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The unexpected and yet harmonious mixture of these styles provided the inspiration for the masterpiece of Chalukya art, the temple of Virupaksha. This Sivaite sanctuary was erected around 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate the victory in 731 of her husband, King Vikramaditya II, over the Pallava and other sovereigns of southern India. The king's admiration for the art of his conquered enemies is borne out by two inscriptions that offer proof that he brought in from the south an architect and a team of sculptors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prominently jutting out from the cruciform temple are three porches, a typical Chalukyan feature. They blend perfectly with the majestic three-storey tower and the walls with their overhanging cornices punctuated by narrow pilasters that separate niches filled with marvellous statuary. An overall concept dictated the choice of statues which illustrate the great themes of Siva theology and mythology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The evocative ruins of the numerous abandoned sanctuaries within the enclosure may be reached, on the west and east sides, through two monumental gates. In the axis of the courtyard, in front of the temple, is a beautiful pavilion containing a colossal black stone statue of Siva's sacred bull, Nandi. The &lt;em&gt;puja&lt;/em&gt;, the ritual washing of the bull, takes place there every morning. Enhanced by its relative isolation south of the principal zone, the temple of Papanatha illustrates once again the aesthetic achievement resulting from the incorporation of two different styles. Papanatha has two rooms where the faithful can worship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the west is the principal sanctuary, which is covered with a powerful tower in the northern style; to the east is a more modest room, whose roof is crowned with miniature reproductions of buildings in the purest Dravidian style. Experts have found in the detail of the niches, the pediments and the arcature, many contradictory architectural references. The plastic unity of this great monument, however, comes from the remarkable sculptured decoration illustrating the popular epic of the Ramayana, dedicated to Prince Rama, incarnation of Vishnu.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Pattadakal, in Karnataka, represents the high point of an eclectic art which, in the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya dynasty, achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India. An impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary, can be seen there. One masterpiece from the group stands out – the Temple of Virupaksha, built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband's victory over the kings from the South.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Group of Monuments at Pattadakal</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>266</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240</http_url><id_number>240</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_240.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.8522200000</latitude><location>State of Madhya Pradesh</location><longitude>79.9222200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The complex of Khajuraho represents a unique artistic creation, as much for its highly original architecture as for the sculpted decor of a surprising quality made up of a mythological repertory of numerous scenes of amusements of which not the least known are the scenes, susceptible to various interpretations, sacred or profane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Khajuraho is one of the capitals of the Chandella rulers, a dynasty of Rajput origin which came into power at the beginning of the 10th century, and reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Of the 85 temples which were constructed at Khajuraho during the Chandella period (and which were still resplendent: when the great traveller Ibn Battuta noted them in 1335), 22 still exist, disseminated within an area of about 6&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As, monuments of two distinct religions, Brahminism and Jainism, the temples of Khajuraho are nonetheless distinguished by a common typology: they comprise an elevated substructure, over which rises the body of the richly decorated building, the 'jangha', covered with several registers of sculpted panels on to which open-work galleries are opened. This is crowned by a series of bundled towers with curvilinear contours, the Sikharas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The highest are found over the sanctuary of the divinity. Each of these towers, which is characteristic of the temples in the Nagera style, symbolizes the 'cosmic mountain', Mount Kailasha. The typical plan comprises an entrance, a large hypostyle hall (&lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt;), a dark sanctuary and finally various annexes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important group of monuments is massed in the western zone, not far from the archaeological museum, including the temples of Varaha, Lakshmana, Matangeshwara, Kandariya, Mahadeva Chitragupta, Chopra Tank, Parvati, Vishwanatha and Nandi. But the east and south groups also comprise noteworthy complexes (the temples of Ghantai, Parshvanath, Adinath, Shantinath, Dulhadeo, Chaturbhuja).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yasovarman (AD 954) built the temple of Vishnu, now famous as Lakshmana temple; this is an ornate and evolved example of its time proclaiming the prestige of the Chandellas. The Visvanatha, Parsvanatha and Vaidyanatha temples belong to the time of King Dhanga, the successor of Yasovarman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jagadambi, Chitragupta, are noteworthy among the western group of royal temples of Khajuraho. The largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho is the immortal Kandariya Mahadeva which is attributed to King Ganda (1017-29).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greatly influenced by the Tantric school of thought, the Chandela kings promoted various Tantric doctrines through royal monuments, including temples. Sculptors of Khajuraho depicted all aspects of life. The society of the time believed in dealing frankly and openly with all aspects of life, including sex. Sex is important because Tantric cosmos is divided into the male and female principle. Male principle has the form and potential, female has the energy. According to Hindu and Tantric philosophy, one can not achieve anything without the other, as they manifest themselves in all aspects of the universe. Nothing can exist without their cooperation and coexistence. In accordance with ancient treaties on architecture, erotic depictions were reserved for specific parts of the temples only. The rest of the temple was profusely covered with other aspects of life, secular and spiritual.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two different religions &amp;ndash; Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Khajuraho Group of Monuments</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>267</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242</http_url><id_number>242</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_242.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.5533300000</latitude><location>Maharashtra State, Aurangabad District , Soyagon Taluka, Lenapur Village</location><longitude>75.7000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The style of Ajanta has exerted a considerable influence in India and elsewhere, extending, in particular, to Java. With its two groups of monuments corresponding to two important moments in Indian history, the Ajanta cave ensemble bears exceptional testimony to the evolution of Indian art, as well as to the determining role of the Buddhist community, intellectual and religious foyers, schools and reception centres in the India of the Gupta and their immediate successors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The caves are situated 100&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Ellora, 104&amp;nbsp;km from Aurangabad and 52&amp;nbsp;km from Jalgaon Railway Station. They are cut into the volcanic lava of the Deccan in the forest ravines of the Sahyadri Hills and are set in beautiful sylvan surroundings. These magnificent caves containing carvings that depict the life of Buddha, and their carvings and sculptures are considered to be the beginning of classical Indian art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 29 caves were excavated beginning around 200 BC, but they were abandoned in AD 650 in favour of Ellora. Five of the caves were temples and 24 were monasteries, thought to have been occupied by some 200 monks and artisans. The Ajanta Caves were gradually forgotten until their 'rediscovery' by a British tiger-hunting party in 1819.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ajanta site comprises thirty caves cut into the side of a cliff which rises above a meander in the Waghora River. Today the caves are reached by a road which runs along a terrace mid-way up the cliff, but each cave was once linked by a stairway to the edge of the water. This is a Buddhist community, comprising five sanctuaries or &lt;em&gt;Chaitya-grihas&lt;/em&gt; (caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29) and monastic complex &lt;em&gt;sangharamas&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;viharas&lt;/em&gt;. A first group of caves was created in the 2nd century BC: the chaitya-grihas open into the rock wall by doorways surmounted by a horse-shoe shaped bay. The ground plan is a basilical one: piers separate the principal nave from the side aisles which join in the apsis to permit the ritual circumambulation behind the (commemorative monument). This rupestral architecture scrupulously reproduces the forms and elements visible in wooden constructions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A second group of caves was created at a later date, the 5th and 6th centuries AD, during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. These caves were excavated during the supremacy of the Vakatakas and Guptas. According to inscriptions, Varahadeva, the minister of the Vakataka king, Harishena (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. AD 475-500), dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist sangha while Cave 17 was the gift of the prince, a feudatory. An inscription records that the Buddha image in Cave 4 was the gift of some Abhayanandi who hailed from Mathura.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earlier architectural formulas were re-employed but treated in an infinitely richer and more ample manner. The decoration attained, at this time, an unequalled splendour: the statuary is numerous (it was already permissible to represent Buddha as a human; these representations are found both on the facades and in the interior). Finally, the wall painting, profuse and sensitive, constitutes, no doubt, the most striking artistic achievement of Ajanta.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the impulse of the Gupta dynasty, Indian art in effect reached its apogee. The Ajanta Caves are generally decorated with painted or sculpted figures of supple form and classic balance with which the name of the dynasty has remained synonymous. The refined lightness of the decoration, the balance of the compositions, the marvellous beauty of the feminine figures place the paintings of Ajanta among the major achievements of the Gupta and post-Gupta style and confer on them the ranking of a masterpiece of universal pictorial art.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable artistic influence.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ajanta Caves</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>269</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243</http_url><id_number>243</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_243.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.0263900000</latitude><location>Maharashtra State, Aurangabad District, Khulatabad Taluk , Verul Village</location><longitude>75.1791700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ellora Caves not only bear witness to three great religions (Buddhism, Brahminism and Jainism) but they also illustrate the spirit of tolerance, characteristic of ancient India, which permitted these three religions to establish their sanctuaries and their communities in a single place, which thus served to reinforce its universal value. The caves, with their uninterrupted sequence of from 600 to 1,000 monuments, bring to life again the civilization of ancient India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2&amp;nbsp;km, were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from AD 600 to 1000, brings the civilization of ancient India to life. Not only is the Ellora complex a unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This rupestral ensemble constitute one of the most beautiful expressions of the art of the Indian Middle Ages; they are noteworthy as three major Indian religions have laid joint claim to the caves peacefully since they were created. These breathtaking caves are definitely worth visiting for their remarkable reliefs, sculptures and architecture. It is not, like that of Ajanta, the expression of a single belief; rather it is the product of the three principal religions of ancient India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Progressing from south to north along the cliff, one discovers successively the twelve caves of the Buddhist group, which appear to be the oldest (between &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 600 and 800) and comprise monasteries and a single large temple (cave 10); then the caves of the Brahmin group (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 600 to 900) which are no doubt the best known of Ellora with the 'Cavern of the Ten Avatars' (cave 15) and especially the Kailasha Temple (cave 16), an enormous complex, most likely undertaken during the reign of Krishna I (757-83); and, finally, the Jain group (caves 30-34) whose sanctuaries were created by the sect of the Digambara towards AD 800-1000, The Jain caves, the last to be excavated, drew their inspiration from the art already existing at Ellora: cave 32 recalls by certain of its dispositions the Kailasha Temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist Caves were excavated between the 5th and the 7th centuries AD, when the Mahayana sects were flourishing in the region; among these cave 5 is the largest. Cave&amp;nbsp;10 is a &lt;em&gt;chaitya&lt;/em&gt; hall and is popularly known as 'Visvakarma'. It has a highly ornamental facade provided with a gallery and in the chaitya hall there is a beautiful image of Buddha set on a stupa. The historical value of cave 12 or Tin Tala lies in the fact that human hands built a three-storeyed building from rock with such painstaking skill that even the floors and the ceiling are smooth and levelled. Tin Tala cave is a monastery-cum-chapel, with cells. It dates to the Rashtrakuta period in the mid-8th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Brahmin caves are mostly Saivite. Kailasa (cave 16) is a remarkable example of rock-cut temples in India on account of its striking proportion; elaborate workmanship architectural content and sculptural ornamentation. It is said that cave 16 have been started by the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna I, and it is dedicated to Shiva and named after his mountain home in the Himalaya, the snow-peak Kailasa. The whole temple consists of a shrine with &lt;em&gt;lingam&lt;/em&gt; at the rear of the hall with Dravidian &lt;em&gt;sikhara&lt;/em&gt;, a flat-roofed mandapa supported by sixteen pillars, a separate porch for Nandi surrounded by an open court entered through a low &lt;em&gt;gopura&lt;/em&gt;. The grand sculpture of Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva, with his full might is a landmark in Indian art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jain Caves are massive, well-proportioned, decorated and mark the last phase of the activity at Ellora.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km, were dug side by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff, not far from Aurangabad, in Maharashtra. Ellora, with its uninterrupted sequence of monuments dating from A.D. 600 to 1000, brings the civilization of ancient India to life. Not only is the Ellora complex a unique artistic creation and a technological exploit but, with its sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it illustrates the spirit of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient India.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ellora Caves</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>270</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/244</http_url><id_number>244</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_244.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.9666700000</latitude><location>Maharashtra State, District Kolaba (Island of Elephanta)</location><longitude>72.9358300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The island of Elephanta, the glorious abode of Lord Shiva and an epitome of Hindu cave culture, consists of seven caves on an island in the Sea of Oman close to Mumbai which, with their decorated temples and the images from Hindu mythology, bear a unique testimony to a civilization that has disappeared. Here, Indian art has found one of its most perfect expressions, particularly in the huge high reliefs in the main cave.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island of Gharapuri, the 'City of Caves', situated about 10&amp;nbsp;km from Mumbai on the east side of the harbour, owes its name to the enormous stone elephant found there by Portuguese navigators. This elephant was cut into pieces, removed to Mumbai and somehow put together again. It is today the melancholy guardian of Victoria Gardens Zoo in Mumbai, the great metropolis of Maharashtra State and India's second city population-wise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The date of the famous Elephanta Caves is still very much debated and varies from the 6th century to the 8th century according to different specialists. They constitute one of the most striking collections of rock-art in India. There are two groups of caves. To the east, Stupa Hill (thus named because of a small brick Buddhist monument at the top) contains two caves, one of which is unfinished, and several cisterns. To the west, the larger group consists of five rock-cut Hindu shrines. The main cave is universally famous for its carvings to the glory of Shiva, who is exalted in various forms and act ions. The cave consists of a square plan mandapa whose sides measure about 27&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interior is divided up into smaller areas by rows of supports. The whole shape carefully imitates a building; false profiled beams have been carved in the roof of the cave and the supports, which are complex structures, combine, from bottom to top, the shapes of the pillars, columns and capitals found in bonded stone architecture. At the very entrance to the cave, to the north of an esplanade reached by a steep flight of steps, the pilgrim or visitor to this high place of Shivaism is greeted by two large carved panels depicting, on the left, Shiva Yogisvara (Master of Yoga) and, on the right, Shiva Nataraja (King of Dance), both treated in a monumental style still close to that of the Gupta period. In a chapel on the right of the entrance stands the cylindrical lingam, symbol of the Supreme Being and principle of all energy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This chapel has four doors, each flanked by colossal figures of &lt;em&gt;dvarapala&lt;/em&gt;, those mediator guardians whose task was to admit the faithful and keep out ill-intentioned visitors. On each wall of the &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt;, enormous high-reliefs (maximum height 5.70&amp;nbsp;m) present further pictures of Shiva. Opposite the entrance, on the south wall, is the famous and unforgettable three-headed bust of the Mahadeva, whose three faces are the incarnation of three essential functions; to the east, Aghora or Bhairava, terrifying destroyer; to the west, Vamadeva, creator of joy and beauty, incarnated by a woman's head; and in the centre, Tatpurusha, master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their harmony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On either side of this central figure there are two other reliefs depicting, on the left, androgynous Shiva (Ardhanarisvara) and, on the right, Shiva receiving the waters of the Ganges (Gangadhara). Ten other reliefs, placed in each angle of the main hall and in the aisles to the east and west, depict further episodes from the legend of Shiva, such as the marriage of Shiva to Parvati, Shiva killing the devil Andhaka, etc. The 15 large reliefs surrounding the lingam chapel in the main Elephanta Cave not only constitute one of the greatest examples of Indian art but also one of the most important collections for the cult of Shiva.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 'City of Caves', on an island in the Sea of Oman close to Bombay, contains a collection of rock art linked to the cult of Shiva. Here, Indian art has found one of its most perfect expressions, particularly the huge high reliefs in the main cave.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Elephanta Caves</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>272</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/246</http_url><id_number>246</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_246.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.8875000000</latitude><location>State of Orissa, Puri District</location><longitude>86.0947200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kon&amp;acirc;rak is an outstanding testimony to the 13th-century kingdom of Orissa. It is directly and materially linked to Brahmin beliefs, and forms the invaluable link in the history of the diffusion of the cult of Surya, which originated in Kashmir during the 8th century and finally reached the shores of eastern India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the eastern coast of India, south of the Mahanadi Delta, is the Brahmin temple of Kimarak (still spelled as Kon&amp;acirc;rak or Kon&amp;acirc;rka), one of the most famous Brahmin sanctuaries of Asia. Kon&amp;acirc;rak derives its name from Kon&amp;acirc;rka, the presiding deity of the Sun Temple. Kon&amp;acirc;rka is a combination of two words, &lt;em&gt;kona&lt;/em&gt; (corner) and &lt;em&gt;arka&lt;/em&gt; (Sun). It was one of the earliest centres of Sun worship in India. Built around 1250 in the reign of King Narasingha Deva (1238-64), it marks the apogee of the wave of foundations dedicated to the Sun God Surya; the entire temple was conceived as a chariot of the Sun God with a set of spokes and elaborate carvings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present Sun Temple was probably built by King Narashimhadev I (1238-64) of the Ganga dynasty to celebrate his victory over the Muslims. The temple fell into disuse in the early 17th century after it was desecrated by an envoy of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. The legend has it that the temple was constructed by Samba, the son of Lord Krishna. Samba was afflicted by leprosy and after twelve years of penance he was cured by Surya, the Sun God, in whose honour he built this temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Against the horizon, on the sandy shore, where the rising Sun emerges from the waters of the Gulf of Bengal, stands the temple, built from stone and carefully oriented so as to permit the first rays of the Sun to strike its principal entry. It is a monumental representation of the chariot of Surya pulled by a team of seven horses (six of which still exist and are placed on either side of the stairway leading to the sanctuary).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the north and south sides, 24 wheels some 3&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, lavishly sculptured with symbolic motives referring to the cycle of the seasons and the months, complete the illusionary structure of the temple-chariot. Between the wheels, the plinth of the temple is entirely decorated with reliefs (fantastic lions, musicians and dancers, erotic groups). Like many Indian temples, Kon&amp;acirc;rak comprises several distinct and well-organized spatial units. The &lt;em&gt;vimana&lt;/em&gt; (principal sanctuary) was surmounted by a high tower with a &lt;em&gt;sikkara&lt;/em&gt; which was razed in the 19th century; to the east, the &lt;em&gt;jahamogana&lt;/em&gt; (audience hall) now dominates the ruins with its pyramidal mass, the original effect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Further to the east, the &lt;em&gt;natmandir&lt;/em&gt; (dance hall), today unroofed, rises on a high platform. Various subsidiary structures are still to be found within the enclosed area of the rectangular wall, which is punctuated by its gates and towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the Puranas, other religious texts also point towards the existence of a Sun temple at Kon&amp;acirc;rak long before the present temple. Kon&amp;acirc;rak was once a bustling port of Kalinga and had good maritime trade relations with South-East Asian countries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the shores of the Bay of Bengal, bathed in the rays of the rising sun, the temple at Konarak is a monumental representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24 wheels are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of six horses. Built in the 13th century, it is one of India's most famous Brahman sanctuaries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sun Temple, Konârak</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>274</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249</http_url><id_number>249</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_249.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.6166700000</latitude><location>Tamil Nadu State, Chingleput District</location><longitude>80.1916700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Mahabalipuram is pre-eminently testimony to the Pallavas civilization of south-east India.The sanctuary, known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), and giant open-air reliefs, is one of the major centres of the cult of Siva. The influence of the sculptures of Mahabalipuram, characterized by the softness and supple mass of their modelling, spread widely (Cambodia, Annam, Java).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 7th century by the Pallavas sovereigns south of Madras, the harbour of Mahabalipuram traded with the distant kingdoms of South-East Asia: Kambuja (Cambodia) and Shrivijaya (Malaysia, Sumatra, Java) and with the empire of Champa (Annam). But the fame of its role as a harbour has been transferred to its rock sanctuaries and Brahmin temples which were constructed or decorated at Mahabalipuram between 630 and 728.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the monuments, like the rock-cut rathas, sculptured scenes on open rocks like Arjuna's penance, the caves of Govardhanadhari and Ahishasuramardini, and the Jala-Sayana Perumal temple (the sleeping Mahavishnu or Chakrin at the rear part of the Shore temple complex) are attributed to the period of Narasimhavarman I Mamalla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monuments may be subdivided into five categories:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;ratha&lt;/em&gt; temples in the form of processional chariots, monolithic constructions cut into the residual blocks of diorite which emerge from the sand. The five &lt;em&gt;ratha&lt;/em&gt; of the south, which are the most famous, date to the reign of Naharasimhavarman Mamalla (630-68), the great Pallavas king (the Cholas texts, moreover, call the city Mamallapuram). &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt;, or rock sanctuaries modelled as rooms covered with bas-reliefs (the &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt; of Varaha, representing the acts of this avatar of Vishnu; the &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt; of the Five Pandavas and, especially, the &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt; of Krishna and the &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt; of Mahishasuramardini). &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; rock reliefs in the open air illustrate a popular episode in the iconography of Siva, that of the Descent of the Ganges. The wise King Baghirata having begged him to do so, Siva ordered the Ganges to descend to Earth and to nourish the world. The sculptors used the natural fissure dividing the cliff to suggest this cosmic event to which a swarming crowd of gods, goddesses, mythical beings (Kinnara, Gandherya, Apsara, Gana, Naga and Nagini), wild and domestic animals bear witness. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; temples built from cut stone, like the Temple of Rivage, which was constructed under King Rajasimha Narasimavarmn II (695-722), with its high-stepped pyramidal tower and thousands of sculptures dedicated to the glory of Siva. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; monolithic &lt;em&gt;rathas&lt;/em&gt;, from single- to triple-storeyed, display a variety of architectural forms, while the Dharmaraja, Arjuna and Draupadi rathas are square in plan, the Bhima and Ganesa rathas rectangular, and the Sahadeva &lt;em&gt;ratha&lt;/em&gt; apsidal. Structural architecture was introduced on a grand scale by Pallava Rajasimha (700-28), culminating in the erection of the Shore Temple.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Another piece of architectural beauty is the Shore temple, standing against the background of the deep blue waters of the ocean. It belongs to a period when the constructional style of the Pallavas was at its peak in its decorative beauty and intrinsic quality. This building has become eroded by the corrosive action of seawater and air and the sculptures have become indistinct&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This group of sanctuaries, founded by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in the 7th and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its &lt;em&gt;rathas&lt;/em&gt; (temples in the form of chariots), &lt;em&gt;mandapas&lt;/em&gt; (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>277</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250</http_url><id_number>250</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_250.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The three Chola temples of Southern India represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the dravida type of temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur became the first great example of the Chola temples, followed by a development of which the other two properties also bear witness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The three Great Chola Temples are an exceptional and the most outstanding testimony to the development of the architecture of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilisation in Southern India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Great Chola temples at Thanjavur, at Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram are outstanding examples of the architecture and the representation of the Chola ideology.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>10.7830555600</latitude><location></location><longitude>79.1325000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Great Chola Temples of southern India are an exceptional testimony to the development of the architecture and the ideology of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilization in southern India. They represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of the pure form of the Dravida type of temple (characterized by a pyramidal tower).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cholas were the second great historic dynasty of the Tamil Nadu, the Tamil country, which was the home of the ancient Dravidian culture whose influence was so considerable in the whole of south-east Asia. The great temple of Tanjore was built in a few years, from 1003 to 1010, during the reign of the great king Rajaraja (985-1014), true founder of the Chola Empire which spread throughout the whole of southern India, part of Ceylon and the Maldive and Laccadive archipelagos. Richly endowed by the sovereign, the sanctuary, which also bears his name - it is sometimes called Rajarajesvaram - had a permanent staff of several hundred priests, 400 &lt;em&gt;devadasi&lt;/em&gt; (sacred dancers), and 57 musicians, according to inscriptions and chronicles. The Brihadisvara's income in gold, silver and precious stones during the Chola period has been precisely evaluated. These vast resources were efficiently managed and provided not only for the upkeep and improvement of the buildings (which was continued until the 17th century) but also for real investments to be made. The temple lent money, at rates which could sometimes reach 30%, to shipowners, village assemblies and craft guilds. Dedicated to Shiva, the Brihadisvara stands to the south-west of the historic city. A first rectangular surrounding wall, 270&amp;nbsp;m by 140&amp;nbsp;m, marks the outer boundary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is dominated on the east side by a 30&amp;nbsp;m high entrance gateway (&lt;em&gt;gopuram&lt;/em&gt;). A second wall, with its entrance in line with the first and crowned with a smaller &lt;em&gt;gopuram&lt;/em&gt; decorated with two &lt;em&gt;dvarapala&lt;/em&gt; (gatekeepers), surrounds a colonnaded inner courtyard. The temple itself, built from granite blocks and, in part, of bricks, is oriented east-west like the courtyard. The layout takes its inspiration from the Pallava tradition, and especially from the layout of the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram. There is a succession of halls and vestibules (&lt;em&gt;mukta-mandapa&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;maha-mandapa&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;ardha-mandapa&lt;/em&gt;) leading to the shrine, which is crowned with a 13-storey pyramidal tower. This vimana, which is 60.95&amp;nbsp;m high and, in turn, crowned with a bulb-shaped monolith weighing an estimated 70 tonnes, is rightly considered to be one of the architectural masterpieces of India. The intricately carved decorations covering the outer walls of the temple are continued inside by the well known representations of the 108 poses of the Bharata-Natyam, the classical Indian dance, mimed by Shiva in person.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The iconographic programme, inspired by Shiva mythology, also consists of a series of murals from the Chola period which decorate the corridor around the shrine. The famous series depicting Rajaraja in conversation with his guru, Karuvur Devar, gives a good idea of the graphic quality, the delicacy of the colours, the expressiveness of the characters which make this sequence one of the great masterpieces of Chola art. Inside the inner courtyard, the Nandi-mandapa, a pavilion which houses the colossal statue of Nandi, the bull mounted by Shiva (&lt;em&gt;vahana&lt;/em&gt;), is of very great interest. The temple of Devi, built in the 13th century by the Pandya king Konerinmaikondan, the temple of Subrahmanya, built and covered with carvings in the 17th century by a Nayak king of Madurai, together with additional temples and chapels of a later date (temple of Ganesh, &lt;em&gt;mandapa&lt;/em&gt; of Nataraja) complete this remarkable religious architectural group.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2004</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighbouring islands. The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra I, was completed in 1035. Its 53-m &lt;em&gt;vimana&lt;/em&gt; (sanctum tower) has recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement, contrasting with the straight and severe tower at Thanjavur. The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram features a 24-m &lt;em&gt;vimana&lt;/em&gt; and a stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Living Chola Temples</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>280</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/251</http_url><id_number>251</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_251.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.1833333300</latitude><location>Uttar Pradesh, Agra District</location><longitude>78.0333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Red Fort and the Taj Mahal bear an exceptional and complementary testimony to a civilization which has disappeared, that of the Mogul Emperors. Agra's history goes back more than 2,500 years, but it was not until the reign of the Mughals that Agra became more than a provincial city. Humayun, son of the founder of the Mogul Empire, was offered jewellery and precious stones by the family of the Raja of Gwalior, one of them the famous Koh-i-Noor. The heyday of Agra came with the reign of Humayun's son, Akbar the Great. During his reign, the main part of the Agra Fort was built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Red Fort of Agra is a powerful fortress founded in 1565 by the Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) on the right bank of the Yamuna; it is placed today on the north-west extremity of the Shah Jahan Gardens which surround the Taj Mahal and clearly form, with them, a monumental unity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This bastioned fortress, with walls of red sandstone rising above a moat and interrupted by graceful curves and lofty bastions, encompasses within its enclosure walls of 2.5&amp;nbsp;km, the imperial city of the Mogul rulers. Like the Delhi Fort, that of Agra is one of the most obvious symbols of the Mogul grandeur which asserted itself under Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wall has two gates, the Delhi Gate and the Amar Singh Gate. The original and grandest entrance was through the Delhi Gate, which leads to the inner portal called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate. But now the entrance to the fort is only through the Amar Singh Gate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The citadel comprises a large number of fairy-like palaces: the Khas Mahal, the Shish Mahal, the octagonal tower of Muhammam Burj, as well as reception rooms: Diwan-i-Khas, built in 1637 and the many pillared Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience), constructed in 1628, under the reign of the luxury-loving Shah Jahan (1630-55). Within the palatial complex, there are two very beautiful mosques of white marble, the Moti Masjid or the Pearl Mosque, constructed in 1646-53 by Shah Jahan and the Nagina Masjid built under the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several of the buildings are made from pure marble with beautiful carvings; all of these monuments mark the apogee of an Indo-Muslim art strongly marked by influences from Persia which already manifested itself in Timurid art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Emperor Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal, was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in Agra Fort, from which he had a view of the building erected for his deceased wife. Shah Jahan is said to have died in the Musamman Burj, a tower with a beautiful marble balcony.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the important 16th-century Mughal monument known as the Red Fort of Agra. This powerful fortress of red sandstone encompasses, within its 2.5-km-long enclosure walls, the imperial city of the Mughal rulers. It comprises many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace and the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan; audience halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very beautiful mosques.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Agra Fort</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>281</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252</http_url><id_number>252</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_252.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.1741700000</latitude><location>Uttar Pradesh, Agra District</location><longitude>78.0422200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Taj Mahal, an immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage. It no doubt partially owes its renown to the moving circumstances of its construction. Shah Jahan, in order to perpetuate the memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1631, had this funerary mosque built. The monument, begun in 1632, was finished in 1648; unverified but nonetheless, tenacious, legends attribute its construction to an international team of several thousands of masons, marble workers, mosaicists and decorators working under the orders of the architect of the emperor, Ustad Ahmad Lahori.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated on the right bank of the Yamuna in a vast Mogul garden of some 17&amp;nbsp;ha, this funerary monument, bounded by four isolated minarets, reigns with its octagonal structure capped by a bulbous dome through the criss-cross of open perspectives offered by alleys or basins of water. The rigour of a perfect elevation of astonishing graphic purity is disguised and almost contradicted by the scintillation of a fairy-like decor where the white marble, the main building material, brings out and scintillates the floral arabesques, the decorative bands, and the calligraphic inscriptions which are incrusted in polychromatic pietra dura. The materials were brought in from all over India and central Asia and white Makrana marble from Jodhpur. Precious stones for the inlay came from Baghdad, Punjab, Egypt, Russia, Golconda, China, Afghanistan, Ceylon, Indian Ocean and Persia. The unique Mughal style combines elements and styles of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Darwaza, the majestic main gateway, is a large three-storey red sandstone structure, completed in 1648, with an octagonal central chamber with a vaulted roof and with smaller rooms on each side. The gateway consists of lofty central arch with two-storeyed wings on either side. The walls are inscribed with verses from the Qu'ran in Arabic in black calligraphy. The small domed pavilions on top are Hindu in style and signify royalty. The gate was originally lined with silver, now replaced with copper, and decorated with 1,000 nails whose heads were contemporary silver coins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bageecha, the ornamental gardens through which the paths lead, are planned along classical Mughal &lt;em&gt;char bagh&lt;/em&gt; style. Two marble canals studded with fountains, lined with cypress trees emanating from the central, raised pool cross in the centre of the garden, dividing it into four equal squares. In each square there are 16 flower beds, making a total of 64 with around 400 plants in each bed. The feature to be noted is that the garden is laid out in such a way as to maintain perfect symmetry. The channels, with a perfect reflection of the Taj, used to be stocked with colourful fish and the gardens with beautiful birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Taj Mahal itself, situated in the north end of the garden, stands on two bases, one of sandstone and above it a square platform worked into a black and white chequerboard design and topped by a huge blue-veined white marble terrace, on each corner there are four minarets. On the east and west sides of the tomb are identical red sandstone buildings. On the west is the &lt;em&gt;masjid&lt;/em&gt; (mosque), which sanctifies the area and provides a place of worship. On the other sides is the &lt;em&gt;jawab&lt;/em&gt;, which cannot be used for prayer as it faces away from Mecca. The &lt;em&gt;rauza&lt;/em&gt;, the central structure or the mausoleum on the platform, is square with bevelled corners. Each corner has small domes while in the centre is the main double dome topped by a brass finial. The main chamber inside is octagonal with a high domed ceiling. This chamber contains false tombs of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan, laid to rest in precise duplicates in a. Both tombs are exquisitely inlaid and decorated with precious stones, the finest in Agra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Taj Mahal's pure white marble shimmers silver in the moonlight, glows softly pink at dawn, and at close of day reflects the fiery tints of the setting Sun. From an octagonal tower in the Agra Fort across the River Yamuna, Shah Jahan spent his last days as a prisoner of his son and usurper to the empire, Aurangzeb, gazing at the tomb of his beloved Mumtaz.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Taj Mahal</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>282</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255</http_url><id_number>255</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_255.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.0944400000</latitude><location>Uttar Pradesh, Agra District</location><longitude>77.6641700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Fatehpur Sikri bears exceptional testimony to the Mughal civilization at the end of the 16th century. It offers a unique example of architectural ensembles of very high quality constructed between 1571 and 1585. Its form and layout strongly influenced the evolution of Indian town planning, notably at Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'City of Victory' had only an ephemeral existence as the capital of the Mughal empire. The Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) decided to construct it in 1571, on the same site where the birth of his son, the future Jahangir, was predicted by the wise Shaikh Salim Chisti (1480-1572). The work, supervised by the great Mughal himself, was completed in 1573. In 1585, however, Akbar abandoned Fatehpur Sikri to fight against the Afghan tribes and choose a new capital, Lahore. Fatehpur Sikri was to be the seat of the great Mughal court only once more for three months in 1619, when Jahangir sought refuge there from the plague that devastated Agra. The site was then finally abandoned, until its archaeological exploration in 1892.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This capital without a future, some 40&amp;nbsp;km from Agra was, however, considerably more than the fancy of a sovereign during the 14 years of its existence. The city, which the English traveller Ralph Fitch considered in 1585 as 'considerably larger than London and more populous', comprised a series of palaces, public buildings and mosques, as well as living areas for the court, the army, servants of the king and for an entire population whose history has not been recorded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only one tiny part of the city (where the large buildings are concentrated) has been until now, studied, visited and relatively well preserved. Fatehpur Sikri, constructed on a rocky plateau, south-east of an artificial lake, created for the occasion and today partially dried up, is bounded on three sides by a 6&amp;nbsp;km wall, fortified by towers and pierced by seven gates (the best preserved is the Gate of Agra, the second from the north). This spacious enclosure defines the limits of the new foundation rather than assuring its defence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The majority of the important monuments are found to the north of the road from Gaza to Agra; constructed of red sandstone, they form a homogeneous group, even if the eclecticism of their style is evident and is based on borrowings from Hindu, Persian and Indo-Muslim traditions. Among the numerous palaces, gazebos, pavilions, etc., may be cited in particular:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Diwan-i-Am, the Hall of Public Audience, is encircled by a series of porticos which are broken up by the insertion of the imperial box where Akbar, surrounded by his ministers and officers meted out justice. This box communicates directly with Daulat Khana (Imperial Palace), flanked to the north by Diwan-i-Kas (Hall of Private Audience), called the 'Jewel House', a monument known for its central plan, which comprises an extraordinary capital surmounted by a circular balcony: the 'throne'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other monuments of exceptional quality are the Ranch Mahal, whose elevation of four recessed storeys recalls certain Buddhist temples, the pavilion of Anup Talao, or the Turkish Sultana, the palace of Jodh Bai, the palace of Birbal, the caravanserai and the problematic 'stables'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Owing to the piety of Akbar, many religious and votive monuments were constructed at Fatehpur Sikri. The great mosque (Jama Masjid), one of the most spacious in India (165&amp;nbsp;m by 133&amp;nbsp;m) could accommodate some 10,000 faithful; it was completed in 1571-72 and according to the dedicatory inscription deserves no less respect than Mecca. It incorporates, in the centre of the court, the tomb of Shaikh Salim, an extraordinary Christian masterpiece of sculpted decoration, further embellished under the reign of Jahangir.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the south of the court, the Buland Damaza, completed in 1575, commemorating the victories (the taking of Gujarat in 1572) to which the city, their monumental symbol, owes its existence and its name.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built during the second half of the 16th century by the Emperor Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri (the City of Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only some 10 years. The complex of monuments and temples, all in a uniform architectural style, includes one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fatehpur Sikri</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>285</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established as a national park with effect from 6 November 1982 as per Notification No. 3912/14-3-35-80 of 6 September 1982, the intention having been declared under Notification No. 2130/14-3-35-80 of 18 August 1980. Dang (1961) provides an historical account of the exploration of the Handa Devi Basin. The first recorded attempt to enter the sacred basin was by W. W. Graham in 1883, but he was unable to proceed beyond the gorge of the lower Rishi Ganga. Subsequent attempts by Dr T. G. Longstaff in 1870 and Hugh Ruttledge in 1926, 1927 and 1932 also met with failure. Finally, in 1934, Eric shipton and H. W. Tilman pioneered a route to the 'Inner Sanctuary' by forcing a passage up the gorge of the upper Rishi Ganga. Later, in 1936, Tilman and N. E. Odell made the first ascent of Handa Devi, reputedly the most outstanding mountaineering success of the pre-Second World War era. It was their accounts of this natural sanctuary that first drew attention to the spectacular mountain wilderness (Tilman, 1935; Shipton, 1936), following which the area was established as a game sanctuary on 7 January 1939 (Government Order No. 1493/XIV-28). Commonly referred to as 'Handa Devi Sanctuary', the name was changed to sanjay Gandhi National Park at the time of notification. This met with local opposition and the site was gazetted as Handa Devi National Park. The park was inscribed on the World Heritage List in December 1988. The park constitutes the core zone of a much larger area (200,000ha), extending as far north as the Dhauli Ganga, that has been proposed as a biosphere reserve (Indian National MAB Committee, n.d.).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/335</http_url><id_number>335</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_335.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii): &lt;/em&gt;The Valley of Flowers is an outstandingly beautiful high-altitude Himalayan valley that has been acknowledged as such by renowned mountaineers and botanists in literature for over a century and in Hindu mythology for much longer. Its &amp;lsquo;gentle&amp;rsquo; landscape, breath-takingly beautiful meadows of alpine flowers and ease of access complement the rugged, mountain wilderness for which the inner basin of Nanda Devi National Park is renowned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x): &lt;/em&gt;The Valley of Flowers is internationally important on account of its diverse alpine flora, representative of the West Himalaya biogeographic zone. The rich diversity of species reflects the valley&amp;rsquo;s location within a transition zone between the Zaskar and Great Himalaya ranges to the north and south, respectively, and between the Eastern and Western Himalaya flora. A number of plant species are internationally threatened, several have not been recorded from elsewhere in Uttaranchal and two have not been recorded in Nanda Devi National Park. The diversity of threatened species of medicinal plants is higher than has been recorded in other Indian Himalayan protected areas. The entire Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve lies within the Western Himalayas Endemic Bird Area (EBA). Seven restricted-range bird species are endemic to this part of the EBA.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>30.7166700000</latitude><location>State of Uttaranchal</location><longitude>79.6666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Nanda Devi National Park is one of the most spectacular wilderness areas in the Himalayas. It is dominated by the peak of Nanda Devi, which rises to over 7,800&amp;nbsp;m. No people live in the park, which has remained more or less intact because of its inaccessibility. It is the habitat of several endangered mammals, especially the snow leopard, Himalayan musk deer and bharal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park lies in Chamoli district, within the Garhwal Himalaya. It comprises the catchment area of the Rishi Ganga, an eastern tributary of Dhauli Ganga which flows into the Alaknanda River at Joshimath. The area is a vast glacial basin, divided by a series of parallel, north-south oriented ridges. These rise up to the encircling mountain rim along which are about a dozen peaks, the better known including Dunagiri, Changbang and Nanda Devi East.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nanda Devi West, India's second-highest mountain, lies on a short ridge projecting into the basin and rises up from Nanda Devi East on the eastern rim. Trisul, in the south-west, also lies inside the basin. The upper Rishi Valley, often referred to as the 'Inner Sanctuary', is fed by Changbang, North Rishi and North Nanda Devi glaciers to the north and by South Nanda Devi and South Rishi glaciers to the south of the Nanda Devi massif. There is an impressive gorge cutting through the Devistan-Rishikot ridge below the confluence of the North and South Rishi rivers. The Trisuli and Ramani glaciers are features of the lower Rishi Valley or 'Outer Sanctuary', below which the Rishi Ganga enters the narrow, steep-sided lower gorge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Forests are restricted largely to the Rishi Gorge and are dominated by fir, rhododendron and birch up to about 3,350&amp;nbsp;m. Forming a broad belt between these and the alpine meadows is birch forest, with an understorey of rhododendron. Conditions are drier within the 'Inner Sanctuary', becoming almost xeric up the main Nanda Devi glaciers. Beyond Ramani, the vegetation switches from forest to dry alpine communities, with scrub juniper becoming the dominant cover within the 'Inner Sanctuary'. Juniper gives way altitudinally to grasses, prone mosses and lichens, and on riverine soils to annual herbs and dwarf willow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Woody vegetation extends along the sides of the main glaciers before changing gradually to squat alpines and lichens. Local populations use a total of 97 species, for medicine, as food plants, fodder, fuel, tools, house building and fibres, as well as for religious purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basin is renowned for the abundance of its ungulate populations, notably Himalayan musk deer (listed as 'lower risk' threatened species). Mainland serow and Himalayan tahr are also common. The distribution of goral does not appear to extend to within the basin, although the species does occur in the vicinity of the national park. Large carnivores are common leopard, Himalayan black bear and brown bear, the existence of which has yet to be confirmed. The only primate present is common langur, although rhesus macaque has been sighted outside the park boundaries. Some 83 species are reported from the biosphere reserve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A total of 114 bird species belonging to 30 families was recorded during the 1993 Nanda Devi Scientific and Ecological Expedition, some 67 for the first time. Species abundant during May and June include crested black tit, yellow-bellied fantail flycatcher, orange-flanked bush robin, blue-fronted redstart, Indian tree pipit, vinaceous-breasted pipit, common rosefinch and nutcracker. Species richness was found to be highest in temperate forests, with a significant decline in richness as elevation increased.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Nestled high in West Himalaya, India&amp;rsquo;s Valley of Flowers National Park is renowned for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and outstanding natural beauty. This richly diverse area is also home to rare and endangered animals, including the Asiatic black bear, snow leopard, brown bear and blue sheep. The gentle landscape of the Valley of Flowers National Park complements the rugged mountain wilderness of Nanda Devi National Park. Together they encompass a unique transition zone between the mountain ranges of the Zanskar and Great Himalaya, praised by mountaineers and botanists for over a century and in Hindu mythology for much longer.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks  </site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>382</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Final notification as a national park issued on 11 February 1974, following the first notification in 1969. Originally established as a reserved forest in 1908, a game sanctuary in 1916 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1950. Designated as a World Heritage site in December 1985.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/337</http_url><id_number>337</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_337.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>26.6666666700</latitude><location>State of Assam</location><longitude>93.4166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the heart of Assam, this park is one of the last areas in eastern India undisturbed by a human presence. It is inhabited by the world's largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as many mammals, including tigers, elephants, panthers and bears, and thousands of birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is on the southern bank of the Brahmaputra River at the foot of the Mikir Hills. The park lies in the flood plains of the Brahmaputra. The riverine habitat consists primarily of tall, dense grasslands interspersed with open forests, interconnecting streams and numerous small lakes (&lt;em&gt;bheels&lt;/em&gt; ). Three-quarters or more of the area is submerged annually by the flood waters of the Brahmaputra. Soils are alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are three main types of vegetation: alluvial inundated grasslands, tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical semi-evergreen forests. Grasslands predominate in the west, with tall 'elephant' grasses on the higher ground and short grasses on the lower ground surrounding the &lt;em&gt;bheels&lt;/em&gt; . They have been maintained by annual flooding and burning over thousands of years. Tropical wet evergreen forests, near Kanchanjhuri, Panbari and Tamulipathar blocks, are dominated by trees. Tropical semi-evergreen forests occur near Baguri, Bimali and Haldibari.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains about 15 species of India's threatened mammals. It harbours the world's largest population of Indian rhinoceros and Indian elephant&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other mammals include capped langur, a small population of hoolock gibbon, tiger &lt;em&gt;Panthera tigris&lt;/em&gt; , leopard, sloth bear, Ganges dolphin, otter, wild boar, water buffalo, gaur, sambar, swamp deer, hog deer and Indian muntjac. Elephants and other animals migrate with the advent of the monsoon and head southwards to the Mikir Hills and beyond to avoid the annual flooding of the national park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The numerous water bodies are rich reservoirs of food (including fish) and thousands of migratory birds, representing over 100 species, visit the park seasonally from as far afield as Siberia. There is a grey pelican rookery near Kaziranga Village. Other birds of interest include black-necked stork, lesser adjutant stork, Pallas's fish eagle, grey-headed fish eagle, Bengal florican, swamp partridge, grey peacock-pheasant, great pied hornbill, green imperial pigeon, silver-breasted broadbill and Jerdon's bushchat. The avifauna comprises over 300 species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reptilian fauna include water monitor, Indian python, common cobra and king cobra are present.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the heart of Assam, this park is one of the last areas in eastern India undisturbed by a human presence. It is inhabited by the world's largest population of one-horned rhinoceroses, as well as many mammals, including tigers, elephants, panthers and bears, and thousands of birds.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kaziranga National Park</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>384</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1992-2011</danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Manas (previously also known as North Kamrup) was declared a sanctuary on 1 October 1928, parts of it having been notified as reserved forests in 1907 and 1927. It was established as the core of the Manas Tiger Reserve with effect from April 1973. Designated a World Heritage site in December 1985. Upgrading of the sanctuary to national park status is being considered (Deb Roy, n.d.).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/338</http_url><id_number>338</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_338.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>26.7250000000</latitude><location>State of Assam</location><longitude>91.0305555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Manas takes its name from the Goddess Manasa. The site is noted for its spectacular scenery, with a variety of habitat types that support a diverse fauna, making it the richest of all Indian wildlife areas. The park represents the core of an extensive tiger reserve that protects an important migratory wildlife resource along the West Bengal to Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan borders. Its wetlands are of international importance. It is also the single most important site for the survival of pygmy hog, hispid hare and golden langur.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park, which includes part of Manas Reserve Forest and all of North Kamrup Reserve Forest, constitutes the core of Manas Tiger Reserve located in the forest divisions of Kachugaon, Haltugaon, Western Assam Wildlife and North Kamrup.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lying in the foothills of the Outer Himalaya, the area is low-lying and flat. The Manas River flows through the western portion of the park, where it splits into three separate rivers, and joins the Brahmaputra some 64 km further south. These and other rivers running through the tiger reserve carry an enormous amount of silt and rock debris from the foothills, resulting from the heavy rainfall, fragile nature of the rock and steep-gradients of the catchments. This leads to the formation of alluvial terraces, comprising deep layers of deposited rock and detritus overlain with sand and soil of varying depth, shifting river channels and swamps. The area of the Boki basin, in the west of the park, is sometimes inundated during the monsoon. The three main types of vegetation are: tropical semi-evergreen forests in the northern part of the park; tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (the most common type); and extensive alluvial grasslands in the western part of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is also a considerable variety of aquatic flora along river banks and in the numerous pools. Dry deciduous forests represent early stages in succession and are replaced by moist deciduous forests away from water courses, which, in turn, are succeeded by tropical semi-evergreen climax forest. Grasslands cover about 50% of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A total of 55 mammals, 36 reptiles and three amphibians have been recorded Manas harbours by far the greatest number of India's Schedule I mammals of any protected area in the country. Many are typical of South-East Asian rainforest and have their westernmost distribution here. Mammals include golden langur, a recently discovered endemic restricted to Manas, capped langur, Hoolock gibbon, clouded leopard, tiger (second-largest population in India), leopard, golden cat, fishing cat, leopard cat, marbled cat, binturong, sloth bear, wild dog, Ganges dolphin, Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, pygmy hog, swamp deer, sambar, hog deer, Indian muntjac, water buffalo, gaur, giant squirrel, hispid hare and Indian pangolin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 450 species of bird have been recorded, including the threatened Bengal florican, great pied hornbill, wreathed hornbill and other hornbills. Uncommon waterfowl species include spot-billed pelican, lesser adjutant and greater adjutant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reptiles include a variety of snakes, gharial and monitor lizard. Assam roofed turtle has recently been recorded.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On a gentle slope in the foothills of the Himalayas, where wooded hills give way to alluvial grasslands and tropical forests, the Manas sanctuary is home to a great variety of wildlife, including many endangered species, such as the tiger, pygmy hog, Indian rhinoceros and Indian elephant.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Manas Wildlife Sanctuary</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>385</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established as a national park on 10 March 1982. Previously the private duck shooting preserve of the Maharaja of Bharatpur since the 18S0's, the area was designated as a bird sanctuary on 13 March 19S6 and a Ramsar site in October 1981. The last big shoot was held in 1964 but the Maharajah retained shooting rights until 1972. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1985.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/340</http_url><id_number>340</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_340.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.1588888900</latitude><location>State of Rajasthan, 50 km west of Agra</location><longitude>77.5086111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is situated in eastern Rajasthan, the park is 2&amp;nbsp;km south-east of Bharatpur and 50&amp;nbsp;km west of Agra. The area consists of a flat patchwork of marshes in the Gangetic plain, artificially created in the 1850s and maintained ever since by a system of canals, sluices and dykes. Normally, water is fed into the marshes twice a year from inundations of the Gambira and Banganga rivers, which are impounded on arable land by means of an artificial dam called Ajan Bund, to the south of the park. The first time, usually in mid-July, is soon after the onset of the monsoon and the second time is in late September or October when Ajan Bund is drained ready for cultivation in winter. Thus, the area is flooded to a depth of 1-2&amp;nbsp;m throughout the monsoon (July-September), after which the water level drops. From February onwards the land begins to dry out and by June only some water remains. For much of the year the area of wetland is only 1,000&amp;nbsp;ha. Soils are predominantly alluvial - some clay has formed as a result of the periodic inundations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a semi-arid biotype, the park is the only area with much vegetation, hence the term 'Ghana' meaning 'thicket'. The principal vegetation types are tropical dry deciduous forest, intermixed with dry grassland in areas where forest has been degraded. Apart form the artificially managed marshes, much of the area is covered by medium-sized trees and shrubs. Forests, mostly in the north-east of the park, are dominated by kalam or kadam, jamun and babul. The open woodland is mostly babul with a small amount of kandi and ber. Scrublands are dominated by ber and kair. The aquatic vegetation is rich in species and is a valuable source of food for waterfowl.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Primates are rhesus macaque and langur. Large predators are absent, leopard having been deliberately exterminated by 1964, but small carnivores include Bengal fox, jackal, striped hyena, common palm civet, small Indian civet, Indian grey mongoose &lt;em&gt;Herpestes edwardsi&lt;/em&gt; , fishing cat, leopard cat, jungle cat and smooth-coated otter. Ungulates include blackbuck, chital, sambar, hog deer, nilgai and wild boar and feral cattle. Other mammals include Indian porcupine and Indian hare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An estimated 65&amp;nbsp;million fish fry are carried into the park's water impoundments by river flooding every year during the monsoon season, which provides the food base for large numbers of wading and fish-eating birds. Some 364 species of bird have been recorded in the park, which is considered to be one of the world's finest areas for birds, with a unique assemblage of species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park's location in the Gangetic Plain makes it an unrivalled breeding site for herons, storks and cormorants and an important wintering ground for large numbers of migrant ducks. The most common waterfowl are gadwall, shoveler, common teal, cotton teal, tufted duck, comb duck, little cormorant, great cormorant, Indian shag, ruff, painted stork, white spoonbill, Asian open-billed stork, oriental ibis, darter, common sandpiper, wood sandpiper and green sandpiper. Sarus crane, with its spectacular courtship dance, is also found here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among landbirds is a rich assortment consisting of warblers, babblers, bee-eaters, bulbuls, buntings, chats, partridges and quails. Grey hornbill and Marshall's iora are also present. There are many birds of prey including the osprey, peregrine, Pallas' sea eagle, short-toed eagle, tawny eagle, imperial eagle, spotted eagle and crested serpent eagle. Greater spotted eagle has recently been recorded breeding here, a new breeding record for the species in India and lesser spotted eagle nested in the park in 1986, the first nesting record for the species in India for some time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several other threatened avifauna species occur, including Dalmatian pelican, spot-billed pelican, greater adjutant, lesser adjutant, marbled teal, Baikal teal, Baer's pochard, red kite, cinereous vulture and sociable lapwing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reptiles include water snakes, Indian python, banded krait, green rat snake, turtles and monitor lizard.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This former duck-hunting reserve of the Maharajas is one of the major wintering areas for large numbers of aquatic birds from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, China and Siberia. Some 364 species of birds, including the rare Siberian crane, have been recorded in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Keoladeo National Park</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>387</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Lies south-east of Calcutta in the 24-Paraganas District of West Bengal and forms part of the Gangetic Delta, which borders on the Bay of Bengal. Chamta, Consists of Matla, Goashaba, Chhotahardi, Mayadwip, Gona and Baghmara forest blocks, which are bounded by the Matla/Bidya and Haribhanga/Raimangal rivers to the east and west, respectively. The northern boundary is buffered by Netidhopani and Chandkhali forest blocks. 21&amp;deg;31' -21&amp;deg;53'N, 88&amp;deg;37'-89009'E&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452</http_url><id_number>452</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_452.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>21.9450000000</latitude><location>West Bengal</location><longitude>88.8958333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site lies south-east of Calcutta in the District of West Bengal and forms part of the Gangetic Delta, which borders on the Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans, covering some 10,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of mangrove forest and water, is part of the world's largest delta formed from sediments deposited by three great rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna, which converge on the Bengal Basin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The whole Sundarbans area is intersected by an intricate network of interconnecting waterways, of which the larger channels are often a kilometre or two in width and run in a north-south direction. These waterways now carry little freshwater as they are mostly cut off from the Ganges, the outflow of which has shifted from the Hooghly-Bhagirathi channels progressively eastwards since the 17th century. This is due to subsidence of the Bengal Basin and a gradual eastward tilting of the overlying crust. In the Indian Sundarbans, the western portion receives some freshwater through the Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system but that portion designated as the tiger reserve is essentially land-locked, its rivers having become almost completely cut off from the main freshwater sources over the last 600 years. Thus, waterways in the tiger reserve are maintained largely by the diurnal tidal flow, the average rise and fall being about 2.15&amp;nbsp;m on the coast and up to 5.68&amp;nbsp;m on Sagar Island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The land is constantly being changed, moulded and shaped by the action of the tides, with erosion processes more prominent along estuaries and deposition processes along the banks of inner estuarine waterways influenced by the accelerated discharge of silt from seawater. About half of the Sundarbans is under water and the rest of the landscape is characterized by low-lying alluvial islands and mudbanks, with sandy beaches and dunes along the coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entire mangrove forest extends over an area of 4,262&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , of which 2,320&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is forest and the rest is water, and is called Sundarban owing to the dominance of the tree species &lt;em&gt;Heritiera fomes&lt;/em&gt; , locally known as 'sundari'. This marsh vegetation consists of elements of the Malayan Peninsular and Polynesian regions, together with some Indo-Chinese, Ethiopian and a few of the New World. It is not found elsewhere except in a small part of the Mahanadi and Godaveri deltas to the south-west and the Bay Islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sundarbans is the only remaining habitat in the lower Bengal Basin for a great variety of faunal species. Some of this variety, however, has already been lost owing to the reclamation of the broad transitional belt of habitat for agriculture, combined with the higher salinity resulting partly from the large-scale irrigation schemes in the upper reaches of the Ganges. Species include the Javan rhinoceros and water buffalo, swamp deer and Indian muntjac. Similarly, gharial and narrow-headed softshell turtle became locally extinct within the last 100 years. The tiger population is the largest in India. High population density, relative to the availability of prey, and the relatively high frequency of encounters with local people is probably largely responsible for the notorious man-eating habits of the Sundarbans tiger. The only ungulates are wild boar, main prey species of the tiger, and spotted deer, which is plentiful and often seen in association with rhesus macaque. Aquatic mammals that frequent the tidal waters include the Ganges dolphin, Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin, Irrawaddy dolphin and finless porpoise&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sajnakhali area contains a wealth of waterbirds, noteworthy residents including Asian open-bill stork, black-necked stork, greater adjutant, white ibis, swamp francolin, white-collared kingfisher, black-capped kingfisher and brown-winged kingfisher. This area is important for waders, a rare winter migrant and marsh birds. The Sundarbans provide important habitat for a variety of reptiles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Baghmara Forest Block contains the ruins of a city built by the Chaand Sandagar merchant community in approximately AD 200-300. Much later, during the Moghul Empire, Raja Basand Rai and his nephew took refuge in the Sundarbans from the advancing armies of Emperor Akbar. The buildings they erected subsequently fell to Portuguese pirates, salt smugglers and dacoits in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sundarbans covers 10,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of land and water (more than half of it in India, the rest in Bangladesh) in the Ganges delta. It contains the world's largest area of mangrove forests. A number of rare or endangered species live in the park, including tigers, aquatic mammals, birds and reptiles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sundarbans National Park</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>524</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/524</http_url><id_number>524</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_524.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>23.4794400000</latitude><location>Madhya Pradesh</location><longitude>77.7397200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;From the time that the oldest preserved monument on the site (Asoka's column with its projecting capital of lions inspired by Achaemenid art) was erected, Sanchi's role as intermediary for the spread of cultures and their peripheral arts throughout the Maurya Empire, and later in India of the Sunga, Shatavahana, Kushan and Gupta dynasties, was confirmed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sanchi is the oldest extant Buddhist sanctuary. Although Buddha never visited the site during any of his former lives or during his earthly existence, the religious nature of this shrine is obvious. The chamber of relics of Stupa 1 contained the remains of Shariputra, a disciple of Shakyamuni who died six months before his master; he is especially venerated by the occupants of the 'small vehicle' or Hinayana. Having remained a principal centre of Buddhism in medieval India following the spread of Hinduism, Sanchi bears unique witness as a major Buddhist sanctuary to the period from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When it was discovered in 1818 by General Taylor, Sanchi had lain abandoned for 600 years. The site, 45&amp;nbsp;km from Bhopal, was overrun with vegetation. Excavations began in somewhat disorganized fashion until the Archaeological Survey of India stepped in and took control. Gradually, as the hill was cleared, the ruins of about 50 monuments were uncovered, revealing one of the most remarkable archaeological complexes in India.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It would appear that the site was settled in the 3rd century BC at the time that the Emperor Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, who had defeated the Macedonian invaders and founded the Maurya dynasty, was converted to Buddhism (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 250 BC). Asoka, whose queen was from the neighbouring town of Vidisha, founded, or at least embellished, a Buddhist sanctuary located at Sanchi. He also had a stone column more than 12&amp;nbsp;m high erected with his edicts carved on it. To the south of Asoka's column and predating it is an early brick stupa about 20&amp;nbsp;m in diameter and crowned with stone aedicula; a wooden railing encircles it. Now known as Stupa 1, this monument was enlarged under the Sunga and the Andhra dynasties (2nd and 1st centuries BC) and is the principal monument at Sanchi. It consists of a gigantic mound of sandstone surrounded by sumptuous porticoes with stone railings; its hemispherical dome measures 36.6&amp;nbsp;m in diameter and is 16.46&amp;nbsp;m high. It is particularly famous for the extraordinarily rich decorative work on the four monumental gateways (&lt;em&gt;torana&lt;/em&gt;) that provide access. Positioned almost exactly in line with the four cardinal points, these gateways transpose into stone the structure of the wooden gateways: two pillars and three architraves reproduce the assembly of two posts joined by three rails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lush carvings, prodigious creations in bas relief, high relief and in the round, are an iconographic treasure trove. The essential theme represented in the decorative work revolves around the former lives of Buddha. Numerous other themes were taken from legends and history. The fresh, wonderfully charming representations of plants, animals and humans, the narrative quality of the stories and the creativity apparent in the fantastic sculptured capitals and cornices combine to make this an unrivalled masterpiece of early Buddhist art. Sanchi has two other famous stupas dating from the Sunga period (2nd century BC). The torana of Stupa 3, executed in the 1st century, are exceptional works. Many other structures are found on the site: within the ruins of a wall dating from the 11th-12th centuries, Sanchi's final years are represented by monolithic pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries, all in varying states of preservation. Temples 17 and 45 and monastery 51 are among the most impressive structures.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On a hill overlooking the plain and about 40 km from Bhopal, the site of Sanchi comprises a group of Buddhist monuments (monolithic pillars, palaces, temples and monasteries) all in different states of conservation most of which date back to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India until the 12th century A.D.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>613</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/925</http_url><id_number>925</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_925.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): Bhimbetka reflects a long interaction between people and the landscape, as demonstrated in the quantity and quality of its rock art. Criterion (v): Bhimbetka is closely associated with a hunting and gathering economy as demonstrated in the rock art and in the relicts of this tradition in the local adivasi villages on the periphery of this site.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>22.9277777800</latitude><location>Madhya Pradesh</location><longitude>77.5833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bhimbetka reflects a long interaction between people and the landscape. It is closely associated with a hunting and gathering economy, as demonstrated in the rock art and in the relicts of this tradition in the local adivasi villages on the periphery of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site complex was discovered by V.&amp;nbsp;S. Wakankar in 1957. Almost 100 years earlier, in 1867, rock paintings had been discovered in Uttar Pradesh and the first scientific article on Indian rock paintings was published by J. Cockburn in 1883. Bhimbetka was first mentioned in 1888 as a Buddhist site, from information obtained from local adivasis. Two shelters were excavated in 1971 by Bajpai, Pandey and Gour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The following year a systematic survey of the wider area from Kari Talai to Jaora was undertaken by Wakankar. His classification into seven topographical areas (I-VII), within which clusters of shelters were numbered alphabetically, and individual shelters given Arabic numeral, is still followed. This survey identified 700 shelters of which 243 are in the Bhimbetka group. It also showed the Lakha Juar Group to be is as rich as Bhimbetka in rock paintings, with 178 shelters spread over two hills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;So far excavations have been limited to Bhimbetka. Between 1972 and 1977 excavation undertaken by Wakanakar, Misra and Hass revealed a continuous sequence of Stone Age cultures from the late Acheulian to the late Mesolithic and also some of the world's oldest stone walls and floors. Wakanakar revealed stratified deposits including Chalcolithic pottery, which indicated contact with Chalcolithic man on the neighbouring plains. The excavated material has been examined to establish sequence and typology for stone tools. So far there is no conclusive corroboration between the excavated material and the wall paintings - for which absolute dates have not been established. Nevertheless circumstantial evidence from pigments in deposits and images that indicate pre-agricultural societies, together with similarities with pottery patterns of the Chalcolithic Malwa ware, indicates that the earliest paintings are from the Mesolithic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A broad chronology has been established but more work is needed to establish a detailed chronology. Similarly the nature of the societies associated with the paintings is as yet little known. And as has been mentioned earlier, no ethnographic work has been carried out on the surrounding villages to research links with the culture of the rock shelter sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated Bhimbetka rock shelters site lies within the Vindhyan Hills, an area of massively sculpted sandstone rock formations clustered around Bhimbetka Hill. The area has abundant natural resources - perennial water supplies, natural shelter, rich forest flora and fauna, and these conditions of plenty seem to have been conducive to the development of sustainable and persistent societies and the creation of notable rock art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site includes five clusters of rock shelters, with one large complex in the buffer zone. The rock shelters display persistent traditions of rock painting, spanning periods from the Mesolithic to the Historic. They also display a profusion, richness and variety of mural subjects and, as a collection, form one of the densest known concentrations of rock art. Many of the rock shelters within the area are set within fairly dense forest, which displays a high diversity of flora and fauna, still harvested by the local people. Overall the landscape has a strong appealing aesthetic quality, derived from the beauty of the naturally sculpted rock formations and the contrasting lush, densely wooded vegetation, which together give the place a 'timeless' quality.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are in the foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains on the southern edge of the central Indian plateau. Within massive sandstone outcrops, above comparatively dense forest, are five clusters of natural rock shelters, displaying paintings that appear to date from the Mesolithic Period right through to the historical period. The cultural traditions of the inhabitants of the twenty-one villages adjacent to the site bear a strong resemblance to those represented in the rock paintings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1079</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/945</http_url><id_number>945</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_945.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus of Mumbai (formerly Bombay) exhibits an important interchange of influences from Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival architecture, and from Indian traditional buildings. It became a symbol for Mumbai as a major mercantile port city on the Indian Subcontinent within the British Commonwealth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus is an outstanding example of late 19th century railway architecture in the British Commonwealth, characterized by Victorian Gothic Revival and traditional Indian features, as well as its advanced structural and technical solutions.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>18.9401222222</latitude><location>City of Mumbai, Maharashtra State</location><longitude>72.8362027777</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus is an outstanding example of late 19th-century railway architecture in the British Commonwealth, characterized by Victorian Gothic Revival and traditional Indian features, as well as its advanced structural and technical solutions. It became a symbol for Bombay (now Mumbai) as a major mercantile port city on the Indian subcontinent within the British Commonwealth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site on which this property is situated is associated with the origins of Mumbai as a city. Bombay Island had formed a coastal outpost of the Hindu in western India, but was not used for commerce. It was first passed to the Portuguese and then, in 1661, to the British. In 1667, the island was transferred to the East India Company, who was principally responsible for its commercial development. Merchants settled here from elsewhere, and the shipbuilding industry and the cotton trade prospered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town flourished, especially after the building of railway connections with the inland and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. With the development of trade, the Governor of Bombay planned a series of works aiming at the construction of a more representative city. This involved land reclamation and the construction of a magnificent ensemble of High Victorian public buildings along the seafront. The Victoria Terminus, the most impressive of these buildings, was named after Queen Victoria, Empress of India, on whose Golden Jubilee it was formally opened in 1887. The terminus, now called Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, was designed by the British architect Frederick William Stevens (1848-1900). Work began in 1878 and was completed 10 years later. Originally intended only to house the main station and the administrative offices of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, a number of ancillary buildings have been added subsequently, all designed to harmonize with the main structure. A new station to handle main-line traffic was erected in 1929. The original building is still in use for suburban traffic and is used by over 3&amp;nbsp;million commuters daily. It is also the administrative headquarters of the Central Railway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terminus is one of the first and the best products of use of industrial revolution technology merged with the Gothic Revival style, which was based on late medieval Italian models. This style was acceptable to both European and Indian taste, as it is compatible in its use of colour and ornamentation with the Mughal and Hindu architecture of the subcontinent. The skyline, turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture. The centrally domed office structure has a deep platform connected to a train shed, and its outline provides the skeleton plan for building. The terminus dome of dovetailed ribs, built without centering (framing for an arch), was a novel achievement of the era. The interior of the building was conceived as a series of large rooms with high ceilings. It is a utilitarian building and has had various changes required by the users, not always sympathetic. Its C-shaped plan is symmetrical on an east-west axis. All the sides of the building are given equal value in the design. It is crowned by a high central dome, which acts as the focal point. The dome is an octagonal ribbed structure with a colossal female figure symbolizing Progress, holding a torch pointing upwards in her right hand and a spoked wheel in her left. The side wings enclose the courtyard, which opens on to the street. The wings are anchored by monumental turrets at each of their four corners, which balance and frame the central dome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The facades present the appearance of well-proportioned rows of windows and arches. The ornamentation in the form of statuary, bas-reliefs and friezes is exuberant yet well controlled. The columns of the entrance gates are crowned by figures of a lion (representing Great Britain) and a tiger (representing India). The main structure is built from a judicious blend of India sandstone and limestone, while high-quality Italian marble was used for the key decorative elements. The main interiors are also lavishly decorated: the ground floor of the North Wing, known as the Star Chamber, which is still the booking office, is embellished with Italian marble and polished Indian blue stone. The stone arches are covered with carved foliage and grotesques.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, formerly known as Victoria Terminus Station, in Mumbai, is an outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with themes deriving from Indian traditional architecture. The building, designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, became the symbol of Bombay as the &amp;lsquo;Gothic City&amp;rsquo; and the major international mercantile port of India. The terminal was built over 10 years, starting in 1878, according to a High Victorian Gothic design based on late medieval Italian models. Its remarkable stone dome, turrets, pointed arches and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture. It is an outstanding example of the meeting of two cultures, as British architects worked with Indian craftsmen to include Indian architectural tradition and idioms thus forging a new style unique to Bombay.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus)</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1105</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1056</http_url><id_number>1056</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1056.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (i): The grand 50m high Mahabodhi Temple of the 5th-6th centuries is of immense importance, being one of the earliest temple constructions existing in the Indian sub-continent. It is one of the few representations of the architectural genius of the Indian people in constructing fully developed brick temples in that era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The Mahabodhi Temple, one of the few surviving examples of early brick structures in India, has had significant influence in the development of architecture over the centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The site of the Mahabodhi Temple provides exceptional records for the events associated with the life of Buddha and subsequent worship, particularly since Emperor Asoka built the first temple, the balustrades, and the memorial column.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iv): The present Temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely in brick from the late Gupta period. The sculpted stone balustrades are an outstanding early example of sculptural reliefs in stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (vi): The Mahabodhi Temple Complex in Bodh Gaya has direct association with the life of the Lord Buddha, being the place where He attained the supreme and perfect insight.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>24.6952800000</latitude><location>State of Bihar, Eastern India</location><longitude>84.9938900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mahabodhi Temple, one of the few surviving examples of early brick structures in India, has had significant influence in the development of architecture over the centuries. balustrades, and the memorial column. The present temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely from brick in the late Gupta period. The sculpted stone balustrades are an outstanding early example of sculptural reliefs in stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Temple Complex has direct associations with the life of the Lord Buddha (566-486 BC) as the place where in 531 BC he attained the supreme and perfect insight while seated under the Bodhi Tree. It provides exceptional records for the events associated with his life and for subsequent worship, particularly since Emperor Asoka made a pilgrimage to this spot around 260 BC and built the first temple at the site of the Bodhi Tree. The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is located in the very heart of the city of Bodh Gaya. The site consists of the main temple and six sacred places within an enclosed area, and a seventh one, the Lotus Pond, just outside the enclosure to the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important of the sacred places is the giant Bodhi Tree (&lt;em&gt;Ficus religiosa&lt;/em&gt; ). This tree is to the west of the main temple and is supposed to be a direct descendant of the original Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha spent his First Week and where he had his enlightenment. To the north of the central path, on a raised area, is the Animeshlochan Chaitya (prayer hall) where the Buddha is believed to have spent the Second Week. The Buddha spent the Third Week walking 18 paces back and forth in an area called Ratnachakrama (Jewelled Ambulatory), which lies near the north wall of the main temple. The spot where he spent the Fourth Week is Ratnaghar Chaitya, located to the north-east near the enclosure wall. Immediately after the steps of the east entrance on the central path there is a pillar which marks the site of the Ajapala Nigrodh Tree, under which Buddha meditated during his Fifth Week, answering the queries of Brahmins. He spent the Sixth Week next to the Lotus Pond to the south of the enclosure, and the Seventh Week under the Rajyatana Tree currently marked by a tree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Main Temple is built in the classical style of Indian temple architecture. It has a low basement with mouldings decorated with honeysuckle and geese design. Above this is a series of niches containing images of the Buddha. Further above there are mouldings and &lt;em&gt;chaitya&lt;/em&gt; niches, and then the curvilinear &lt;em&gt;shikhara&lt;/em&gt; or tower of the temple surmounted by &lt;em&gt;amalaka&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;kalasha&lt;/em&gt; (architectural features in the tradition of Indian temples). At the four corners of the parapet of the temple are four statues of the Buddha in small shrine chambers. A small tower is built above each of these shrines. The temple faces east and consists of a small forecourt in the east with niches on either side containing statues of the Buddha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Next to the Bodhi Tree there is a place with a Buddha statue that stands on part of the polished sandstone Vajrasana (Diamond Throne), originally installed by Emperor Asoka to mark the spot where the Buddha sat and meditated. Granite pillars were added to enlarge the area in the 5th-6th centuries BC. Further up the central path towards the main temple to the south is a small shrine with a standing Buddha in the back and with the footprints (&lt;em&gt;Padas&lt;/em&gt; ) of the Buddha carved on black stone, dating from the 3rd century BC, when Emperor Asoka declared Buddhism to be the official religion of the state. Further on the path towards the main temple is a building housing several statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Opposite is a memorial to a Hindu Mahant who had lived on this site during the 15th and 16th centuries. To the south of the pathway is a cluster of votive stupas built by kings, princes, noblemen and lay people.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the Lord Buddha, and particularly to the attainment of Enlightenment. The first temple was built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., and the present temple dates from the 5th or 6th centuries. It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late Gupta period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1231</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1101</http_url><id_number>1101</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1101.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park with its ancient Hindu architecture, temples and special water retaining installations together with its religious, military and agricultural structures, dating back to the regional Capital City built by Mehmud Begda in the 16th century, represents cultures which have disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The structures represent a perfect blend of Hindu-Moslem architecture, mainly in the Great Mosque (Jami Masjid), which was a model for later mosque architecture in India. This special style comes from the significant period of regional sultanates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park is an outstanding example of a very short living Capital, making the best use of its setting, topography and natural features. It is quite vulnerable due to abandonment, forest takeover and modern life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park is a place of worship and continuous pilgrimage for Hindu believers.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>22.4833333300</latitude><location>Gujarat state, district of Panchmahal</location><longitude>73.5333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park with its ancient Hindu architecture, temples and special water-retaining installations, together with its religious, military and agricultural structures, dating back to the regional capital city built by Mehmud Begda in the 16th century, represents a perfect blend of Hindu and Muslim architecture, mainly in the Great Mosque (Jami Masjid), which was a model for later mosque architecture in India. This special style comes from the significant period of regional sultanates. It is furthermore an outstanding example of a very short-lived capital, making the best use of its setting, topography and natural&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sites are at the foot of and around the Pavagadh hill, surrounded by lower hillocks, escarpments and plateaux, all result of volcanic eruptions and lava flows. At the top of the hill is the temple of Kalikameta. The site itself comprises fortifications, water installations and standing structures from the 8th to 14th centuries as well as a deserted city of Mahmud Begharha. It includes also the living village, Champaner, within the area of the historic town. There are two precincts. The first is the Royal Enclosure, fortified by high defensive stone walls, with towers and gates, which formerly housed palaces, gardens, royal mosque and administrative buildings, and is now the site of the modern village and government offices. Most of the precinct is buried and unexcavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A processional way links the royal palace, through the city gate, with the mosque, outside the precinct. The second precinct, called Jahanpanah, is also unexcavated. It was the capital of Begharha, and abandoned in the mid-16th century when conquered by the Mughal Empire. The urban plan has been studied by exposing the main road system, comprising well-built and paved streets, all leading from the surrounding fortifications to the centre of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The whole area is now an excavation site which includes residential areas for the wealthy and more common people, with gardens and water channels being part of the design; shops and commercial areas along some streets; pavilions and public gardens; mosques located in and near residential areas. Next to the mosques there are graveyards and mausolea, temples, located mainly on the Pavagadh hill, belong to different Hindu deities. The temples are richly decorated, mainly with stone carvings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;Patha&lt;/em&gt; (pilgrim's route) is considered to be the 'soul' of Champaner. The city's life and development were always closely linked with the pilgrim's road. It climbs from the plateau to the top of Pavangadh hill, consisting of thousands of steps and all kinds of decorative and functional structures along it. Mosques are some of the most monumental and important architectural elements on site. Some are forerunners of Mughal architecture, mixing Hindu traditions and craftsmanship with Muslim ideology. The structural systems also indicate the earlier Hindu elements and later Muslim 'import' such as large domes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tomb structures are almost all square in plan, with a dome resting on columns. They are highly decorated and often linked to a mosque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Military architecture includes the fortifications by walls and bastions, barracks and camps well built, as well as prisons. Numerous gates lead the pilgrims to the top of Pavagadh hill. Others are openings in defensive structures such as the city wall or palaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The palaces, mostly in a ruinous state, in most cases included gardens and fortifications. Pavilions form an essential characteristic feature of the gardens within palaces and outside them. These are considered to be pleasure pavilions, for which Champaner was renowned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Water installations are integral and important to the culture and design of Champaner. Different kinds of wells are known in the whole area - many of which still in use. During the 15th century the water system was used for pleasure and aesthetic purposes as well as for daily use. Some houses had running water and many of the gardens and pavilions were decorated with water channels.1&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A concentration of largely unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage properties cradled in an impressive landscape which includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites, a hill fortress of an early Hindu capital, and remains of the 16th-century capital of the state of Gujarat. The site also includes, among other vestiges, fortifications, palaces, religious buildings, residential precincts, agricultural structures and water installations, from the 8th to 14th centuries. The Kalikamata Temple on top of Pavagadh Hill is considered to be an important shrine, attracting large numbers of pilgrims throughout the year. The site is the only complete and unchanged Islamic pre-Mughal city.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1279</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/231</http_url><id_number>231</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_231.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.6555555556</latitude><location>New Delhi State, Central District, New Delhi</location><longitude>77.2408333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad &amp;ndash; the new capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor of India, Shah Jahan. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex. The private apartments consist of a row of pavilions connected by a continuous water channel, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise). The Red Fort is considered to represent the zenith of Mughal creativity which, under the Shah Jahan, was brought to a new level of refinement. The planning of the palace is based on Islamic prototypes, but each pavilion reveals architectural elements typical of Mughal building, reflecting a fusion of Persian, Timurid and Hindu traditions The Red Fort&amp;rsquo;s innovative planning and architectural style, including the garden design, strongly influenced later buildings and gardens in Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra and further afield.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Red Fort Complex</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1460</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is intimately linked with the development of Darjeeling as the queen of hill stations and one of the main tea-growing areas in India, in the early 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The densely wooded mountain spur on which Darjeeling now stands was formerly part of the Kingdom of Sikkim. It was adopted by the British East India Company as a rest and recovery station for its soldiers in 1835, when the area was leased from Sikkim and building of the hill station began, linked to the plains by road. The region was annexed by the British Indian Empire in 1858.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Calcutta had been linked by rail in 1878 to Siliguri, in the foothills of the Himalaya. By this time the tea industry had become of great importance for the Darjeeling region, and the existing road transport system was inadequate to cope with the increased traffic. Franklin Prestage, Agent of the Eastern Bengal Railway, submitted a detailed proposal for a steam railway from Siliguri to Darjeeling. This received official approval and construction work began immediately. By 1881 it had been completed in three stages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The privately owned Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (hereafter referred to as the DHR) was purchased by the Government of India in October 1948. Since 1958 it has been managed by the State-owned Northeast Frontier Railway.  Protected by wild, jungle-covered escarpments and located at an elevation of roughly 2000 meters, the Nilgiris hills were isolated until the 19th century with their tribal inhabitants, the Todas. The name of the hills means Blue Mountains in Sanskrit and reflects the perspective of a person looking at them from below. British settlement in the hills began in 1820. By 1830 there was military commandant, and British families from Madras began building summerhouses, especially in Udagamandalam (Ootacamund). By 1870, the Madras government as a whole was moving there for the summer, in imitation of the annual migration of the viceroy's Government from Calcutta to Simla.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of NMR dates back to 1854 when proposals were first made by the British to build a railway up the hills. Work began on the Madras-Coimbatore line (5'6&amp;quot;) in 1853, and the branch to Mettupalaiyam opened in 1873. The problem was how to replace the tedious ascent by bullock-cart or pony to Coonoor. In 1873, the district engineer of the Nilgiris, J.L.L. Morant, proposed building a rack railway, but the first offers were reclined. Sir Guildford Molesworth, the former engineer in chief of the Ceylon Government Railway, acting as consultant to the Government of India, advised a rack and adhesion line on the model of the Abt system built in the Harz Mountains in Germany. In 1882, M. Riggenbach, the Swiss inventor of Rigi rack railway, submitted a proposal for the construction of the railway line. This was accepted, and the Nilgiri Rigi Railway Company Ltd was formed in 1885. The work was inaugurated in 1891, and finally completed in 1908. Subsequently the railway was run by different companies, and was then incorporated into the Southern Railway in 1951. The British began to move into this region of India in around 1820, and the first railway projects were particularly early, in the 1840s. However the broad gauges then used (1.67 m) were basically incompatible with any idea of providing rail transport to the hill regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shimla region took on considerable political importance as the Indian colonial government decided to take up summer residence there, because of the healthier climate linked to the altitude. The question of transport to the Himalayan foothills, the Delhi region and the Ganges plain then became crucial. The possibility of a rail link was mentioned as early as 1847. The opening of the Grand Hindostan and Tibet Route was however the first major advance in this field. It was operational in this region in 1856.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first engineering development work was carried out in 1884-85, to establish a steam traction &amp;quot;adhesion line&amp;quot; with a gradient not exceeding 30/1000 (1/33), using the narrow gauge principle. The project was submitted to the government but was not immediately taken up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Development work was revived by the arrival of the Delhi railway line at Kalka, in 1891. Other shorter layouts and other technical solutions were then considered by the engineers, such as the rack system. Finally a contract was signed between the government and the Ambala-Kalka Railway, for the construction and operation of an adhesion line with a gauge of 2 feet. The final general design project was presented and approved in 1899. It comprised the technical development work, the costing and the rolling stock. The Railway had to meet the cost of construction on its own; only the land was provided by the public authorities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The work was begun, but at the request of the Army, the initial 2 foot gauge was increased to 2 feet 6 inches. The rails were in laminated steel, and were laid on wooden sleepers and ballast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Traffic opened to the public on 9 November 1903. But exceptionally heavy snowfall damaged the track on 26 December of the same year, causing a large number of landslides. Difficult operating conditions were thus added to the high cost of initial establishment, and despite the high fares the Railway experienced serious financial difficulties. Its strategic importance led the government to acquire the line on 1st January 1905.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first steam locomotives were 4-wheeled engines (1900), and these were followed by 6-wheeled (1902) and finally 10-wheeled engines. They were made by Stewart &amp;amp; Co of Glasgow. The locomotive models were derived from those used on the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. This rolling stock remained in service until 1953 with no major modifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The locomotives were then modified by the German company Henschel: increase in water and coal capacities, modification of the grate, modification of the valve gear. The modified steam locomotives began to be scrapped in the 1970s, and the last ones remained in service until 1980. They were replaced by diesel engines from 1952 onwards. One of the steam locomotives initially delivered in 1905 (KC 520) has been restored by KSR, in 2001, in order to re-establish the tradition of steam traction in the mountains, which today has been almost completely forgotten.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The carriages were built by the Railway itself from 1903 onwards. The first were very simple 4-wheeled carriages, light and short (17 feet). In 1910 new carriages were introduced using steel under-frames and bogies, thereby reducing the number of derailments. The KSR initially had 4 travel classes. Furthermore, extremely luxurious saloon cars could be rented. The second car of this type, built in 1912 (RA-2), has been conserved and restored. Subsequent passenger carriages were made lighter and protected against the effects of corrosion by the use of aluminium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1911, petrol-driven Rail Motor Cars were introduced on the line to carry mail. They were made by the Drewery Car Co. Ltd. in London, and were equipped with White &amp;amp; Poppe 17 HP engines. Car no. 12 of this type is preserved in the National Rail Museum, New Delhi. Diesel-electric motor cars were introduced from 1932, with large windows to give panoramic views of the magnificent Himalayan mountain scenery. One of these cars (no. 8) is known as the &amp;quot;Queen of Shivalik&amp;quot;. With this type of car, the total journey time was reduced to 4&amp;frac12; hours, which is still the same today. Generally speaking, the KSR has always attempted to improve its rolling stock, both in terms of technical performance and passenger comfort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944</http_url><id_number>944</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_944.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>11.5102800000</latitude><location></location><longitude>76.9358300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The development of railways in the 19th century had a profound influence on social and economic developments in many parts of the world. The two Mountain Railways of India on the World Heritage List are outstanding examples of the interchange of values on developments in technology, and the impact of innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multicultural region, which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is intimately linked with the development of Darjeeling as the queen of hill stations and one of the main tea-growing areas in India, in the early 19th century. The densely wooded mountain spur on which Darjeeling now stands was formerly part of the Kingdom of Sikkim. It was adopted by the British East India Company as a rest and recovery station for its soldiers in 1835, when the area was leased from Sikkim and building of the hill station began, linked to the plains by road. In 1878 the Eastern Bengal Railway submitted a detailed proposal for a steam railway from Siliguri, already linked with Calcutta to Darjeeling. This received official approval and construction work began immediately, and by 1881 it had been completed. Since 1958 it has been managed by the State-owned Northeast Frontier Railway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The DHR consists of 88.48&amp;nbsp;km of 2&amp;nbsp;ft (0.610&amp;nbsp;m) gauge track that connects New Jalpaiguri with Darjeeling, passing through eleven stations between the two termini. One of these, Ghoom, is the second highest railway station in the world, at an altitude of 2258m. Because it passes through a mountainous region, 73% of the total length of the line consists of curves, the sharpest of which is that between Sukna and Rongtong, where the track passes through 120&amp;deg;. There are six reverses and three loops on the line, the most famous of these being the Batasia Loop between Ghoom and Darjeeling. The steepest gradient is 1 in 18 (in zigzag reverses). The Toy Train, as it is affectionately known, affords breathtaking views of high waterfalls, green valleys that are often hidden by cloud, and at its end the splendid panorama of the snow-capped Kanchenjunga range. There are several distinct sections: the 10&amp;nbsp;km plains section between Siliguri and Sukna (partly urban and partly agricultural), the 11&amp;nbsp;km densely forested section from Sukna to beyond Rongtong, the 38&amp;nbsp;km largely deforested open hill section with its many tea gardens to Kurseong, and finally the 30&amp;nbsp;km alpine section to Darjeeling, dominated by stands of Himalayan pine and tea gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nilgiri Mountain Railway consists of 45.88&amp;nbsp;km of a 1&amp;nbsp;m gauge single-track, partly rack-and-pinion railway that connects Mettupalayiyam to Udagamandalam in Tamil Nadu State. The railway can be divided into three sections:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 7&amp;nbsp;km, from Mettupalaiyam to Kallar (elevation 405&amp;nbsp;m), across the central plain of Tamil Nadu, with its betel-nut palm and other plantations. Maximum speed is 30&amp;nbsp;km/h called the Blue Mountain Express, the name of which was changed recently to the native Nilgiri Express.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rack section of the line, from Kallar to Coonoor (elevation 1,712&amp;nbsp;m). There are 208 curves and 13 tunnels, and 27 viaducts. The Kallar Bridge over the River Bhawani, the Adderley Viaduct and the Burliar Bridge are examples of such composite bridges. Here, the railway climbs through almost uninhabited, tropical jungle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A stretch of 18&amp;nbsp;km runs through a landscape with dominant eucalyptus and acacia forest. The railway continues to climb across the Nilgiris until it reaches the summit, just before the terminus of Udagamandalam at 2,203&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005,2008</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site includes three railways. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was the first, and is still the most outstanding, example of a hill passenger railway. Opened in 1881, its design applies bold and ingenious engineering solutions to the problem of establishing an effective rail link across a mountainous terrain of great beauty. The construction of the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 46-km long metre-gauge single-track railway in Tamil Nadu State was first proposed in 1854, but due to the difficulty of the mountainous location the work only started in 1891 and was completed in 1908. This railway, scaling an elevation of 326 m to 2,203 m, represented the latest technology of the time. The Kalka Shimla Railway, a 96-km long, single track working rail link built in the mid-19th century to provide a service to the highland town of Shimla is emblematic of the technical and material efforts to disenclave mountain populations through the railway. All three railways are still fully operational.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mountain Railways of India</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1540</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1338</http_url><id_number>1338</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1338.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>26.9247222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>75.8250000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jantar Mantar, in Jaipur, is an astronomical observation site built in the early 18th century. It includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments. They are monumental examples in masonry of known instruments but which in many cases have specific characteristics of their own. Designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye, they embody several architectural and instrumental innovations. This is the most significant, most comprehensive, and the best preserved of India's historic observatories. It is an expression of the astronomical skills and cosmological concepts of the court of a scholarly prince at the end of the Mughal period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1677</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342</http_url><id_number>1342</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1342.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>8.5297222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>77.2497222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Older than the Himalaya mountains, the mountain chain of the Western Ghats represents geomorphic features of immense importance with unique biophysical and ecological processes. The site&amp;rsquo;s high montane forest ecosystems influence the Indian monsoon weather pattern. Moderating the tropical climate of the region, the site presents one of the best examples of the monsoon system on the planet. It also has an exceptionally high level of biological diversity and endemism and is recognized as one of the world&amp;rsquo;s eight &amp;lsquo;hottest hotspots&amp;rsquo; of biological diversity. The forests of the site include some of the best representatives of non-equatorial tropical evergreen forests anywhere and are home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Western Ghats</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1921</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1999-2006</danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241</http_url><id_number>241</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_241.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.3144400000</latitude><location>Karnataka, Bellary District</location><longitude>76.4716700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Hampi bears exceptional testimony to the vanished civilization of the kingdom of Vijayanagar, which reached its apogee under the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509-30). It offers an outstanding example of a type of structure that illustrates a significant historical situation: that of the kingdoms of South India which, menaced by the Muslims, were occasionally allied with the Portuguese of Goa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the final capital of the last of the great kingdom of South India, that of the Vijayanagar, Hampi, enriched by the cotton and the spice trade was one of the most beautiful cities of the medieval world. Its palaces and Dravidian temples were much admired by travellers, be they Arab (Abdul Razaak), Portuguese (Domingo Paes) or Italian (Nicol&amp;ograve; dei Conti).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Conquered by the Muslims after the battle of Talikota in 1565, it was plundered over six months and then abandoned. Imposing monumental vestiges, partially disengaged and reclaimed, make of Hampi today one of the most striking ruins of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The temples of Ramachandra (1513) and Hazara Rama (1520), with their sophisticated structure, where each supporting element is scanned by bundles of pilasters or colonnettes which project from the richly sculpted walls, may be counted among the most extraordinary constructions of India. In one of the interior courtyards of the temple of Vitthala, a small monument of a chariot which two elephants, sculpted in the round, struggle to drag along is one of the unusual creations, the favourite of tourists today as well as travellers of the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Besides the temples, the impressive complex of civil, princely or public buildings (elephant stables, Queen's Bath, Lotus Mahal, bazaars, markets) are enclosed in the massive fortifications which, however, were unable to repulse the assault of the five sultans of Deccan in 1565.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built Dravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Group of Monuments at Hampi</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1932</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/247</http_url><id_number>247</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_247.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.8833333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>74.6461111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The serial site, situated in the state of Rajastahan, includes six majestic forts in Chittorgarh; Kumbhalgarh; Sawai Madhopur; Jhalawar; Jaipur, and Jaisalmer. The ecclectic architecture of the forts, some up to 20 kilometres in circumference, bears testimony to the power of the Rajput princely states that flourished in the region from the 8th to the 18th centuries. Enclosed within defensive walls are major urban centres, palaces, trading centres and other buildings including temples that often predate the fortifications within which developed an elaborate courtly culture that supported learning, music and the arts. Some of the urban centres enclosed in the fortifications have survived, as have many of the site's temples and other sacred buildings. The forts use the natural defenses offered by the landscape: hills, deserts, rivers, and dense forests. They also feature extensive water harvesting structures, largely still in use today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</short_description><site>Hill Forts of Rajasthan</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1947</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/922</http_url><id_number>922</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_922.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>23.8588888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>72.1016666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Rani-ki-Vav, on the banks of the Saraswati River, was initially built as a memorial to a king in the 11th century AD. Stepwells are a distinctive form of subterranean water resource and storage systems on the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed since the 3rd millennium BC. They evolved over time from what was basically a pit in sandy soil towards elaborate multi-storey works of art and architecture. Rani-ki-Vav was built at the height of craftsmens&amp;rsquo; ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-Gurjara architectural style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and great beauty of detail and proportions. Designed as an inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water, it is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels of high artistic quality; more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular imagery, often referencing literary works. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a rectangular tank 9.5&amp;nbsp;m by 9.4&amp;nbsp;m, at a depth of 23&amp;nbsp;m. The well is located at the westernmost end of the property and consists of a shaft 10&amp;nbsp;m in diameter and 30&amp;nbsp;m deep.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2008</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1406</http_url><id_number>1406</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1406.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.8333333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>77.5833333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This National Park in the western part of the Himalayan Mountains in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh is characterized by high alpine peaks, alpine meadows and riverine forests. The 90,540&amp;nbsp;ha property includes the upper mountain glacial and snow meltwater sources of several rivers, and the catchments of water supplies that are vital to millions of downstream users. The GHNPCA protects the monsoon-affected forests and alpine meadows of the Himalayan front ranges. It is part of the Himalaya biodiversity hotspot and includes twenty-five forest types along with a rich assemblage of fauna species, several of which are threatened. This gives the site outstanding significance for biodiversity conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2011</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480</http_url><id_number>1480</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1480.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.9298055556</latitude><location></location><longitude>72.8300833333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Having become a global trading centre, the city of Mumbai implemented an ambitious urban planning project in the second half of the 19th century. It led to the construction of ensembles of public buildings bordering the Oval Maidan open space, first in the Victorian Neo-Gothic style and then, in the early 20th century, in the Art Deco idiom. The Victorian ensemble includes Indian elements suited to the climate, including balconies and verandas. The Art Deco edifices, with their cinemas and residential buildings, blend Indian design with Art Deco imagery, creating a unique style that has been described as&lt;em&gt; Indo-Deco&lt;/em&gt;. These two ensembles bear testimony to the phases of modernization that Mumbai has undergone in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2041</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502</http_url><id_number>1502</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1502.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.1366666667</latitude><location> </location><longitude>85.4438888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Nalanda Mahavihara site is in the State of Bihar, in north-eastern India. It comprises the archaeological remains of a monastic and scholastic institution dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. It includes &lt;em&gt;stupas&lt;/em&gt;, shrines, &lt;em&gt;viharas&lt;/em&gt; (residential and educational buildings) and important art works in stucco, stone and metal. Nalanda stands out as the most ancient university of the Indian Subcontinent. It engaged in the organized transmission of knowledge over an uninterrupted period of 800 years. The historical development of the site testifies to the development of Buddhism into a religion and the flourishing of monastic and educational traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2089</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513</http_url><id_number>1513</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1513.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.7647222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>88.3772222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located at the heart of the Himalayan range in northern India (State of Sikkim), the Khangchendzonga National Park includes a unique diversity of plains, valleys, lakes, glaciers and spectacular, snow-capped mountains covered with ancient forests, including the world’s third highest peak, Mount Khangchendzonga. Mythological stories are associated with this mountain and with a great number of natural elements (caves, rivers, lakes, etc.) that are the object of worship by the indigenous people of Sikkim. The sacred meanings of these stories and practices have been integrated with Buddhist beliefs and constitute the basis for Sikkimese identity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Khangchendzonga National Park</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2105</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1551</http_url><id_number>1551</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1551.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>23.0263888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>72.5880555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The walled city of Ahmadabad, founded by Sultan Ahmad Shah in the 15th century, on the eastern bank of the Sabarmati river, presents a rich architectural heritage from the sultanate period, notably the Bhadra citadel, the walls and gates of the Fort city and numerous mosques and tombs as well as important Hindu and Jain temples of later periods. The urban fabric is made up of densely-packed traditional houses (&lt;em&gt;pols&lt;/em&gt;) in gated traditional streets (&lt;em&gt;puras&lt;/em&gt;) with characteristic features such as bird feeders, public wells and religious institutions. The city continued to flourish as the capital of the State of Gujarat for six centuries, up to the present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Ahmadabad</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2144</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232</http_url><id_number>232</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_232.jpg</image_url><iso_code>in</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the site on the World Heritage List under criteria (ii) and (iv).&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>28.5933300000</latitude><location>Delhi</location><longitude>77.2505600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Exemplifying the formative stage of the Mughal structural style, Humayun's Tomb stands as a landmark in the development of Mughal architecture, and also represents the earliest extant specimen of the Mughal scheme of the garden tomb, with causeways and channels. It is a well-developed specimen of the double-domed elevation with kiosks on a grand scale. This building tradition culminated in the Taj Mahal, constructed a century later. Despite being the first standardized example of this style, Humayun's Tomb is an architectural achievement of the highest order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb of Humayun, second Mughal Emperor of India, was built by his widow, Biga Begum (Hajji Begum), in 1569-70, 14 years after his death, at a cost of 1.5&amp;nbsp;million rupees. The architect was Mirak Mirza Ghiyath. It was later used for the burial of various members of the ruling family and contains some 150 graves. It has aptly been described as the necropolis of the Mughal dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb itself is in the centre of a large garden, laid out in &lt;em&gt;char baah&lt;/em&gt; (four-fold) style, with pools joined by channels. The main entrance is on the south side, and there is another entrance on the west side. A pavilion and a bath are located in the centre of the eastern and northern walls respectively. The mausoleum itself is on a high, wide, terraced platform with small arched cells along the sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In plan it is an irregular octagon with four long and four short sides. It is surmounted by a 42.5&amp;nbsp;m high double dome clad with marble flanked by decorative pillared kiosks (&lt;em&gt;chhatris&lt;/em&gt;). The middle of each side is deeply recessed by large arched vaults with a series of smaller ones set into the face. The interior is a large octagonal chamber with vaulted roof compartments interconnected by galleries or corridors. This octagonal plan is repeated on the second storey. The structure is of dressed stone clad in red sandstone with white and black in laid marble borders. Within the enceinte to the south-east of Humayun's Tomb there is a fine square tomb of 1590-91, known as the Barber's Tomb.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb and its surrounding structures are substantially in their original state, and interventions in the present century have been minimal and of high quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The importance of Humayun's Tomb in the evolution of Mughal architecture is great. It is the first of a long series of dynastic tombs and innovative in a number of ways, notably by virtue of the fact that it introduced the garden tomb to the subcontinent. Humayun had travelled widely in the Islamic world, notably in Persia and central Asia, and brought back with him ideas that were applied by the architect of his tomb, under the direction of his widow, in this tomb. The tomb has been respected throughout its history and so has retained its original form and purpose intact. Subsequent interventions have been aimed at preserving this character.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This tomb, built in 1570, is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent. It inspired several major architectural innovations, culminating in the construction of the Taj Mahal.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Humayun's Tomb, Delhi</site><states>India</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2182</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592</http_url><id_number>592</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_592.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-7.6077800000</latitude><location>Regency of Magelang, Province of Central Java</location><longitude>110.2036100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Borobudur is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Founded by a king of the Saliendra dynasty, it was built to honour the glory of both the Buddha and its founder, a true king Bodhisattva. The name Borobudur is believed to have been derived from the Sanskrit words &lt;em&gt;vihara Buddha uhr&lt;/em&gt;, meaning the Buddhist monastery on the hill. Borobudur temple is located in Muntilan, Magelang, and is about 42&amp;nbsp;km from Yogyakarta city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This colossal temple was built between AD 750 and 842: 300 years before Cambodia's Angkor Wat, 400 years before work had begun on the great European cathedrals. Little is known about its early history except that a huge army of workers worked in the tropical heat to shift and carve the 60,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of stone. At the beginning of the 11th century AD, because of the political situation in Central Java, divine monuments in that area, including the Borobudur Temple became completely neglected and given over to decay. The Sanctuary was exposed to volcanic eruption and other ravages of nature. The temple was not rediscovered until the 19th century. A first restoration campaign, supervised by Theodor van Erp, was undertaken shortly after the turn of the century. A second one was led more recently (1973-82).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A harmonious marriage of stupas, temple-mountain and the ritual diagram, this temple complex was built on several levels around a hill which forms a natural centre. The first level above the base comprises five square terraces, graduated in size and forming the base of a pyramid. Above this level are three concentric circular platforms crowned by the main stupa. Stairways provide access to this monumental stupa. The base and the balustrades enclosing the square terraces are decorated in reliefs sculpted in the stone. They illustrate the different phases of the soul's progression towards redemption and episodes from the life of Buddha. The circular terraces are decorated with no fewer than 72 openwork stupas each containing a statue of Buddha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Stylistically the art of Borobudur is a tributary of Indian influences (Gupta and post-Gupta styles). The walls of Borobudur are sculptured in bas-reliefs, extending over a total length of 6&amp;nbsp;km. It has been hailed as the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world, unsurpassed in artistic merit, each scene an individual masterpiece. The narratives reliefs on the main walls read from the right to left, those on the balustrade from left to right. This was done for the purpose of the Pradaksina, the ritual circumambulation which the pilgrims make moving on the clockwise and keeping the sanctuary to the right.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Karmawibangga reliefs on the hidden foot are devoted to the law of karma. The Lalitavistara series do not provide a complete biography of the Buddha, from the Hushita heaven and end his sermon in the Deer Park near the Benares. &lt;em&gt;Jataka&lt;/em&gt; are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Sidharta. Awadana are similar to Jataka, but the main figure is not the Boddhisatva, and the saintly deeds are attributed to other legendary persons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The stories are compiled in the &lt;em&gt;Dvijavadana&lt;/em&gt; (Glorious Heavenly Acts) and the &lt;em&gt;Awadana Sataka&lt;/em&gt; (Hundred Awadanas). The first twenty panels in the lower series of the first gallery depict, the Sudhanakumaravadana. The series of reliefs covering the wall of the second gallery is devoted to Sudhana's tireless wanderings in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. The story is continued on the wall and balustrade of the third and fourth galleries. Its depiction in most of the 460 panels is based on the holy Nahayana text &lt;em&gt;Gandavyuha&lt;/em&gt;, the concluding scenes being derived from another text, the &lt;em&gt;Badracari&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This famous Buddhist temple, dating from the 8th and 9th centuries, is located in central Java. It was built in three tiers: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The monument was restored with UNESCO's help in the 1970s.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Borobudur Temple Compounds</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>700</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/593</http_url><id_number>593</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_593.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated site under cultural criteria (iii) and (vi) as one of the key sites for the understanding of human evolution that admirably illustrates the development of Homo sapiens sapiens from the Lower Pleistocene to the present through the outstanding fossil and artefactual material that it has produced.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-7.4000000000</latitude><location>Province of Central Java</location><longitude>110.8166667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sangiran is one of the key sites for the understanding of human evolution. It illustrates the development of &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt; from the Lower Pleistocene to the present through the outstanding fossil and artefactual material that it has produced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Sangiran is situated 15&amp;nbsp;km east of Solo. The geological stratigraphy of the Sangiran area covers 2&amp;nbsp;million years, from the late Pliocene to the recent periods. The Lower and Middle Pleistocene Ievels have produced considerable fossil and artefactual material. Fifty early human fossils (&lt;em&gt;Pithecanthropus erectus/Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; ) have been found, representing 50% of all the known hominid fossils in the world, together with numerous animal and floral fossils such as rhinoceros, elephant ivory, buffalo horn, deer horn and many others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palaeolithic stone tools (Sangiran flakes) found at Ngebung include flakes, choppers and cleavers in chalcedony and jasper and, more recently, bone tools. The site has also produced Neolithic axes. This evidence indicates that hominids have inhabited the area for at Ieast 1.5&amp;nbsp;million years. The Palaeolithic tools can be dated to around 800,000 BP, and the sequence of cultural material from this period through to the Neolithic illustrates continuous evolution of man in relation to the ecosystem over a long period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The geology of the Sangiran Early Man Site is sedimentary in origin, beginning with the late Pliocene. It was deformed into a domed anticline by diaper intrusion. The summit was subsequently eroded by river action, turning it into a recessed, reversed dome. Early hominid fossils occur in successive formations, starting with the Pucangang (0.5-1.5&amp;nbsp;million years BP), but more particularly in the Kabuh (0.25-0.5&amp;nbsp;million years BP) and Notopuro (11,000-250,000 years BP). Nowadays, it is an unfertile hill and the region is now entirely devoted to peasant agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ever since von Koenigswald found flake tools in the Ngebung village in 1934, the site has made an immense contribution to the study of evolution over the past million years by illustrating the evolution of &lt;em&gt;Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; . &lt;em&gt;Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; is important to the study of the early history of mankind before the emergence of the modern &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt; . Fossils of &lt;em&gt;Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; have been found from time to time in a site covering 8&amp;nbsp;km by 7&amp;nbsp;km since 1936 to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not only has the Sangiran site contributed to the understanding of the family tree of mankind, it has also thrown much light the evolution of culture, of animals, and of the ancient environment. Large quantities of human and animal fossils, along with Palaeolithic tools, have been found on the Sangiran site in a geological-stratigraphical series that has been laid down continuously for more than 2&amp;nbsp;million years.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Excavations here from 1936 to 1941 led to the discovery of the first hominid fossil at this site. Later, 50 fossils of &lt;em&gt;Meganthropus palaeo&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Pithecanthropus erectus/Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; were found &amp;ndash; half of all the world's known hominid fossils. Inhabited for the past one and a half million years, Sangiran is one of the key sites for the understanding of human evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sangiran Early Man Site</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>701</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Pulau Panaitan/Pulau Peucang Nature Reserve was established in 1937 under Decree No. GB/17/Stb1/420, Ujung Kulon Nature Reserve in 1958 under Decree No. 48/kpts/Um/4/58 and Gunung Honje Nature Reserve established in 1967. The complex was declared a national park in 1980. Krakatau was notified as a nature reserve in 1921 and incorporated within the national park in 1983.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/608</http_url><id_number>608</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_608.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-6.7500000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Banten (formerly West Java) and Lampung</location><longitude>105.3333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Ujung Kulon National Park lies on the extreme south-western tip of Java within the administrative province of Java Barat (West Java) and the Kebupaten of Pandeglang.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ujung Kulon is a triangular peninsula protruding from the south-west extremity of mainland Java, to which it is joined by a low isthmus some 1-2&amp;nbsp;km wide. The topography is dominated in the south-west by the three north-south aligned ridges of the Gunung Payung massif, with the peaks of Gunung Payung, Gunung Guhabendang and Gunung Cikuja forming the highest points on the peninsula. To the north-east, the relief attenuates to the low rolling hills and plains of the Telanca Plateau, and ultimately to the low-lying swamps in the region of the isthmus. To the east, the Gunung Honje massif forms the mainland component of the park. Coastal formations include a number of raised coral islands and their associated fringing reefs which lie off the northern coast of the peninsula, the largest of these being Pulau Handeuleum. To the south, the coastline is characterized by sand dune formations, areas of raised coral reef, and further west a long stretch of undermined and shattered sandstone slabs. Extensive coral reefs and spectacular volcanic formations occur along the exposed and broken west coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Geologically, Ujung Kulon, Gunung Honje and Pulau Panaitan are part of a young Tertiary mountain system, which overlies the pre-Tertiary strata of the Sunda Shelf. Lying on the edge of the tectonically active Sunda Shelf, Krakatau Nature Reserve comprises the central island of Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatau), and the peripheral islands of Rakata, Payang and Sertung with their surrounding coral reefs. These peripheral islands form the remnants of a single volcano ('Ancient Krakatau') which exploded and collapsed some 1,500 years ago leaving three remnant cones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation has been subject to a number of anthropogenic and natural modifications, of which the most notable is the Krakatau eruption of 1883. As a result, primary lowland rainforest, the natural vegetation cover, now occupies only 50% of the total area, being largely confined to the Gunung Payung and Honje massifs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A tall closed canopy forest occurs on Gunung Payung, on Pulau Peucang; vegetation of the Telanca Plateau and central lowlands is a more open secondary forest. Occurring along the northern promontory of Ujung Kulon near Tanjung, alang-alang is a seasonally inundated freshwater swamp forest. Mangrove forest occurs in a broad belt along the northern side of the isthmus, extending northwards as far as the Cikalong River, as well as to the north of Pulau Handeuleum and on the north-east coast of Pulau Panaitan. Beach forest occurs on nutrient-poor sandy ridges on the north and north-west coasts of Ujung Kulon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ujung Kulon is the last remaining viable natural refuge for Javan rhinoceros; Javan tiger was locally extirpated about 40 years ago. Other notable mammals include carnivores, such as leopard, wild dog (dhole), leopard cat, fishing cat, Javan mongoose and several civets. Of the primates, the endemic species Javan gibbon and Javan leaf monkey occur locally along with the endemic silvered leaf monkey, while crab-eating macaque is found throughout the park. Several ungulates range within the park, of which the largest and most abundant is banteng. A rich avifauna is present with over 270 species recorded. Terrestrial reptiles and amphibians include two species of python, as well as two crocodiles and numerous frogs and toads. Green turtle is known to nest within the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rich coral reefs of the Ujung Kulon coast are dominated by a small number of species that make up some 90% of the coral mass; the marine areas of Ujung Kulon support some of the richest fish fauna in the archipelago, with both deep water and reef species well represented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pulau Panaitan has a Ganesha statue on the summit of Mount Raksa, an early Hindu archaeological relic from the 1st century AD, and the island is thought to have been an important staging post for sailing ships passing through the Sunda Straits. Captain James Cook is known to have anchored HMS &lt;em&gt;Endeavour&lt;/em&gt; on the south-eastern side of Panaitan Island from 6-16&amp;nbsp;January 1771.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This national park, located in the extreme south-western tip of Java on the Sunda shelf, includes the Ujung Kulon peninsula and several offshore islands and encompasses the natural reserve of Krakatoa. In addition to its natural beauty and geological interest &amp;ndash; particularly for the study of inland volcanoes &amp;ndash; it contains the largest remaining area of lowland rainforests in the Java plain. Several species of endangered plants and animals can be found there, the Javan rhinoceros being the most seriously under threat.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ujung Kulon National Park</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>722</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The islands of Komodo, Padar, Rinca and Gili Motong and the surrounding waters were declared a 75,OOOha national park on 6 March 1980 (MOF, 1990). This was extended to 219,322ha in 1984 under Ministerial Decree 46/kpts/VI-Sek/1984 to include an expanded marine area and a section of mainland Flores. The island of Padar and part of Rinca were first protected in 1938 when they were established as nature reserves (Auffenburg, 1981) and extended in 1965 when Komodo Island was gazetted under Ministerial Decree No. 66. Komodo was accepted as a biosphere reserve under the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme in January 1977.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/609</http_url><id_number>609</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_609.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-8.5433300000</latitude><location>East Nusa Tenggara Province</location><longitude>119.4894400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The generally steep and rugged topography reflects the position of the national park within the active volcanic 'shatter belt' between Australia and the Sunda shelf. Komodo, the largest island, has a topography dominated by a range of rounded hills oriented along a north-south axis at an elevation of 500-600&amp;nbsp;m. Relief is steepest towards the north-east, notably the peak of Gunung Toda Klea which is precipitous and crowned by deep, rocky and dry gullies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coastline is irregular and characterized by numerous bays, beaches and inlets separated by headlands, often with sheer cliffs falling vertically into the sea. To the east, Padar is a small, narrow island the topography of which rises steeply from the surrounding plains to between 200&amp;nbsp;m and 300&amp;nbsp;m. Further east, the second largest island in the park, Rinca, is separated from Flores by a narrow strait a few kilometres wide. As with Komodo and Padar, the coastline is generally rugged and rocky although sandy beaches are found in sheltered bays. The mainland components of the park lie in the rugged coastal areas of western Flores, where surface fresh water is more abundant than on the islands of Komodo, Rinca and Padar. The seas around the islands are reported to be among the most productive in the world due to upwelling and a high degree of oxygenation resulting from strong tidal currents which flow through the Sape Straits. Fringing and patch coral reefs are extensive and best developed in the west- and north-facing areas, the most intact being on the north-east coast of Komodo and the south-west coast of Rinca and Padar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The predominant vegetation type is open grass-woodland savannah, mainly of anthropogenic origin, which covers some 70% of the park. The dominant savannah tree is lontar palm, which occurs individually or in scattered stands. Tropical deciduous (monsoon) forest occurs along the bases of hills and on valley bottoms. The forest is notable, lacking the predominance of Australian derived tree flora found further to the east on Timor. A quasi cloud forest occurs above 500m on pinnacles and ridges. Although covering only small areas on Komodo Island, it harbours a relict flora of many endemic species. Floristically, it is characterized by moss-covered rocks, rattan, bamboo groves and many tree species generally absent at lower elevations. Coastal vegetation includes mangrove forest, which occurs in sheltered bays on Komodo, Padar and Rinca.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is best known for the Komodo monitor, the world's largest living lizard. The population is distributed across the islands of Komodo, Rinca and Gili Motong, and in certain coastal regions of western and northern Flores. Favoured habitat is tropical deciduous forest and, to a lesser extent, open savannah. The mammalian fauna is characteristic of the Wallacean zoogeographical zone, with seven terrestrial species recorded including the endemic rat. Other mammals include primates such as crab-eating macaque. Introduced species, such as rusa deer and wild boar, as well as feral domestic animals including horses and water buffalo, form important prey species for the Komodo monitor. Some 72 species of bird have been recorded, including yellow-crested cockatoo, noisy friar bird and common scrubhen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Upwelling of nutrient-rich water from deeper areas of the archipelago is responsible for the rich reef ecosystem of which only isolated patches remain due to anthropogenic disturbance. In areas of strong currents, the reef substrate consists of an avalanche of coral fragments, with only encrusting or low branching species. Reefs off the north-east of Komodo have high species diversity. The reefs off Gili Lawa Laut are variable. Notable marine mammals include blue whale and sperm whale, which are occasionally observed, as well as 10 species of dolphin and dugong. Marine reptiles include five species of turtle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is thought that the islands have long been settled due to their strategic importance and the existence of sheltered anchorages and supplies of fresh water on Komodo and Rinca. The evidence of early settlement is further supported by the recent discovery of Neolithic graves, artefacts and megaliths on Komodo Island.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These volcanic islands are inhabited by a population of around 5,700 giant lizards, whose appearance and aggressive behaviour have led to them being called 'Komodo dragons'. They exist nowhere else in the world and are of great interest to scientists studying the theory of evolution. The rugged hillsides of dry savannah and pockets of thorny green vegetation contrast starkly with the brilliant white sandy beaches and the blue waters surging over coral.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Komodo National Park</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>723</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/642</http_url><id_number>642</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_642.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-7.7522200000</latitude><location>Province of Central Java</location><longitude>110.4916700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Prambanan, named after the village, is the biggest temple complex in Java. It is actually a huge Hindu temple complex about 15 km north-east of Yogyakarta. Dedicated to the three great Hindu divinities, this temple with its decorated reliefs is an outstanding example of Siva art in Indonesia and the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was built in the 9th century and designed as three concentric squares. In all there are 224 temples in the entire complex. The inner square contains 16 temples, the most significant being the 47 m high central Siva temple flanked to the north by the Brahma temple and to the south by the Vishnu temple. These three ancient masterpieces of Hindu architecture are locally referred to as the Prambanan Temple or Lorojonggrang Temple (Slender Maiden); the compound was deserted soon after it was completed, possibly owing to the eruption of nearby Mount Merapi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A square platform is divided into concentric courts by square-plane walls. In the middle of the last enceinte stand the temples dedicated to the three great Hindu gods and three small temples dedicated to their animal vehicles (Bull for Siva, Eagle for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance gates or outside the central enceinte (four ensembles).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Siva temple had four statues: located in the centre chamber is the Siva statue; in the north chamber stands the Dewi Durga Mahisasuramardhini statue; in the west chamber stands the Ganesya statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya. Inside the Brahma temple there is Brahma statue, and in the Vishnu temple there is the Vishnu statue. In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of Kresnayana, while the Brahma temple houses the continuous story of the Ramayana. The temples of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama, written around 300).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The neighbouring Buddhist ensemble at Sewu comprises a central temple surrounded by a multitude of minor temples. Surprisingly, it shares many design attributes with the Hindu Loro Joggrang Temple, perhaps indicating the degree to which such temples also reflect state policies and control. Three other temples in ruins set between Sewu and Loro Joggrang complete the ensemble around Prambanan: Lumbuna, Burah and Asu.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound dedicated to Shiva in Indonesia. Rising above the centre of the last of these concentric squares are three temples decorated with reliefs illustrating the epic of the &lt;em&gt;Ramayana&lt;/em&gt;, dedicated to the three great Hindu divinities (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals who serve them.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Prambanan Temple Compounds</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>762</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/955</http_url><id_number>955</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_955.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The site is the largest protected area in Southeast Asia (2.35 mil. ha.) and the only protected area in the world which incorporates a continuous, intact transect from snow cap to tropical marine environment, including extensive lowland wetlands. Located at the meeting point of two colliding continental plates, the area has a complex geology with on-going mountain formation as well as major sculpting by glaciation and shoreline accretion which has formed much of the lowland areas. These processes have led to a high level of endemism and the area supports the highest level of biodiversity in the region. The area also contains fossil sites that record the evolution of life on New Guinea.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-4.7500000000</latitude><location>Province of Papua (formerly Irian Jaya)</location><longitude>137.8333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park stretches for over 150&amp;nbsp;km, from Irian Jaya's central cordillera mountains in the north to the Arafura Sea in the south. The park can be divided into two very distinct zones: the swampy lowlands and the high mountain area of the central cordillera. The central cordillera itself can be subdivided in the eastern part and the western part on the basis of geology and vegetation types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The central mountain ranges are the southern portion of two colliding continental plates, which are causing the mountain range to rise. The lowering and rising of the sea level during the glacial and interglacial periods of the Pleistocene epoch, along with continuous activity in the mobile belt which characterizes the contact zone of the two colliding lithospheric plates, has continued to promote the great biodiversity of the island of New Guinea in general, and in the Lorentz area in particular. Large tracts of the mountain range and especially the area formed by the traditional lands of the Amungme (or Amung) are rich in mineral deposits, especially gold and copper. The Carstenz/Puncak Jaya section of the Jayawijaya mountain range still retains small ice caps. It is one of only three equatorial of sufficiently high altitude to retain permanent ice. The main snowfields comprise five separate areas of ice on the outer margins of Mount Puncak Jaya. These include two small fields which feed the Meren and Carstenz glaciers and a small hanging glacier on the Carstenz Pyramid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Based on physiographic types, five altitudinal vegetation zones have been identified within Lorentz National Park: lowland zone, montane zone, subalpine zone, alpine zone and nival zone; some of the zones are further divided into subzones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lowland zone comprises the beach subzone covered by vegetation ranging from pioneer herbaceous communities on the first beach ridge to tall mixed forest inland. The tidal swamp subzone comprises one land system, the Kajapah, consisting of intertidal swamps of mangrove and nipah palm. The montane altitudinal zone comprises the Kemum land system, steep-sided deeply dissected mountain ridges. This altitudinal zone is subdivided into lower montane subzone, mid-montane subzone and upper montane subzone. The subalpine zone occurs from 3,200&amp;nbsp;m to 4,170&amp;nbsp;m. All alpine zones are located above 4,170&amp;nbsp;m and consist of alpine peaks with bare rocks and residual ice caps. The lower subalpine forest is floristically poor. The alpine zone lies between 4,170&amp;nbsp;m and 4,585&amp;nbsp;m. The alpine vegetation includes all communities growing above the tall shrub limits. These are grassland, heath and tundra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the highlands of Lorentz National Park, six species are endemic to the Snow Mountains; 26 species are endemic to the central Papuan ranges Endemic Bird Area while three species are endemic to the south Papuan lowlands EBA. Globally threatened animal species were found in the lowlands. Vulnerable and threatened birds of the mountains include Salvadori's teal, the snow mountain robin, and Macgregor's bird of paradise. Mammals include two of the world's three monotremes; the short-beaked echidna &lt;em&gt;Tachyglossus aculeatus&lt;/em&gt;, a species shared with Australia, and the long-beaked echidna &lt;em&gt;Zaglossus bruijinii&lt;/em&gt;, a New Guinea endemic. Mammals also include a range of marsupials including at least four species of cuscus, several species of tree kangaroo and one species of &lt;em&gt;Dasyuridae&lt;/em&gt;, often referred to as the 'tiger cat'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The indigenous human population comprises eight (and possibly nine) tribal groups. The region has been inhabited for over 24,000 years and has evolved some of the most distinctive and long isolated cultures in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Lorentz National Park (2.35 million ha) is the largest protected area in South-East Asia. It is the only protected area in the world to incorporate a continuous, intact transect from snowcap to tropical marine environment, including extensive lowland wetlands. Located at the meeting-point of two colliding continental plates, the area has a complex geology with ongoing mountain formation as well as major sculpting by glaciation. The area also contains fossil sites which provide evidence of the evolution of life on New Guinea, a high level of endemism and the highest level of biodiversity in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lorentz National Park</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1118</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1167</http_url><id_number>1167</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1167.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion (vii):&lt;/strong&gt; The parks that comprise the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra are all located on the prominent main spine of the Bukit Barisan Mountains, known as the 'Andes of Sumatra'. Outstanding scenic landscapes abound at all scales. The mountains of each site present prominent mountainous backdrops to the settled and developed lowlands of Sumatra. The combination of the spectacularly beautiful Lake Gunung Tujuh (the highest lake in southeast Asia), the magnificence of the giant Mount Kerinci volcano, numerous small volcanic, coastal and glacial lakes in natural forested settings, fumaroles belching smoke from forested mountains and numerous waterfalls and cave systems in lush rainforest settings, emphazise the outstanding beauty of the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/strong&gt; The Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra represent the most important blocks of forest on the island of Sumatra for the conservation of the biodiversity of both lowland and mountain forests. This once vast island of tropical rainforest, in the space of only 50 years, has been reduced to isolated remnants including those centred on the three nominated sites. The Leuser Ecosystem, including the Gunung Leuser National Park, is by far the largest and most significant forest remnant remaining in Sumatra. All three parks would undoubtedly have been important climatic refugia for species over evolutionary time and have now become critically important refugia for future evolutionary processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/strong&gt; All three parks that comprise the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra are areas of very diverse habitat and exceptional biodiversity. Collectively, the three sites include more than 50% of the total plant diversity of Sumatra. At least 92 local endemic species have been identified in Gunung Leuser National Park. The nomination contains populations of both the world’s largest flower (Rafflesia arnoldi) and the tallest flower (Amorphophallus titanium). The relict lowland forests in the nominated sites are very important for conservation of the plant and animal biodiversity of the rapidly disappearing lowland forests of South East Asia. Similarly, the montane forests, although less threatened, are very important for conservation of the distinctive montane vegetation of the property.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-2.5000000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam, Sumatra Utara (North Sumatra), Jambi, Sumatra Barat (West Sumatra), Sumatra Selatan (South Sumatra), Bengkulu, and Lampung on the Island of Sumatra</location><longitude>101.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This serial World Heritage site comprises three widely separated nationally protected areas along the Bukit Barisan mountain range, which runs along the western side of the island of Sumatra. The sites are Gunung Leuser National Park in the northern provinces of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam and Sumatra Utara; Kerinci Sablat National Park in the south-central provinces of Sumatra Barat, Jambi, Sumatra Selatan and Benkulu; and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park in the far southern provinces of Sumatra Selatan, Bengkulu and Lampung, partly bordering the south-west coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The composite site, straddles the equator along the Bukit Barisan mountain range. This runs 1,650 km down the western side of the island studded with active volcanoes. The eastern side of Sumatra is predominantly lowland and in the past has periodically been linked to the Asian mainland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gunung Leuser National Park in the north is 150 km long, over 100 km wide and is predominantly mountainous. It covers most of the West Barisan, West Alas and East Barisan ranges and is almost divided by the Alas valley &lt;em&gt;graben&lt;/em&gt;. Kerinci Sablat National Park in the centre extends 350 km down the spine of the Bukit Barisan. Three-quarters of the park is steep. Its highest point is the magnificent Gunung Kerinci - at 3,805 m, the highest peak in Sumatra and highest volcano in Indonesia. It is active. Nearby Gunung Tujuh is an outstandingly beautiful crater lake at 1,996 m. Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park is also 350 km long but only 45 km wide on average. The northern two-thirds are mountainous, averaging 1,500 m with a high point at Gunung Pulung of 1,964 m. The southern half is lower; 90 km of it is a peninsula and the park borders the sea for half its length. Dozens of rivers originate in the park and there are several lakes and hot springs. &lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Indonesian archipelago contains 10% of the world's flowering plants and Sumatra, the third largest island, is the location of the Sumatran Islands Lowland and Montane Forests Ecoregion and part of the WWF's Sundaland hotspot. Its forests are among the largest tropical rainforests in South-East Asia, comparable with those of Borneo and Papua New Guinea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Animal diversity in Sumatra is impressive, with some 180 mammal species in the nominated sites, and some 450 bird species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sumatra has a high level of endemism, which is well represented in the nominated sites. It is evidence of the land bridge/barrier between the Sumatran biota and that of mainland Asia due to changes in sea level. Some of the animal distributions may also be evidence of the effect of the Mount Toba tuff eruptions 75,000 years ago. The Sumatran orangutan for example, is not found south of Lake Toba nor the Asian tapir north of it. The altitudinal range and connections between the diverse habitats in these areas must have facilitated the ongoing ecological and biological evolution. Key mammals of the parks are the Sumatran tiger, Sumatran rhino, orangutan, Sumatran elephant; also Malayan sun-bear and the endemics Sumatran grizzled langur, Hoogerwerf's rat. Rare birds noted in the site's nomination are Sumatran ground cuckoo, Rueck's blue flycatcher, Storm's stork and white-winged duck.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 2.5 million hectare Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra site comprises three national parks: Gunung Leuser National Park, Kerinci Seblat National Park and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park. The site holds the greatest potential for long-term conservation of the distinctive and diverse biota of Sumatra, including many endangered species. The protected area is home to an estimated 10,000 plant species, including 17 endemic genera; more than 200 mammal species; and some 580 bird species of which 465 are resident and 21 are endemic. Of the mammal species, 22 are Asian, not found elsewhere in the archipelago and 15 are confined to the Indonesian region, including the endemic Sumatran orang-utan. The site also provides biogeographic evidence of the evolution of the island.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1344</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1194</http_url><id_number>1194</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1194.jpg</image_url><iso_code>id</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-8.2591666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>115.4027777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of Bali consists of five rice terraces and their water temples that cover 19,500&amp;nbsp;ha. The temples are the focus of a cooperative water management system of canals and weirs, known as &lt;em&gt;subak,&lt;/em&gt; that dates back to the 9th century. Included in the landscape is the 18th-century Royal Water Temple of Pura Taman Ayun, the largest and most impressive architectural edifice of its type on the island. The &lt;em&gt;subak&lt;/em&gt; reflects the philosophical concept of &lt;em&gt;Tri Hita Karana&lt;/em&gt;, which brings together the realms of the spirit, the human world and nature. This philosophy was born of the cultural exchange between Bali and India over the past 2,000 years and has shaped the landscape of Bali. The &lt;em&gt;subak &lt;/em&gt;system of democratic and egalitarian farming practices has enabled the Balinese to become the most prolific rice growers in the archipelago despite the challenge of supporting a dense population.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Landscape of Bali Province: the &lt;em&gt;Subak&lt;/em&gt; System as a Manifestation of the &lt;em&gt;Tri Hita Karana&lt;/em&gt; Philosophy</site><states>Indonesia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1836</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/113</http_url><id_number>113</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_113.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.0833000000</latitude><location>Khuzestan</location><longitude>48.5333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The current name of Tchogha-Zanbil corresponds with the ancient city of Dur Untash, dominating the course of the Ab-e Diz, a tributary of the Karun. The city was founded as a religious capital during the Elamite period by Untash-Napirisha (1275-1240 BC) in a site half-way between Ansh&amp;acirc;n and Suse. Roman Ghirshman carried out the complete exploration of the site from 1951 to 1962.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site contains the best preserved and the largest of all the ziggurats of Mesopotamia. The first enclosure contains the &lt;em&gt;temenos&lt;/em&gt;. In origin, the temple located at the centre was a square building, dedicated to the Sumerian god Inshushinak. This temple was then converted into a ziggurat of which it constitutes the first storey. &lt;a&gt;The solid masses of the four other storeys are in the other XX starting from the ground of the court (and not one on top of the other as in Mesopotamia) so as to cover all the surface of the old central court&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Access was by means of a vaulted staircase, invisible from outside, unlike the squatter Mesopotamian ziggurats, which were equipped with three external staircases, Today the ziggurat is no more than 25&amp;nbsp;m high, the last two stages, which originally rose to a height of 60&amp;nbsp;m, having been destroyed. The ziggurat is sacred not only to Inshushinak but also to Napirisha, the god of Ansh&amp;acirc;n.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the north-western side of the ziggurat a group of temples were dedicated to the minor divinities, Ishnikarab and Kiririsha. An oval wall surrounded the temples and the ziggurat. The second enclosure, trapezoidal in form, delimits a vast, almost empty zone. In the third enclosure, only three palaces were built and a temple, near the Royal Gate, with a large interior court. This third enclosure was to protect the town of Dur Untash, the houses of which were never built. The Untash-Gal Palace (13th century BC) was discovered, separated from the &lt;em&gt;temenos&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In spite of the destruction attributed to the Assyrians, a whole series of heads, statuettes, animals and amulets were found, and the remains of two panels in ivory mosaic. Several vaulted tombs were discovered in the basement of the royal residence, with evidence of cremation. Nearby was a temple dedicated to Nusku, the god of fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To supply the population of the city with water, Untash-Napirisha made a channel of about 50&amp;nbsp;km long, leading to a reservoir outside the northern rampart; from there, nine conduits carried the filtered water to a basin arranged inside the rampart. Dur Untash was given up by the Elamite kings in the 12th century BC in favour of Susa. They transported all the treasures of Tchogha Zanbil to Susa where they were used to decorate the recently restored temples. In 640 BC, Dur Untash was entirely destroyed by the Assyrian king Assurbanipal, a few years after his conquest of Susa.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of the holy city of the Kingdom of Elam, surrounded by three huge concentric walls, are found at Tchogha Zanbil. Founded c. 1250 B.C., the city remained unfinished after it was invaded by Ashurbanipal, as shown by the thousands of unused bricks left at the site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tchogha Zanbil</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>122</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/114</http_url><id_number>114</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_114.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.9344400000</latitude><location>Fars</location><longitude>52.8902800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The magnificent ruins of Persepolis lie at the foot of Kuh-i-Rahmat (Mountain of Mercy) in the plain of Marv Dasht about 650&amp;nbsp;km south of the present capital city of Teheran.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded by Darius I in 518 BC (although more than a century passed before it was finally completed by Artaxerxes I), Persepolis was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire. An inscription carved on the southern face of the terrace proves that Darius the Great was the founder of Persepolis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was built on an immense half-artificial, half-natural terrace, where the King of Kings created an impressive palace complex inspired by Mesopotamian models. Before any of the buildings could be erected, considerable work had to be done: this mainly involved cutting into an irregular and rocky mountainside in order to shape and raise the large platform and to fill the gaps and depressions with rubble. The terrace of Persepolis, with its double flight of access stairs, its walls covered by sculpted friezes at various levels, contingent Assyrianesque &lt;em&gt;propylaea&lt;/em&gt;, the gigantic winged bulls, and the remains of large halls, is a grandiose architectural creation. The studied lightening of the roofing and the use of wooden lintels allowed the Achaemenid architects to use, in open areas, a minimum number of astonishingly slender columns. They are surmounted by typical capitals where, resting on double volutes, the forequarters of two kneeling bulls, placed back-to-back, extend their coupled necks and their twin heads, directly under the intersections of the beams of the ceiling&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Persepolis was the example par excellence of the dynastic city, the symbol of the Achaemenid dynasty, which is why it was burned by the Greeks of Alexander the Great in 330. According to Plutarch, they carried away its treasures on 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. What remains today, dominating the city, is the immense stone terrace (530&amp;nbsp;m by 330&amp;nbsp;m), half natural, half artificial, backed against the mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It seems that Darius planned this impressive complex of palaces not only as the seat of government but also, and primarily, as a show place and a spectacular centre for the receptions and festivals of the Achaemenid kings and their empire. Darius lived long enough to see only a small part of his plans executed. This ensemble of majestic approaches, monumental stairways, throne rooms (Apadana), reception rooms and annex buildings is classified among the world's greatest archaeological sites, among those which have no equivalent and which bear witness of a unique quality to a most ancient civilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the following centuries many people travelled to and described Persepolis and the ruins of its Achaemenid palaces. The ruins were not excavated until the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago sponsored an archaeological expedition to Persepolis and its environs under the supervision of Ernst Herzfeld from 1931 to 1934, and Erich F. Schmidt from 1934 to 1939.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On a terrace, as if on a pedestal, the Achaemid kings, Darius (522-486 BC), his son Xerxes (486-65 BC) and his grandson Artaxerxes (465-24 BC) built a splendid palatial complex: &lt;em&gt;propylaea&lt;/em&gt;, formal halls and private apartments opening in to courts linked by staggered corridors, based on Mesopotamian forerunners. The Persepolis visible today is mostly the work of Xerxes; the northern part of the terrace, consisting mainly of the Audience Hall of the Apadana, the Throne Hall and the Gate of Xerxes, represented the official section of the Persepolis complex, accessible to a restricted public. The other part held the palaces of Darius and Xerxes, the Harem, the Council Hall and such.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As in Mesopotamia, the principal building material was sun-dried brick; yet the ashlar, mainly used for supporting elements (jambs and lintels of doorways, casings, window-breasts, bases and capitals, etc.), for monumental doorways and for vast sculpted surfaces, has happily survived the vicissitudes of time.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded by Darius I in 518 B.C., Persepolis was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire. It was built on an immense half-artificial, half-natural terrace, where the king of kings created an impressive palace complex inspired by Mesopotamian models. The importance and quality of the monumental ruins make it a unique archaeological site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Persepolis</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>123</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/115</http_url><id_number>115</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_115.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.6574500000</latitude><location>Esfahan</location><longitude>51.6777777777</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Square of Esfahan is a monument of Persian socio-cultural life during the Safawid period (until 1722). It is an urban phenomenon which is an exception in Iran where the cities are ordinarily tightly parcelled without spatial fluidity, the exception being the interior courts of the caravanserais. It is an example of the form of naturally vulnerable urban architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shah of the Iranian dynasty of the Safawids, Abbas, who reigned from 1587 to 1628, chose as his capital Esfahan, which he magnificently embellished and remodelled. The centre of the city was accented by a vast Royal Square (Meidan-e Shah) which was so beautiful and so large that it was called 'The Image of the World'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is bordered on each side by four monumental buildings linked by a series of two-storey arcades: to the north, the Portia of Qeyssariyeh (1602-19), to the south, the Royal Mosque (1612-30), to the east, the Mosque of Sheyx Loffollah (1602-18) and to the west, the pavilion of Ali Qapu, a small Timurid palace (15th century), enlarged and decorated by the shah and his successors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of particular interest is the Royal Mosque, which is grafted on to the south side of the square by means of deep and immense sectioned porch. It is crowned by a half dome, whose interior walls are dressed with enamelled fa&amp;iuml;ence mosaics, bound by two minarets, and prolonged to the south by an &lt;em&gt;iwan&lt;/em&gt; (three-sided, vaulted hall open at one end), leading to an interior courtyard that describes a right angle. Thus, it is that, although it is in part on a north/south axis, the mosque is, in keeping with tradition, nonetheless, oriented north-east/south-east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The pavilion of Ali'Qapu forms the monumental entrance to the palace zone and to the royal gardens which extend behind it. Its apartments, which are completely decorated with paintings and have wide exterior openings, are renowned. On the square is a high portal (48&amp;nbsp;m), flanked by several storeys of rooms and crowned by a covered terrace (&lt;em&gt;talar&lt;/em&gt;), whose refined roofing is carried by thin wooden columns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All of these architectural elements of the Meidan-e Shah, including the arcades, are adorned with a profusion of enamelled ceramic tiles with paintings, where the floral ornamental is dominant, flowering trees, ases, without a prejudice for the figured compositions in the style of Riza-i Abbasi, renowned both inside and outside of Persia, who was head of the school of painting at Esfahan during the reign of Shah Abbas. The Royal Mosque remains the most celebrated example of the colourful architecture which, in Iran, reached its height under the Safaw dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Meidan-e Shah was the heart of the Safawid capital. Its vast sandy esplanade was used for promenades, assembling troops, playing polo, celebrations and for public executions. On all sides, the arcades house shops. Above the portal of the large bazaar of Qeyssariyeh is a tribune that accommodates musicians giving public concerts. The &lt;em&gt;talar&lt;/em&gt; of Ali Qapu communicates, from behind, with the throne room where the king occasionally received ambassadors.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built by Shah Abbas I the Great at the beginning of the 17th century, and bordered on all sides by monumental buildings linked by a series of two-storeyed arcades, the site is known for the Royal Mosque, the Mosque of Sheykh Lotfollah, the magnificent Portico of Qaysariyyeh and the 15th-century Timurid palace. They are an impressive testimony to the level of social and cultural life in Persia during the Safavid era.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Meidan Emam, Esfahan</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>125</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Historical background: &lt;/strong&gt; The Persian Empire was founded by the Achaemenid dynasty (6th to 4th centuries BCE). Subsequently, a new empire was established by the Parthians (2nd BCE to 3rd CE), who were conscious of their Persian identity, even though under strong Hellenistic influence. The following Sasanian Empire (3rd to 7th CE), re-established the Persian leadership in the region, and was successful in forming a counterforce to the Roman Empire. Basing on the Achaemenid heritage and the impact of the Hellenistic-Parthian period, the Sasanians developed new artistic and architectural solutions. Their architecture had important influence in the east as well as in the west; it became a major reference for the development of architecture in the Islamic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Religious context: &lt;/strong&gt; Fire and water have been among the fundamental elements for the Iranian peoples since ancient times. Fire was conceived a divine messenger between the visible world and the invisible (gods). Water was the source of life. Volcanic regions were thus of particular interest, especially when there was the presence of water as it was the case of Takht-e Suleiman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion, and has its origin in Prophet Zarathustra, who probably lived in the 7th century BCE or earlier. This religion is characterized by its monotheistic aspect related to Ahuramazda, and it recognizes the conflict between good and evil forces. Ahuramazda was worshiped by the early Achaemenids, whose rituals took place in the open on fire altars, without any temples. With the revival of new nationalism, the Sasanians established Zoroastrianism as a state religion, building fire temples for the cult. Zoroastrianism has had an important influence on Christianity and Islam, and it is still a living religion, practised in Iran, India and Central Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sasanians also recognized the cult of Anahita, the goddess of earth, associated with water. A temple of Anahita is included in the complex of Takht-e Suleiman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The early period: &lt;/strong&gt; The volcanic site where the Sasanians built their sanctuary, Azargoshnasb (Fire temple of the Knights), later called Takht-e Suleiman (Throne of Solomon), has been subject to worship for a long time. The hollow, volcanic mountain, called Zendan-e Suleiman (the prison of Solomon) is surrounded by the remains of temples or shrines, dated to the first millennium BCE. These are associated with the Manas, who ruled the region from 830 to 660 BCE. The crater was once full of water, but has later dried out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Sasanian period: &lt;/strong&gt; With the arrival of the Sasanians (5th century CE), Zendan-e Suleiman lost its importance in favour of Takht-e Suleiman, where construction started in mid 5th century CE, during the reign of the Sasanian king Peroz (459-484 CE). The site became a royal Zoroastrian sanctuary under Khosrow I (531-579) and Khosrow II (591-628), and it was the most important of the three main Zoroastrians sanctuaries. The other two have not been identified so far.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of this temple site coincides with the introduction of Christianity as the main religion in the Roman Empire. The need to strengthen Zoroastrianism can thus be seen as an effort to reinforce national identity as a counterpoint to Christianity in the Roman world. The importance of Takht-e Suleiman was further increased with the introduction of the cult of Anahita. The royal ensemble was surrounded by an urban settlement on the plain. The site was destroyed by the Byzantine army in 627, a counter measure to the Sasanian attack to their territories.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Mongol period: &lt;/strong&gt; The site regained importance in the 13th century, when the Ilkhanid Mongols rebuilt part of it as a residence for Ilkhan Aba-Qaan, then the ruler of Iran. The reconstruction phase included the fire temple and the western Iwan, as well as new structures around the lake. The Mongol rehabilitation shows cultural continuity, which is particularly interesting in the revival of Zoroastrian faith in the middle of the Islamic period. Due to its natural and cultural qualities, the site has been associated with various legendary and biblical characters and issues, such as Solomon, Christ, earthly paradise, Holy Graal, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Later phases:&lt;/strong&gt; After the Ilkhanid period, from the mid 14th century, the site was abandoned and gradually fell into ruins. It was rediscovered by the British traveller, Sir Robert Ker Porter in 1819, followed by other explorers. In 1937, the site was photographed by Erich F. Schmidt, and surveyed by Arthur U. Pope and Donald N. Wilber. In 1958 it was explored by Swedish archaeologists. The first systematic excavation was undertaken by the German Archaeological Institute under R. Naumann and D. Huff, in the 1970s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1077</http_url><id_number>1077</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1077.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion i: &lt;br /&gt; Takht-e Soleyman is an outstanding ensemble of royal architecture, joining the principal architectural elements created by the Sasanians in a harmonious composition inspired by their natural context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion ii: &lt;br /&gt; The composition and the architectural elements created by the Sasanians at Takht-e Soleyman have had strong influence not only in the development of religious architecture in the Islamic period, but also in other cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: &lt;br /&gt; The ensemble of Takht-e Soleyman is an exceptional testimony of the continuation of cult related to fire and water over a period of some two and half millennia. The archaeological heritage of the site is further enriched by the Sasanian town, which is still to be excavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion iv: &lt;br /&gt; Takht-e Soleyman represents an outstanding example of Zoroastrian sanctuary, integrated with Sasanian palatial architecture within a composition, which can be seen as a prototype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion vi: &lt;br /&gt; As the principal Zoroastrian sanctuary, Takht-e Soleyman is the foremost site associated with one of the early monotheistic religions of the world. The site has many important symbolic relationships, being also a testimony of the association of the ancient beliefs, much earlier than the Zoroastrianism, as well as in its association with significant biblical figures and legends.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>36.6038888900</latitude><location>Western Azerbaijan Province</location><longitude>47.2350000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Takht-e Soleyman is an outstanding ensemble of royal architecture, joining the principal architectural elements created by the Sassanians in a harmonious composition inspired by their natural context. The composition and the architectural elements created by the Sassanians there have exerted a strong influence not only in the development of religious architecture in the Islamic period, but also in other cultures. The ensemble represents an outstanding example of a Zoroastrian sanctuary, integrated with Sassanian palatial architecture within a composition, which can be seen as a prototype.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is an exceptional testimony of the continuation of a cult related to fire and water over a period of some two-and-a-half millennia. The archaeological heritage of the site is further enriched by the Sassanian town, which is still to be excavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Takht-e Soleyman is situated in Azerbaijan province, within a mountainous region, some 750&amp;nbsp;km from Teheran. It is formed from plain, surrounded by a mountain range and it contains a volcano and an artesian lake as essential elements of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of an oval platform about 350&amp;nbsp;m by 550&amp;nbsp;m rising 60&amp;nbsp;m above the surrounding valley. It has a small calcareous artesian well that has formed a lake some 120&amp;nbsp;m deep. From here, small streams bring water to surrounding lands. The Sassanians occupied the site starting in the 5th century, building there the royal sanctuary on the platform. The sanctuary was enclosed by a stone wall 13m high, with 38 towers and two entrances (north and south). This wall apparently had mainly symbolic significance as no gate has been discovered. The main buildings are on the north side of the lake, forming an almost square compound (sides &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 180&amp;nbsp;m) with the Zoroastrian Fire Temple (Azargoshnasb) in the centre. This temple, built from fired bricks, is square in plan. To the east of the Temple there is another square hall reserved for the 'everlasting fire'. Further to the east there is the Anahita temple, also square in plan. The royal residences are situated to the west of the temples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lake is an integral part of the composition and was surrounded by a rectangular 'fence'. In the north-west corner of this once fenced area, there is the so-called Western &lt;em&gt;iwan&lt;/em&gt; , 'Khosrow gallery', built as a massive brick vault, characteristic of Sassanian architecture. The surfaces were rendered in lime plaster with decorative features in &lt;em&gt;muqarnas&lt;/em&gt; (stalactite ceiling decoration) and stucco. The site was destroyed at the end of the Sassanian period, and left to decay. It was revived in the 13th century under the Mongol occupation, and some parts were rebuilt, such as the Zoroastrian fire temple and the Western &lt;em&gt;iwan&lt;/em&gt; . New constructions were built around the lake, including two octagonal towers behind the &lt;em&gt;iwan&lt;/em&gt; decorated in glazed tiles and ceramics. A new entrance was opened through the main walls, in the southern axis of the complex. It is noted that the surrounding lands in the valley (included in the buffer zone) contain the remains of the Sassanian town, which has not been excavated. A brick kiln dating from the Mongol period has been found 600&amp;nbsp;m south of Takht-e Soleyman. The mountain to the east was used by the Sassanians as a quarry for building stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zendan-e Soleyman is a hollow, conical mountain, an ancient volcano, some 3&amp;nbsp;km to the west of Takht-e Soleyman. It rises about 100&amp;nbsp;m above the surrounding land, and contains an 80&amp;nbsp;m deep hole, about 65&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, formerly filled with water. Around the top of the mountain, there are remains of a series of shrines and temples that have been dated to the 1st millennium BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Belqeis Mountain (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 3,200&amp;nbsp;m), is situated 7.5&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Takht-e Soleyman. On the highest part there are remains of a citadel (an area of 60&amp;nbsp;m by 50&amp;nbsp;m), dating to the Sassanian era, built from yellow sandstone. The explorations that have been carried out so far on the site indicate that the citadel would have contained another fire temple. Its orientation indicates a close relationship with Takht-e Soleyman.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Takht-e Soleyman, in north-western Iran, is situated in a valley set in a volcanic mountain region. The site includes the principal Zoroastrian sanctuary partly rebuilt in the Ilkhanid (Mongol) period (13th century) as well as a temple of the Sasanian period (6th and 7th centuries) dedicated to Anahita. The site has important symbolic significance. The designs of the fire temple, the palace and the general layout have strongly influenced the development of Islamic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Takht-e Soleyman</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1254</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1106</http_url><id_number>1106</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1106.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; Pasargadae is the first outstanding expression of the royal Achaemenid architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The dynastic capital of Pasargadae was built by Cyrus the Great with a contribution by different peoples of the empire created by him. It became a fundamental phase in the evolution of the classic Persian art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The archaeological site of Pasargadae with its palaces, gardens, and the tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Cyrus the Great, represents an exceptional testimony to the Achaemenid civilisation in Persia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The &amp;lsquo;Four Gardens&amp;rsquo; type of royal ensemble, which was created in Pasargadae became a prototype for Western Asian architecture and design.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>30.1938300000</latitude><location>Pars Province</location><longitude>53.1672900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The dynastic capital of Pasargadae was built by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC with contributions from different peoples of the empire created by him. It became a fundamental phase in the evolution of the classic Persian art and architecture. With its palaces, gardens, and the tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Cyrus the Great, Pasargadae represents exceptional testimony to the Achaemenid civilisation in Persia. The 'Four Gardens' type of royal ensemble created in Pasargadae became a prototype for Western Asian architecture and design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pasargadae is located in the plain on the river Polvar, in the heart of Pars, the homeland of the Persians. The position of the town is also denoted in its name: 'the camp of Persia'. The core zone of the site is surrounded by a large landscape buffer zone. The core area contains many monuments: the Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great is built from white limestone around 540-530 BCE. The mausoleum chamber, on the top, has the form of a simple gable house with a small opening from the west. In the medieval period, the monument was thought to be the tomb of Solomon's mother, and a mosque was built around it, using columns from the remains of the ancient palaces. A small prayer niche (&lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; ) was carved in the tomb chamber. In the 1970s, during a restoration, the remains of the mosque were removed, and the ancient fragments were deposited close to their original location.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tall-e Takht refers to the great fortified terrace platform built on a hill at the northern limit of Pasargadae. This limestone structure is built from dry masonry, using large regular stone blocks and a jointing technique called anathyrosis, which was known in Asia Minor in the 6th century. The first phase of the construction was built by Cyrus the Great, halted at his death in 530 BCE. The second phase was built under Darius the Great (522-486 BCE), using mud brick construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The royal ensemble occupies the central area of Pasargadae. It consists of several palaces originally located within a garden ensemble (the so-called 'Four Gardens'). The colour scheme of the architecture is given by the black and white stones used in its structure. The main body of the palaces is formed of a hypostyle hall, to which are attached porticoes. The Audience Hall was built around 539 BCE. Its hypostyle hall has two rows of four columns. The column bases are in black stone and the column shafts in white limestone. The capitals were in black stone. There is evidence of a capital representing a hybrid, horned and crested lion. The palace had a portico on each side. Some of the bas-reliefs of the doorways are preserved, showing human figures and monsters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Residential Palace of Cyrus II was built 535-530 BCE; its hypostyle hall has five rows of six columns. The Gate House stands at the eastern limit of the core zone. It is a hypostyle hall with a rectangular plan. In one of the door jambs is the famous relief of the 'winged figure'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In later periods, Tall-e Takht continued to be used as a fort, whereas the palaces were abandoned and the material was reused. From the 7th century onwards, the tomb of Cyrus was called the Tomb of the Mother of Solomon, and it became a place of pilgrimage. In the 10th century, a small mosque was built around it, which was in use until the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Pasargadae was the first dynastic capital of the Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus II the Great, in Pars, homeland of the Persians, in the 6th century BC. Its palaces, gardens and the mausoleum of Cyrus are outstanding examples of the first phase of royal Achaemenid art and architecture and exceptional testimonies of Persian civilization. Particularly noteworthy vestiges in the 160-ha site include: the Mausoleum of Cyrus II; Tall-e Takht, a fortified terrace; and a royal ensemble of gatehouse, audience hall, residential palace and gardens. Pasargadae was the capital of the first great multicultural empire in Western Asia. Spanning the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt to the Hindus River, it is considered to be the first empire that respected the cultural diversity of its different peoples. This was reflected in Achaemenid architecture, a synthetic representation of different cultures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pasargadae</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1284</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century, Persia was devastated by the Mongol invasions. They captured Baghdad in 1258, terminating the Abbasid caliphate there. They also founded the Ilkhanid Empire in Persia with the capital in Tabriz, in the northwestern part of present-day Iran. The title &amp;quot;ilkhan&amp;quot; indicated: &amp;lsquo;subordinate or peaceful khan' in deference to the Great Khan in China. After Kublai Khan died in 1294, and the Ilkhanids converted to Islam, the links with China became weaker. The Ilkhanid dynasty governed Persia until 1335.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is archaeological evidence that the site of Soltaniyeh had been occupied at least from the first millennium BC. The construction of a settlement however only started by the Ilkhanid dynasty around 1290. The fourth Mongol ruler in Persia, Arqun Khan, decided to build a summer residence in this region, because it offered good hunting grounds and rich pastures for horse breeding. His son, Qazan Khan, had a mausoleum built over his tomb, now known as Tappeh Nur. There is little information about the beginnings of the new settlement until Oljaytu (later Sultan Muhammad Khodabandeh) came to power in 1304 and decided to enlarge the city and make it his capital, naming it Soltaniyeh, the &amp;quot;Imperial&amp;quot;. Together with Tabriz, Soltaniyeh became a major trading centre on the route between Asia and Europe. The principal phase of construction was completed by 1313.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ilkhans had converted to Shi'ism, and they are believed to have wanted to transfer the relics of Calif Ali and his son, Hussein, from Baghdad to Soltaniyeh. This never happened, though, and the shrine became the mausoleum of Oljaytu instead. After the death of Oljaytu in 1316, the city started losing in importance, and later it fell in the hands of small local dynasties. In 1384, Tamerlan's army seized the city and sacked it, but spared Oljaytu's mausoleum. In the following years, the city suffered, though it continued to function as a commercial centre comparable to Tabriz. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Soltaniyeh gradually declined and remained in ruins. Only a rural village was built over the remains. Some restoration was undertaken in Oljaytu's Mausoleum in the 19th century. At the same time, the plain served as an instruction camp for the army of Qajar kings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1188</http_url><id_number>1188</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1188.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt; The Mausoleum of Oljaytu forms an essential link in the development of the Islamic architecture in central and western Asia, from the classical Seljuk phase into the Timurid period. This is particularly relevant to the double-shell structure and the elaborate use of materials and themes in the decoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt; Soltaniyeh as the ancient capital of the Ilkhanid dynasty represents an exceptional testimony to the history of the 13th and 14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt; The Mausoleum of Oljaytu represents an outstanding achievement in the development of Persian architecture particularly in the Ilkhanid period, characterized by its innovative engineering structure, spatial proportions, architectural forms and the decorative patterns and techniques.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>36.4352800000</latitude><location>Zanjan province</location><longitude>48.7966700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;As the ancient capital of the Ilkhanid dynasty, Soltaniyeh represents an exceptional testimony to the history of the 13th and 14th centuries. The Mausoleum of Oljaytu forms an essential link in the development of Islamic architecture in central and western Asia, from the classical Seljuk phase until the Timurid period. This is particularly relevant to the double-shell structure and the elaborate use of materials and themes in the decoration. It is outstanding by virtue of its innovative engineering structure, spatial proportions, architectural forms and the decorative patterns and techniques&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Soltaniyeh is located some 240&amp;nbsp;km from Tehran in north-western Iran. There is archaeological evidence that the site had been occupied at least from the 1st millennium BC. The construction of the settlement was only started by the Ilkhanid dynasty, around 1290. The fourth Mongol ruler in Persia, Arqun Khan, decided to build a summer residence in this region, because it offered good hunting grounds and rich pastures for horse breeding. His son, Qazan Khan, had a mausoleum built over his tomb, now known as Tappeh Nur. There is little information about the beginnings of the new settlement until Oljaytu (later Sultan Muhammad Khodabandeh) came in to power in 1304 when he decided to enlarge the city and make it his capital, naming it Soltaniyeh (Imperial). Together with Tabriz, Soltaniyeh became a major trading centre on the route between Asia and Europe. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Soltaniyeh gradually declined and remained in ruins. Only a rural village was built over the remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Oljaytu, the principal monument of the city, constructed in 1302-12, stands in the middle of a rural settlement, surrounded by fertile meadows. The building is octagonal in form, rising to a stunning high-profile dome, covered with turquoise-blue faience tiles. This structure represents the earliest existing example of the double dome in Iran. The dome has no buttresses nor any additional thickness, and it is surrounded by eight slender minarets as a decorative feature. A wide band of square Kufic around the drum makes a transition between the light blue and the lapis lazuli blue of the main stalactite cornice. The second-storey galleries of the mausoleum open outwards, anticipating buildings such as the. Taj Mahal. Structurally the building is considered a masterpiece. The interior walls were originally faced with light golden-toned bricks and dark blue faience tiles to form large inscriptions in Kufic. However, in 1313, it was redecorated with plaster, using a rich variety of fine ornaments, often worked in low relief. The second phase of the decoration belongs to the period when the use of the monument as a Shi'a shrine was given up. The decoration of the exterior belongs to the first phase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The immediate surroundings of the mausoleum consist of a stone terrace in the form of a citadel (Arg). Originally, the citadel was surrounded by a 30&amp;nbsp;m wide moat. Today this is an archaeological site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other monuments and sites in the World Heritage site include the Old City of Soltaniyeh, founded as the capital of Oljaytu in succession to Tabriz; the Mausoleum of Sultan Chelebi Oghlu, a brick structure from the 1330s with an octagonal tower; The Mausoleum of Mullah Hassan Kashi, a religious figure and poet at the court of Oljaytu; and the remains of Ghazan's tomb at Tappeh Nur, which, together with its adjacent remains known as the Tappeh Nur Kuchak, form an archaeological monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In historic texts the area of Soltaniyeh was called the 'Prairie of the Alezans' or the 'Falcon's Hunting Ground'. The special nature of these meadows is due to the soil, which prevents the entire absorption of rain water. As a result, it was especially fertile pasture, particularly appropriate for horse breeding. This was also one of the reasons for the establishment of the city in this location.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The mausoleum of Oljaytu was constructed in 1302&amp;ndash;12 in the city of Soltaniyeh, the capital of the Ilkhanid dynasty, which was founded by the Mongols. Situated in the province of Zanjan, Soltaniyeh is one of the outstanding examples of the achievements of Persian architecture and a key monument in the development of its Islamic architecture. The octagonal building is crowned with a 50 m tall dome covered in turquoise-blue faience and surrounded by eight slender minarets. It is the earliest existing example of the double-shelled dome in Iran. The mausoleum&amp;rsquo;s interior decoration is also outstanding and scholars such as A.U. Pope have described the building as &amp;lsquo;anticipating the Taj Mahal&amp;rsquo;.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Soltaniyeh</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1365</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger>0</danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1222</http_url><id_number>1222</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1222.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.3883333333</latitude><location>Province of Kermanshah</location><longitude>47.4366666666</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Bisotun is located along the ancient trade route linking the Iranian high plateau with Mesopotamia and features remains from the prehistoric times to the Median, Achaemenid, Sassanian, and Ilkhanid periods. The principal monument of this archaeological site is the bas-relief and cuneiform inscription ordered by Darius I, The Great, when he rose to the throne of the Persian Empire, 521 BC. The bas-relief portrays Darius holding a bow, as a sign of sovereignty, and treading on the chest of a figure who lies on his back before him. According to legend, the figure represents Gaumata, the Median Magus and pretender to the throne whose assassination led to Darius&amp;rsquo;s rise to power. Below and around the bas-reliefs, there are ca. 1,200 lines of inscriptions telling the story of the battles Darius waged in 521-520 BC against the governors who attempted to take apart the Empire founded by Cyrus. The inscription is written in three languages. The oldest is an Elamite text referring to legends describing the king and the rebellions. This is followed by a Babylonian version of similar legends. The last phase of the inscription is particularly important, as it is here that Darius introduced for the first time the Old Persian version of his res gestae (things done). This is the only known monumental text of the Achaemenids to document the re-establishment of the Empire by Darius I. It also bears witness to the interchange of influences in the development of monumental art and writing in the region of the Persian Empire. There are also remains from the Median period (8th to 7th centuries B.C.) as well as from the Achaemenid (6th to 4th centuries B.C.) and post-Achaemenid periods.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bisotun</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1399</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1262</http_url><id_number>1262</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1262.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.9788888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>45.4733333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Armenian Monastic Ensembles&amp;nbsp;of Iran, in the north-west of the country, consists of three monastic ensembles of the Armenian Christian faith: St Thaddeus and St Stepanos and the Chapel of Dzordzor. These edifices - the oldest of which, St Thaddeus, dates back to the 7th century &amp;ndash; are examples of outstanding universal value of the Armenian architectural and decorative traditions. They bear testimony to very important interchanges with the other regional cultures, in particular the Byzantine, Orthodox and Persian. Situated on the south-eastern fringe of the main zone of the Armenian cultural space, the monasteries constituted a major centre for the dissemination of that culture in the region. They are the last regional remains of this culture that are still in a satisfactory state of integrity and authenticity. Furthermore, as places of pilgrimage, the monastic ensembles are living witnesses of Armenian religious traditions through the centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1542</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1208</http_url><id_number>1208</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1208.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Bam developed at the crossroads of important trade routes at the southern side of the Iranian high plateau, and it became an outstanding example of the interaction of the various influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Bam and its Cultural Landscape represents an exceptional testimony to the development of a trading settlement in the desert environment of the Central Asian region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The city of Bam represents an outstanding example of a fortified settlement and citadel in the Central Asian region, based on the use mud layer technique (Chineh) combined with mud bricks (Khesht).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The cultural landscape of Bam is an outstanding representation of the interaction of man and nature in a desert environment, using the qanats. The system is based on a strict social system with precise tasks and responsibilities, which have been maintained in use until the present, but has now become vulnerable to irreversible change.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>29.1168300000</latitude><location>Kerman Province, Bam District</location><longitude>58.3666666667</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bam and related sites represent a cultural landscape and an exceptional testimony to the development of a trading settlement in the desert environment of the Central Asian region. It developed at the crossroads of important trade routes at the southern side of the Iranian high plateau, and it became an outstanding example of the interaction of the various influences. It is an outstanding example of a fortified settlement and citadel in the Central Asian region, based on the use of mud layer technique (Chineh) combined with mud bricks (Khesht).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of Bam is an outstanding representation of the interaction of man and nature in a desert environment, using qanats. The system is based on a strict social system with precise tasks and responsibilities, which have been maintained in use until the present, but has now become vulnerable to irreversible change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bam is situated between Jebal Barez Mountains and the Lut Desert at 1,060&amp;nbsp;m above sea level in south-eastern Iran. The city was affected by the 6.5 Richter scale earthquake on 26 December 2003. More than 26,000 people lost their lives and a large part of the town was destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bam grew in an oasis created mainly thanks to an underground water management system (&lt;em&gt;qanats&lt;/em&gt; ), which has continued its function until the present day. The principal core zone consists of the Citadel (Arg-e Bam) with its surroundings. Outside this area, the specified remains of protected historic structures include: Qal'eh Dokhtar (Maiden's Fortress, &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 7th century), Emamzadeh Zeyd Mausoleum (11th-12th centuries), and Emamzadeh Asiri Mausoleum (12th century). The Enclosure of the Citadel (Arg-e Bam) has 38 watchtowers; the principal entrance gate is in the south, and there are three other gates. A moat surrounds the outer defence wall, which encloses the Government Quarters and the historic town of Bam. The impressive Government Quarters are situated on a rocky hill (45&amp;nbsp;m high) in the northern section of the enclosure, surrounded by a double fortification wall. The main residential quarter of the historic town occupies the southern section of the enclosure. The notable structures include the bazaar extending from the main south entrance towards the governor's quarters in the north. In the eastern part, buildings include the Congregational Mosque, the Mirza Na'im ensemble (18th century), and the Mir House. The mosque may be one of the oldest built in Iran, going back to the 8th or 9th centuries, probably rebuilt in the 17th century. The north-western area of the enclosure is occupied by another residential quarter, Konari Quarter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The beginnings of Bam are fundamentally linked with the invention and development of the qanat system. The technique of using qanats was sufficiently well established in the Achaemenid period (6th-4th centuries BC). The archaeological discoveries of ancient qanats in the south-eastern suburbs of Bam are datable at least to the beginning of the 2nd century BC. A popular belief attributes the foundation of the town itself to Haftvad, who lived at the time of Ardashir Babakan, the founder of the Sassanian Empire (3rd century BC). The name of Bam has been associated with the 'burst of the worm' (silk worm). Haftvad is given as the person who introduced silk and cotton weaving to the region of Kerman.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Bam is situated in a desert environment on the southern edge of the Iranian high plateau. The origins of Bam can be traced back to the Achaemenid period (6th to 4th centuries BC). Its heyday was from the 7th to 11th centuries, being at the crossroads of important trade routes and known for the production of silk and cotton garments. The existence of life in the oasis was based on the underground irrigation canals, the qanāts, of which Bam has preserved some of the earliest evidence in Iran. Arg-e Bam is the most representative example of a fortified medieval town built in vernacular technique using mud layers (&lt;em&gt;Chineh&lt;/em&gt; ).&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bam and its Cultural Landscape</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1564</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1315</http_url><id_number>1315</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1315.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.0186111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>48.8358333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Shushtar, Historical Hydraulic System, inscribed as a masterpiece of creative genius, can be traced back to Darius the Great in the 5th century B.C. It involved the creation of two main diversion canals on the river K&amp;acirc;run one of which, Gargar canal, is still in use providing water to the city of Shushtar via a series of tunnels that supply water to mills. It forms a spectacular cliff from which water cascades into a downstream basin. It then enters the plain situated south of the city where it has enabled the planting of orchards and farming over an area of 40,000 ha. known as Mian&amp;acirc;b (Paradise). The property has an ensemble of remarkable sites including the Sal&amp;acirc;sel Castel, the operation centre of the entire hydraulic system, the tower where the water level is measured, damns, bridges, basins and mills. It bears witness to the know-how of the Elamites and Mesopotamians as well as more recent Nabatean expertise and Roman building influence.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1599</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Sufism (tasawwuf, from sūf &amp;lsquo;wool' in Arabic or safā &amp;lsquo;purity') is generally considered to be the inner mystical dimension of Islam rather than a distinct sect. It began to develop into a spiritual movement in the 9th and 10th centuries. Sufism is claimed to have been a definitive factor in the spread of Islam and in the creation of an integrated Islamic culture in Africa and Asia. Sufism flourished between the 13th and 16th centuries throughout the Islamic world as a vigorous religious and intellectual culture with specific directions given by the different tariqats or orders founded by Sufi teachers. Sufism has left a number of physical artistic manifestations, particularly in central Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Iran underwent the Islamic conquest, Ardabil was the largest city in north-western Iran, and it remained so until the Mongol invasions, which left the town shattered for three centuries until the advent of the Safavid Dynasty, of which Sheikh Safi al-Din (1252-1334) is the eponym.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sheikh Safi al-Din followed Sheikh Zāhed e-Gilāni's teachings and after his master's death took his place and developed his own tariqat, which acquired its name and from which Safavi Sufism originated. He founded a khānegāh in Ardabil, which was later to become his shrine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ensemble functioned initially as a small, selfcontained city with bazaars, public baths and meydāns, religious facilities, houses, and offices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of the Safavi rulers, the role and function of the nominated property changed to one of political and national importance as the important shrine of the founder of the Safavid Dynasty. Shah Ismail, Sheikh Safi al-Din's successor as Sufi leader of the khanegah, became the first shah of the Safavid Dynasty and declared Shi'ism the state religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Safavids spared no expense in enriching and decorating the structure of the shrine of their ancestor with many works of art. The shrine became a focus for pilgrims from around the world and a religious ensemble containing outstanding works of art, ornamentation, and archaeology from the 14th to the 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Four main building phases have been identified by researchers in which the most important structures were built or substantially modified:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; 1300-1349: In this period the layout of the shrine was laid down: Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili Khānegāh, Haram-khānā, Allāh Allāh Dome, Sāhat, Dār al-Huffāz Hall, Shāhnishin, the Middle Courtyard, and the New Chilla Khānā were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; 1349-1544: In this period Shah Ismail and Shah Ismail's mother's sepulchres, Dār al-Hadith, Jannatsarā, Shahidgāh, and the sepulchre yard south of Sheikh Safi al-Din tomb were built. Most of the building activity has been dated to the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; 1544-1752: The Chini-khānā in its present form, the Shāh Abbāsi Gate, and the Garden Courtyard were created.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt; 1752 to the 20th century: The school, the toilets, the engine room, and the greenhouse were built, most of them in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated property has maintained its role as a place of worship and pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1345</http_url><id_number>1345</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1345.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.2486111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>48.2913888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built between the beginning of the 16&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/sup&gt; century and the end of the 18&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/sup&gt; century, this place of spiritual retreat in the Sufi tradition uses Iranian traditional architectural forms to maximize use of available space to accommodate a variety of functions (including a library, a mosque, a school, mausolea, a cistern, a hospital, kitchens, a bakery, and some offices). It incorporates a route to reach the shrine of the Sheikh divided into seven segments, which mirror the seven stages of Sufi mysticism, separated by eight gates, which represent the eight attitudes of Sufism. The ensemble includes well-preserved and richly ornamented facades and interiors, with a remarkable collection of antique artefacts. It constitutes a rare ensemble of elements of medieval Islamic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sheikh Safi al-din Khānegāh and Shrine Ensemble in Ardabil</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1680</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological evidence bears witness to human occupation of the area corresponding to Tabriz since the Bronze Age. However, this occupation did not assume a continuous nature until the Iron Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 9th century Tabriz was an important military base. In this period Tabriz began to develop as an economic and business centre, and in the 12th and 13th centuries it was the capital of the country, although not uninterruptedly. The destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 increased the importance of Tabriz as a trading centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1316 and 1331 Tabriz experienced the high point of its economic and social life. Travellers such as Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta described it as one of the richest trading centres in the world. During the 14th and 15th centuries the town's prosperity increased thanks to its strategic location, where much used west-east and south-east routes crossed, to the development of highly regarded manufactured products (e.g. cotton and silk textiles, arms, pottery), and to a wise policy of tax exemption. The first vast official and ceremonial space, the Sahib-abad, was created in 1258, around which the most important public buildings were built and where the army could be paraded, but which could also be used as a meeting place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 16th century the Safavid dynasty chose Tabriz as the capital city of their kingdom and the town became a powerful government centre, even though the capital was moved, first to Qazvin in 1548 and then to Isfahan, which were considered safer from Ottoman threat. In the 16th and 17th centuries manufacturing grew and diversified (weaving, copper metallurgy, weapon and tile production, leatherworks, tanning, soap making) and the volume of trade expanded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the last quarter of the 17th century Tabriz entered into a period of economic depression. Nonetheless, accounts by travellers from this period of decline still depicted Tabriz as an important trading centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 18th century brought a period of political instability owing to Ottoman attempts at expansion. In 1780, at the beginning of the Qajar dynasty, the most destructive earthquake in the dense seismic history of Tabriz completely destroyed the town; it was, however, rapidly rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Another earthquake in 1817 caused a great deal of damage to the mosques and to the town. In 1826 Tabriz was occupied by the Russians, but it was regained by the Qajar rulers two years later. During the 19th century several changes were made in the town. The governmental centre moved from the Sahib-abad, where public buildings were arranged around a vast square north of the Mehranroud River, to its present location, south of the river, close to the Aala Gate. Sahib-ul-Amr square was built in the historical area of Sahib-abad, and the Jami Mosque was restored, which helped restore its central role to the Bazaar. In 1871 a flood caused extensive damage to the bazaars, which were mapped and evaluated by means of a field survey. These records provide information about the condition of the Bazaar at that time. Repair works were undertaken in the years that followed to various structures: for example, the Mozaffarieh Timcha was completed in 1905.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1906 Tabriz became the centre of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution: the Bazaar was closed and the people demonstrated against the government since the Constitution was signed by the king and the first Parliament was established.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 20th century several wide roads were opened, leading to certain parts of the Bazaar becoming separated from its core.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over the last thirty years a number of restoration projects have been carried out on the Jami and Goi Machids as well as on several commercial structures, whilst the Pol-bazaar has recently been completely reconstructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1346</http_url><id_number>1346</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1346.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.0813888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>46.2930555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tabriz has been a place of cultural exchange since antiquity and its historic bazaar complex is one of the most important commercial centres on the Silk Road. Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex consists of a series of interconnected, covered, brick structures, buildings, and enclosed spaces for different functions. Tabriz and its Bazaar were already prosperous and famous in the 13th century, when the town, in the province of Eastern Azerbaijan, became the capital city of the Safavid kingdom. The city lost its status as capital in the 16th century, but remained important as a commercial hub until the end of the 18th century, with the expansion of Ottoman power. It is one of the most complete examples of the traditional commercial and cultural system of Iran.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1681</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1372</http_url><id_number>1372</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1372.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.1666666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>53.1666666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property includes nine gardens in as many provinces. They exemplify the diversity of Persian garden designs that evolved and adapted to different climate conditions while retaining principles that have their roots in the times of Cyrus the Great, 6th century BC. Always divided into four sectors, with water playing an important role for both irrigation and ornamentation, the Persian garden was conceived to symbolize Eden and the four Zoroastrian elements of sky, earth, water and plants. These gardens, dating back to different periods since the 6th century BC, also feature buildings, pavilions and walls, as well as sophisticated irrigation systems. They have influenced the art of garden design as far as India and Spain.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Persian Garden</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1768</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1397</http_url><id_number>1397</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1397.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.6697222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>51.6852777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the historic centre of Isfahan, the Masjed-e Jām&amp;eacute; (&amp;lsquo;Friday mosque&amp;rsquo;) can be seen as a stunning illustration of the evolution of mosque architecture over twelve centuries, starting in ad&amp;nbsp;841. It is the oldest preserved edifice of its type in Iran and a prototype for later mosque designs throughout Central Asia. The complex, covering more than 20,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, is also the first Islamic building that adapted the four-courtyard layout of Sassanid palaces to Islamic religious architecture. Its double-shelled ribbed domes represent an architectural innovation that inspired builders throughout the region. The site also features remarkable decorative details representative of stylistic developments over more than a thousand years of Islamic art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan  </site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1821</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1398</http_url><id_number>1398</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1398.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.2580277778</latitude><location></location><longitude>55.1690000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 53&amp;nbsp;m high tomb built in ad 1006 for Qābus Ibn Voshmgir, Ziyarid ruler and literati, near the ruins of the ancient city of Jorjan in north-east Iran, bears testimony to the cultural exchange between Central Asian nomads and the ancient civilization of Iran. The tower is the only remaining evidence of Jorjan, a former centre of arts and science that was destroyed during the Mongols&amp;rsquo; invasion in the 14th and 15th centuries. It is an outstanding and technologically innovative example of Islamic architecture that influenced sacral building in Iran, Anatolia and Central Asia. Built of unglazed fired bricks, the monument&amp;rsquo;s intricate geometric forms constitute a tapering cylinder with a diameter of 17&amp;ndash;15.5&amp;nbsp;m, topped by a conical brick roof. It illustrates the development of mathematics and science in the Muslim world at the turn of the first millennium AD.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gonbad-e Qābus</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1822</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1422</http_url><id_number>1422</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1422.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.6803666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>51.4205111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The lavish Golestan Palace is a masterpiece of the Qajar era, embodying the successful integration of earlier Persian crafts and architecture with Western influences. The walled Palace, one of the oldest groups of buildings in Teheran, became the seat of government of the Qajar family, which came into power in 1779 and made Teheran the capital of the country. Built around a garden featuring pools as well as planted areas, the Palace’s most characteristic features and rich ornaments date from the 19th century. It became a centre of Qajari arts and architecture of which it is an outstanding example and has remained a source of inspiration for Iranian artists and architects to this day. It represents a new style incorporating traditional Persian arts and crafts and elements of 18th century architecture and technology.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Golestan Palace</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1888</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1455</http_url><id_number>1455</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1455.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.1894444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>48.2561111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the south-west of Iran, in the lower Zagros Mountains, the property encompasses a group of archaeological mounds rising on the eastern side of the Shavur River, as well as Ardeshir’s palace, on the opposite bank of the river. The excavated architectural monuments include administrative, residential and palatial structures. Susa contains several layers of superimposed urban settlements in a continuous succession from the late 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; millennium BCE until the 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century CE. The site bears exceptional testimony to the Elamite, Persian and Parthian cultural traditions, which have largely disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Susa</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1999</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1456</http_url><id_number>1456</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1456.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.5938888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>61.3277777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Shahr-i Sokhta, meaning ‘Burnt City’, is located at the junction of Bronze Age trade routes crossing the Iranian plateau. The remains of the mudbrick city represent the emergence of the first complex societies in eastern Iran. Founded around 3200 BC, it was populated during four main periods up to 1800 BC, during which time there developed several distinct areas within the city: those where monuments were built, and separate quarters for housing, burial and manufacture. Diversions in water courses and climate change led to the eventual abandonment of the city in the early second millennium. The structures, burial grounds and large number of significant artefacts unearthed there, and their well-preserved state due to the dry desert climate, make this site a rich source of information regarding the emergence of complex societies and contacts between them in the third millennium BC.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Shahr-i Sokhta</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2000</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1423</http_url><id_number>1423</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1423.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.1680555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>55.3755555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Maymand is a self-contained, semi-arid area at the end of a valley at the southern extremity of Iran’s central mountains. The villagers are semi-nomadic agro-pastoralists. They raise their animals on mountain pastures, living in temporary settlements in spring and autumn. During the winter months they live lower down the valley in cave dwellings carved out of the soft rock (&lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;kamar&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;), an unusual form of housing in a dry, desert environment.  This cultural landscape is an example of a system that appears to have been more widespread in the past and involves the movement of people rather than animals.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Landscape of Maymand</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2073</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1505</http_url><id_number>1505</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1505.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.2161111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>58.8388888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Lut Desert, or Dasht-e-Lut, is located in the south-east of the country. Between June and October, this arid subtropical area is swept by strong winds, which transport sediment and cause aeolian erosion on a colossal scale. Consequently, the site presents some of the most spectacular examples of aeolian yardang landforms (massive corrugated ridges). It also contains extensive stony deserts and dune fields. The property represents an exceptional example of ongoing geological processes. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lut Desert</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2095</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1506</http_url><id_number>1506</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1506.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.2900000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>58.6544444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Throughout the arid regions of Iran, agricultural and permanent settlements are supported by the ancient qanat system of tapping alluvial aquifers at the heads of valleys and conducting the water along underground tunnels by gravity, often over many kilometres. The eleven qanats representing this system include rest areas for workers, water reservoirs and watermills. The traditional communal management system still in place allows equitable and sustainable water sharing and distribution. The qanats provide exceptional testimony to cultural traditions and civilizations in desert areas with an arid climate.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Persian Qanat</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2096</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1544</http_url><id_number>1544</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1544.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.9013888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>54.3691666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The City of Yazd is located in the middle of the Iranian plateau, 270 km southeast of Isfahan, close to the Spice and Silk Roads. It bears living testimony to the use of limited resources for survival in the desert. Water is supplied to the city through a qanat system developed to draw underground water. The earthen architecture of Yazd has escaped the modernization that destroyed many traditional earthen towns, retaining its traditional districts, the qanat system, traditional houses, bazars, hammams, mosques, synagogues, Zoroastrian temples and the historic garden of Dolat-abad.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Yazd</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2148</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1568</http_url><id_number>1568</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1568.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ir</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.7774805556</latitude><location></location><longitude>51.5704500000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The eight archaeological sites situated in three geographical areas in the southeast of Fars Province: Firuzabad, Bishapur and Sarvestan. The fortified structures, palaces and city plans date back to the earliest and latest times of the Sassanian Empire, which stretched across the region from 224 to 658 CE. Among these sites is the capital built by the founder of the dynasty, Ardashir Papakan, as well as a city and architectural structures of his successor, Shapur I. The archaeological landscape reflects the optimized utilization of natural topography and bears witness to the influence of Achaemenid and Parthian cultural traditions and of Roman art, which had a significant impact on the architecture of the Islamic era.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region</site><states>Iran (Islamic Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2233</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/277</http_url><id_number>277</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_277.jpg</image_url><iso_code>iq</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.5880600000</latitude><location>Governorate of Ninawa</location><longitude>42.7183300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hatra is an excellent example of the fortified cities laid out on the circular plan of the eastern city, such as Ctesiphon, Firouzabad or Zingirli. The perfect condition of the double wall in an untouched environment sets it aside as an outstanding example of a series which covers the Parthian, Sassanid, and early Islamic civilization. It provides, moreover, exceptional testimony to an entire facet of Assyro-Babylonian civilization subjected to the influence of Greeks, Parthians, Romans and Arabs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although there are few texts referring to the obscure beginnings of Hatra, it seems that a smallish Assyrian settlement grew up in the 3rd century BC becoming a fortress and a trading centre. Founded by nomadic horsemen from a Khorasan tribe, the Parthian empire of the Arsacid dynasty (247 BC-AD 226) claimed to be the successor of the Achaemenid Empire of Cyrus. In the 2nd century BC, it flourished as a major staging-post on the famous oriental silk road to become another of the great Arab cities as Palmyra in Syria, Petra in Jordan, and Baalbek in Lebanon. This Eastern monarchy was a source of concern for the Romans who sought unsuccessfully to destroy it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With this historical background, the site of Hatra, a large fortified city, the remains of which are to be seen in the middle of the desert 110km south-west of Mosul, can be taken as a symbol of the struggles which opposed Parthians and Romans for the spoils of the old empire of Alexander.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city was seized unsuccessfully in 116 by Trajan (who died in Cilicia the following year); again it resisted Septimius Severus in 198 who, however, after having taken Ctesiphon and annexed Mesopotamia was acclaimed in Rome with the title of Parthicus Maximus. Some architecture and some inscriptions seem to point to a form of Roman occupation or of a Romano-Hatrene alliance in the AD 230s and inscriptions point to the rule of emperor Gordian III. Hatra could therefore be seen as the furthest extent of the empire at that time. Shortly thereafter Hatra was destroyed by Ardashir I (226-42), the founder of the Sassanid dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present-day remains date back to between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. The remains of the city, especially the temples where Hellenistic and Roman architecture blend with Eastern decorative features, attest to the greatness of its civilization. The fortifications were immense: the city's defences are comprised of two walls which separate a wide ditch. The external wall is an earthen bank; the inner wall is built from stone and has four fortified gates which roughly correspond to the four cardinal points. In the heart of this round city of almost 2 km in diameter, a rectangular &lt;em&gt;temenos&lt;/em&gt; lies in an east-west direction. It is surrounded by a stone wall interrupted by towers. A north-south wall divides it into two unequal spaces. The function of this &lt;em&gt;temenos&lt;/em&gt; - where there is a heavier concentration of temples in the west space - seems to have been both religious and commercial: shops looking on to a pilastered portico have been found on each of the four sides of the rectangle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the very centre of Hatra lies the temple complex dedicated to several Hatrene gods, the chief of which was the Sun god Shamash. Around 156, Hatra was governed by Arab rulers: prominent among them was Nasr, father of the first two kings of Hatra: Lajash and Sanatruq. The latter completed the Temple of Shamash, Sculptures have been discovered to Apollo (Balmarin in the Hatrene religion), Poseidon, Eros, Hermes, Tyche (the guardian goddess of Hatra) and Fortuna.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A large fortified city under the influence of the Parthian Empire and capital of the first Arab Kingdom, Hatra withstood invasions by the Romans in A.D. 116 and 198 thanks to its high, thick walls reinforced by towers. The remains of the city, especially the temples where Hellenistic and Roman architecture blend with Eastern decorative features, attest to the greatness of its civilization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hatra</site><states>Iraq</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>309</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2003</danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of the city of Ashur goes back to the Sumerian Early Dynastic period (first half of the 3rd millennium BCE). Some remains may even date to preceding periods. For this early part the stratigraphic excavation of the temple of Ishtar provided substantial information about the development of the religious architecture. Two of the five major building stages of it belong to this period. During the Akkadian empire (ca 2334-2154 BCE) Ashur was an important centre, and a governor of the third dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 BCE) ruled over the city which had to pay taxes to the central administration in the south. Still, the temple of Ishtar and its findings remain the main archaeological reference point. As an independent citystate Ashur became capital of Assyria and the Assyrians during the 2nd millennium BCE starting with the Old- Assyrian rulers Erishum, Ilushuma and Shamshi-Adad I and thereafter with the Middle-Assyrian kings Eriba- Adad I and Ashuniballit I. From here, the military campaigns of the Middle-Assyrian kings Tukulti-Ninurta I and Tiglathpileser I started and laid the foundation for the territorial expansion of the Assyrian empire to the west, ie Syro-Mesopotamia and the Levant, and other adjacent regions. For the 2nd millennium BCE a systematic building programme is attested for Ashur, culminating in the Middle-Assyrian period, when king Tukulti-Ninurta I not only renovated or reconstructed the majority of the temples (among them the temple of Ishtar), but terraced a large area for the his New Palace (the building was not erected since the king founded a new residential city named Kar-Tukulti- Ninurta, further upstream).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ashur remained political capital until the reign of the Neo- Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE), who moved it to Kalhu (modern Nimrud). After that, Ashur continued to be an important religious and provincial Assyrian centre even though it had lost its function as national capital. The Neo-Assyrian kings executed restoration work at the main sanctuaries and palaces of Ashur as it was requested by the inscriptions of their predecessors and erected the royal burial place within the area of the Old royal palace. The majority of the private houses and living quarters date to this Neo-Assyrian period and provide important information about domestic architecture and the conditions of life of those parts of the Assyrian society not belonging to the royal elite. Special attention was received by the more than 1,000 inhumations in graves and tombs, mainly located inside the buildings, which provide important information on aspects of burial rites and funerary culture. The site survived the fall of the Assyrian empire in the 7th century BCE, and it flourished in the Hellenistic and Parthian periods until the 2nd century CE. The Parthian palace and a temple close to the ziggurat are architectural testimonies of this period. Presently, residential areas of the Parthian period are being excavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1130</http_url><id_number>1130</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1130.jpg</image_url><iso_code>iq</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: Founded in the 3rd millennium BCE, the most important role of Ashur was from the 14th to 9th century BCE when it was the first capital of the Assyrian empire. Ashur was also the religious capital of Assyrians, and the place for crowning and burial of its kings. Criterion iv: The excavated remains of the public and residential buildings of Ashur provide an outstanding record of the evolution of building practice from the Sumerian and Akkadian period through the Assyrian empire, as well as including the short revival during the Parthian period.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>35.4566666667</latitude><location>Governorate of Salah ad Din</location><longitude>43.2611111111</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 3rd millennium BC, the most important role of Ashur was from the 14th to 9th centuries BC when it was the first capital of the Assyrian empire. Ashur was also the Assyrian religious capital and the place for crowning and burial of its kings. The excavated remains of the public and residential buildings of Ashur provide an outstanding record of the evolution of building practice from the Sumerian and Akkadian period through the Assyrian empire, as well as including the short revival during the Parthian period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient city of Ashur (Assur, modern Qal'at Sherqat) is located 390km north of Baghdad. The settlement was founded on the western bank of the Tigris. The excavated remains consist of superimposed archaeological deposits, the earliest from the Sumerian Early Dynastic period (early 3rd millennium BC), then the Akkadian and Ur III periods, followed by the Old, Middle and Neo-Assyrian (ending mid-1st millennium BC) periods, and finally, the Hellenistic period and that of the Arab kings of Hatra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Structurally, the city of Ashur was divided into two parts: the old city (Akkadian libbi-ali, the heart of the city), which is the northern and largest part of Ashur, and the new city (Akk. alu-ishshu), which was constructed around the mid-2nd millennium BC. The major features of the city now visible on-site consist of architectural remains: the ziggurat and the great temple of the god Ashur, the double temple of Anu and Adad, the temple of Ishtar, the Sumerian goddess of love and war, the Old Palace with its royal tombs and several living quarters in many parts of the city. The city was surrounded by a double wall with several gates and a big moat. The majority of the buildings of the city were built with sun-dried mud-bricks with foundations of quarried stones or dressed stone, depending on the period. Artistic objects and parts of architectural remains of the city are at present on display in the major museums of the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ancient city of Ashur is located on the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia in a specific geo-ecological zone, at the borderline between rain-fed and irrigation agriculture. The city dates back to the 3rd millennium BC. From the 14th to the 9th centuries BC it was the first capital of the Assyrian Empire, a city-state and trading platform of international importance. It also served as the religious capital of the Assyrians, associated with the god Ashur. The city was destroyed by the Babylonians, but revived during the Parthian period in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ashur (Qal'at Sherqat)</site><states>Iraq</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1310</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2007</danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/276</http_url><id_number>276</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_276.jpg</image_url><iso_code>iq</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.3409894444</latitude><location>Samarra Township, Salah al-Din Governorate</location><longitude>43.8235430555</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Samarra Archaeological City is the site of a powerful Islamic capital city that ruled over the provinces of the Abbasid Empire extending from Tunisia to Central Asia for a century. Located on both sides of the River Tigris 130 km north of Baghdad, the length of the site from north to south is 41.5 km; its width varying from 8 km to 4 km. It testifies to the architectural and artistic innovations that developed there and spread to the other regions of the Islamic world and beyond. The 9th-century Great Mosque and its spiral minaret are among the numerous remarkable architectural monuments of the site, 80% of which remain to be excavated.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Samarra Archaeological City</site><states>Iraq</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1456</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1437</http_url><id_number>1437</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1437.jpg</image_url><iso_code>iq</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.1911111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>44.0091666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Erbil Citadel is a fortified settlement on top of an imposing ovoid-shaped tell (a hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding on the same spot) in the Kurdistan region, Erbil Governorate. A continuous wall of tall 19th-century façades still conveys the visual impression of an impregnable fortress, dominating the city of Erbil. The citadel features a peculiar fan-like pattern dating back to Erbil’s late Ottoman phase. Written and iconographic historical records document the antiquity of settlement on the site – Erbil corresponds to ancient Arbela, an important Assyrian political and religious centre – while archaeological finds and investigations suggest that the mound conceals the levels and remains of previous settlements.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Erbil Citadel</site><states>Iraq</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1980</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1481</http_url><id_number>1481</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1481.jpg</image_url><iso_code>iq</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.5622222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>47.6577777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ahwar is made up of seven components: three archaeological sites and four wetland marsh areas in southern Iraq. The archaeological cities of Uruk and Ur and the Tell Eridu archaeological site form part of the remains of the Sumerian cities and settlements that developed in southern Mesopotamia between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE in the marshy delta of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Ahwar of Southern Iraq – also known as the Iraqi Marshlands – are unique, as one of the world’s largest inland delta systems, in an extremely hot and arid environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Ahwar of Southern Iraq: Refuge of Biodiversity and the Relict Landscape of the Mesopotamian Cities</site><states>Iraq</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2042</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Two main historical periods can be identified among the archaeological remains in this site, and in both the Bend of the Boyne was exerting significant cultural influence over much of central Ireland and beyond:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;1 Prehistoric (3800-2200 BC)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-Early "Western" Neolithic&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Late "Western" Neolithic&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-Passage tomb period&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-Beaker period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;2 Protohistory and medieval period&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-Late Iron Age -Developed Early Christian&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-Anglo-Norman/Cistercian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Major excavations of the great burial mounds at Newgrange and Knowth, and smaller investigations elsewhere, have revealed evidence of human occupation as early as the 4th millennium BC, but more substantial remains are known from the Late Western Neolithic. These include houses, palisaded enclosures, and field systems and represent the opening up of Ireland to agriculture with the clearance of ancient woodland. Some forty passage tombs, which testify to a higher degree of social organization and cultural evolution, are known in the area; their origins are to be found in Brittany and the western part of the Iberian peninsula. With the arrival of Beaker influences, one of the most important indicators is the switch from circular to rectangular houses. There was little Bronze Age occupation in the area, which was not settled again until the Late Iron Age, in the mid 1st millennium BC. Knowth became a fortified settlement and many subsidiary burials were inserted into the great Neolithic mound; finds of imported goods testify to extensive trading connections. The Early Christian period, from the 8th century AD onwards, saw the construction of three large ring-forts in the area. Knowth grew into a large undefended settlement, with rectangular houses, souterrains, extensive agricultural and industrial activity, and evidence of literacy. It was the capital of the Kings of Knowth up to the Anglo-Norman invasion in the 12th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the Normans, the area became a centre of innovation under the control of the Cistercians, who eventually incorporated it into their system of granges or estate farms. It has remained an agricultural landscape up to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/659</http_url><id_number>659</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_659.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ie</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the site under &lt;em&gt;criteria (i), (iii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt; and invited the Irish authorities to control carefully future developments in and around the site and to involve ICOMOS in conservation and management planning.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.6916700000</latitude><location>County Meath</location><longitude>-6.4500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The monuments of the Bend of the Boyne display longevity of settlement whose origins are found in Neolithic settlements The various monuments, particularly the great passage tomb, represent important cultural, social, artistic and scientific developments over a considerable length of time. Nowhere else in the world is found the continuity of settlement and activity associated with a megalithic cemetery such as that which exists at Brugh na B&amp;ograve;inne. The passage tomb complex represents a spectacular survival of the embodiment of a set of ideas and beliefs of outstanding historical significance unequalled in its counterparts throughout the rest of Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site of the Bend of the Boyne (Brugh na Bo&amp;igrave;nne in Irish) covers some 780&amp;nbsp;ha and takes its name from the fact that it is defined on the south, east and west sides by the River Boyne; part of the northern boundary is formed by the River Mattock. It is essentially a ridge running east-west with three low hills on it (Dowth, Knowth and Newgrange). These three great burial mounds dominate the whole area, and are surrounded by about 40 satellite passage-graves, to constitute a great prehistoric funerary landscape. Its intense ritual significance inevitably attracted later monuments, both in protohistory and in the Christian period. The importance of the site is enhanced by the fact that the River Boyne communicates both with the Celtic Sea and the heartland of Ireland, and so it has considerable economic and political significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is predominantly agricultural at the present time. It has been intensively explored for more than 100 years by archaeologists and historians, and excavation has revealed many features. The Knowth group, where the earliest features date from the Neolithic period and the latest from the Anglo-Norman period, has produced 30 monuments and sites that figure on the official inventory: these include passage graves, enclosures, occupation sites and field systems. The Newgrange group is purely prehistoric, with a ring-fort, passage graves, a cursus and a henge. The Dowth group is similar to that at Newgrange, but there is medieval evidence in the form of a church and a castle. Also included within the nominated area is the castle at Proudfootstown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two main historical periods can be identified among the archaeological remains in this site, and in both the Bend of the Boyne was exerting significant cultural influence over much of central Ireland and beyond: Prehistoric (3800-2200 BC); Protohistory and medieval period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Major excavations of the great burial mounds at Newgrange and Knowth, and smaller investigations elsewhere, have revealed evidence of human occupation as early as the 4th millennium BC, but more substantial remains are known from the late Western Neolithic. These include houses, palisaded enclosures, and field systems and represent the opening up of Ireland to agriculture with the clearance of ancient woodland. Some 40 passage tombs, which testify to a higher degree of social organization and cultural evolution, are known in the area; their origins are to be found in Brittany and the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. With the arrival of Beaker influences, one of the most important indicators is the switch from circular to rectangular houses. There was little Bronze Age occupation in the area, which was not settled again until the late Iron Age. Knowth became a fortified settlement and many subsidiary burials were inserted into the great Neolithic mound; finds of imported goods testify to extensive trading connections. The early Christian period, from the 8th century AD onwards, saw the construction of three large ring-forts in the area. Knowth grew into a large undefended settlement, with rectangular houses, souterrains, extensive agricultural and industrial activity, and evidence of literacy. It was the capital of the kings of Knowth until the Anglo-Norman invasion in the 12th century. Under the Normans, the area became a centre of innovation under the control of the Cistercians, who eventually incorporated it into their system of granges or estate farms. It has remained an agricultural landscape to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The three main prehistoric sites of the Br&amp;uacute; na B&amp;oacute;inne Complex, Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, are situated on the north bank of the River Boyne 50 km north of Dublin. This is Europe's largest and most important concentration of prehistoric megalithic art. The monuments there had social, economic, religious and funerary functions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Brú na Bóinne - Archaeological Ensemble of the Bend of the Boyne</site><states>Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>780</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/757</http_url><id_number>757</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_757.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ie</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (iii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the site is of outstanding universal value being an exceptional, and in many respects unique example of an early religious settlement deliberately sited on a pyramidal rock in the ocean, preserved because of a remarkable environment. It illustrates, as no other site can, the extremes of a Christian monasticism characterizing much of North Africa, the Near East and Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.7719400000</latitude><location>County Kerry</location><longitude>-10.5386100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Skellig Michael is an outstanding, and in many respects unique, example of an early religious settlement deliberately sited on a pyramidal rock in the ocean, preserved because of a remarkable environment. It illustrates, as no other site can, the extremes of a Christian monasticism characterizing much of North Africa, the Near East and Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island of Skellig Michael lies 11.6&amp;nbsp;km off Bolus Head, the westernmost tip of the lveragh Peninsula of County Kerry. Faulting of Devonian sandstone and gravels has created a U-shaped depression, known today as 'Christ's Valley' or 'Christ's Saddle', 130&amp;nbsp;m above sea level in the centre of the island, and this is flanked by two peaks, that to the north-east rising to 185&amp;nbsp;m and that to the west-south-west 218&amp;nbsp;m. The rock is deeply eroded and weathered, owing to its exposed position, but is almost frost-free. Landing is possible at three points, depending on the state of the sea. These communicate by flights of steps with the principal monastic remains, which are situated on a sloping shelf on the ridge running north-south on the north-eastern side of the island; the hermitage is on the steeper South Peak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The approach to the monastery from Christ's Saddle leads to a long narrow terrace. A doorway in the rear wall gives access via a flight of Steps to a larger enclosure, which is in its turn terraced and subdivided; the lowest level contains the main monastic enclosure, comprised of a church, oratories, cells, a souterrain, and many crosses and cross-slabs. The white quartz paving between the buildings gives the ensemble an urban quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Large Oratory has the usual inverted boat-shaped form, with a door in the west wall. It is built from coursed stone, rectangular at the base and becoming oval as it rises in height; the elongated dome terminates inside in a row of large slabs. The Small Oratory is more carefully constructed, and is considered to be later in date. Nearby are the unique remains of a beehive-shaped toilet cell. Cell A is the largest of the six cells and must have had a communal function. Several have cupboards and projecting stones for hanging purposes. They vary in plan - square, rectangular, and D-shaped; several retain their original flagged floors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Michael's Church is rectangular in form, unlike the oratories, and would originally have had a timber roof. Two stages of construction can be identified: a small church in mortared stone was later expanded, using much larger sandstone blocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The date of the foundation of the monastery on this island is not known. There is a tradition that it was founded by St Fionan in the 6th century; however, the earliest written records come from the end of the 8th century. It was dedicated to St Michael somewhere between 950 and 1050. It was customary to build a new church to celebrate a dedication, and this date fits in well with the architectural style of the oldest part of the existing church, known as St Michael's Church. It was occupied continuously until the later 12th century, when a general climatic deterioration led to increased storms in the seas around the island and forced the community to move to the mainland. However, a monastic presence was maintained as a dependence of Ballinskelligs Abbey. The church was enlarged in the 12th century and the older buildings were kept in repair. The prior of Ballinskelligs Abbey continued to be addressed in papal communications as 'Augustinian Prior of St Michael's, Roche ( = Skellig)'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When in 1578 Queen Elizabeth I of England dissolved Ballinskelligs following the rebellion of the Earl of Desmond, under whose protection it had been, the island passed from the Augustinian Order to John Butler. However, although the monastery no longer existed, it continued to be a place of pilgrimage. Around 1826 the owner sold the island to the Corporation for Preserving and Improving the Port of Dublin (later to become the Commissioners of Irish Lights), who built two lighthouses on the Atlantic side.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>Sceilg Mhichíl is an outstanding, and in many respects unique, example of an early religious settlement deliberately sited on a pyramidal rock in the ocean, preserved because of a remarkable environment. It illustrates, as no other property can, the extremes of a Christian monasticism characterizing much of North Africa, the Near East, and Europe.</short_description><site>Sceilg Mhichíl</site><states>Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>892</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of Masada is known principally from the work of Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian of the 1st century CE, and from the excavations of 1963-65.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to Josephus, the site was first fortified by the High Priest Jonathan. There were two High Priests of this name in the 2nd century BCE and it is not certain to which he was referring. The only material from the Hasmonaean period (103-40 BCE) so far discovered in excavations at Masada is a number of coins of Alexander Jannaeus, from the early part of the period. There is evidence in the form of archaeological finds in a cave that there was human settlement there in the Chalcolithic period (4th millennium BCE) and then in the Early Iron Age (10th-7th century BCE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Herod the Great (ruled 37-4 BCE) selected the virtually impregnable site of Masada to build a refuge for himself and his family at a period when he felt himself threatened both internally by the Jews of his kingdom and externally by Cleopatra, who wanted to add Judaea to her Egyptian kingdom. At first the buildings were relatively modest, though conforming with classical Roman architectural forms. They were progressively enlarged and lavishly decorated, to become a luxurious royal palace. Towards the end of his reign Herod felt himself threatened once again and so the fortifications were rebuilt and reinforced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the early phase (c 35 BCE) belong the nucleus of the Western Palace, three small palaces, an administrative building, a barracks, three columbaria (also used as watchtowers), several large cisterns, and a swimming pool. These buildings are scattered all over the hilltop, without any apparent overall plan. The architects had previously served the Hasmonaean court, and the early buildings are strikingly similar to those at Jericho.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main phase is dated to the mid 20s of the 1st century BCE. The most important new construction was the large Northern Palace; close by was the large bath-house, for the use of the king and his family and guests. Also close to the palace was a large storage complex composed of eighteen long store-rooms. This group, together with an administrative building, are located at the highest point of the hilltop and constitute a defensible acropolis or citadel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Western Palace was considerably enlarged at this time. A series of very large cisterns was dug and new access paths were laid out. By contrast with the early period, the new works carried out in this period appear to have been carried out in accordance with a plan. They are integrated into two complexes, one around the Northern Palace and the other around the Western Palace. The architecture is also different in that it is in the full Roman style and tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the final phase, dated to around 15 BCE, the most important new construction was the casemate wall, 1290m long, which surrounds the entire summit. In addition, some small modifications and additions were made to the northern complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the end of the Herodian dynasty in 6 BCE Judaea came under direct Roman rule, and a small garrison was installed at Masada. At the beginning of the Jewish Revolt in 66 a group of Zealots led by Menahem, one of the Jewish leaders, surprised and slaughtered the garrison. The Zealots held Masada throughout the revolt, and many Jews settled there, particularly after the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple by Titus in 70. They occupied some of the Herodian palace buildings, and added more modest structures of their own, such as a synagogue, a ritual bath, and small houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two years later Flavius Silva, the Roman Governor, decided to eliminate this last remaining centre of Jewish resistance. He sent the X Legion and a number of auxiliary units there, with many prisoners of war for manual duties. The Jews, led by Eleazar Ben Yair, prepared for a long siege as the Romans and their prisoners built camps and a long siege wall (circumvallation) at the base of the hill. On a rocky site near the western approach to Masada they constructed a massive ramp of stones and rammed earth. A giant siege tower with a battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp. It succeeded in breaching the wall of the fortress in 73, allowing the Roman soldiers to enter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Zealots defended stoutly, but there was no hope of resisting the Roman attack for long. Josephus reports that Ben Yair talked to the 960 men, women, and children who survived, telling them that "a glorious death is preferable to a life of infamy." All but two took their own lives on 2 May 73.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A Roman garrison was once again installed at Masada and stayed there for some forty years. It occupied both the hilltop and the fortress constructed by Flavius Silva for the besiegers. After the withdrawal of the Roman garrison, the site was abandoned until the 5th century. Following a powerful earthquake, which caused most of the surviving Herodian buildings to collapse, a small community of Christian monks established themselves on the hilltop. They built a modest chapel and lived in primitive cells constructed from the ruins and in caves. After some decades this community was disbanded and Masada was deserted until excavations began in the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1040</http_url><id_number>1040</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1040.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; Masada is a symbol of the ancient Jewish kingdom of Israel, of its violent destruction in the later 1st century CE, and of the subsequent Diaspora.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The palace of Herod the Great at Masada is an outstanding example of a luxurious villa of the Early Roman Empire, whilst the camps and other fortifications that encircle the monument constitute the finest and most complete Roman siege works to have survived to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The tragic events during the last days of the Jewish refugees who occupied the fortress and palace of Masada make it a symbol both of Jewish cultural identity and, more universally, of the continuing human struggle between oppression and liberty.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>31.3135000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.3527500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Masada is a symbol of the ancient Jewish kingdom of Israel, of its violent destruction in the later 1st century CE, and of the subsequent Diaspora. The palace of Herod the Great at Masada is an outstanding example of a luxurious villa of the early Roman Empire, while the camps and other fortifications that encircle the hill constitute the finest and most complete Roman siege works to have survived to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The towering hill of Masada, with its precipitous flanks, overlooks a natural landscape of savage beauty. To the west lies the Judaean Desert, with its hills and terraces. To the east is a wildly broken terrain, running down to the brilliant colours of the Dead Sea. A giant scarp stretches to the south away to the horizon - the western wall of the Syrian-African rift valley - and Masada forms part of this scarp.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the northern area (Herodian period), the main structure is the Northern Palace, which in its present form is from the main phase (late 1st century BC). It was built on three slightly modified natural rock terraces. The upper level was mainly used for residential purposes, all originally decorated with mosaic floors and wall paintings. To the north there is a semi-circular colonnaded terrace surrounding what was probably a garden. On the two lower levels are to be found imposing colonnaded reception halls, both had bathing facilities. The lower reception level is the best preserved of the three. Access was through a trapezoid courtyard, with storerooms, meal preparation facilities, and a small bathhouse below and around it. There are two rock-hewn cisterns underneath. On a small hill just to the south of the Northern Palace is the large bath-house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the western area (Herodian period), the Western Palace was substantially enlarged and rebuilt in the main phase. To the nucleus, which consisted of a courtyard surrounded by bedrooms and reception rooms, were added two extensive service wings. The palace was expanded once more in the final phase, with the addition of new wings. Its size and layout, together with the opulence of its decoration (mosaic floors and walls of white plaster painted to imitate marble panels). This confirms the hypothesis that this was the ceremonial palace, the Northern Palace being the private palace for the king and his family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The casemate wall was built in the final phase. This massive defensive wall, 1,290&amp;nbsp;m long, contains about 70 rooms on its inner side and has 27 towers. Three gates pierce the wall: the Western Gate, the Southern Gate, and the Snake Path Gate (the eastern gate). A number of deep cisterns were dug into the rock of Masada in all three phases. The small ones dug during the first phase were filled by runoff from the hilltop. During the main phase two rows of cisterns were dug beneath the hilltop. Water was delivered through a network of dams and channels during the winter floods in the &lt;em&gt;wadis&lt;/em&gt; to the west of Masada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the buildings on the hilltop were occupied by the around 1,000 people who lived there in the Zealot period. The most important new feature from this time was the synagogue, a square building from the Herodian period that was probably used as a stable. Three rows of benches, characteristic of early synagogues, were built round the walls, and the &lt;em&gt;genizah&lt;/em&gt; (depository for superseded scrolls) under the floor of the back room. Seven or eight ritual baths (&lt;em&gt;mikveh&lt;/em&gt; ) were identified, including one large stepped immersion pool to the south of the Western Palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a network of eight Roman military camps around Masada. A striking feature of all the Roman camps are the hundreds of &lt;em&gt;contubernia&lt;/em&gt; (messing units), consisting of walls of stones 1-1.5&amp;nbsp;m high on which the soldiers erected their leather tents. The great ramp used for the final assault was built from soil and stones braced by an armature of timber beams.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Byzantine church is located virtually in the centre of the summit, and its walls still stand to a considerable height, built from coursed dolomite robbed from the Herodian buildings. The floor was originally covered with a mosaic, but much of this was removed to the Louvre in the 19th century. The walls were plastered and with designs of coloured stones and potsherds. The plan is the characteristic rectangular hall with an apse at the east end and a narthex at the west end.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Masada is a rugged natural fortress, of majestic beauty, in the Judaean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea. It is a symbol of the ancient kingdom of Israel, its violent destruction and the last stand of Jewish patriots in the face of the Roman army, in 73 A.D. It was built as a palace complex, in the classic style of the early Roman Empire, by Herod the Great, King of Judaea, (reigned 37 &amp;ndash; 4 B.C.). The camps, fortifications and attack ramp that encircle the monument constitute the most complete Roman siege works surviving to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Masada</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1214</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Ancient Acre was situated on Tel Akko (or Tel El Fukhar), about 2.5km to the east of the location of the old city. Settlement at the tell appears to have began during the Early Bronze Age (c 3000 BCE). Around 1900 BCE the town was fortified by a high earthen rampart with a brick gateway facing the direction of the sea. When the Israelites entered the land of Canaan Akko was one of the cities allotted to the tribe of Asher. In the centuries that followed it was under Assyrian rule in the 9th century BCE and between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE it was a Phoenician town under Persian rule. Following the conquest of the entire region by Alexander the Great and his early death, the area around Acre was first ruled by the Hellenistic Ptolemid dynasty of Egypt and then the Seleucids of Syria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present city was founded on the peninsula in the earlier period (3rd-2nd centuries BCE) and named Antiocha Ptolemais after its founder, Ptolemy II of Egypt. There are still traces of fortifications, a wall, and tower from this period. Acre was a centre for international trade because of its strategic position and its natural port. After a short period as part of the Jewish Hasmonaean kingdom in the 1st century BCE the city fell to the Romans in 63 BCE and became part of the province of Syria; it was granted the status of colonia. The first Christian pilgrims passed through Acre on their way to Jerusalem. In 330, during the Byzantine period, this region passed into the control of the Roman Empire. This was a time of economic and demographic expansion, when hundreds of churches and monasteries were established all over the Holy Land. The larger cities expanded and were encircled by new fortification systems; Acre retained its status as the principal port of the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the early Arab period (638-1099), when the city, which reverted to its original name, Akko, formed part of the Caliphate of Cairo, many of the country's cities were abandoned and destroyed. Acre decreased in importance as an international port and the city limits were reduced to include several quarters around the port, where a Moslem naval fleet was stationed. Acre began its economic recovery during the 10th and 11th centuries and the port and city walls were rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Crusader period began for Acre in 1104, some five years after the fall of Jerusalem. Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem, and the Genoese commercial fleet cooperated in laying siege to Acre from land and sea until the city fell to the Crusaders. A new and special model of settlement evolved, characterized by defined and autonomous quarters. The king settled in the northern part of the city, where he built a fortified palace. Genoese, Venetian, and Pisan merchants built autonomous quarters nearby the port. The military orders installed themselves nearby - the Hospitallers in the north of the city to the west of the palace, the Templars in the south-west of the city, and the German Knights close to the eastern wall of the wall. Other important quarters included those of the Patriarch (in which the Church of the Holy Cross, Acre's main cathedral, was built), the French merchants (the Proven&amp;ccedil;al quarter), and the English merchants. Moslem and Jewish merchants also settled in the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many public buildings were erected - fortified buildings, churches, bathhouses, bakeries, courts and hostels for pilgrims and merchants, covered markets - and also private dwellings. During the two centuries of Crusader rule Acre developed into a wealthy and thriving trading city. It symbolized the interchange between the eastern and western cultures better than any other city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1187, after the debacle at Hattin and the destruction of the Crusader army, the Moslems captured the whole of the Crusader lands and Acre was held for four years. It was not until 1191 that the Third Crusade led by Richard the Lion Heart led to the recapture of Acre and the adjoining coastal regions. A second Crusader kingdom was established with Acre as its capital, since the Crusaders were not able to retake Jerusalem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1191 to 1291 the second Crusader Kingdom expanded its borders. New neighbourhoods such as Monmizar to the north were built and Acre was given a new double city wall. More palaces, churches, and public buildings were erected, at a time when styles in the west were changing from Romanesque to Gothic. This change in style was put into practice in Acre and recent excavations have revealed buildings that reflect the transition between styles and the initial establishment of the Gothic style in the 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mameluke period (named after the Moslem rulers of Egypt) began in 1291 with the conquest of Acre and continued until 1517. Acre came within the mamluka of Gaza. The city was destroyed and totally abandoned, with only a few buildings remaining around the port.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Ottoman period (1517-1917) Acre was described by pilgrims and merchants who visited it in the 16th and 17th centuries as a deserted ghost town, with some structures from the Crusader period still standing, some jutting out of the earth, and others buried. Reconstruction did not begin until the middle of the 18th century, under Daher El Amar, who renewed the port, manned it with officials and merchants, built a palace for himself, and rebuilt the fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The building of Ottoman Acre in the 18th and 19th centuries buried the remains of the Crusader city, thereby preserving the Crusader remains. In 1799 Acre attained world fame after Napoleon failed to capture the city, under the command of its Turkish ruler Ahmed El-Jazar, after a long siege.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Acres enjoyed renewed economic expansion in the 19th century. Mosques, bathhouses, and caravanserai were built. Wealthy merchants settled there, building grand mansions in the eastern Neo-Classical style of the end of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1868 Baha'ullah, founder of the Baha'i faith, arrived in Acre as a prisoner of the Ottoman Empire. He spent the remaining 24 years of his life in the city, first imprisoned in the city's fortress and later under house arrest in a small building in the alleyways of the old city. During his sojourn in Acre, the Baha'ullah wrote his most important work, setting out the laws and precepts to be observed by Baha'i adherents. The Baha'ullah was freed towards the end of 1870 and went to live on a nearby estate outside the walls of the city. He died in 1892, his remains were buried on the estate, and to this day his tomb is the holiest shrine of the Baha'i.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After capturing Acre in 1918 and being given control of Palestine by mandate of the League of Nations, the British used the fortress as a prison. Several leading Jewish settlers were imprisoned there, and hangings also took place. The British developed the city outside the boundaries of the walls, constructing dwellings and administrative buildings. However, they did nothing to alter the fabric of life within the walls of the old city. The port fell into disuse as the nearby modern port of Haifa superseded it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Israel's independence in May 1948 only a few Moslem residents remained in the old city, but after the fighting had died down many Palestinian Arab refugees from other places began to arrive and settle in the old city, whilst many Jews settled in the new sections. At the present time the five thousand inhabitants of the walled city are exclusively Arab and some 80% are migrants from other parts of Israel.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1042</http_url><id_number>1042</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1042.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Acre is an exceptional historic town in that preserves the substantial remains of the its medieval Crusader buildings beneath the existing Moslem fortified town dating from the 18th and 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The remains of the Crusader town of Acre, both above and below the present-day street level, provide an exceptional picture of the layout and structures of the capital of the medieval Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; Present-day Acre is an important example of an Ottoman walled town, with typical urban components such as the citadel, mosques, khans, and baths well preserved, partly built on top of the underlying Crusader structures.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>32.9283333300</latitude><location>Western Galilee</location><longitude>35.0838888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Acre is an exceptional historic town in that it preserves the substantial remains of the medieval Crusader buildings beneath the existing Muslim fortified town dating from the 18th and 19th centuries. The result is an exceptional picture of the layout and structures of the capital of the medieval Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Present-day Acre is an important example of an Ottoman walled town, with typical urban components such as the citadel, mosques, khans and baths, well preserved, partly built on top of the underlying Crusader structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ancient Acre was situated on Tel Akko, about 2.5&amp;nbsp;km east of the location of the old city. Around 1900 BC the town was fortified by a high earthen rampart with a brick gateway facing the direction of the sea. It was successively under Assyrian rule in the 9th century BC and a Phoenician town under Persian rule between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. Following the death of Alexander the Great the area around Acre was first ruled by the Hellenistic Ptolemid dynasty of Egypt and then the Seleucids of Syria. The present city, founded on the peninsula in the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, was named Antiocha Ptolemais after its founder, Ptolemy II of Egypt. Acre was a centre for international trade because of its strategic position and its natural port. The city fell to the Romans in 63 BC and was granted the status of &lt;em&gt;colonia&lt;/em&gt; . In 330, during the Byzantine period, this region passed into the control of the Roman Empire. During the early Arab period (638-1099) many cities were abandoned and destroyed: Acre decreased in importance as an international port. The city began its economic recovery during the 10th and 11th centuries and the port and city walls were rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Crusader period began for Acre in 1104, following the successful siege by Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem, and the Genoese commercial fleet. The king settled in the northern part of the city, where he built a fortified palace. Genoese, Venetian, and Pisan merchants built autonomous quarters nearby the port. The military orders installed themselves nearby. During the two centuries of Crusader rule Acre symbolized the interchange between the eastern and western cultures better than any other city. In 1187 the Muslims captured the whole of the Crusader lands and Acre was held for four years. It was not until 1191 that the Third Crusade led by Richard the Lion-heart led to the recapture of Acre and the adjoining coastal regions. A second Crusader kingdom was established with Acre as its capital, as the Crusaders were unable to retake Jerusalem. New neighbourhoods such as Monmizar to the north were built and Acre was given a new double city wall. More palaces, churches, and public buildings were erected, at a time when styles in the west were changing from Romanesque to Gothic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mameluke period began in 1291 with the conquest of Acre and continued until 1517. Acre came within the mamluka of Gaza. The city was destroyed and totally abandoned, with only a few buildings remaining around the port. During the Ottoman period (1517-1917) Acre was a deserted ghost town. Reconstruction did not begin until the mid-18th century, under Daher El Amar, who renewed the port, manned it with officials and merchants, built a palace for himself, and rebuilt the fortifications. Acre enjoyed renewed economic expansion in the 19th century. Mosques, bathhouses, and caravanserai were built. Wealthy merchants settled there, building grand mansions in the eastern neoclassical style of the end of the 19th century. After capturing Acre in 1918 and being given control of Palestine by mandate of the League of Nations, the British developed the city outside the boundaries of the walls, constructing dwellings and administrative buildings. The port fell into disuse as the nearby modern port of Haifa superseded it. After Israel's independence in May 1948 only a few Muslim residents remained in the old city, but after the fighting had died down many Palestinian Arab refugees from other places began to arrive and settle in the old city, whereas many Jews settled in the new sections.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;What remains today is a remarkable mixture, both above and below ground, of cultural elements from every period of Acre's eventful history between the 11th and 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Acre is a historic walled port-city with continuous settlement from the Phoenician period. The present city is characteristic of a fortified town dating from the Ottoman 18th and 19th centuries, with typical urban components such as the citadel, mosques, khans and baths. The remains of the Crusader town, dating from 1104 to 1291, lie almost intact, both above and below today's street level, providing an exceptional picture of the layout and structures of the capital of the medieval Crusader kingdom of Jerusalem.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Acre</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1217</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jewish population living in the Ottoman Palestine at the end of the 19th century had mainly come from Spain in the 16th century. Following the First World War, the Palestine territories became a British mandate in 1920. Due to growing anti-Semitism in Europe, large groups of Jewish immigrants started arriving to Palestine in the early 20th century, first from Russia and Poland, and then again from 1933 onwards. The political movement advocating the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, opposing the Diaspora, has been called Zionism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Aviv's origins go back to the Ottoman Jaffa, a walled city in the midst of agricultural land in the early 19th century. Towards the end of the century, also due to the construction of Suez Canal, Jaffa developed into a commercial harbour, as well as being the port for pilgrims to the Holy Land. A decree of 1856 allowed foreigners to acquire land, which led to the development of suburban areas. The first Jewish settlement north of Jaffa was Neve Zedek, founded in 1887-96. In 1908-09, a group of affluent merchants established Achuzat Bayit as a garden suburb, later named Tel Aviv.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1920 to 1925, Tel Aviv's population grew from 2,000 to 34,000, and the construction followed a variety of styles, combined with local Oriental motives. The first master plan (1921) for a new settlement was prepared by Richard Kauffmann. The Scottish architect Patrick Geddes designed a new plan in 1925, which was ratified in 1927 and approved with amendments in 1938. The construction started in the early 1930s; the designers were the newly immigrated architects who had been formed in Europe, and who implemented here the modernist vision. At the same time, the trends in Europe were changing due to new political situations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main influences to modernist architecture in Tel Aviv came from the teachings of the Bauhaus (19 architects had studied at the Bauhaus school), and from the examples of Le Corbusier and Erich Mendelsohn. The architects included Joseph Neufeld and Carl Rubin who worked with Mendelsohn, who was a friend of Richard Kauffmann's. Arie Sharon, Shmuel Mistechkin, and Shlomo Bernstein studied at the Bauhaus school; Sam Barkai and Shlomo Bernstein worked in Le Corbusier's office, and Ze'ev Rechter studied in Paris. Dov Karmi, Genia Averbuch, and Benjamin Anekstein were amongst those who studied in Gent and Brussels; others were influenced by Terragni and Pagano in Italy. Mendelsohn worked in Israel from 1934 to 1942 (mainly in Haifa and Jerusalem).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1096</http_url><id_number>1096</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1096.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The White City of Tel Aviv is a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century. Such influences were adapted to the cultural and climatic conditions of the place, as well as being integrated with local traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The new town of Tel Aviv is an outstanding example of new town planning and architecture in the early 20th century, adapted to the requirements of a particular cultural and geographic context.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>32.0666666700</latitude><location></location><longitude>34.7833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The White City of Tel-Aviv is a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century. Such influences were adapted to the cultural and climatic conditions of the place, as well as being integrated with local traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Aviv developed to the north of the city of Jaffa, on the hills along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The property consists of three selected urban areas were built in the 1930s, based on the urban master plan by the British architect Patrick Geddes. The Geddes plan identified an area that was conceived as a 'garden city,' but with a more urban character than those built earlier. There was a free-standing building on each lot, surrounded by a garden, and the ground plan should not be more than one-third of the lot. The development of Tel Aviv follows a succession of urban plans, starting from ancient Jaffa, and including the historic quarters of Neve Zedek (1896), Achuzat Bayit (1909), the Red City, Lev Hayir and, finally, the White City of Tel-Aviv (1931-47).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Historically, the beginning is marked by the construction of Neve Zedek, with two-storey sandstone buildings with tiled roofs in traditional styles built on a hill sloping towards the sea: this became the first nucleus of Tel Aviv. The Red City, developed to the east, consists mostly of eclectic-style buildings with tiled roofs. Lev Hayir (the core of present-day Tel Aviv) and its surroundings extend to the north. It is mainly built in international style, a succession of three- to five-storey buildings with gardens. The Central White City, to the north and built according to the Geddes Plan, has clearly marked residential zones and business areas. The centre is on the highest point, the Circus of Zina Dizengoff with the Habima Theatre, a museum pavilion, and the Mann Auditorium. The buildings are mainly three to four storeys high, with flat roofs, plaster rendering, some decorative features, and the colour scheme ranging from cream to white. The Northern White City, beyond the Ben Gurion Boulevard, was built somewhat later. The western part is similar to the Central White City, not until 1948. The eastern part dates from the late 1940s to 1960s, and it was built to lower standards, in a period of recession. The southern section of the Northern White City is included in the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The three zones have a consistent representation of Modern Movement architecture, although they differ in character. Zone B was built in the early 1930s, and zone A mainly from the 1930s to the early 1940s. Zone C, the Bialik district, represents local architecture from the 1920s on, with examples of Art Deco and eclecticism, but also a strong presence of 'white architecture'. This small area represents a selection of buildings that became landmarks in the development of the regional language of Tel Aviv's modernism. The buildings reflect influences from the Bauhaus, Le Corbusier and Erich Mendelsohn. The buildings are characterized by the implementation of the Modernist ideas into the local conditions. The large glazed surfaces of European buildings are reduced to relatively small and strip window openings, more suitable for the hot weather. Many buildings have pilotis, as in Le Corbusier's design, allowing the sea breeze to come through. Other elements include the brise-soleil to cut direct sunlight; the deep balconies served the same purpose, giving shade, as well as adding to the plasticity of the architecture. The flat roofs were paved and could be used for social purposes. A characteristic feature is the use of curbed corners and balconies, expressive of Mendelsohn's architecture. The buildings also include a certain amount of local elements, such as cupolas. The most common building material was reinforced concrete; it had been used since 1912, being suitable for less-skilled workers. Other materials were also introduced, such as stone cladding for the external surfaces, and metal. There was some use of decorative plasters, although decoration became a matter of carefully detailed functional elements, such as balcony balustrades, flower boxes and canopies&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 and developed as a metropolitan city under the British Mandate in Palestine. The White City was constructed from the early 1930s until the 1950s, based on the urban plan by Sir Patrick Geddes, reflecting modern organic planning principles. The buildings were designed by architects who were trained in Europe where they practised their profession before immigrating. They created an outstanding architectural ensemble of the Modern Movement in a new cultural context.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>White City of Tel-Aviv – the Modern Movement</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1274</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 3rd century BC until 2nd century AD, the Nabateans transported frankincense and myrrh across the desert from Arabia to the Mediterranean coast, a distance of some 1,800 km.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This trade was fostered by demands for luxury goods in the Hellenistic and Roman world. It was made possible by the knowledge of the desert dwelling Nabateans, who could bridge the &amp;lsquo;impassable' desert and travel into the southern Arabian Peninsula the source of the frankincense, a world unknown to the Romans and those living along the coast of the Mediterranean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nabateans moved into the Negev area in the 6th century BC after the Edomites had abandoned their country and invaded the Judaean plains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nabateans grew rich on the profits of the trade. The Romans consistently tried to take over the trade, and their hostile influence meant that the Nabateans had to take routes to the south of Roman territory and thus traverse and secure some of the most difficult terrain in the Negev. They developed towns and forts to defend the route and caravanserai to provide for travellers. To support their own population and those of the merchant caravans, necessitated colonising the harshest of dry, rocky deserts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 2nd century AD all the Nabatean towns had become annexed to the Roman Province of Arabia after the Roman conquest of Petra. The heyday of Nabatean control of the routes was at an end. Although Roman control heralded two centuries of prosperity for the towns as they became incorporated into the defence system of the Roman Empire under Diocletian, it meant a decline of the trade routes as the Romans diverted trade through Egypt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the towns were finally abandoned after the Arab conquest of 636 AD and have lain largely undisturbed since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1107</http_url><id_number>1107</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1107.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt; The Nabatean towns and their trade routes bear eloquent testimony to the economic, social and cultural importance of frankincense to the Hellenistic-Roman world. The routes also provided a means of passage not only for frankincense and other trade goods but also for people and ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v): &lt;/em&gt; The almost fossilised remains of towns, forts, caravanserai and sophisticated agricultural systems strung out along the Incense route in the Negev desert, display an outstanding response to a hostile desert environment and one that flourished for five centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>30.5411100000</latitude><location>Negev Region</location><longitude>35.1608300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Nabatean towns in the Negev and their trade routes bear eloquent testimony to the economic, social and cultural importance of frankincense to the Hellenistic-Roman world. The routes also provided a means of passage not only for frankincense and other trade goods but also for people and ideas. The remains of towns, forts, caravanserai and sophisticated agricultural systems along the Incense route demonstrate an outstanding response to a hostile environment and one that flourished for five centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The towns, fortresses, caravanserai and fossilised agricultural landscapes that reflect the prosperity of the Nabatean spice trade over 500 years from the 3rd century BC, stretch out across a 100&amp;nbsp;km section of the desert from Haluza in the north-west to Moa in the east on the Jordanian border. They were part of a network of trading routes which transported frankincense and myrrh, extracted from thorn trees in what are now Oman, Yemen and Somalia, to the Mediterranean and North Africa. From the 3rd century BC until the 2nd century AD, the Nabateans transported frankincense and myrrh across the desert to the Mediterranean coast, a distance of some 1,800&amp;nbsp;km. This trade was fostered by demands for luxury goods in the Hellenistic and Roman world. It was made possible by the knowledge of the desert-dwelling Nabateans, who were able to bridge the 'impassable' desert and travel into the southern Arabian Peninsula, a world unknown to the Romans and those living along the coast of the Mediterranean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nabateans moved into the Negev area in the 6th century BC after the Edomites had abandoned their country and invaded the Judaean plains. The Nabateans grew rich on the profits of the spice trade. The Romans consistently tried to take over the trade, and their hostile influence meant that the Nabateans had to follow routes to the south of Roman territory and thus traverse and secure some of the most difficult terrain in the Negev. They developed towns and forts to defend the route and caravanserais to provide it for travellers. To support their own population and those of the merchant caravans, they were compelled to colonize the harshest of dry, rocky deserts. By the 2nd century AD all the Nabatean towns had been annexed to the Province of Arabia after the Roman conquest of Petra. The heyday of Nabatean control of the routes was at an end. Although Roman control heralded two centuries of prosperity for the towns as they became incorporated into the defence system of the Roman Empire under Diocletian, it meant a decline of the trade routes as the Romans diverted trade through Egypt. Most of the towns were finally abandoned after the Arab conquest of AD 636 and have lain largely undisturbed since.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Frankincense was used in enormous quantities in the Hellenistic and Roman world, as incense for temples and for medicinal and cosmetic purposes. Such was the demand that its price was at times higher than gold. The demand prompted elaborate measures for its supply. In the Negev, its trade fostered the development of substantial towns and for 500 years their livelihood largely depended on continuous supply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage property consists of sites that represent the rise of Nabatean control of the incense route in the Negev, following the domestication of the camel in the 3rd century BC, and then its subsequent decline in the 2nd century AD with the Roman occupation of Petra. The sites have been preserved due to their almost total abandonment in the 7th century AD. The property is in four sections: the landscape and a 50&amp;nbsp;km section of the route from Petra to Gaza between Avdat and Moa; the town of Haluza further north along the same route; the town of Shivta, just west of this route; and the town of Manshit on the route from Petra to Damascus.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The four Nabatean towns of Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat and Shivta, along with associated fortresses and agricultural landscapes in the Negev Desert, are spread along routes linking them to the Mediterranean end of the incense and spice route. Together they reflect the hugely profitable trade in frankincense and myrrh from south Arabia to the Mediterranean, which flourished from the 3rd century BC until the 2nd century AD. With the vestiges of their sophisticated irrigation systems, urban constructions, forts and caravanserai, they bear witness to the way in which the harsh desert was settled for trade and agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1286</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The early history for each of the three cities is covered above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Megiddo&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Megiddo has been excavated three times. The first work was from 1903-5 on behalf of the German Society for Oriental Research, the first major excavation of a biblical site. In 1925 the work was renewed by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. This major work persisted until 1939 and revealed most of the Iron Age site. In the 1960s and early 1970s a series of short excavations were carried out by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and since 1994 Tel Aviv University has been working there in alternate years, led by Professors Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin, reinvestigating former work to inform debates about the chronology of the Iron Age strata and the extent of King Solomon's kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Hazor&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest excavation at Tel Hazor was carried out in 1928 by the Department of Antiquities of the British Mandate, but it was in the 1950s that the major excavation campaign was carried out under the leadership of Yigael Yadin of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Excavations were resumed in 1990 as a joint project of the Hebrew University and the Israel Exploration Society, with the object of identifying the extent of Solomon's city and checking earlier chronology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Beer Sheba&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Beer Sheba was excavated as part of a regional study in the 1960s, which continued until the 1970s. This excavation focused on Beer Sheba as part of a frontier area, which consisted of a collection of tels in the biblical &amp;quot;Negev&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1108</http_url><id_number>1108</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1108.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt; The three tels represent an interchange of human values throughout the ancient near-east, forged through extensive trade routes and alliances with other states and manifest in building styles which merged Egyptian, Syrian and Aegean influences to create a distinctive local style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt; The three tels are a testimony to a civilisation that has disappeared &amp;ndash;that of the Cananean cities of the Bronze Age and the biblical cities of the Iron Age-, manifest in their expressions of creativity: town planning, fortifications, palaces, and water collection technologies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt; The biblical cities exerted a powerful influence on later history through the biblical narrative.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt; The three tels, through their mentions in the Bible, constitute a religious and spiritual testimony of outstanding universal value.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>32.5972200000</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.1822200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The three tels (prehistoric settlement mounds) represent an interchange of human values throughout the ancient Near East, forged through extensive trade routes and alliances with other states and manifest in building styles which merged Egyptian, Syrian and Aegean influences to create a distinctive local style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tels are scattered across the State of Israel. Tel Hazor is in the north, 14&amp;nbsp;km north of the Sea of Galilee; Tel Megiddo is just north of where the Qishon River reaches its northernmost point; Tel Beer Sheba is to the north of the Negev Desert in the south of Israel. These are three of over 200 tels in Israel. Tels form a distinctive and prominent feature of comparatively flat landscape areas of the Levant - Israel, Lebanon, Syria and eastern Turkey. They represent large and multi-layered settlements, which persisted for several millennia. The tels have a characteristic shape, conical in profile with a flattish top. They reflect nucleated settlements that continued over time in one place, often because of the strategic advantages of the site in terms of communications and, more crucially, the availability of water supplies in what were fairly arid areas at certain times of year. This is supported by the impressive remain of their underground water catchment systems, which reflect sophisticated, and geographically responsive, engineering solutions to water storage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A considerable number of the tels are the remains of cities and settlements mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible, revered by both Jews and Christians, and acknowledged in Islam as a fundamental source. It is for this reason that they are referred to as 'biblical' tels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Megiddo was one of the most powerful cities in Canaan and Israel, controlling the Via Maris the main international highway connecting Egypt to Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. It is also mentioned once in the New Testament as Armageddon. Its 20 major strata contain the remains of around 30 different cities. During the Iron Age the water systems at Megiddo reached their most sophisticated phase. The water came from a spring at the foot of the mound, accessed by a concealed passageway from within the city under the city wall. In its final manifestation, the water system consisted of a cave hewn round the well, with an 80&amp;nbsp;m long aqueduct carrying water to the bottom of a vertical shaft in the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Hazor is strategically sited at a major cross roads, dominating the trade and military. In the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC the whole enclosure of the lower city was enclosed by earthen ramparts, 9&amp;nbsp;m high, with a brick core and earthen outer skin and protected by a deep moat. There were at least two monumental gates. During the middle and late Bronze Age, several palaces and temples were erected in both the upper and lower city. In the first Israelite city, attributed to the time of King Solomon, there is a massive six chambered stone gate within a casemate wall encircling the western half of the tel. A noteworthy element is the water system built to supply the city's needs under siege. The late Bronze Age system consists of a 30&amp;nbsp;m descending tunnel leading to a trefoil-shaped cave and a vaulted corridor. The Iron Age system drew water from beneath the city: it consists of a 20&amp;nbsp;m vertical shaft, and a sloping 25&amp;nbsp;m tunnel with steps and a pool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tel Beer Sheba is at the intersection between roads leading north to mount Hebron. The main period represented in the tel was founded in the 9th century BC by the Judahite monarchy and then rebuilt three more times until its final destruction at the end of the 8th century. This very last Israelite city was destroyed in a fierce fire during the Assyrian campaign. Beer Sheba was a planned city rather than one that evolved gradually. The Iron Age plan has been nearthed almost in its entirety. The outline is oval, encircled by a wall and gate to the south. The city was divided into three blocks by peripheral streets and the residential quarters were of uniform size. All streets lead to a main city square. Beneath the city streets was an elaborate drainage system of plastered gutters that collected water from houses and channelled under the outer wall to a water cistern, outside the city. Notable structures were six storehouses and the Governor's Palace of three elongated halls and ancillary rooms. Beer Sheba had two water systems: a well outside the city wall and, within the city, a reservoir for times of siege. The well water was some 69&amp;nbsp;m below the surface.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tels (prehistoric settlement mounds), are characteristic of the flatter lands of the eastern Mediterranean, particularly Lebanon, Syria, Israel and eastern Turkey. Of more than 200 tels in Israel, Megiddo, Hazor and Beer Sheba are representative of those that contain substantial remains of cities with biblical connections. The three tels also present some of the best examples in the Levant of elaborate Iron Age, underground water-collecting systems, created to serve dense urban communities. Their traces of construction over the millennia reflect the existence of centralized authority, prosperous agricultural activity and the control of important trade routes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Biblical Tels - Megiddo, Hazor, Beer Sheba</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1287</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;As summarised above, the Bah&amp;aacute;'&amp;iacute; faith originated in 1844 with the declaration of its Prophet-Herald, the B&amp;aacute;b, in the city of Sh&amp;iacute;r&amp;aacute;z, Iran. The rapid spread of the new creed was met by savage persecution, and the execution of the B&amp;aacute;b in 1850. The focal point of the Baha'i faith moved to Western Galilee in 1868 when, after 15 years of wandering in Iraq, Turkey and Egypt, the Prophet- Founder, Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h, who had been expelled from Iran in 1853, was banished to Acre, then a remote part of the Turkish Empire, by the Ottoman Sultan, Abdu'l Aźiz. Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h spent the remaining 24 years of his life in Acre compiling the scriptures that are the foundation of the Baha'i faith and establishing a spiritual and administrative centre for the religion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h and his family were confined for two years in the Ottoman citadel of Acre during which time he maintained contact with believers and wrote some of his best known texts, such as the "Tablet of the Carmel". In 1870 his youngest son died, falling through a skylight in an incident that Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h likened to Abraham's intended sacrifice of his son.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When he was finally released from the Citadel, Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h lived for nine years under house arrest in a succession of houses in the Christian and Muslim neighbourhoods of Old Acre. These included the Mansion of Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h, where he died and his mausoleum is housed, and the House of &amp;lsquo;Abdu'll&amp;aacute;h P&amp;aacute;sh&amp;aacute; where Abdu'l-Bah&amp;aacute; lived until 1911 and where his son Shoghi Effendi was born, and where the remains of the B&amp;aacute;b were stored for ten years until moved to the Mausoleum in Haifa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1909 the remains of the B&amp;aacute;b, brought from Iran, were buried in a very simple mausoleum in Haifa. This was greatly enlarged in 1953 and adorned with a golden dome. The building is now approached through a kilometre-long garden laid out between 1990 and 2001.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The spiritual and administrative centre established by Bah&amp;aacute;'u'll&amp;aacute;h has continued to develop until the present day, while the religion has spread first to Western Europe and North America and then to the rest of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bah&amp;aacute;'&amp;iacute; religious community now numbers about five million around the world. It proclaims that the founders of the world's main religions - Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Buddha, Mahommed and Krishna - have been sent by God to educate humanity.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1220</http_url><id_number>1220</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1220.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.8293966667</latitude><location>Haifa and Northern Districts</location><longitude>34.9716488888</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Bah&amp;aacute;&amp;rsquo;i Holy Places in Haifa and Western Galilee are inscribed for their profound spiritual meaning and the testimony they bear to the strong tradition of pilgrimage in the Bah&amp;aacute;&amp;rsquo;i faith. The property includes the two most holy places in the Bah&amp;aacute;&amp;rsquo;&amp;iacute; religion associated with the founders, the Shrine of Bah&amp;aacute;&amp;rsquo;u&amp;rsquo;ll&amp;aacute;h in Acre and the Shrine of the B&amp;aacute;b in Haifa, together with their surrounding gardens, associated buildings and monuments. These two shrines are part of a larger complex of buildings, monuments and sites at seven distinct locations in Haifa and Western Galilee that are visited as part of the Bah&amp;aacute;&amp;rsquo;i pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bahá’i Holy Places in Haifa and the Western Galilee</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1581</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1393</http_url><id_number>1393</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1393.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.6700000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>34.9652777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the western slopes of the Mount Carmel range, the site includes the caves of Tabun, Jamal, el-Wad and Skhul. Ninety years of archaeological research have revealed a cultural sequence of unparalleled duration, providing an archive of early human life in south-west Asia. This 54 ha property contains cultural deposits representing at least 500,000 years of human evolution demonstrating the unique existence of both Neanderthals andEarly Anatomically Modern Humans within the same Middle Palaeolithic cultural framework, the Mousterian. Evidence from numerous Natufian burials and early stone architecture represents the transition from a hunter-gathering lifestyle to agriculture and animal husbandry. As a result, the caves have become a key site of the chrono-stratigraphic framework for human evolution in general, and the prehistory of the Levant in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;span lang="EN"&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sites of Human Evolution at Mount Carmel: The Nahal Me’arot / Wadi el-Mughara Caves</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1818</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1370</http_url><id_number>1370</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1370.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.6000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>34.8955555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site contains some 3,500 underground chambers distributed among distinct complexes carved in the thick and homogenous soft chalk of Lower Judea under the former towns of Maresha and Bet Guvrin. Situated on the crossroads of trade routes to Mesopotamia and Egypt, the site bears witness to the region’s tapestry of cultures and their evolution over more than 2,000 years from the 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century BCE—when Maresha, the older of the two towns was built—to the time of the Crusaders. These quarried caves served as cisterns, oil presses, baths, columbaria (dovecotes), stables, places of religious worship, hideaways and, on the outskirts of the towns, burial areas. Some of the larger chambers feature vaulted arches and supporting pillars.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Caves of Maresha and Bet-Guvrin in the Judean Lowlands as a Microcosm of the Land of the Caves</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1969</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1471</http_url><id_number>1471</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1471.jpg</image_url><iso_code>il</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.7022222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.1269444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Consisting of a series of catacombs, the necropolis developed from the 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century AD as the primary Jewish burial place outside Jerusalem following the failure of the second Jewish revolt against Roman rule. Located southeast of the city of Haifa, these catacombs are a treasury of artworks and inscriptions in Greek, Aramaic, Hebrew and Palmyrene. Bet She’arim bears unique testimony to ancient Judaism under the leadership of Rabbi Judah the Patriarch, who is credited with Jewish renewal after 135 AD.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Necropolis of Bet She’arim: A Landmark of Jewish Renewal</site><states>Israel</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2032</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/93</http_url><id_number>93</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_93.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.4658888900</latitude><location>Province of Milano, Lombardy</location><longitude>9.1705000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Milan was founded by Celts and has seen four particularly splendid periods. Between the 4th and 5th centuries, it was the capital of the Western Roman Empire and became established as one of the hubs of the new Christian world. The period between the 11th and 13th centuries saw the constitution and consolidation of 'Free Communes' that were soon stronger than neighbouring territories and led to the fight for freedom against German rulers that came to a head with the battle of Legnano (1176). Between the 14th and 16th centuries, the city was governed by the Viscontis, then the Sforza family and was home to the dukedom of Milan. It was subjugated first by the French and then the Spanish: this was the time of the Renaissance that motivated Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Francesco Sforza and Ludovico il Moro to produce their greatest works like the Duomo, the Castello Sforzesco, Santa Maria delle Grazie and San Satiro. The two great artists Bramante and Leonardo were actively working at this time. Milan gradually became a modern city and during the 1800s magnificent neoclassical palaces began to be built. It became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy under Napoleon and was home to the patriotic movement during the political revival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1463, the captain of the Francesco Sforza troops donated a piece of land to the Dominicans. On this land there was a cloister with frescoes depicting the Madonna delle Grazie. The monks commissioned Guiniforte Solari to build a church and convent and the work began in 1463. The new Lord of Milan, Ludovico il Moro, decreed that the apse and presbytery should be knocked down to enlarge the church and he commissioned Donato Bramante to supervise the work. Bramante, who came from Urbino, structurally enlarged the church and added large semi-circular apses, a wonderful drum-shaped dome surrounded by columns and a spectacular cloister and refectory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fresco was commissioned in 1495 and completed in 1487. The representation by Leonardo da Vinci depicted the moment immediately after Christ said, 'One of you will betray me'. The 12 Apostles reacted in differing ways; their movements and expressions are magnificently captured in Leonardo's work. He focused on the impact of Christ's words on the Apostles and on their reactions. This broke with the traditional representation of the past, upsetting some ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The genius of the artist is seen especially in the use of light and strong perspective. The three windows behind the table companions and the landscape beyond create a luminosity that set against the backlight illuminates the characters from the side as well. The result is a combination of a particular classically Florentine and chiaroscuro perspectives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;If this work is compared with others by artists such as Castagno, the differences are obvious. In the classical interpretation, Judas is depicted alone whereas the other Apostles and Jesus are on the other side of the table sitting beside each other. Leonardo rejected this and had Jesus in the midst of the Apostles; he also created four groups of three figures on either side of Christ. From the left: Bartholomew, James the Younger and Andrew who are stunned by Jesus's declaration. The second group is made up of Peter, Judas and John. Peter is leaning towards John who is seated beside Jesus and is pushing Judas forward. The figure of Judas is highlighted without isolating the others. The group on the right is made up of Matthew, Thaddeus and Simon who are involved in an animated discussion and are not looking at Jesus. In the centre and perplexedly leaning towards Jesus are Thomas, James the Elder and Phillip who are engaged assuring Jesus of their allegiance. In the centre we find the figure of Jesus in the fresco vanishing point.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately, Leonardo did not work in oil but in tempera on a two-layered surface of plaster that was not damp-proof. It was as early as 1568 when Vasari first pointed out problems with this painting technique. Repeated conservation programmes have been carried out, the most recent over the past 20 years.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie forms an integral part of this architectural complex, begun in Milan in 1463 and reworked at the end of the 15th century by Bramante. On the north wall is &lt;em&gt;The Last Supper&lt;/em&gt;, the unrivalled masterpiece painted between 1495 and 1497 by Leonardo da Vinci, whose work was to herald a new era in the history of art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Church and Dominican Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie with “The Last Supper” by Leonardo da Vinci</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>100</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/94</http_url><id_number>94</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_94.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.9570555600</latitude><location>Province of Brescia, Lombardy</location><longitude>10.2973333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The rock engravings of Valcamonica, which date back over 8,000 years, constitute an extraordinary figurative documentation of prehistoric customs and mentality. The systematic interpretation, topological classification, and chronological study of these configurations in stone have made a considerable contribution to the fields of prehistory, sociology and ethnology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Valcamonica is home to the greatest complex of rock drawings in subalpine Italy and there are approximately 250,000 petroglyphs drawn on hundreds of exposed rocks depicting scenes of agriculture, navigation, war and magic. The area where the rock carvings were most plentiful was in the lowest section of the valley between the Concarena and Pizzo Badile Camuno peaks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several periods of carving can be identified that correspond to the evolution of Cammunic society:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Upper Palaeolithic (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 8000 BC) showing scenes depicting hunting and early civilisation; Neolithic (4000-3000 BC) towards the end of the glaciation period, the first depictions of a religious nature appear. The human figure became fundamental to the carvings along with depictions of daily life. This period was the high point in Cammunic art. Eneolithic (3000-2000 BC): the quality of the drawings improved and they almost became a narrative with highly detailed hunting and rural life scenes. A very important element is the appearance of scenes depicting female initiation rituals; after 1000 BC the isolation of the Cammuni ended and they began to meet new people, often while defending their territory. Battle scenes are carved into the rocks as well as drawings showing huts, wagons, harvests and weapons. This was when Cammunic art was at its highest point and from then on it began to wane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first rock drawings by man date back to the pre-Boreal climatic interval in the 8th millennium that was characterized by dense pine and birch forest. The first hunters from the Cammuni tribe lived in groups on the hillsides and not the valley floor, especially during thaws, as landslides were commonplace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between the 16th century BC and AD 476, Valcamonica was occupied by the Romans. There were iron mines in this area and Celtic craftsmen were able to produce high-quality steel from it. Full governmental autonomy and Roman citizenship was granted to the residents of the area. Even during Roman times, Valcamonica sustained raiding parties by barbarians. The Herulians arrived after the fall of the Roman Empire and were followed by the Ostrogoths, who brought much death and destruction in 542.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Langobards ruled the valley between 568 and 774 when it was taken over by the Franks. Benedictines, sent to the valley to bring Christianity to the community, built churches and alms-houses to help the needy. Around 1000, the farming community began to feel some sense of self-identity and to request self-rule. This was how Le Vicinie were formed - an association of &lt;em&gt;vicini&lt;/em&gt;. Communes started to appear after 1164 with approval of the emperor. From 1428, Valcamonica came under the Republic of Venice despite many disputes between Milan and Venice over the acquisition of the valley over the next quarter-century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The thriving economy of Valcamonica was based on wool production by the monks, but pastoral work, especially in the high valleys, was also important. The villages that had iron mines began to gain importance. Brescia was overcome by the French in 1769 and Valcamonica took the name of 'Cantone della Montagna' and was split up into seven townships. The borough of Serio was formed in 1797 and included the communes on the right bank of the River Oglio, whereas communes on the left bank came under Brescia. In 1801 all of Valcamonica broke away from Brescian jurisdiction and its annexation by Serio. Agriculture and stock farming suffered drastically during Napoleonic rule. Austria reannexed the valleys to Serio. Between 1815 and 1818, Valcamonica was stricken by famine and plague. At the start of the period of the Kingdom of Italy, the 52 communes were split up in the three districts of Breno, Edolo and Pisogne with Breno as the main district.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Valcamonica, situated in the Lombardy plain, has one of the world's greatest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs – more than 140,000 symbols and figures carved in the rock over a period of 8,000 years and depicting themes connected with agriculture, navigation, war and magic.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Drawings in Valcamonica</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>101</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/394</http_url><id_number>394</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_394.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.4343055600</latitude><location>Province of Venezia, Veneto Region</location><longitude>12.3389444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Venice is a unique artistic achievement. The city is built on 118 small islands and seems to float on the waters of the lagoon. The influence of Venice on the development of architecture and monumental arts has been considerable. Venice possesses an incomparable series of architectural ensembles illustrating the age of its splendour. It presents a complete typology whose exemplary value goes hand-in-hand with the outstanding character of an urban setting which had to adapt to the special requirements of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In this lagoon, nature and history have been so closely linked since the 5th century AD when Venetian populations, to escape barbarian raids, found refuge on the sandy islands of Torcello, Iesolo and Malamocco. These temporary settlements gradually became permanent and the initial refuge of the land-dwelling peasants and fishermen became a maritime power. The small island of Rialto was chosen as the headquarters of the new city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In AD 1000, Venice controlled the Dalmatian coast and in 1112 a trading market was founded in the Levantine port of Sidon. The year 1204 saw Venice allied with the Crusaders to capture Constantinople. The abundant booty brought back on that occasion, including the bronzes horses of St Mark's, is only the more spectacular part of the loot from Byzantium that the Doge Enrico D&amp;agrave;ndolo shared with his allies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the Doge, a maritime empire of unequalled power extended over the entire length of the shores around the eastern Mediterranean, to the islands of the Ionian Sea and to Crete. During the entire period of the expansion of Venice, over the centuries when it was obliged to defend its trading markets against the commercial undertakings of the Arabs, the Genoese and the Ottoman Turks,as well as those of the European monarchs who were envious of its power, Venice never ceased, in the literal sense of the term, to consolidate its position in the lagoon. The marriage with the sea, that &lt;em&gt;sposalizio&lt;/em&gt; that since 1172 was symbolized by the ring of the Doge, who had replaced the Dux (elected for the first time in 697 by an assembly of the people), was never called into question.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In this inland sea that has continuously been under threat, rises amid a tiny archipelago at the very edge of the waves one of the most extraordinary built-up areas of the Middle Ages. From Torcello to the north to Chioggia to the south, almost every small island had its own settlement, town, fishing village and artisan village (Murano). However, at the heart of the lagoon, Venice itself stood as one of the greatest capitals in the medieval world. When a group of tiny islands were consolidated and merged into one, nothing remained of the primitive topography but what became canals, such as the Giudecca Canal, St Mark's Canal and the Great Canal, and a network of small &lt;em&gt;rii&lt;/em&gt; that are the veritable arteries of a city on water. In this unreal space, where there is no notion of the concept of terra firma, masterpieces of one of the most extraordinary architectural museums on Earth have been accumulated for over 1,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 5th century and spread over 118 small islands, Venice became a major maritime power in the 10th century. The whole city is an extraordinary architectural masterpiece in which even the smallest building contains works by some of the world's greatest artists such as Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese and others.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Venice and its Lagoon</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>454</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/398</http_url><id_number>398</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_398.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (ii) and (iii) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value in its formal perfection and its harmonious blending of cultural elements from northern Europe, the Muslim world, and classical antiquity. Castel del Monte is a unique masterpiece of medieval military architecture, reflecting the humanism of its founder, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.0848055600</latitude><location> Communes of Andria and Corato, Province of Bari, Puglia Region</location><longitude>16.2709444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In its formal perfection and its harmonious blending of cultural elements from northern Europe, the Muslim world, and classical antiquity, Castel del Monte is a unique masterpiece of medieval military architecture, reflecting the humanism of its founder, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Frederick succeeded his father, Emperor Henry VI, in 1197 at the age of three. During his reign, which lasted until 1250, he brought order to his unruly kingdom of Sicily, which included much of southern Italy and introduced a period of intense cultural activity known as the 'Southern Renaissance'. He was a man of great culture, at home in several languages, with high attainments in mathematics, astronomy and natural sciences; he brought scholars and artists from the Arab lands, Greece, and elsewhere to his court, had the works of Aristotle, Averro&amp;euml;s, Ptolemy and Galen translated into Latin, and founded the University of Naples. His many talents earned him the title of &lt;em&gt;Stupor Mundi&lt;/em&gt; (Wonder of the World).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;He was also an able ruler, who bought social and economic stability to his people. However, his policy in Italy, unlike that in Germany, where he encouraged the feudal system, was that of an absolute monarch. For this reason, and also for defensive purposes, he built a number of strong castles in his lands of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, the largest and most influential of which was Castel del Monte. It was finished in 1240 and became the permanent seat of his court. With his death in 1250 the Hohenstaufen hold over the kingdom was weakened, and the Angevin dynasty ruled until the mid-15th century. Castel del Monte, no longer the seat of power, like most castles from this period, served as a stronghold and then a barracks until the 19th century, and slowly losing its resplendent decoration through pillage, vandalism and neglect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle is sited 29&amp;nbsp;km south of Barletta in the Commune of Andria on a rocky peak that dominates the surrounding countryside. Its plan is in the form of a regular octagon surrounding a courtyard and with a tower, also octagonal, at each angle. The walls are built from huge dressed blocks of a brilliant quartz-bearing limestone. There is a cornice at mid-height which encircles the walls, separating the two internal storeys. Each of the storeys has eight chambers of equal size, corresponding with the eight sides of the structure. The trapezoidal rooms on the lower storey have prominently ribbed ogival vaulting, supported on embedded columns. Those on the upper storey correspond exactly with those below but are more elaborately ornamented, the vaulting being supported on caryatid capitals in the Burgundian or Champagne style which surmount triple columns in Greek marble; the apex of the vaulting is decorated with a unique capital, also in Burgundian style. Each of the rooms has a marble bench at the base of the columns and a decorative marble cornice. Of special interest is the unique hydraulic installation for bath and toilet facilities, clearly oriental in origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Each of the facades is pierced by two windows, those on the lower level being single-arched openings (except on those sides with the front and rear entrances) and those on the upper level being twin ogival openings. The octagonal towers have only narrow arrow slits, arranged so as to command the best field of view. Internally they contain service rooms and staircases. The main entrance, in coralline breccia, reproduces the form of a classical triumphal arch framing a pointed arch, described by one eminent scholar as being 'a sort of prelude to the Renaissance'. Elements such as these are blended with complete success throughout the building with features that owe their origins to the east, such as the use of marble and mosaic, much of which have disappeared over centuries of neglect and vandalism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Castel del Monte is of special interest because of the absence of features that are common to the overwhelming majority of military monuments of this period (outer bailey, moat, stables, kitchen, storerooms, chapel), the mathematical and astronomical rigour of its plan and form, and the eclecticism of its cultural elements, deriving from antiquity, the Cistercian tradition of northern Europe, and the Ummayyad 'desert castles' and fortified monasteries in the Near East and North Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;When the Emperor Frederick II built this castle near Bari in the 13th century, he imbued it with symbolic significance, as reflected in the location, the mathematical and astronomical precision of the layout and the perfectly regular shape. A unique piece of medieval military architecture, Castel del Monte is a successful blend of elements from classical antiquity, the Islamic Orient and north European Cistercian Gothic.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Castel del Monte</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>459</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1734 Charles III (Carlo Borbone), son of Philip V, became King of Naples, a self-governing kingdom that was no longer part of the Spanish realm. He decided in 1750 to build a new royal palace, to rival, and perhaps outdo, the palace of Versailles, as the symbol of the new kingdom. It was designed to be the centre of a new town that would also compete with the leading European cities. He employed the famous architect Luigi Vanvitelli, at that time engaged in the restoration of the Basilica of St Peter's in Rome. The tist stone was laid in 1752 and continued throughout the reign of Ferdinand IV, Charles's successor, until Vanvitelli's death in 1773.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bosco di San Silvestro (Wood of St Sylvester), on the two neighbouring hills of Montemaiuolo and Montebriano, was covered with vineyards and orchards when in 1773 Ferdinand IV decided to enclose it, together with some adjacent land, and create a hunting park. The building there served as a hunting lodge on the upper floor, the lower being used for agricultural purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hill of San Leucio takes its name from the Lombard church at its top. A hunting lodge, known as the Belvedere, had been built at its foot in the 16th century by the Acquaviva family, Princes of Caserta. The fief had been purchased by Charles Ill, and in 1773 Ferdinand IV initiated work on the socalled Old Hunting Lodge, to be abandoned after the death of his son. Between 1776 and 1778 the Belvedere was restored, the main hall being converted to a church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1778 the King decided to begin the production of silk. His architect, Collecini, converted the building for this purpose, as the centre of a large industrial complex, including a school, accommodation for teachers, silkworm rooms, and facilities for spinning and dyeing the silk. He issued a series of laws in 1789 to regulate the San Leucio Royal Colony: this laid down piecework rates of pay, abolished dowries, and prescribed similar clothing for all the workers, in what has been described as a form of protosocialism. During the decade that followed, plans were made for enlargement of the village, and Collecini produced designs for a town, to be known as &amp;quot;Ferdinandopolis,&amp;quot; but this dream was not realized because of the French occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fishponds in the gardens of the Royal Palace, the Royal silk factory, and the planned new town all required large amounts of water, and so the Carolino Aqueduct was built (completed in 1769) to bring water from the Fizo spring over a distance of 38km to the top of Montebriano. The final stretch runs through the Tifatini hills, where the medieval village of Casertavecchia, with its Romanesque cathedral, forms part of the panorama visible from the Royal estate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1744 Charles III acquired the rich Carditello estate. The hunting lodge there was built in 1784, as part of a complex of rural houses and roads radiating fmwise from the main building. This had the Royal apartments in the centre and rooms for agricultural and stock-rearing activities on either side. The courtyard in front, which has the shape of a Roman circus, was used for racing horses and decorated with fontaim and obelisks. In the 19th century Ferdinand II expanded the agricultural activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/549</http_url><id_number>549</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_549.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the monumental complex at Caserta, whilst cast in the same mould as other 18th century royal establishments, is exceptional for the broad sweep of its design, incorporating not only an imposing palace and park, but also much of the surrounding natural landscape and an ambitious new town laid out according to the urban planning precepts of its time. The industrial complex of the Belvedere, designed to produce silk, is also of outstanding interest because of the idealistic principles that underlay its original conception and management.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.0733300000</latitude><location>Provinces of Caserta and Benevento, Campania</location><longitude>14.3263900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The monumental complex at Caserta, while cast in the same mould as other 18th-century royal establishments, is exceptional for the broad sweep of its design, incorporating an imposing palace and park, and also much of the surrounding natural landscape and an ambitious new town laid out according to urban planning precepts of its time. The industrial complex of the Belvedere, designed to produce silk, is also of outstanding interest because of the idealistic principles underlying its original conception and management.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1734 Charles III, son of Philip V, became King of Naples, a self-governing kingdom that was no longer part of the Spanish realm. He decided in 1750 to build a new royal palace, to rival the Palace of Versailles. It was designed to be the centre of a new town that would compete with leading European cities. He employed architect Luigi Vanvitelli, then engaged in the restoration o St Peter's in Rome. The Bosco di San Silvestro, on the two hills of Montemaiuolo and Montebriano, was covered with vineyards and orchards when in 1773 Ferdinand IV decided to enclose it and create a hunting park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hill of San Leucio takes its name from the Lombard church at its top. A hunting lodge, the Belvedere, had been built at its foot in the 16th century by the Princes of Caserta. The fief had been purchased by Charles Ill, and in 1773 Ferdinand IV initiated work on the Old Hunting Lodge, to be abandoned after the death of his son. In 1778 the king decided to begin the production of silk. His architect, Collecini, converted the building for this purpose, as the centre of a large industrial complex, including a school, accommodation for teachers, silkworm rooms, and facilities for spinning and dyeing the silk. He issued a series of laws in 1789 to regulate the San Leucio Royal Colony: this laid down piecework rates of pay, abolished dowries, and prescribed similar clothing for all the workers, in a form of proto-socialism. During the next decade plans were made for enlargement of the village, and Collecini produced designs for a town, to be known as 'Ferdinandopolis', but this dream was not realized because of the French occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fishponds in the gardens of the Royal Palace, the Royal Silk Factory and the planned new town all required large amounts of water, and so the Carolino Aqueduct was built (completed in 1769) to bring water from the Fizo spring over a distance of 38&amp;nbsp;km to the top of Montebriano. In 1744 Charles III acquired the rich Carditello estate. The hunting lodge there was built in 1784, as part of a complex of rural houses and roads radiating fanwise from the main building. This had the royal apartments in the centre and rooms for agricultural and stock-rearing activities on either side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Royal Palace is rectangular in plan, with four large interior courtyards intersecting at right angles. It covers 45,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and its five storeys rise to a height of 36&amp;nbsp;m. An indication of its scale can be judged from the fact that there are 143 windows on the main facade and the building contains 1,200 rooms and 34 staircases. The building is constructed in brick, the two lower storeys being faced with travertine ashlars. The whole structure is crowned by a central cupola. In front of the main facade is the elliptical parade ground. Inside, there are three octagonal vestibules, aligned on the main axis of the building and acting as fulcrums for the entire complex. The monumental main staircase gives access to the royal apartments, which are decorated and furnished in 18th-century style. The chapel, inspired by that at Versailles, opens out of the lower vestibule. Another noteworthy feature is the Royal Theatre, a superb example of 18th-century design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park, which lies behind the palace, was planned by Luigi Vanvitelli but completed by his son Carlo. The main axis is punctuated by a series of Baroque fountains and stretches of water. This magnificent perspective terminates in the Great Fountain, where water cascades down from a height of 150&amp;nbsp;m into an ornate basin that depicts Diana bathing, observed by the unfortunate Actaeon.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The monumental complex at Caserta, created by the Bourbon king Charles III in the mid-18th century to rival Versailles and the Royal Palace in Madrid, is exceptional for the way in which it brings together a magnificent palace with its park and gardens, as well as natural woodland, hunting lodges and a silk factory. It is an eloquent expression of the Enlightenment in material form, integrated into, rather than imposed on, its natural setting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>18th-Century Royal Palace at Caserta with the Park, the Aqueduct of Vanvitelli, and the San Leucio Complex</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>646</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/550</http_url><id_number>550</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_550.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.4680600000</latitude><location>Province of Siena, Tuscany</location><longitude>11.0416700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;San Gimignano bears exceptional testimony to the civilization of the Middle Ages in that it groups together within a small area all the structures typical of urban life: squares and streets, houses and palaces, wells and fountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Gimignano is situated in the Val d'Elsa, 56&amp;nbsp;km south of Florence. Its walls and fortified houses form an unforgettable skyline, in the heart of the Etruscan landscape. San Gimignano was a relay point on the Via Francigena for pilgrims journeying to and from Rome. Originally under the jurisdiction of the bishops of Volterra, it became independent in 1199 when it acquired its first podest&amp;agrave;. The free town, known as San Gimignano delle Belle Torri, entered into a long period of prosperity that lasted until 1353, when it fell under the sway of Florence. In 1262 an enceinte measuring 2,177&amp;nbsp;m, later to be reinforced with five cylindrical towers, girdled the small town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was controlled by two major rival families - the Ardinghelli, Guelph sympathizers, and the Salvucci, who were Ghibellines - and was the scene of incessant conflicts between the two clans. As symbols of their wealth and power, 72 tower houses were built. Of these, 14 have survived, including the Cugnanesi house on the former Via Francigena (Via San Giovanni); the Pesciolini house on the Via San Matteo, on the Via del Castello, in the town's oldest quarter, the Palazzo Franzesi-Ceccarelli house, whose unsymmetrical facade ingeniously circumvented the law of 1255 which stipulated that no new residence should be wider than 12 arm spans for a linear depth of 24 arm spans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town grew around two principal squares, the Piazza della Cisterna and the Piazza del Duomo. The triangular Piazza della Cisterna is ornamented with a lovely well that stands in the centre. The piazza is bordered by tower houses: the twin towers of the Ardinghellis to the west, the tower of the Benuccis, the Casa Rodolfi and the Palazzo Razzi to the south, and the Palazzo dei Cortesi to the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Piazza del Duomo has more a intricate layout that took form in the late 13th century. The majority of public and private monuments are found here. On the west, is the Collegiata of Santa Maria Assunta. On the east is the former palace of the &lt;em&gt;podest&amp;agrave;&lt;/em&gt; (1239), which was transformed into an inn, then a theatre, and today is disused; the Torre della Rognosa and the Torre Chigi are also on this side. The Palazzo del Popolo stands on the south along with the Torre Grossa which rises to 54&amp;nbsp;m and faces the twin towers of the Salvucci on the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of San Gimignano contains a series of masterpieces of 14th- and 15th-century Italian art in their original architectural settings, including: in the cathedral, the fresco of the &lt;em&gt;Last Judgment, Heaven and Hell&lt;/em&gt; by Taddeo di Bartolo (1393), the &lt;em&gt;Martyrdom of S. Sebastian&lt;/em&gt; by Benozzo Gozzoli, and above all the magnificent frescoes by Domenico Ghirlandaio - the cycle of Santa Fina, the Annunciation in the St John baptistry. Other works of the same outstanding beauty include the huge frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli depicting St Sebastian and St Augustine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The frescoes by Memmo di Filippuccio which the township commissioned in 1303 to decorate the chambers of the podest&amp;agrave; in the Palazzo del Popolo are among the most frequently reproduced documents used to illustrates daily life, down to its most domestic details, of the early 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;'San Gimignano delle belle Torri' is in Tuscany, 56 km south of Florence. It served as an important relay point for pilgrims travelling to or from Rome on the Via Francigena. The patrician families who controlled the town built around 72 tower-houses (some as high as 50 m) as symbols of their wealth and power. Although only 14 have survived, San Gimignano has retained its feudal atmosphere and appearance. The town also has several masterpieces of 14th- and 15th-century Italian art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of San Gimignano</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>647</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Matera region has been inhabited by man since the Palaeolithic period. Permanent defended village settlements grew up after the last Ice Age, based on agriculture. Deforestation of the area led to serious erosion and created problems of water management. The gradual invasion of fields by garricue and maauis led to a change from agriculture to pastoral transhumance. The advent of better tools with the Metal Ages made it easier to dig into the soft calcareous tufo rocks exposed in the gravine (gorges or canyons) and there is evidence from the Bronze Age of the creation of underground cisterns and tombs, and in particular of underground dwellings opening out of a central space (iazzi). The excavated tufo blocks were used for the construction of walls and towers. This process was easiest on the sides of ravines, where the softer strata of tufo were exposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greek colonization led to the introduction of higher technology and political structures, under the influence of the Pythagorean school. The earlier dispersed settlements coalesced into urban centres of government, under their own kings (i Re Pastori), leading eventually to the creation of true towns. The harsh landscape resulted in the growth of a spirit of sturdy independence which was resistant to successive waves of invaders after the Byzantine period. The area was also very attractive to monastic and utopian communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Matera's development was due to its geological setting. A belt of soft tufo is located between 350 and 400 m above the valley bed, and this also contains two natural depressions (arabialioni); in consequence, it was here that the settlement grew up. The clay plateau above was reserved for agriculture and pastoralism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This structure remained intact until the 18th century. It was the expansion and interventions of the 19th and 20th centuries that rejected the ancient principle of land management based on water supply and drainage and spread to the clays of the plateau above. The original urban fabric degenerated to the point where Matera, Idrisi as hailed by the 12th century geographer El "magnificent and splendid", was seen by Carlo Levi in his famous novel Cristo si B fermato ad Eboli (Christ stopped at Eboli), published in 1945, life in southern Italy. as the symbol of the misery of peasant As a result of the Italian Government's concern about this situation, legislation passed in 1952 led to the rehousing of the dwellers of the old quarters in new buildings and the desertion of the ancient centre in the 1950s.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/670</http_url><id_number>670</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_670.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.6663888900</latitude><location>City and Province of Matera, Region of Basilicata</location><longitude>16.6102777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sassi of Matera and their park are an outstanding example of a rock-cut settlement, adapted perfectly to its geomorphological setting and its ecosystem and exhibiting continuity over more than two millennia. They represent an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement and land use showing the evolution of a culture that has maintained over time a harmonious relationship with its natural environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Matera region has been inhabited by man since the Palaeolithic period. Permanent defended village settlements grew up after the last Ice Age, based on agriculture. Deforestation of the area led to serious erosion and created problems of water management. The gradual invasion of fields by garrigue and maquis led to a change from agriculture to pastoral transhumance. Matera's development was due to its geological setting. A belt of soft tufo is located between 350&amp;nbsp;m and 400&amp;nbsp;m above the valley bed, and this also contains two natural depressions (&lt;em&gt;grabialioni&lt;/em&gt; ); in consequence, it was here that the settlement grew up. The clay plateau above was reserved for agriculture and pastoralism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The advent of better tools with the Metal Ages made it easier to dig into the soft calcareous tufo rocks exposed in the gravine (gorges or canyons) and there is evidence from the Bronze Age of the creation of underground cisterns and tombs, and in particular of underground dwellings opening out of a central space (&lt;em&gt;jazzi&lt;/em&gt; ). The excavated tufo blocks were used for the construction of walls and towers. This process was easiest on the sides of ravines, where the softer strata of tufo were exposed. Greek colonization led to the introduction of higher technology and political structures, under the influence of the Pythagorean School. The earlier dispersed settlements coalesced into urban centres of government, under their own kings (i Re Pastori), leading eventually to the creation of true towns. The harsh landscape resulted in the growth of a spirit of sturdy independence which was resistant to successive waves of invaders after the Byzantine period. The area was also very attractive to monastic and utopian communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This structure remained intact until the 18th century. It was the expansion and interventions of the 19th and 20th centuries that rejected the ancient principle of land management based on water supply and drainage and spread to the clays of the plateau above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest house form was a simple cave in the tufo with a closing wall formed from the excavated blocks. This developed into a vaulted room (&lt;em&gt;lamione&lt;/em&gt; ) built out into the open space, and was then available for considerable adaptation and extension. Groups of dwellings round a common courtyard evolved into the social structure of the vicinato, with shared facilities such as a cistern. In between the two sassi was established the fortified centre of the town (&lt;em&gt;civit&amp;agrave;&lt;/em&gt; ), within which the cathedral was sited. Workshops and granaries were set up outside the civit&amp;agrave;, which was connected with the sassi by narrow lanes and steps. The water supply was highly organized, being collected on the plateau above and brought down by gravity for distribution to the community. As the town grew, more houses were excavated and built, climbing the hillside; the roofs of some houses often acted as streets for the houses above them. The houses became more grandiose, and terraces were built out in the Renaissance period for gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This is the most outstanding, intact example of a troglodyte settlement in the Mediterranean region, perfectly adapted to its terrain and ecosystem. The first inhabited zone dates from the Palaeolithic, while later settlements illustrate a number of significant stages in human history. Matera is in the southern region of Basilicata.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Sassi and the Park of the Rupestrian Churches of Matera</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>793</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Vicenza is situated in the Veneto region of northern Italy on the low hills between the mountains of Berici and Lessini, on a natural communication route. The city of Vicetia was founded in the 2nd or 1st century BC by the Veneti and was granted Roman citizenship with the status of municipium in 49 BC. The ancient town plan is still recognizable in that of the modem town, Corso Palladio being the decumanus moximus and Contra Porti the cardo maximus. Among the public buildings erected from the time of Augustus that survive are the remains of the theatre, now incorporated in a more recent structure, and sections of the aqueduct to the north of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city became the see of a Christian diocese at the end of the 4th century AD. In the 5th century it was on the route of successive barbarian groups, whose ravages were exacerbated by a series of disastrous plagues, which left the region depopulated. It formed part of the Langobardic kingdom and became chief town of one of the 36 duchies. Eventua11y the Pope called upon Charlemagne to drive out the Lombards, and Vicenza became a Frankish Countship within the March of Friuli. It was during this period that the first Benedictine communities of San Felice and San Pietro were established. The disintegration of the Carolingian Empire saw fresh invaders, this time the Magyars, whose depredations led to the construction of city walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bloody wars between episcopal feudatories and the Ghibelline Counts that disfigured most of the 12th and early 13th centuries raged around Vicenza. The region became divided into a patchwork of small seigneuries, who fought among themselves, only uniting to defy the Holy Roman Emperor. Like most Italian cities of the period, Vicenza evolved its own administration, which in 1208 introduced controls on building within the enceinte of the walls. A new urban perimeter was created by the Della Scala family, enclosing the most important streets within the city. A movement on the part of the small states in the region towards coalescence was interpreted by Venice as a threat and so in 1404 La Serenissima annexed the entire region. Vicenza remained part of the V enetian Republic with only one short break until its fall at the end of the 18th century. The feudal aristocracy was stripped of its powers and replaced by a dominant mercantile class. Feudal lands were expropriated and sold to patrician Venetian families, who created great agricultural estates on which they built sumptuous mansions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city also prospered under Venetian rule, benefiting from its situation on a major natural communication route. The town became polarized around the four main piazzas that still exist. There had been limited expansion to the east and west in the late 14th century but the city retained its basic form throughout the succeeding centuries. The wealth of its leading citizens resulted in the erection of many lavish buildings, strongly influenced by Venetian taste, but it was the advent of Andrea Palladio that gave Vicenza its enduring form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The overall form of the city was little changed in the 19th century under first Austrian and then Italian rule, and it was not until after World War II that there was a substantial expansion of housing and industry to the west.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/712</http_url><id_number>712</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_712.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.5491666700</latitude><location>Provinces of Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Venice, Verona and Vicenza, Veneto Region</location><longitude>11.5494444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vicenza represents a unique artistic achievement in the many architectural contributions from Andrea Palladio integrated within its historic fabric and creating its overall character. Through its architecture, the city has exerted exceptional influence on architectural and urban design in most European countries and throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vicenza is situated in the Veneto region of northern Italy on the low hills between the mountains of Berici and Lessini, on a natural communication route. The city of Vicenza was founded in the 2nd or 1st century BC by the Veneti and was granted Roman citizenship with the status of municipium in 49 BC. The ancient town plan is still recognizable in that of the modern town, Corso Palladio being the &lt;em&gt;decumanus maximus&lt;/em&gt; and Contra Porti the &lt;em&gt;cardo maximus&lt;/em&gt; . Among the public buildings erected from the time of Augustus that survive are the remains of the theatre, now incorporated in a more recent structure, and sections of the aqueduct to the north of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city became the See of a Christian diocese at the end of the 4th century AD. In the 5th century it was on the route of successive barbarian groups, whose ravages were exacerbated by a series of disastrous plagues, which left the region depopulated. It formed part of the Langobardic kingdom and became chief town of one of the 36 duchies. Eventually the pope called on Charlemagne to drive out the Lombards, and Vicenza became a Frankish Countship within the March of Friuli. It was during this period that the first Benedictine communities of San Felice and San Pietro were established. The disintegration of the Carolingian Empire saw fresh invaders, this time the Magyars, whose depredations led to the construction of city walls. The bloody wars between episcopal feudatories and the Ghibelline Counts that disfigured most of the 12th and early 13th centuries raged around Vicenza. The region became divided into a patchwork of small seigneuries, which fought among themselves, only uniting to defy the Holy Roman Emperor. Like most Italian cities of the period, Vicenza evolved its own administration, which in 1208 introduced controls on building within the enceinte of the walls. A new urban perimeter was created by the Della Scala family, enclosing the most important streets within the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A movement by the small states in the region towards coalescence was interpreted by Venice as a threat and so in 1404 La Serenissima annexed the entire region. Vicenza remained part of the Venetian Republic until its fall at the end of the 18th century. The feudal aristocracy was stripped of its powers and replaced by a dominant mercantile class. Feudal lands were expropriated and sold to patrician Venetian families, who created great agricultural estates on which they built sumptuous mansions. The city also prospered under Venetian rule, benefiting from its situation on a major natural communication route. The town became polarized around the four main piazzas that still exist. There had been limited expansion to the east and west in the late 14th century but the city retained its basic form throughout the succeeding centuries. The wealth of its leading citizens resulted in the erection of many lavish buildings, strongly influenced by Venetian taste, but it was the advent of Andrea Palladio that gave Vicenza its enduring form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Andrea Palladio (1508-80) was profoundly influenced by his study of the surviving monuments of classical Rome and of the works of Vitruvius. For Vicenza he created both public (Basilica, Loggia del Capitaniato, Teatro Olimpico) and private buildings. A total of 26 individual buildings or parts of buildings known to have been designed or reconstructed by Palladio or attributed to him make up the World Heritage site - 23 in the city itself and three villas in its immediate environs. The palazzi or town houses were fitted into the urban texture of the medieval city, creating picturesque ensembles and continuous street facades in which the Veneto Gothic style combines with Palladio's articulated classicism. These urban compositions closely related to theatre design, which link reality and make-believe, are unique to Vicenza. A similar approach to composition is shown by the location of the suburban villa known as La Rotonda, as seen from the Villa Cricoli.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1996</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 2nd century B.C. in northern Italy, Vicenza prospered under Venetian rule from the early 15th to the end of the 18th century. The work of Andrea Palladio (1508–80), based on a detailed study of classical Roman architecture, gives the city its unique appearance. Palladio's urban buildings, as well as his villas, scattered throughout the Veneto region, had a decisive influence on the development of architecture. His work inspired a distinct architectural style known as Palladian, which spread to England and other European countries, and also to North America.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>843</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The situation Oof Siena, between the Arsia and Elsa valleys, away from the main communication routes, does not favour the growth of a town. Nevertheless, a modest settlement, Etruscan in origin, entered history under the name of Colonia Julia Saena in 29 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the displacement of the road network joining northern Italy to Rome towards the centre of the peninsula Siena became an obligatory stopping place during the period of rule by the Lombards (568-774) and then the Franks. The development of the medieval town coincided with the route Of the Via Francigena, taken by pilgrims on their way to Rome, becoming fixed around the year 1000. On the high ground adjoining Castelvecchio, site of the ancient castrum, to the east of the original core of the medieval town, and Santa Maria, see of the bishopric created in the first half of the 5th century, grew up the villages of Camollia to the north and San Martino to the south, both later to be brought within the walls of the town. The town centre moved from its ancient nucleus towards the triventum or Croce del Travaglio, where the roads from Rome, Florence, and the Maremma met. The campo, at the crossroads of these routes, became the centre for trade and commercial activities. The town's most important families lived in veritable fortified villages, built round a central courtyard, on the model of the feudal curtis, and in part surviving (Ugurgeri, Malavolti, etc).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1186 the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederic I confirmed the independence of the city and granted it the rights of electing its own consuls and minting its own coins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The definite urban structure of Siena evolved in just over three hundred years, from the end of the 11th to the beginning of the 15th century. The internal and external struggles of this period were more or less directly linked with episodes in the contest between the Empire and the Papacy. The Republic of Siena's policy of territorial expansions invoked the envy of its rival, Ghibelline Florence. From the first half of the 12th century the two cities engaged in a series of still famous battles, such as Montaperti (1260), as a result of which the victorious Sienese placed their city under the protection of the Virgin Mary, and Colle val d'Elsa (1269), after which the Guelphs became established in Siena. The city owed its prosperity to the banking activities carried out by certain families at the papal Court in Rome and on the great international markets of northern Europe, Marseilles, Champagne, and London. The streets named dei Banchi di Sopra and dei Banchi di Sotto preserve the memory of this past prosperity. Under pressure from the merchants who dominated its political life, the city was endowed with a network of secondary streets and public and private buildings in the Gothic style. Siena enjoyed relative political stability under the Council of the Nine (1287-1355), which left an enduring imprint on the structure and appearance Of the city with, for example, the laying out of the Piazza del Campo and the construction of the Palazzo Pubblico. The Sienese school of painting manifested itself from the late 13th century in the work of its most famous representatives, Duccio di Boninsegna (1260-1318), Simone Martini (1284-1344), the Pietro brothers (fl 1305-48), and Ambrogio Lorenzetti (fl 1319-48). Siena maintained relations with Milan, Naples, and France. Simone Martini was in contact with the Angevin court in Naples and went to Avignon in 1339. Exchanges such as this involved Siena closely with the development of western art in the mid-14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1420 and 1555, when the Republic Of Siena came to an end, there was a succession of governments operated by merchants, interrupted by the attempt by Pandolfo Petrucci (1487-1525) to introduce a nobility and the intervention of the Emperor Charles V (1530&amp;gt;' The events of the city's internal political life became more closely linked with the relations between the Empire and France. In 1552 the Imperial garrison that had occupied the city for two years was driven out by the Sienese, who remained faithful to the French side. The defensive walls were strengthened, some Of the gates were reinforced, and the suburbs were razed. At the end of the siege of 1555 the city was surrendered to the Imperial forces by its defender, Blaise de Montluc. Philip II offered Siena to Cosimo I de' Medici, who merged it into his Grand Duchy of Tuscany while respecting its autonomy. The crisis that overtook its banking and commercial activities plunged the city into economic stagnation. Its efforts became concentrated on developing agricultural activities in its lands. Urban development had reached its peak before the Black Death of 1348, when the population was cut from 25,000 to 16,000 inhabitants. Projects began to reconstruct or enlarge palaces, churches, and monasteries. The prestige of Siena was restored in 1457, when its Bishop, Enea Silvio Piccolomini, was elected pope under the title Of Pius II. The Franciscan Bernardino Albizzeschi and Catherina Benincasa, the pride of the city in the 14th century, were canonized. Despite the role of the Piccolomini family in spreading Renaissance art (the Loggia del papa, the palazzo Piccolomini, the palazzo Piccolomini delle papesse), Gothic persisted in most 15th century works (Palazzo Marsili, 1458) and even later (Archbishop's palace, 1718)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After rejoining the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Siena was integrated into the Kingdom of Italy in 1849, but it was not touched by the industrial development of the 19th century. Expansion took place outside the walls and in small nuclei, often Sited on hills away from the historic centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/717</http_url><id_number>717</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_717.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3186111100</latitude><location>City and Province of Siena, Tuscany</location><longitude>11.3316666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Siena, an outstanding medieval city that has preserved its character and quality to a remarkable degree, and its influence on art, architecture and town planning in the Middle Ages, both in Italy and elsewhere in Europe, was great.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Siena is delimited by a 7km enceinte of ramparts (14th-16th centuries), the route of which follows the contours of the three hills on which the city is built. These walls, with their bastions and towers, are pierced by gates that are double at the strategic points, such as the Porta Camollia on the street of Florence. To the west they embrace the Fort of Santa Barbara, rebuilt by the Medici in 1560 and reconstructed in 1580. The walls themselves, which have been enlarged on several occasions, also include part of the 25&amp;nbsp;km network of galleries, the bottini, which evacuate the spring waters distributed by the public fountains. Siena doubtless benefited from the experience of the monks of the Cistercian abbey of San Galgano. The main fountains, mostly from the 13th century, are veritable buildings in their own right, constructed like Gothic porticoes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre developed along the Y-shaped segments defined by the three main arteries that meet at the Croce del Travaglio, represented by the Piazza del Campo, and on to which the network of minor roads are grafted. Houses and palaces follow one another in rows along the main streets, creating a characteristic urban space with certain notable elements. The Piazza del Campo, sited at the junction of three hills, is one of the most remarkable urban open spaces in all Italy. Its formation coincides with the growth of the medieval city and the assertion of communal power. Financial and commercial activities were concentrated halfway along the Via Francigena, the entire lengths of the present-day Via dei Banchi Sopra and Via dei Banchi Sotto, and the market-place proper was located in the Piazza del Campo, at that time divided in two sectors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 12th century, the communal government decided to unite the two sectors to create a unique semicircular open space, and promulgated a series of ordinances which regulated only commercial activities but also the services and dimensions of the houses (their style twin-arched or triple-arched windows), in order to make the facades around the piazza uniform. The building of the Palazzo Pubblico, the seat of the communal government, began at the same time. Its gently incurving and crenellated facade is highlighted by the Gothic triple-arched windows. There is a number of masterpieces of medieval paintings inside, such as the Maest&amp;agrave; of Simone Martini and the allegorical Ciclo del Buon Governo of Ambrogio Lorenzetti. The Palazzo Pubblico was in all probability the model for the Gothic palaces of the great families of the nobility or the merchants (Palazzo Tomei, Palazzo Buonsignore), which are characterized by an increase in breadth, the use of brick, large windows, and the so-called 'Guelph' crenellation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Once the public authorities were installed in the Palazzo Pubblico, work began on embellishing the piazza with the laying down of the paving, construction of the Fonte Gaia, decorated by Jacopo dalla Quercia, the Torre del Mangia, and the Cappella della Piazza, the latter two built up against the palazzo. Under the Medici, the piazza became the ideal setting for spectacular festivals and was opened up to the &lt;em&gt;palio&lt;/em&gt; , the famous horserace between teams from the different quarters of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The highest point of the town is crowned by the Cathedral of Santa Maria. Its facade, the lower part of which is the work of Giovanni Pisano, was completed by Giovanni di Cecco after construction of the Nuovo Duomo (New Cathedral), a vast project inspired by the Gothic cathedrals of north of the Alps. The cathedral preserves a remarkable pavement and the pulpit carved by Nicol&amp;agrave; Pisano.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Siena is the embodiment of a medieval city. Its inhabitants pursued their rivalry with Florence right into the area of urban planning. Throughout the centuries, they preserved their city's Gothic appearance, acquired between the 12th and 15th centuries. During this period the work of Duccio, the Lorenzetti brothers and Simone Martini was to influence the course of Italian and, more broadly, European art. The whole city of Siena, built around the Piazza del Campo, was devised as a work of art that blends into the surrounding landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Siena</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>848</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first company towns were built in Europe in Belgium, France, Germany, and Great Britain, to house the large workforces assembled by the new generation of entrepreneurs to work in their factories, which were established close to sources of raw materials, power, etc. It was not until the creation of the national market following political unification that they were set up in Italy. Crespi, in Capriate San Gervasio (Bergamo), is the most characteristic and complete of these; others were Leumann at Colegno (Turin) and Rossi at Schio (Vicenza).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1875 Cristoforo Benigno Crespi, a textile manufacturer from Busto Arsizio (Varese), bought the 1 km2 valley between the rlvers Bembo and Adda, to the south of Capriate, with the intention of installing a cotton mill on the banks of the Adda. He decided to build three-storev multi-family houses for his workers around the mill, and these were erected in the early months of 1878, following an established European model. When the founder's son, Silvio Benigno Crespi, took over the management of the enterprise in 1889 he completed and modified the project, on the basis of a different urbanistic approach and a clearer ideology. He turned away from the large multiple-occupancy blacks in favor of the single-family house, with its own garden, which he saw as conducive to harmony and a defense against industrial strife. He put this policy into practice in 1892 and the years that followed, with success, since there was no strike or other form of social disorder for the fifty years of Crespi management. In addition to small houses on the model that he advocated, he built a hydroelectrlc power station to supply his workers with free electricity, public lavatories and wash-houses, a clinic, a consumer cooperative, a school and small theatre, a sports centre, a house for the local priest and the local doctor, and other common services. Silvia Benigno Crespi aIso supplied his company town with buildings with a more symbolic value, such as the church, the castle (residence of the Crespi family), a new office complex within the factory, and houses for the owners to the south of those of the workers (tne former two of these date from the 18905 and the two latter from the early 1920s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great depression of 1929 and the harsh fascist fiscal policy resulted in the Crespi family being obliged to sell the entire town to STI, the Italian textile enterprise, which transferred it to the Rossari e Varzi company in 1970. It then passed to the Legler company, which sold off most of the houses. It is currently in the hands of the Polli industrial group, which currently employs some 600 people, as compared with the 3200 employed during the years of maximum activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/730</http_url><id_number>730</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_730.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.5933300000</latitude><location>Province of Bergamo, Lombardy</location><longitude>9.5383300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Crespi d'Adda is an outstanding example of the 19th- and early 20th-century phenomenon of the 'company town' in Europe and North America, which was an expression of the prevailing philosophy of enlightened industrialists towards their employees. It survives remarkably intact, and part is still in industrial use, although changing economic and social conditions inevitably pose a threat to its continued survival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first company towns were built in Europe in Belgium, France, Germany and the United Kingdom, to house the large workforces assembled by the new generation of entrepreneurs to work in their factories, which were established close to sources of raw materials, power, etc. It was not until the creation of the national market following political unification that they were set up in Italy. Crespi, in Capriate San Gervasio (Bergamo), is the most characteristic and complete of these.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1875 Cristoforo Benigno Crespi, a textile manufacturer from Busto Arsizio (Varese), bought the 1&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; valley between the rivers Bembo and Adda, to the south of Capriate, with the intention of installing a cotton mill on the banks of the Adda. He built three-storey multi-family houses for his workers around the mill in the early months of 1878, following a European model. When his son, Silvio Benigno Crespi, took over the management in 1889 he completed and modified the project. He turned away from the large multiple-occupancy blocks in favour of the single-family house with its own garden, which he saw as conducive to harmony and a defence against industrial strife. From 1892 onwards there was no strike or other form of social disorder for 50 years. In addition to small houses, a hydroelectric power station to supply the workers with free electricity, public lavatories and wash-houses, a clinic, a consumer cooperative, a school and small theatre, a sports centre, a house for the local priest and doctor, and other common services were built. There were also buildings with a more symbolic value, such as the church, the castle (residence of the Crespi family), a new office complex, and houses for the owners to the south of those of the workers (the former two of these date from the 1890s and the two latter from the early 1920s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great depression of 1929 and the harsh fascist fiscal policy resulted in the Crespi family being obliged to sell the entire town to STI, the Italian textile enterprise, which transferred it to the Rossari e Varzi Company in 1970. It then passed to the Legler Company, which sold off most of the houses. It is currently in the hands of the Polli industrial group, which currently employs some 600 people, as compared with the 3,200 employed during the years of maximum activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entire complex is laid out in a geometrically regular form, divided into two parts by the main road from Capriate. The factory, a single, compact block with medieval ornamentation, is situated to the right, on the left bank of the Adda; it contains the offices designed by Ernesto Pirovano, architect of much of the construction carried out during the time of Silvio Benigno Crespi. On the opposite side of the main road are the houses, constructed within a rectangular grid of roads in three lines. In the original plan these were two-storey buildings occupied by several families, each with four rooms. Nowadays each individual family house has a small garden and a vegetable garden, the latter separating the houses from the lavatories in the rear. The earlier houses can be clearly distinguished from the later ones on stylistic and layout grounds. There is considerable variation in the styles of house, which makes for a pleasing diversity in the townscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church was designed by the architect Luigi Cavenaghi following Bramante's Temple of Santa Maria in Piazza in Busto Arsizio; construction began in 1891 and was completed two years later. It is at the north end of the town in a square which also includes in its surroundings the school and theatre. The castle is the work of Pirovano, and was completed in 1897. It is an admixture of neo-Gothic Lombard elements, sculptures, and paintings with Moorish elements from the Veneto. The ensemble recalls the Romantic Gothic period, an impression that is heightened by the use of heterogeneous buildings materials The Cemetery is dominated by the Crespi family mausoleum, an Art Nouveau structure, the work of Gaetano Moretti.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Crespi d'Adda in Capriate San Gervasio in Lombardy is an outstanding example of the 19th- and early 20th-century 'company towns' built in Europe and North America by enlightened industrialists to meet the workers' needs. The site is still remarkably intact and is partly used for industrial purposes, although changing economic and social conditions now threaten its survival.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Crespi d'Adda</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>862</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;At one time the lands Of Ferrara were crossed by the unstable water network of the Po and its meanders. The bed of the river that traversed the city moved several kilometres away in the 12th century, leaving behind no more than a modest stream, which disappeared In its turn in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ferrara grew up along the banks of the Po on the Roman road leading to Padua round a ford. When threatened by the Huns, the Bishop of Voghenza moved his episcopal see to the right bank of the river and, to ensure his protection the exarchs of Ravenna built a fort on the opposite bank in the 8th century. A river port grew up on both banks round the fort and the bishop's establishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pope granted jurisdiction over the city to Tebaldo de Canossa in the 10th century and built the Castel Tebaldo on the left bank, to the west of the Byzantine fort. It spread between these two poles, along a street parallel to the river (the present-day Via delle Volte and via Ripagrande). At the beginning of the 12th century the city was in full growth and the commercial axis moved to the north, along a new highway (present-day Via Garibaldi and Via Mazzini), an ancient defensive line, to which new suburbs became attached.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This bipolar system of development was abandoned in the 12th century in favour of a single centre of which the cathedral was the pivot. The centre of communal power (Palazzo Communale, the Tower of the Lions which preceded the castle, and the quarter inhabited by the ruling class) collected around this monument, which was linked to the river by a network of perpendicular streets. Guglielmo II degli Adelardi organized the defences to the north of the town, an earthen bank protected by a ditch and eighteen towers, whilst to the south the river continued to provide natural protection. The city went on developing along both banks of the river until the House of Este came to power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This family first came to prominence in the communal government of Ferrara at the end of the 12th century, but another century was to elapse before it became the arbiter of the city's fate. The pope appointed the family to rule the City in 1332, first as a marquisate and then as a duchy, a title retained until 1598. The Este family gave Ferrara a place among the states, both large and small, in Italy. &lt;br /&gt; Niccolo II d'Este succeeded in consolidating the institutions of the domain, making it into a true principality. He gave special attention to matters relating to planning and in 1386 undertook the first of a series of extensions to the city (addizioni), all following the same lines. He enlarged the city by pushing the walls further away to the north. The open area created in this way became a quarter through the construction of a longitudinal axis street with streets opening out of it at right-angles and so linking with the existing street pattern. Niccolo invited his loyal supporters to move into this Quarter, which became centre of the city's elite.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the difficult period for the Italian states at the beginning of the 15th century Niccolo III d'Este (1393-1441) followed a skillful policy. He received the popes John XXII and Martin v and hosted the Ecumenical Council of 1438. The arrival at the court of the Veronese humanist Guarino Guarini conferred prestige upon Ferrara. He was made responsible for the education of the young Leonello, destined to succeed Niccolo III as Duke (1441-50&amp;gt;. The new impetus that he gave to the university, founded in 1391, attracted many men Of letters and scientists, who gave form to the Renaissance culture of Ferrara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Borso d'Este (1450-71), Leonello's younger brother, modernized the administrative structure of the state; he was made Duke of Modena and Reggio, and followed in Leonello's footsteps in cultural matters. He repeated Niccolo II's experiment by creating the second addizione on the same lines (1450&amp;gt;, reserving this Quarter in the south-east of the city for merchants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The long alliance between Ferrara and the Venetian Republic was brought to an end by Ercole I (1433- 1505), who moved closer to France. His wife, Eleanora of Aragon, and their daughters Isabella and Beatrice played an important part in the political life of the Duchy and its relations with Naples and the neighbouring Duchies of Mantua and Milan. In 1492 he began the largest and most famous addizione in Ferrara as protection against venice. The work was carried out by the architect Biagio Rossetti, assisted by Pellegrino Prisciani. Working with Alessandro Biondo he extended the defensive walls on the north of the city, whose area was doubled. In this enormous new area he applied the plan that had already been tried in the earlier addizioni. However, Biagio Rossetti used perspective in defining urban space. The main street, which linked the castle with the villas and parks to the north continued to be a private road for the princely family, along which faithful supporters built their palazzi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Conflict with Venice continued under Alfonso I (1476-1534), along with a dispute with Pope Julius II, who wanted to govern the Papal States directly. Relations with the Papacy became more complicated under Alfonso II, whose mother, Renee of France, protected persecuted Calvinists. In 1557 he began to introduce the principle of bastions into the city's fortifications. On his death in 1597 the Este family left Ferrara for Modena, and pope Clement VIII took back possession of the City, which became a distant province of the Papal States. The economic situation of the city deteriorated, with the walls being attacked by flooding from time to time and the countryside becoming impoverished. Nevertheless, a pentagonal fortress was built in 1608 to the south-east of the city (it was demolished after 1869).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Attempts to relaunch the economy Of Ferrara in the 18th century by creating a canal to link up with the PO and a new port did not have the effects anticipated. In 1796 the city was occupied by the French, who made it part of the Cisalpine Republic. Ferrara was occupied again by the French in the 19th century, and then by the Austrians. When it became part ofthe Kingdom of Italy in 1859 major reclamation works began on the marshlands, the city's gates were enlarged, and new infrastructure was added (railway, hospitals, etc). Damage during World War II was limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 15th-16th centuries the Este court was one of the main centres for the development and practical application of the new humanism in Italy. From the end of the reign of Niccolo III (1393-1441) it became an artistic centre where the greatest artists of the day were invited to decorate the palazzi and villa (delizie) of the Este family, both in the city itself and in the neighborhood - artists SUCh as Piero della Francesca (1499), Jacopo Bellini (1441), Mantegna (1449), and Roger van der Weyden (who brought the Flemish technique in 1449). Cosme Tura (1430-95), whose style was developed by Francesco del Cossa and Ercole de' Roberti, founded the Ferrara school of painting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ferrara also played host to great humanists such as Pietro Bombo (1470-1547), who dedicated Gli Asolani to Lucrezia Borgia, wife of Alfonso I, and poets such as 80iardo (1441-94), Ariosto (1474-1533), and Tasso (1544-95), the creators of a new form of Italian poetry, the epic and the commedia dell'arte. The poetic dreams of Ariosto were given material form in the development of the concept of the Italian Renaissance garden. The Barco, the hunting reserve Of the Este family to the north of the town, which was divided into several sectors according to function (zoological garden, giardino dei semplici or herb garden, ancestor of the botanical garden), was a model for the Villa d'Este at Tivoli and the Villa Taranto on Lake Maggiore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The university, founded in 1391, was the scene of important scientific developments. Copernicus (1473) and Paracelsus (1493-1541) were among the famous scientists who studied or taught there.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/733</http_url><id_number>733</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_733.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Este ducal residences in the Po Delta illustrate the influence of Renaissance culture on the natural landscape in an exceptional manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Po Delta is an outstanding planned cultural landscape which retains its original form to a remarkable extent.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>44.8377777800</latitude><location>City and Province of Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna Region</location><longitude>11.6194444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Ferrara is an outstanding planned Renaissance city which has retained its urban fabric virtually intact. The developments in town planning expressed in Ferrara were to have a profound influence on the development of urban design throughout the succeeding centuries. The brilliant Este court attracted a constellation of artists, poets and philosophers during the two seminal centuries of the Renaissance. The Po Delta is an outstanding planned cultural landscape which retains its original form to a remarkable extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the great Italian cities Ferrara is the only to have an original plan that is not derived from a Roman layout. It did not develop from a central area but rather on a linear axis, along the banks of the Po River, with longitudinal streets and many cross streets around which the medieval city was organized. The most significant characteristic of Ferrara's urban history rests on the fact that it developed from the 14th century onwards and, for the first time in Europe, on the basis of planning regulations that are in use nowadays in all modern towns. This type of development is known as &lt;em&gt;addizione&lt;/em&gt; ; the third phase was implemented in 1492, making Ferrara the only planned Renaissance town to have been completed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The street network and the enclosing walls are closely linked with the palaces, the churches, and the gardens. Throughout the 16th century the city was planned with the aim of making it a future 'capital'. Its evolution came to an end after the 17th century under papal administration, and the city did not undergo any extensions for almost three centuries. The city plan (1492) provided for doubling its area, an expansion limited to the south of the castle. This extension was completed by a new and very up-to-date defensive system made up of elements belonging to the various extensions carried out over several centuries (ramparts, keeps, semicircular towers, bastions, barbicans, etc.). These alterations completely changed the appearance of the city: new streets were created on a grid and buildings in a new style were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important monument surviving from the medieval period is the San Giorgio Cathedral dating back to the 12th century. The facade is a work of the master builder and sculptor Niccolo who, influenced by Benedetto Antelami, worked in the first half of the 12th century; the construction of the bell tower began in 1451 to a design attributed to Leon Battista Alberti. Standing in front of the cathedral, the 13th-century Palazzo Comunale was the first residence of the Este family and was joined in the late 15th century to the Castello di San Michele or Castello Estense. This massive, four-towered fortress was built in 1385 by the court architect Bartolomeo da Novara after a violent popular revolt. Works were carried out until 1570 with the creation of a noble residence with large halls to receive the court and embellished by frescoes and marble balconies and logge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palazzo Schifanoia, built in 1385, was first remodelled in 1465-67 for Borso d'Este by the architect Piero Benvenuti degli Ordini assisted by the young Biagio Rossetti, who was responsible alone for the work in 1493. The palace has a long brick facade with a marble portal bearing the arms of the Commandery, the work of Ercole de' Roberti. It is, however, the decoration of the halls, and in particular of the Hall of the Months, which best illustrate the humanist culture of Ferrara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The intersection of the streets coming from the castle (Corso Ercole I) and the main axis of Ercole 1a addizione (Corso Rossetti, Corso Porta Mare) linking two of the city gates is one of the most important elements in the 1492 city plan. This focal point, which links the modern and Renaissance city with the medieval, is underlined by four palaces: Palazzo Prosperi-Sacrati, Palazzo Bevilacqua, Palazzo Turchi-Di Bagno and Palazzo dei Diamanti. The construction of the Palazzo dei Diamanti began in 1492 for Sigismondo d'Este, but was not completed until 1565. The regular rustication over the entire height of the facades gives it a special appearance.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1999</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ferrara, which grew up around a ford over the River Po, became an intellectual and artistic centre that attracted the greatest minds of the Italian Renaissance in the 15th and 16th centuries. Here, Piero della Francesca, Jacopo Bellini and Andrea Mantegna decorated the palaces of the House of Este. The humanist concept of the 'ideal city' came to life here in the neighbourhoods built from 1492 onwards by Biagio Rossetti according to the new principles of perspective. The completion of this project marked the birth of modern town planning and influenced its subsequent development.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, and its Po Delta</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>867</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There is evidence of prehistoric settlement in the Itria valley, and it is possible that the tholos tradition of building may have come to the region at this time. It is generally considered that the present settlement dates from the mid-14th century, when what appears at the time to have been an uninhabited area was granted to the first Count of Conversano by Robert d'Anjou, Prince of Taranto, in recognition of his service during the Crusades. He and his successors colonized the area by moving people from their other fiefs such as nearby Noci, allowing them to build cottages known as easel/e. However, recent research by local planners suggests that scattered rural settlements that began around AD 1000 on either side of the small river that now runs underground through the town gradually coalesced to form the village units of latter-day Aja Piccola and Monti.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tradition has it that drystone walling was imposed upon the new settlers so that their houses could be quickly dismantled. This served two purposes: recalcitrant householders could be dispossessed easily and, later, it would be possible to avoid taxation on new settlements. In the latter case the buildings could be reconstructed equally rapidly. This is known to have occurred in 1644 to thwart tax inspectors sent by the King of Naples. However, historical and comparative analysis suggests that this technique was no more than a minimal physical response to local conditions and circumstances, later to be exploited for fiscal or punitive purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the mid-16th century the Monti area was already occupied by some forty trulli, but it was in 1620 that the settlement, then still part of the town of Noci, began to expand, when the Count of the period, Gian Girolamo Guercio, ordered the construction of a bakery, a mill, and an inn. By the end of the 18th century the community numbered over 3500 people, and in 1797 they succeeded in bringing the feudal rule of the Acquaviva family to an end by obtaining the status of royal town from Ferdinand IV, Bourbon King of Naples. The name of Alberobello was adopted, taken from the medieval Latin name of the region, silva arboris belli. From this time onwards the construction of new trulli quickly declined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/787</http_url><id_number>787</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_787.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (iii), (iv) and (v) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value being an exceptional example of a form of building construction deriving from prehistoric construction techniques that have survived intact and functioning into the modern world.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.7825000000</latitude><location>Province of Bari, Puglia Region</location><longitude>17.2369400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Alberobello, the city of drystone dwellings known as &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; , is an exceptional example of vernacular architecture. It is one of the best preserved and most homogeneous urban areas of this type in Europe. Its special features, and the fact that the buildings are still occupied, make it unique. It also represents a remarkable survival of prehistoric building techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was prehistoric settlement in the Itria and the &lt;em&gt;tholos&lt;/em&gt; (dome-shaped tomb) tradition of building may have come to the region at this time. The present settlement dates from the mid-14th century, when what appears to have been an uninhabited area was granted to the first Count of Conversano by Robert d'Anjou, Prince of Taranto, in recognition of his service during the Crusades. He and his successors colonized the area by moving people from their other fiefs, allowing them to build cottages known as &lt;em&gt;caselle&lt;/em&gt; . However, recent research suggests that scattered rural settlements that began around AD 1000 gradually coalesced to form the village units of latter-day Aja Piccola and Monti. Tradition has it that drystone walling was imposed upon the new settlers so their houses could be quickly dismantled. This served two purposes: recalcitrant householders could be dispossessed easily and, later, it would be possible to avoid taxation on new settlements. In the latter case the buildings could be reconstructed equally rapidly. This is known to have occurred in 1644 to thwart tax inspectors sent by the King of Naples. However, historical and comparative analysis suggests that this technique was a minimal physical response to local conditions, later to be exploited for punitive purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the mid-16th century the Monti area was already occupied by some 40 &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; , but it was in 1620 that the settlement began to expand, when Count Gian Girolamo Guercio ordered the construction of a bakery, a mill and an inn. By the end of the 18th century the community numbered over 3,500, and in 1797 they brought the feudal rule of the Acquaviva family to an end by obtaining the status of royal town from Ferdinand IV, King of Naples. The name of Alberobello was adopted, taken from the medieval Latin name of the region, &lt;em&gt;siva arboris belli&lt;/em&gt; . From this time onwards the construction of new &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; quickly declined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These buildings were constructed using roughly worked limestone boulders collected from neighbouring fields and, later, the large water-collecting basins in the area. They were built directly on the underlying natural rock, using exclusively the drystone technique. The walls that form the rectangular rooms are double, with rubble cores, and are pierced by small windows. Fireplaces, ovens and alcoves are recessed into the thickness of the walls. The roofs, which are also double-skinned, spring directly from the walls, simple squinches allowing the transition from the rectangular to the circular or oval sections of the roofs themselves. These are built up of successive courses of grey limestone slabs, known as &lt;em&gt;chianche&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;chiancarelle&lt;/em&gt; . The roofs of the larger building terminate in a decorative pinnacle, often apotropaic in function. There are ingenious provisions for collecting rainwater using projecting eaves at the base of the roof which divert the water through a channelled slab into the cistern beneath the house. Flights of narrow stone steps give access to the roofs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interiors are equipped with wooden fittings, such as door frames, barrel-vaulted niches, etc., and in some of the larger &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; there is a second storey formed from a wooden floor and reached by means of a wooden staircase. Stone fireplaces and ovens are ventilated through stone slabs covering them. The roofs are not painted and develop a patina of mosses and lichens; they sometimes bear mythological or religious symbols in white ash. By contrast, the walls of the &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; must be whitewashed at regular intervals, which has the effect of rounding the outlines of the stones, giving a brilliant homogeneous surface. The Monti quarter, which covers 6&amp;nbsp;ha on a hillside, contains 1,030 &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; . Its streets run downhill and converge at the base of the hill. The Aja Piccola quarter, with 590 &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; , is less homogeneous than Monti. The streets converge on a common farmyard where in feudal times the peasants were forced to thresh wheat.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; , limestone dwellings found in the southern region of Puglia, are remarkable examples of drywall (mortarless) construction, a prehistoric building technique still in use in this region. The &lt;em&gt;trulli&lt;/em&gt; are made of roughly worked limestone boulders collected from neighbouring fields. Characteristically, they feature pyramidal, domed or conical roofs built up of corbelled limestone slabs.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The &lt;I&gt;Trulli&lt;/I&gt; of Alberobello</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>930</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/788</http_url><id_number>788</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_788.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value being of remarkable significance by virtue of the supreme artistry of the mosaic art that the monuments contain, and also because of the crucial evidence that they provide of artistic and religious relationships and contacts at an important period of European cultural history.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>44.4204166700</latitude><location>City and Province of Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna Region</location><longitude>12.1962500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The early Christian religious monuments in Ravenna are of outstanding significance by virtue of the supreme artistry of the mosaic art that they contain, and also because of the crucial evidence that they provide of artistic and religious relationships and contacts at an important period of European cultural history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the reign of Augustus the port of Classis was established at Ravenna. Following the barbarian invasions of the 5th century, Honorius made it his capital. His sister, Galla Placidia, lived in Ravenna during her widowhood in the first half of the 5th century, and made it a centre of Christian art and culture. With the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, Ravenna entered into a period of prosperity and influence. It was taken by Belisarius in 540 and remained the centre of Byzantine control in Italy until 752. Its subsequent history was one of decline and stagnation. After 1441 it was under Venetian and then papal rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, built in the second quarter of the 5th century, has a plain bare exterior lightened by pilasters that meet in arches and is crowned by a brick dome concealed by a small quadrangular tower. The interior is lavishly decorated. The lower part is clad in panels of yellow marble and the remainder is entirely covered in mosaics. The building is in the western Roman architectural tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Neonian Baptistery, built by Bishop Orso in the early 5th century, was decorated with mosaics by his successor, Neone, around 450. The interior consists of four apses, articulated into two orders of arches, rising to the great cupola. The large mosaic medallion at the apex of the dome shows the Baptism of Christ by John the Baptist. This is the finest and most complete surviving example of the early Christian baptistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo was built in the early years of the 6th century. Inside the interior is divided by 24 marble columns into a nave and two aisles, with a rounded apse. At the present time mosaics cover the two side walls at the foot of the nave, from the ceiling to the tops of the supporting arches, in three decorated fascias. Those in the upper two fascias are in traditional Roman style whereas those in the third show strong Byzantine influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Arian Baptistery, built by Theodoric next to his cathedral, was reconsecrated with the overthrow of the Arian heresy in 561 and became an oratory dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It is a small brick building, octagonal in plan with four flat sides and four with protruding apses. Only the dome retains its mosaic decoration. The iconography of the mosaics is of importance in that it illustrates the Trinity, a somewhat unexpected element in the art of an Arian building as the Trinity was not accepted in this doctrine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Archiepiscopal Chapel, the private oratory of the orthodox bishops, was built around 500. The chapel is in the shape of a Greek cross with an apse on the eastern arm; it is covered by a cross-vault and preceded by a rectangular vestibule. The Iower part of the walls is covered with marble, with mosaics above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Theodoric wasbuilt by Theodoric shortly before his death in 526. It is in two storeys, the lower 10-sided with a niche and a small window in each side. The significance of the mausoleum lies in its style and decoration, which owe nothing to Roman or Byzantine art, although it makes use of the Roman stone-construction technique of &lt;em&gt;opus quadratum&lt;/em&gt; , which had been abandoned four centuries before. It is the unique surviving example of a tomb of a barbarian king of this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of San Vitale was completed around 547. It was fronted by a large quadroportico, converted into a cloister when the church became part of a Benedictine monastery. There are two storeys, the upper one encircling the dome. The apse, which is semi-circular on the interior and polygonal on the outside, is flanked by two small rectangular rooms terminating in niches and two semi-circular sacristies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe was built in the first half of the 6th century, commissioned by Bishop Ursicinus. The narthex is incorporated in the central body of the facade, framed by two pilasters.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ravenna was the seat of the Roman Empire in the 5th century and then of Byzantine Italy until the 8th century. It has a unique collection of early Christian mosaics and monuments. All eight buildings – the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, the Neonian Baptistery, the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, the Arian Baptistery, the Archiepiscopal Chapel, the Mausoleum of Theodoric, the Church of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe – were constructed in the 5th and 6th centuries. They show great artistic skill, including a wonderful blend of Graeco-Roman tradition, Christian iconography and oriental and Western styles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>931</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The leading humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1405-64), who was elected to the papal Throne of St peter in 1458 as Pius II, was born in the village of Corsignano, Situated on a hill overlooking the Orcia and Asso valleys some 53 km south-east of Siena. When he returned there in February 1459, a few months after becoming Pope, he was struck by the extreme misery of its inhabitants, which he described in his Commentarii. This inspired him to endow his birthplace with new buildings, both public and private, and to make it his summer court. His vision derived to a considerable extent from the German-born philosopher cardinal Nicola Cusano. The link with the German Gothic tradition is shown by Pienza cathedral, which the Pope wanted to be in the same style as the Late Gothic Hallenkirchen of southern Germany, such as Landshut, Neu&amp;ouml;tting, Straubing, N&amp;uuml;rnberg, Vienna, M&amp;ouml;dling, and Gumpelskirchen, that he had admired in his travels. He was also influenced by Jacob Fugger, banker to Charles V and Leo x, who transformed his native city of Augsburg in the early 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For the transformation of Corsignano Pius II called upon the services of Bernardo di Matteo Gamberelli, known as Rossellino, who had been ingegnere di palazzo to Pope Nicholas V in Rome. There he had worked with and been influenced by Leone Battista Alberti, the great Humanist thinker and architect, who was responsible for the restoration of Rome in 1447-55 and whose De re aedificatoria (1452) was the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rossellino was responsible for the major buildings around the central square (the Cathedral, the Piccolomini palace, and the Episcopal Palace), work on which began in 1459. He was also responsible for planning the overall layout of the town, which he based on the principles of Renaissance town planning enunciated by Alberti. The walled medieval village Of Corsignano consisted of a main street (now the Corso RoSsellino) joining the two main gates (Porta al Giglio and Porta al Prato), flanked by smaller perpendicular and parallel streets. Rossellino largely respected this basic structure when siting his ensemble of major buildings around the main square. Pius II's project also required the building of large houses for the cardinals in his retinue, and work on these began in 1463. Two structures with a social function, the hospital and the inn in front of the church of St Francis, were also built on his orders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/789</http_url><id_number>789</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_789.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (ii) and (iv) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value as it represents the first application of the Renaissance Humanist concept of urban design, and as such occupies a seminal position in the development of the concept of the planned "ideal town" which was to play a significant role in subsequent urban development in Italy and beyond. The application of this principle in Pienza, and in particular in the group of buildings around the central square, resulted in a masterpiece of human creative genius.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.0769444400</latitude><location>Province of Siena, Tuscany</location><longitude>11.6786111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Pienza represents the first application of the Renaissance humanist concept of urban design, and as such occupies a seminal position in the development of the concept of the planned 'ideal town' that was to play a significant role in subsequent urban development in ltaly and beyond. The application of this principle in Pienza, and in particular in the group of buildings around the central square, resulted in a masterpiece of human creative genius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The leading humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1405-64), elected to the papal throne in 1458 as Pius II, was born in Corsignano, situated on a hill overlooking the Orcia and Asso valley a short distance south-east of Siena. When he returned there after becoming pope, he was struck by the extreme misery of its inhabitants, which inspired him to endow his birthplace with new buildings, and make it his summer court. His vision derived to a great extent from the German-born philosopher Cardinal Nicol&amp;agrave; Cusano. The link with the German Gothic tradition is shown by Pienza Cathedral, which the pope wanted to be in the same style as the late Gothic Hallenkirchen in Germany. To transform Corsignano Pius II called upon Bernardo di Matteo Gamberelli, known as Rossellino, &lt;em&gt;ingegnere di palazzo&lt;/em&gt; to Pope Nicholas V in Rome, where he had been influenced by Leon Battista Alberti, the humanist thinker and architect, responsible for the restoration of Rome in 1447-55 and author of &lt;em&gt;De re aedificatoria&lt;/em&gt; (1452), the first architectural treatise of the Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rossellino was responsible for the major buildings around the central square, where work began in 1459. He was also responsible for the overall layout of the town, based on the principles of Renaissance town planning enunciated by Alberti. The walled village of Corsignano consisted of a main street joining the two gates, flanked by smaller perpendicular parallel streets. Rossellino largely respected this basic structure when siting his major buildings around the main square. Pius II's project also required the building of large houses for the cardinals in his retinue, and work on these began in 1463. Two structures with a social function, the hospital and the inn in front of the church of St Francis, were also built on his orders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ideal centre of Pienza is the Piazza Pio II. Its trapezoid plan is emphasized by the herringbone paving edged with travertine. On the south side of the square is the cathedral (built 1459-62), designed by Rossellino. The influence of Alberti is strong in the composition of the triple facade with its wide arches, corresponding with the three-aisled interior. The interior, divided by tall clustered pilasters from which the arches and cross-vaults spring, was inspired by the Hallenkirchen. The bell tower also blends Gothic and Renaissance forms. On the west side of the Piazza is the Piccolomini Palace, built in 1463 on the site of old houses owned by the family. The front elevations, resting on a travertine plinth, are divided into three bands of sandstone ashlars, interrupted by wide arched windows. Three of the sides are the same and the fourth, with an imposing triple-tiered Ioggia, looks out on a raised garden. The fine interior courtyard is decorated with sgraffito ornamentation on the second and third floors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Episcopal Palace is on the opposite side of the piazza. The old Pretorio Palace was purchased in 1463 for Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, who added an extra storey and replaced the Gothic windows. The Town Hall (1462) on the north side of the square is in conventional Tuscan style for buildings with this function, with an open loggia at ground level and a crenellated tower. In contrast with the other buildings around the square, it is in stuccoed tufa and brick, decorated with sgraffito, only the loggia in travertine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The other major buildings in Pienza line the Corso Rossellino, most built as houses members of the papal court, although some earlier buildings survive. They include the Gothic Church of St Francis and its Convent; the Atrebatense Palace (Gothic structure with Renaissance decoration); the Ammannati Palace, in Renaissance style; the brick Palazzetto; and the Gonzaga Palace, one of the few buildings that retains its garden. Pienza has many Renaissance fountains and wells, the designed by Rossellino.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;It was in this Tuscan town that Renaissance town-planning concepts were first put into practice after Pope Pius II decided, in 1459, to transform the look of his birthplace. He chose the architect Bernardo Rossellino, who applied the principles of his mentor, Leon Battista Alberti. This new vision of urban space was realized in the superb square known as Piazza Pio II and the buildings around it: the Piccolomini Palace, the Borgia Palace and the cathedral with its pure Renaissance exterior and an interior in the late Gothic style of south German churches.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of the City of Pienza</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>932</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Verona, today the capital of the province of Verona, is situated in northern Italy at the foot of Monte Lessini on the River Adige. It was founded by ancient tribes and became a Roman colony in the 1st century BCE, rising rapidly in importance. It was occupied by the Ostrogoth Theodoric I (5th century), by the Lombards, and by Charlemagne (774). In the early 12th century, it became an independent commune, suffering during the wars of Guelphs and Ghibellines. It prospered under the rule of the Scaliger family (the period of Romeo and Juliet) and particularly under Cangrande I, who protected the exiled poet Dante. It fell to Venice in 1405, was part of the Austrian Empire from 1797, and joined the Kingdom of Italy in 1866.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early period, the hillsides of the region of Verona were inhabited in fortified villages (castellieri). The name of Verona has been related to the root wehr (a defensive wall); the name could have meant a fortified site on the river. Ancient roads of communication may have crossed here as early as the 6th or 5th century BCE. One road led to the Adriatic, with an important Etruscan settlement, another followed the river in the direction of the vineyards of Valpolicella and the lower Trentino, and a third connected with the flourishing Cisalpine territories of Garda and Brescia (Via Claudia Augusta). The construction of the Via Postumia around 148-147 BCE opened the way to Genoa and Lombardy (Pavia, Piacenza, Cremona) in the west and to Oderzo and Aquileia in the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the Roman settlement began in the later Republican era, the second half of the 1st century BCE. To this period has been dated the construction of the decumanus maximus, which followed the trace of the Via Postumia, and the cardo maximus, which entered the town from the east. The town was built on a grid plan and surrounded by defensive walls with two gates, Porta Leoni and Porta Iova (later Portone Borsari). Of the walls and gates there are only archaeological remains. The discovery of an inscription has confirmed the date of the foundation of Verona as 49 BCE. The city soon grew in importance and wealth and various public buildings were constructed, including the amphitheatre, the Roman theatre, and the Ponte Pietra. Recent excavations have revealed considerable further remains, including decorated marble paving and prestigious structures and objects. In 265 CE, with the intensification of conflicts with the barbarians in the north, the Emperor Gallienus decided to rebuild the Republican defence walls further out, including also the amphitheatre. The town resisted the various invasions, while other cities were destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the Roman period (476 CE), Verona became the second capital of the Italic Kingdom of the Ostrogoths; Theodoric I had Verona as his principal residence. During the following centuries (domination by the Goths until 567, the Lombards until 774, and the Holy Roman Empire until the end of the millennium), Verona continued to play an important role, resulting in the construction of prominent buildings. Amongst the authorities, Bishop Raterio (from Belgium) merits a special mention because he prepared an illustration of the city, the only document surviving from this period. In its urban layout, the city preserved its Roman grid plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the following period of independent communes in northern Italy, the continuous wars and armed conflicts forced Verona to rebuild its fortifications. The arrival of the Signoria of the Scaligers (1259-1387) favoured the development of the town, which had already extended its possessions to a large part of the Venetian territories in the north-west. Cangrande I de la Scala (1311-29) decided to further extend the city ramparts, and to reorganize the defence of the city so as to resist even long sieges. The strength of the defences was such that Verona remained a stronghold in the subsequent Venetian and Austrian periods. This decision also had an impact on town planning and the city initiated an active period of construction, especially large basilicas and administrative ensembles. In 1387, Giangaleazzo Visconti of Milan conquered Verona for a short period, building new ramparts, as well as a citadel in the southern part of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1405 until 1797 Verona was a wealthy and active part of the Venetian Republic. Apart from a conflict in the early 16th century, this was a period of peace. The Venetians commissioned the Veronese military architect Michele Sanmicheli (1484-1559) to reinforce the medieval fortifications. He designed the series of polygonal bastions placed at regular intervals, as well as building three new city gates (Porta Nuova, Porta Palio, Porta San Zeno) of great architectural significance. The position of these gates favoured the development of the city in the area comprised between the communal and the Scaligerian walls further south. The Venetians prohibited extending the city beyond this limit for military reasons and the ban remained in force during the Austrian Empire. This forced all development to remain inside the walled area, thus contributing to unity in the development. For the city, the Venetian period was characterized by considerable economic autonomy, reflected also in administration and in culture. A great number of prestigious palaces of wealthy families and numerous religious and public buildings marked the period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the Austrian domination (1814-66), Verona strengthened its military role. Marshal Radetzki and his general-architect Franz von Scholl repaired the damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, and large military complexes were built inside the city, including the impressive Arsenal, close to the medieval bridge of Castelvecchio. In 1866, when the Austrians handed the city over to the Kingdom of Italy, there were 65,000 inhabitants but practically no industry. The city thus entered a period of some difficulty, which was aggravated by the terrible flood of 1882. The river rose some 8m and numerous buildings, watermills, and sawmills were wiped out. While the two main bridges were destroyed, the old bridges resisted the force of the river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From this time on, the city's development changed. Its military role having come to an end, development now expanded outside the walls and new districts were established. It was also the beginning of industrial development. By 1927 the population had grown to 150,000, and the first competitions for urban plans were organized in 1931-32. World War II was devastating to the city: 40% of the building stock was destroyed, including all the bridges. There followed a long period of intense reconstruction and restoration, with the active participation of the Superintending Architect of Verona, Piero Gazzola (1908- 79), founding President of ICOMOS and one of the initiators and principal authors of the Venice Charter. The reconstruction period also led to the approval of the first urban master plan of Verona in 1958, amended in 1975.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/797</http_url><id_number>797</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_797.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; In its urban structure and its architecture, Verona is an outstanding example of a town that has developed progressively and uninterruptedly over two thousand years, incorporating artistic elements of the highest quality from each succeeding period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Verona represents in an exceptional way the concept of the fortified town at several seminal stages of European history.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.4386111100</latitude><location>City and Province of Verona, Veneto Region</location><longitude>10.9938888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In its urban structure and its architecture, Verona is an outstanding example of a town that has developed progressively and uninterruptedly over 2,000 years, incorporating artistic elements of the highest quality from each succeeding period. It also represents in an exceptional way the concept of the fortified town at several seminal stages of European history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city is situated in northern Italy at the foot of Monte Lessini on the River Adige. It was founded by ancient tribes and became a Roman colony in the 1st century BC, rising rapidly in importance. It was occupied by the Ostrogoth Theodoric I (5th century), by the Lombards, and by Charlemagne (774). In the early 12th century, it became an independent commune, suffering during the wars of Guelphs and Ghibellines. It prospered under the rule of the Scaliger family and particularly under Cangrande I. It fell to Venice in 1405, was part of the Austrian Empire from 1797, and joined the Kingdom of Italy in 1866.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The core of the city consists of the Roman town in the loop of the river. The Scaligers rebuilt the walls, embracing a much larger territory in the west and another vast area on the east bank of the river. This remained the size of the city until the 20th century. The heart of Verona is the ensemble consisting of the Piazza delle Erbe (with its picturesque vegetable market) and the Piazza dei Signori, with their historic buildings, including the Palazzo del Comune, Palazzo del Governo, Loggia del Consiglio, Arche Scaligere and Domus Nova. The Piazza Bra has a number of classicist buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the north of Italy, Verona is one of the richest cities in Roman remains. These include the Porta Borsari, a city gate at the beginning of the decumanus maximus; the Porta Leoni, only half of which remains, attached to a later building; the Arco dei Gavi, dismantled in the Napoleonic period and rebuilt next to Castelvecchio in the 1930s; the Ponte Pietra; the Roman theatre, excavated in the mid-19th century and restored for use in spectacles; and the Amphitheatre Arena, the second-largest after the Colosseum in Rome (originally a wall of three orders surrounded it, but this collapsed in an earthquake in the 12th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Romanesque period (8th-12th centuries), the church of San Giovanni in Valle was built on the ruins of previous buildings. The interior has three aisles and there is pre-Romanesque crypt. The elevations of the church of San Lorenzo consist of a mixture of materials, tuff in the lower parts, and tuff and brick alternating in the upper part. The entrance has a Renaissance porch. The church of San Fermo was built from tuff and brick on the remains of an earlier basilica of the 8th century. The tombs are on the exterior; the church has small arches, tall windows, ample staircases, and a beautiful Romanesque porch. The cathedral (Duomo) was first built in the 6th century but rebuilt in the 12th century after an earthquake. The facade, completed in the 14th century, is in Verona marble and has bas-reliefs representing sacred and profane episodes of different types. There is a fine 12th-century cloister with arcades on double colonnades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Scaliger period (13th-14th centuries), the church of Sant'Anastasia was built by the Dominicans; its facade remained incomplete. The Arche Scaligere is the cemetery of the Scaliger family, close to the Piazza dei Signori. Castelvecchio is the fortified residence of the Scaliger family, built at the time of Cangrande II over a previous fortification. The House of Juliet is a small genuine medieval palace; a balcony was added in the 1930s, inspired by Shakespeare's drama. The House of Romeo is a medieval complex, greatly transformed in later periods, and relatively little remains from the original building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are also numerous buildings that date from the Renaissance in the centre of Verona: the churches of Santi Nazaro e Celso, Santa Maria in Organo, San Giorgio, San Tomaso, San Bernardino, and Sant'Eufemia. There are the palaces of Canossa, Pompei and Bevilacqua, the gates of Porta Palio, Porta Nuova, Porta Vescovo and Porta San Zeno, as well as the Bishop's Palace and the Giusti Garden and Palace. From the Austrian period of the 19th century, notable buildings include the Castel San Pietro and the Caserma Santa Marta.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic city of Verona was founded in the 1st century B.C. It particularly flourished under the rule of the Scaliger family in the 13th and 14th centuries and as part of the Republic of Venice from the 15th to 18th centuries. Verona has preserved a remarkable number of monuments from antiquity, the medieval and Renaissance periods, and represents an outstanding example of a military stronghold.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Verona</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>942</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Many distinguished scholars in the disciplines of botany and medicine have worked at the University of Padua since its foundation in 1222. Among these were Albero0 Magno, who obtained his degree there in 1223 and went on to become the patron saint of the natural sciences, Pietro d'Abano (1250-1316), Giacomo Dondi Orologio (1298-1360), and Domenico Senno (1461-1531).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1533 Francesco Bonafede (1474-1558) was appointed to the Chair of Lectura Simplicium at the University by the Most Serene Republic of Venice. In 1543 he petitioned for the creation of a model herbarium and botanical garden, which was established by decree of the Most Serene Republic on 29 June 1545.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began immediately on a plot belonging to the Benedictine Order, whose monks were probably already raising medicinal plants there. Implementation of the project was assigned to Daniele Barbaro, translator of the De architectura of Vitruvius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The garden has remained here ever since that time. Various additions have been made in the intervening centuries - a pumping installation to supply ten fountains in the 17th century, four monumental entrances in 1704, and new masonry greenhouses in the late 18th and early 19th century. An arboretum, an English garden with winding paths, and a small hillock, known as the Belvedere, were also added around this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/824</http_url><id_number>824</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_824.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii) and (iii), considering that the Botanical Garden of Padua is the original of all botanical gardens throughout the world, and represents the birth of science, of scientific exchanges, and understanding of the relationship between nature and culture. It has made a profound contribution to the development of many modern scientific disciplines, notably botany, medicine, chemistry, ecology, and pharmacy.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.3991111100</latitude><location>City and Province of Padova, Veneto Region,</location><longitude>11.8806666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Botanical Garden of Padua is the original of all botanical gardens throughout the world, and represents the birth of science, of scientific exchanges, and understanding of the relationship between nature and culture. It has made a profound contribution to the development of many modern scientific disciplines, notably botany, medicine, chemistry, ecology, and pharmacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many distinguished scholars in the disciplines of botany and medicine have worked at the University of Padua since its foundation in 1222. Among these were Alberto Magno, who obtained his degree there in 1223 and went on to become the patron saint of the natural sciences, Pietro d'Abano (1250-1316), Giacomo Dondi Orologio (1298-1360), and Domenico Senno (1461-1531). In 1533 Francesco Bonafede (1474-1558) was appointed to the Chair of Lectura Simplicium at the University by the Most Serene Republic of Venice. In 1543 he petitioned for the creation of a model herbarium and botanical garden, which was established by decree of the Most Serene Republic on 29 June 1545. Work began immediately on a plot belonging to the Benedictine Order, whose monks were probably already raising medicinal plants there. Implementation of the project was assigned to Daniele Barbaro, translator of the De architectura of Vitruvius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The garden has remained here ever since. Various additions have been made in the intervening centuries - a pumping installation to supply 10 fountains in the 17th century, four monumental entrances in 1704, and new masonry greenhouses in the late 18th and early 19th century. An arboretum, an English garden with winding paths, and a small hillock (belvedere) were also added around this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Barbaro's intention was to lay the 22,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of the irregularly shaped area out in the form of a tiny paradisal world surrounded by a ring of water (Alicomo Canal) to represent the ocean. Within he planned a circular &lt;em&gt;hortus conclusus&lt;/em&gt; (walled garden) 86&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, which in turn enclosed a 41&amp;nbsp;m square plot. The entire garden was divided into four quadrants by pathways at right angles, running to the four cardinal points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Early documents show that the Botanical Garden was enclosed by a high brick wall, while the four smaller squares created by the two pathways cutting the central square were embellished with geometric flower beds, bordered with stone, in each of which a single plant species was grown. This basic layout survives to the present day, although with many later additions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the four entrances were refashioned in 1704, the wrought-iron gates giving on to the inner circles and the four acroteria were placed on the eight pillars and surmounted by four pairs of wrought-iron plants (Fritillatia, Ananas, Lilium and Yucca). The Istrian stone fountains outside the round garden date to the same period and represent Theophrastus and Solomon. The elegant balustrade, which runs along the top of the entire 250&amp;nbsp;m of the circular wall, was also completed during the first half of the 18th century. The heated stone-built greenhouses replaced mobile conservatories used for protecting delicate plants during the winter, which were located on the south side of the ring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Botanical Garden also houses two important collections. The library contains more than 50,000 volumes and manuscripts of immense historical and bibliographic importance. The herbarium is the second most extensive in Italy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The garden has traditionally collected and grown particularly rare plants, which have then been introduced into the rest of Europe. Currently there are over 6,000 species, arranged according to systematic and utilitarian criteria (medicinal plants, essence-producing plants) and ecological-environmental criteria (peat-bog plants, Mediterranean maquis flora, alpine flora). There are also thematic collections (carnivorous, succulent, aquatic, poisonous) and single-genus collections (&lt;em&gt;Salix L., Allium L., Ornithogallum L., Aster L., Campanula L&lt;/em&gt; .). Of particular interest is the collection of plants which are rare or threatened by extinction, some of which have been successfully reproduced in the garden.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The world's first botanical garden was created in Padua in 1545. It still preserves its original layout &amp;ndash; a circular central plot, symbolizing the world, surrounded by a ring of water. Other elements were added later, some architectural (ornamental entrances and balustrades) and some practical (pumping installations and greenhouses). It continues to serve its original purpose as a centre for scientific research.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Botanical Garden (Orto Botanico), Padua</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>973</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The area that is the subject of this nomination covers some 15km along the extreme eastern end of the Ligmian coast, between Levanto and La Spezia. It is a very jagged, steep coastline, which the work of human beings over millennia has transformed into an intensively terraced landscape so as to be able to wrest from nature a few hectares of land suitable for agriculture, such as growing vines and olive trees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The human communities have adapted themselves to this seemingly rough and inhospitable nature by building compact settlements directly on the rock, with winding streets. The general use of natural stone for rooting gives these settlements a characteristic appearance. They are generally grouped round religious buildings or medieval castles. Their small harbours provide shelter for the boats used for the other traditional activity, fishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The five villages of Cinque Terre (the name of its famous wines, which received an appellation controll&amp;eacute; in 1973, but were given this name as early at the 15th century) date back to the later Middle Ages; there are resemblances between them, but they also have their own socio-economic characteristics. The cultivation terraces that typify much of the Cinque Terre landscape, some of them extending as much as 2km in length, were mostly built in the 12th century, when Saracen raids from the sea had come to an end. The drystone wails are most often carefully constructed of sandstone blocks, bonded together with beach pebbles. It is estimated that 130m3 of walls per hectare of vineyard and 30-300m3 per hectare of olive grove are now in need of urgent reconstruction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Starting from the north, the first of the Cinque Terre is the fortified centre of Monterosso al Mare, on the top of St Christopher's hill, which first played an important role in the 7th century, during the Lombard invasions. After being disputed over by different noble families during the Middle Ages, it threw in its lot with the Republic of Genoa. It is a coastal town in a valley, its most prominent features being the church of St John, built in 1244, with its bell-tower, originally an isolated watch-tower, the ruins of the old castle, and the 17th Capuchin monastery which dominates the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Next comes Vemazza, founded in 1000 by people living on the Reggio hills. It became part of the Republic of Genoa in 1276. The houses are built along the Vemazza stream (now culverted) and up the slopes of the rocky spur that hides the village from those approaching it by sea. Narrow streets run down to the main street, which opens out into a small square looking out over the sea. Here the church of St Margaret of Antioch is a typical example of Ligmian Gothic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Comiglia is the only one of the villages of Cinque Terre that is built not on the coast itself but on a high promontory. It is dominated by the church of St Peter, built in 1334.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Further south, Manarola is a small hamlet established in the 12th century by people coming down from the mountain village of Volastra. Its houses are ranged in part on a rocky spur running down towards the sea and partly along the (now culverted) Grappa stream. A group of religious buildings - the church of St John the Baptist, the freestanding bell-tower, and an oratory - are all of 14th century date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most southerly of the villages is Riomaggiore, another medieval foundation. Its houses line the narrow valley of the Maggiore stream (also now covered). The village is dominated by the church of St John the Baptist (1340) and the castle, construction of which began in 1260.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Portovenere is an important cultural centre. Among the remains to be found there are those of a large patrician Roman villa on the coast at Varignano and a Benedictine monastic establishment with a fine proto- Romanesque church dedicated to St Peter, on the Arpaia rocky promontory, which was later surrounded by a Gothic construction. In the town, below the Castle there is a second church, with both Romanesque and Gothic elements, dedicated to St Lawrence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is a Roman foundation, Portus Veneris. It was occupied by the Genoese in 1113. It is compact in form, giving the appearance of a fortified town, culminating in the Doria castle (early 12th-16th centuries), which dominates the settlement and is an historical palimpsest, with many traces of its medieval predecessor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Off the coast at Portovenere are the three islands of Palmaria, Tine, and Tinetto, which are noteworthy not only for their natural beauty but also for the many remains of early monastic establishments that they contain. Pahnaria and Tino have a strategic military function because of their proximity to the NATO base at La Spezia across the gulf of the same name. Because of the restricted access (Tine may only be visited once a year) their natural environments are especially well protected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One final point should be noted. This landscape has attracted many writers and musicians, among them the English Romantic poets Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron, the French novelist George Sand, and the German composer Richard Wagner, as well as Italian artists and writers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area was almost inaccessible, except by sea, until the Genoa-La Spezia railway was built in the 1870s passing through all the villages and Portovenere. This coincided with the building of the Arsenal at La Spezia, which provided alternative employment for the local people. From this time onwards there was a gradual change in the socio-economic basis of life in the Cinque Terre and Portovenere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora and fauna of the nominated area is of interest. The natural garrigue and maquis vegetation survives intact in the higher parts of the steep ridge. They intermingle with one another in areas of abandoned cultivation terraces, providing a flora of exceptional quality. The nature of the terrain and of the vegetation provide food and shelter for a wide range of insect and animal species.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/826</http_url><id_number>826</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_826.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of criteria (ii), (iv) and (v), considering that the eastern Ligurian Riviera between Cinque Terre and Portovenere is a cultural site of outstanding value, representing the harmonious interaction between people and nature to produce a landscape of exceptional scenic quality that illustrates a traditional way of life that has existed for a thousand years and continues to play an important socio-economic role in the life of the community.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>44.1069400000</latitude><location>Province of La Spezia, Liguria Region</location><longitude>9.7291700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The eastern Ligurian Riviera between Cinque Terre and Porto Venere is a cultural site of outstanding value, representing the harmonious interaction between man and nature to produce a landscape of exceptional scenic quality that illustrates a traditional way of life that has existed for 1,000 years and continues to play an important socio-economic role in the life of the community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area covers some 15&amp;nbsp;km along the extreme eastern end of the Ligurian coast, between Levanto and La Spezia. It is a very jagged, steep coastline, which the work of man over the millennia has transformed into an intensively terraced landscape so as to be able to wrest from nature a few hectares of land suitable for agriculture, such as growing vines and olive trees. The human communities have adapted themselves to this seemingly rough and inhospitable nature by building compact settlements directly on the rock, with winding streets. The general use of natural stone for rooting gives these settlements a characteristic appearance. They are generally grouped round religious buildings or medieval castles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The five villages of Cinque Terre date back to the later Middle Ages. The cultivation terraces that typify much of the Cinque Terre landscape were mainly built in the 12th century, when Saracen raids from the sea had come to an end. Starting from the north, the first is the fortified centre of Monterosso al Mare, on the top of St Christopher's hill, which first played an important role in the 7th century, during the Lombard invasions. After being disputed over by different noble families during the Middle Ages, it threw in its lot with the Republic of Genoa. It is a coastal town in a valley, its most prominent features being the church of St John, built in 1244, with its bell tower, originally an isolated watchtower, the ruins of the old castle, and the 17th-century Capuchin monastery that dominates the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vernazza was founded in 1000 by people living on the Reggio hills. It became part of the Republic of Genoa in 1276. The houses are built along the Vernazza stream and up the slopes of the rocky spur that hides the village from those approaching it by sea. Narrow streets run down to the main street, which opens out into a small square looking out over the sea. Here the church of St Margaret of Antioch is a typical example of Ligurian Gothic. Corniglia is the only one of the villages built not on the coast itself but on a high promontory. It is dominated by the church of St Peter (1334). Further south, Manarola is a small hamlet established in the 12th century by people coming down from the mountain village of Volastra. Its houses are ranged in part on a rocky spur running down towards the sea and partly along the Grappa stream. A group of religious buildings are all 14th-century. The most southerly village is Riomaggiore, another medieval foundation. Its houses line the narrow valley of the Maggiore stream (also now covered). The village is dominated by the church of St John the Baptist (1340) and the castle, construction of which began in 1260.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Portovenere is an important cultural centre. Among the remains there are those of a large Roman villa on the coast at Varignano and a Benedictine monasterywith a fine proto-Romanesque church dedicated to St Peter, on the Arpaia rocky promontory. In the town below the castle there is a second church, with both Romanesque and Gothic elements, dedicated to St Lawrence. The town, a Roman foundation, Portus Veneris, was occupied by the Genoese in 1113. It is compact in form, culminating in the Doria castle (12th-16th centuries), which dominates the settlement and is a historical palimpsest, with many traces of its medieval predecessor. Off the coast at Portovenere are the three islands of Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto, noteworthy not only for their natural beauty but also for the many remains of early monastic establishments that they contain&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora and fauna of the area are of interest. The natural garrigue and maquis vegetation survives intact in the higher parts of the steep ridge. They intermingle with one another in areas of abandoned cultivation terraces, providing a flora of exceptional quality. The nature of the terrain and the vegetation provides food and shelter for a wide range of insect and animal species.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ligurian coast between Cinque Terre and Portovenere is a cultural landscape of great scenic and cultural value. The layout and disposition of the small towns and the shaping of the surrounding landscape, overcoming the disadvantages of a steep, uneven terrain, encapsulate the continuous history of human settlement in this region over the past millennium.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Portovenere, Cinque Terre, and the Islands (Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto)</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>975</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/827</http_url><id_number>827</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_827.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the joint creation of Lanfranco and Wiligelmo is a masterpiece of human creative genius in which a new dialectical relationship between architecture and sculpture was created in Romanesque art. The Modena complex bears exceptional witness to the cultural traditions of the 12th century and is one of the best examples of an architectural complex where religious and civic values are combined in a medieval Christian town.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>44.6462400000</latitude><location>City and Province of Modena, Emilia-Romagna Region</location><longitude>10.9256800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The joint creation of Lanfranco and Wiligelmo is a masterpiece of human genius in which a dialectical relationship between architecture and sculpture was achieved in Romanesque art. The Modena complex bears exceptional witness to the cultural traditions of the 12th century and is one of the best examples of an architectural complex where religious and civic values are combined in a medieval town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Modena is located in the Po plain at the crossroads of the ancient Via Aemilia linking Piacenza with Rimini and the road leading to the Brenner Pass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the cathedral, dedicated to San Geminiano, and of the bell tower was decided when the Bishop's See was vacant. The inscriptions in the cathedral and the text of the &lt;em&gt;Relatio translationis sancti Geminiani&lt;/em&gt; provide invaluable evidence of the first phase of building (1099-1106), and mention the names of the architect, Lanfranco, and the sculptor, Wiligelmo. The new cathedral had to be larger than its predecessor, built by the schismatic Bishop Eribert in 1070, to prove that the clergy and people of Modena had returned to the Roman Catholic Church. Construction of the cathedral and the bell tower took place in an urban structure already largely formed. The cathedral was built on the site of that built by Bishop Eribert and destroyed to make way for it, on an axis oblique to the original. The Maestri Campionesi, architects and sculptors commissioned to maintain the building by the cathedral's works office from the second half of the 12th century onwards, opened two side portals and the rose window in the facade, followed by the Porta Regia on the southern side (around 1180). Inside they enlarged the crypt, raised the choir, and expanded the roof in order to build a false transept (end of the 12th to start of the 13th centuries). The bell tower, whose tall silhouette is a landmark to travellers approaching the town, is closely linked to the cathedral by two arches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only minor changes have been made to the Piazza Grande. Its quadrangular shape has been preserved, and it has been lined on its northern side by the flank of the cathedral. The old and new Palazzi Comunali were connected by the clock tower (13th to 16th centuries) and blended in by the means of new facades and arcades (17th to 19th centuries). The brick Archbishop's Palace, closely connected to the cathedral by a private passage, is on the western side of the square. It underwent a first transformation at the end of the 15th century, and an additional floor was added in 1776. Further changes were made in ensuing decades. The appearance of the southern side radically changed when the new Law Courts were built by Luigi Giacomelli in 1892 (replaced by a new building by Gio Ponti in the 1960s). The bell tower (Ghirlandina) and the cathedral are indivisible in both physical and stylistic terms. This monumental tower, built from the same materials as the cathedral, consists of six floors emphasized by small blind arcades lit by simple openings, and then by two- and then three-light windows on the upper floors. The austerity and power of the bottom half of the tower, which is reminiscent of Roman structures, is surmounted by an octagonal drum and an upper lantern which express the new feeling of the Maestri Campionesi for Gothic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lanfranco clad his new cathedral in Istrian stone, to give it the splendour of the temples of antiquity. The six portals along the wall feature Roman-style open lunettes and architraves. The all-brick interior has largely preserved its original structure, a nave on which opens an unfloored gallery and tall windows, two aisles, and a choir raised above a crypt ending in three straight apses. The arches are supported by a system of alternating marble columns with Corinthian capitals sculpted by Wiligelmo. The Maestri Campionesi introduced the false transept and the vaulting on the nave; they were undoubtedly also involved in the interior decorations when the decision was taken to paint the walls and decorate the architecture with facing painted to resemble brickwork, particularly on the main arches, the pilasters in the large bays and the friezes running along the walls. Modena Cathedral was also a large sculpture workshop, brilliantly illustrated by Wiligelmo, particularly in the facade, which is a veritable corpus of the sculptor's work.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The magnificent 12th-century cathedral at Modena, the work of two great artists (Lanfranco and Wiligelmus), is a supreme example of early Romanesque art. With its piazza and soaring tower, it testifies to the faith of its builders and the power of the Canossa dynasty who commissioned it.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cathedral, Torre Civica and Piazza Grande, Modena</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>976</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The 3rd-2nd century BC Roman fortifications here enclosed an urban area with an irregular street layout. Up to the 11th century the city remained within these limits, but it began to expand at the end of that century, requiring the construction of a new system of defensive walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-15th century Federico II da Montefeltro, under the rule of whose family the city and duchy of Urbino had passed at the end of the 12th century, undertook a radical rebuilding campaign in the city, though without disturbing its overall urban structure. The walls were rebuilt according to the designs of Leonardo da Vinci. The new Ducal Palace, the work of Luciano Laurana and Francesco di Giorgio Martini, was inserted with the minimum of disturbance, incorporating existing medieval structures. Along with the adjacent Cathedral (to the designs of Francesco di Giorgio), the Palace became the focus for the urban fabric and its design the model for the new buildings in Renaissance style such as the Palazzo Luminati erected by the noble families of the ducal court. In other cases, the facades of both private houses and churches were reconstructed in the new style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the death of Duke Guidobaldo in 1508 Urbino passed to the Della Rovere family, and from 1631 to 1860 it was incorporated into the Papal States. During this period it experienced a general economic decline. However, the elevation of Gianfrancesco Albani, who was born in Urbino, to the papacy in 1700 as Clement XI saw a major campaign of restoration, especially on the churches and other religious buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the first half of the 19th century there were some changes to the street pattern, resulting in the demolition of a few old houses to permit the extension of some of the squares. At the same time a new theatre was built alongside Francesco di Giorgio's tower, designed by Vincenzo Ghinelli in a style and proportions that did not conflict with its surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/828</http_url><id_number>828</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_828.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; During its short cultural pre-eminence, Urbino attracted some of the most outstanding humanist scholars and artists of the Renaissance, who created there an exceptional urban complex of remarkable homogeneity, the influence of which carried far into the rest of Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Urbino represents a pinnacle of Renaissance art and architecture, harmoniously adapted to its physical site and to its medieval precursor in an exceptional manner.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.7250000000</latitude><location>Province of Pesaro, Marche Region</location><longitude>12.6333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;During its short cultural pre-eminence, Urbino attracted some of the most outstanding humanist scholars and artists of the Renaissance, who created there an exceptional urban complex of remarkable homogeneity, the influence of which carried far into the rest of Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 3rd- to 2nd-century BC Roman fortifications enclosed an urban area with an irregular street layout. The city remained within these limits, until it began to expand at the end of the 11th century, requiring the construction of a new system of defensive walls. In the mid-15th century Federico II da Montefeltro, under the rule of whose family the city and duchy of Urbino had passed at the end of the 12th century, undertook a radical rebuilding campaign in the city, although without disturbing its overall urban structure. The walls were rebuilt according to the designs of Leonardo da Vinci. The new Ducal Palace, the work of Luciano Laurana and Francesco di Giorgio Martini, was inserted with the minimum of disturbance, incorporating existing medieval structures. Along with the adjacent cathedral (to the designs of Francesco di Giorgio), the palace became the focus for the urban fabric and its design the model for the new buildings in Renaissance style. On the death of Duke Guidobaldo in 1508, Urbino passed to the Della Rovere family, and from 1631 to 1860 it was incorporated into the Papal States. During this period it experienced a general economic decline. However, the elevation of Gianfrancesco Albani, who was born in Urbino, to the papacy in 1700 as Clement XI saw a major campaign of restoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The west facade of the Ducal Palace (Palazzo Ducale) consists of two slender turrets flanking three loggias rising one above another. The main fabric is in brick, the window frames, the two upper loggias, and some decorative features being in stone. Elsewhere, the exterior is more austere, mainly in brick; on the side facing the Piazza del Risorgimento can be seen the facades of two medieval palaces skilfully incorporated by the Dalmatian architect Luciano Laurana into the Renaissance palace. The interior is more lavishly decorated, in particular the main courtyard, with its elegant arcading and carved ornamentation and inscriptions. The main floor (&lt;em&gt;piano nobile&lt;/em&gt; ) is reached by means of a fine monumental staircase, the work of Barocci. Most of the rooms, now occupied by the National Museum, make judicious but effective use of carved and painted decoration on walls, door frames, friezes, chimney-pieces and elsewhere. The Throne Room, the largest in the palace, contains a bas-relief of the Lion of St Mark. The Room of the Angels, one of the ducal private apartments, takes its name from the dancing putti on the fine chimney-piece. Its wooden doors are decorated with &lt;em&gt;trompe-l'&amp;oelig;il&lt;/em&gt; marquetry inlay, designed by Sandro Botticelli, as are the walls of the Duke's Study (which has a ceiling decorated by Florentine artists). Also worthy of special mention is the Sala d'Iole in the duchess's apartments, which takes its name from the carved caryatids on the chimney-piece.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral (Duomo) was largely rebuilt in the late 18th century, during the papacy of Pius VII, completing the reconstruction left unfinished during the reign of Clement XI. The work of Giuseppe Valadier, Architect of the Holy See, it is in a restrained and elegant neoclassical style and contains some important works of art. The 14th-century Oratory of St John the Baptist has outstanding frescoes by Luca Signorelli. Also from the 14th century is the Church of San Francesco, the interior of which was redesigned in the 18th century. The Church of San Domenico is basically a 13th-century structure, but an articulated portal was added in the Renaissance period, surmounted by an oriel window, the work of Luca della Robbia. The Santa Chiara and San Bernardino monasteries are good examples of Renaissance conventual architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The birthplace of Raphael is a small 14th-century building with a charming interior courtyard. What was probably the artist's first important work, a Madonna and Child, is in the first-floor room where he was born in 1483.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The small hill town of Urbino, in the Marche, experienced a great cultural flowering in the 15th century, attracting artists and scholars from all over Italy and beyond, and influencing cultural developments elsewhere in Europe. Owing to its economic and cultural stagnation from the 16th century onwards, it has preserved its Renaissance appearance to a remarkable extent.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Urbino</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>977</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Pompei was an Opician foundation of the 6th century BC, and Dionysus of Halicarnassus maintained that Herculaneum (Ercolano) was founded by Hercules on his way back to Greece from Spain. Both underwent several changes of overlord in the centuries that followed - Oscans, Samnites, Greeks, Etruscans, and finally Romans in 89 BC, following the Social War. By this time both were thoroughly Hellenized, as a result of their contacts with Greek colonies such as nearby Cumae. Pompei was elevated to the status of Colonia Cornelia Venera Pompeiana in 89 BC, whilst Herculaneum was accorded the lower rank of municipium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have revealed the development of Pompei in particular. The original settlement, to the south-west of the Roman town, was fortified by the Samnites in the 4th century BC; these defaces were reinforced after the Roman occupation with a new wall and an interior earthen rampart. The early town had a main street (cardo) crossed by two decumani. There was a major period of urbanization in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, when tufa replaced limestone as the main building material. At this time a triangular colonnaded forum was constructed around the ancient Doric temple in the southern part of the town, along with a theatre. Later a second forum, this time rectangular and elongated, was added with temples to the official divinities around it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Pompei became part of the Roman territory, it was further endowed with fine public buildings in stone, such as the large amphitheatre, the forum baths, and the odeon (small theatre) alongside the theatre. There was an episode of modernization at the end of the 1st century BC, with the construction of an aqueduct to bring the waters of the Samo River to the town, where they were distributed by means of a sophisticated supply system to houses, baths, and public fountains. High sidewalks were built along the streets, with stepping stones to facilitate crossing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Herculaneum was a much smaller town (320m by 370m within its walls) on the coast. The latest layout, on the standard classical &amp;quot;Hippodamian&amp;quot; grid, dates from the end of the 1st century BC. The wide main street (decumanus maximus) also served as the forum, and was lined with public buildings, such as a basilica, a shrine to Hercules, a theatre, and public baths. The houses in the centre of the town were spacious, with panoramic views on the sea, which at that time came up right up to the town. There was a sacred area, with shrines and baths, outside the walls, and the surroundings contained many fine villas, such as the magnificent Villa of the Papyri.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The roles of the two towns were very different. Pompei was a commercial town, benefiting from river trade along the Samo between the interior and the coast and from that along the coastal road between Cumae and southern Campania. It was also the centre of an important wine-producing district, the other main source of its prosperity. Herculaneum, on the other hand, was a holiday resort for rich Romans from the region, with its fine views of and easy access to the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lives of both towns came to an abrupt and catastrophic end on 24 August in AD 79. The area had been shaken by an earthquake shortly before and reconstruction work was still in progress when Vesuvius erupted with tremendous violence. Pompei was buried under a thick layer of volcanic ash and stone and Herculaneum disappeared under a pyroclastic flow of many metres of volcanic mud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/829</http_url><id_number>829</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_829.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (iii), (iv) and (v), considering that the impressive remains of the towns of Pompei and Herculaneum and their associated villas, buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, provide a complete and vivid picture of society and daily life at a specific moment in the past that is without parallel anywhere in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.7500000000</latitude><location>Province of Naples, Campania</location><longitude>14.4833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The impressive remains of the towns of Pompei and Herculaneum and their associated villas, buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79, provide a complete and vivid picture of society and daily life at a specific moment in the past that is without parallel anywhere in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pompei was an Opician foundation of the 6th century BC, and Dionysus of Halicarnassus maintained that Herculaneum (Ercolano) was founded by Hercules. Both underwent changes of overlord in the centuries that followed: Oscans, Samnites, Greeks, Etruscans, and finally Romans in 89 BC, following the Social War. Pompei was elevated to the status of Colonia Cornelia Venera Pompeiana in 89 BC, whereas Herculaneum was accorded the lower rank of municipium. The lives of both towns came to an abrupt and catastrophic end on 24 August, AD 79. The area had been shaken by an earthquake shortly before and reconstruction work was still in progress when Vesuvius erupted with tremendous violence. Pompei was buried under a thick layer of volcanic ash and stone and Herculaneum disappeared under a pyroclastic flow of volcanic mud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the discovery of the two buried towns in the 18th century, much more of Pompei has been revealed by excavation than of Herculaneum. The main forum is flanked by the foundations of a number of imposing public buildings, such as the Capitolium (temple dedicated to the divine triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva), the Basilica (courthouse), and one of the sets of public baths. Close by is the older triangular forum, where the two theatres are located. The larger of these is of Greek origin, remodelled to suit Roman taste. Among other notable public buildings are the well-preserved Stabian Baths, begun in the 2nd century BC. However, Pompei is renowned for its series of domestic buildings, ranged along well paved streets. The earliest is the atrium house, entirely inward-looking with a courtyard at its centre: the House of the Surgeon is a good example of this type. Under Hellenistic influences this type of house was enlarged and decorated with columns and arcades and equipped with large rooms for social functions. In its most extreme form, this type of Roman house, known from towns all over the Empire, developed into a veritable palace, richly decorated and with many rooms, of which the Houses of the Faun and of the Chaste Lovers are outstanding examples. Perhaps the most exceptional of all the houses in Pompei is the Villa dei Misteri (the House of the Mysteries). This enormous establishment just outside the walls, which developed from a modest town house built in the 3rd century BC, takes its name from the remarkable wall paintings in the triclinium, which depict the initiation rites ('mysteries') of the cult of Dionysus. A special characteristic of Pompei is the wealth of graffiti on its walls. An election was imminent at the time of the eruption, and there are many slogans to be found scrawled on walls, as well as others of a more personal, often scurrilous, nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much less of Herculaneum, built on a promontory overlooking the Bay of Naples, has been uncovered, not least because of the depth to which it was buried. However, the nature of its volcanic covering is such that the ancient buildings are much better preserved than those of Pompei. Organic materials such as wood survive &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; and the upper floors of many buildings are intact. Several impressive public buildings are well preserved, including a spacious &lt;em&gt;palaestra&lt;/em&gt; entered through a monumental gateway, two sets of public baths, one of which (Urban Baths) is monumental in scale and vividly decorated, the College of the Priests of Augustus, and a theatre of standard form. The houses are also remarkable for their extent and decoration, especially the House of the Bicentenary. Those fronting on the sea, such as the House of the Deer, have large courtyards and rich decoration. The town is also noteworthy for the completeness of its shops, still containing fittings such as enormous wine jars. Recent excavations in the harbour area have revealed vaulted warehouses which contained the remains of unfortunate citizens who had sought refuge there, only to suffer death by asphyxiation. Of great importance in both towns are the artistic styles represented by their sculptures, their mosaics and, above all, their wall paintings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;When Vesuvius erupted on 24 August AD 79, it engulfed the two flourishing Roman towns of Pompei and Herculaneum, as well as the many wealthy villas in the area. These have been progressively excavated and made accessible to the public since the mid-18th century. The vast expanse of the commercial town of Pompei contrasts with the smaller but better-preserved remains of the holiday resort of Herculaneum, while the superb wall paintings of the Villa Oplontis at Torre Annunziata give a vivid impression of the opulent lifestyle enjoyed by the wealthier citizens of the Early Roman Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Areas of Pompei, Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>978</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The wall of the church of Santa Maria in Positano has a bas-relief by an unknown artist depicting a fishing fox. This is the symbol of the Costiera Amalfitana and the unchanging relationship between sea and mountains, the two elements that shape this landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated area covers 11,231ha in fifteen communes in the Province of Salerno. Its natural boundary is the southern slope of the peninsula formed by the Lattari hills which, stretching from the Picentini hills to the Tyrrhenian Sea, separate the Gulf of Naples from the Gulf of Salerno.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Administratively, it is part of the Penisola Amalfitana, which corresponds almost exactly to the territory of the ancient Republic of Amalfi. It consists of four main stretches of coast (Amalfi, Atrani, Reginna Maior, Regimia Minor) with some minor ones (Positano, Praiano, Certaria, Hercle), with the mountain villages of Scala, Tramonti, and Ravello and hamlets of Conca and Furore behind and above them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palaeolithic and Mesolithic materials have been found in the La Porta cave at Positano, and the area was favoured by the Romans, judging from the villas of Positano, Minori, and Gallo Lungo. However, the area was not intensively settled until the early Middle Ages, when the Gothic War made it a place of refuge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Amalfi was founded in the 4th century AD. A new Roman colony in nearby Lucania came under barbarian attack and the inhabitants moved to the fertile and well watered hilly area around modem Scala. In the first written reference to Amalfi (596) it was already a fortified town and the seat of a bishopric. It resisted Lombard attacks until 838, when it was conquered and looted by Sicardo. However, after his death the following year the town, which owed only token allegiance to Byzantium, declared its independence. The new Republic was governed by a ruler whose title had become Doge (Duke) by 958. This political autonomy enabled Amalfi to become a maritime trading power between the early 9th and late 11th centuries, when the sea power of Byzantium was in decline and a free market developed. Amalfi had a near-monopoly of trade in the Tyrrhenian Sea, with a vast networks of links, selling Italian products (wood, iron, weapons, wine, fruit) in eastern markets and buying in return spices, perfumes, pearls, jewels, textiles, and carpets to sell in the west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The culture that developed made major contributions to, inter alia, maritime law and navigation (the nautical compass was invented in Amalfi) with close links with the east. The layout of the settlements that developed showed eastern influence: the closely spaced houses, climbing up the steep hillsides and connected by a maze of alleys and stairs, are reminiscent of the souks of the Levant. A distinctive Arab-Sicilian architecture originated and developed in Amalfi. The eastern connections also brought new or improved crafts to the area - stone-dressing, paper processing, tanning, silkworm culture and the weaving of silk, and polychrome glazed pottery production. Wool was also being spun and woven and exported all over Italy, coral worked for luxury objects, and pasta making and cooking refined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the eclipse of the mercantile importance of Amalfi by Genoa, Venice, and, above all, Pisa, and its conquest by Spain, it fell into an uninterrupted decline. The only significant change to the landscape was the reinforcement of the system of watch towers along the coast, to give warning and protection against Turkish attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The towns and villages of the Costiera Amahitana are characterized by their remarkable architectural monuments, such as the Torre Saraceua at Cetara, the Romanesque Cathedral of Amalfi and its &amp;quot;Cloister of Paradise,&amp;quot; with their strong oriental influences, the Church of San Salvatore de' Birecto at Atrani, where the Dogi of Amalfi were elected, and Ravello with its flue Cathedral and the superb Villa Rufolo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Costiera has attracted tourists, Tom the grandees who followed the Grand Tour from the Renaissance to the thousands of more humble visitors of the late 20th century. Many literary visitors have written eulogies of its qualities and generations of artists have depicted it in different media. They have been brought there to see its architecture, its natural beauties such as the magical Grotta della Smeraldo, the deep fjord of Furore, and the tine beaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inland the steep slopes rising from the coast are covered with terraces, revetted with drystone walling and used for the cultivation of citrus and other fruits, olives, vines, and vegetables of all kinds. Further inland the hillsides are given over to dairy farming, whose roots are ancient in the area, based on sheep, goats, cattle, and buffalo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In some parts of the Costiera the natural landscape survives intact, with little, if any, human intervention. It supports the traditional Mediterranean flora of myrtle, lentisk, broom, euphorbia, etc, which can withstand the windswept aridity of much of the area. Elsewhere there are stands of trees, such as holm oak, alder, beech, and chestnut. Other biotopes shelter pantropical ferns, butterwort, dwarf palms, and endemic carnivorous species. As a result of this immensely varied vegetation, resulting from the irregular topography of the area coupled with proximity of the sea, three natural reserves have been created.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Costiera is also rich in wildlife. Ravens and peregrine falcons are residents, as are foxes, martens, and otters. The insect fauna is extremely varied, as a function of the diversity of the habitats that the area offers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The higher mountain areas are noteworthy for the characteristic mule tracks (mulattiere) which are a notable feature of the landscape. These not only served as means of communication between the scattered villages and other settlements but also constituted an effective means of catching and channeling rainwater. They were also much used by smugglers after the decline of the Republic of Amalfi. There are many small streams which in places drop over impressive waterfalls; these streams provided the power for the early paper and iron industries, the remains of which are widespread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is thus an immense diversity of landscapes, ranging from the coastal settlements through the intensively cultivated lower slopes and large areas of open pastoral land to the dramatic high mountains. In addition, there are &amp;quot;micro-landscapes&amp;quot; of great scientific interest resulting from topographical and climatic variations, and striking natural formations in the limestone karst at both sea level and above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/830</http_url><id_number>830</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_830.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of criteria (ii), (iv) and (v), considering that the Costiera Amalfitana is an outstanding example of a Mediterranean landscape, with exceptional cultural and natural scenic values resulting from its dramatic topography and historical evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.6500000000</latitude><location>Province of Salerno, Campania</location><longitude>14.6000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Costiera Amalfitana is an outstanding example of a Mediterranean landscape, with exceptional cultural and natural scenic values resulting from its dramatic topography and historical evolution. The area covers 11,231&amp;nbsp;ha in 15 [16?]communes in the Province of Salerno. Its natural boundary is the southern slope of the peninsula formed by the Lattari hills which, stretching from the Picentini hills to the Tyrrhenian Sea, separate the Gulf of Naples from the Gulf of Salerno. It consists of four main stretches of coast (Amalfi, Atrani, Reginna Maior, Reginna Minor) with some minor ones (Positano, Praiano, Certaria, Hercle), with the mountain villages of Scala, Tramonti and Ravello and hamlets of Conca and Furore behind and above them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palaeolithic and Mesolithic materials have been found at Positano, and the area was favoured by the Romans, judging from the villas of Positano, Minori and Gallo Lungo. However, it was not intensively settled until the early Middle Ages, when the Gothic War made it a place of refuge. Amalfi was founded in the 4th century AD. A new Roman colony in nearby Lucania came under barbarian attack and the inhabitants moved to the fertile and well-watered hilly area around modern Scala. In the first written reference to Amalfi (596) it was already a fortified town and the seat of a bishopric. It resisted Lombard attacks until 838, when it was conquered and looted by Sicardo. However, after his death the following year the town declared its independence. The new republic was governed by a ruler whose title had become Doge by 958. This political autonomy enabled Amalfi to become a maritime trading power between the early 9th and late 11th centuries, when the sea power of Byzantium was in decline and a free market developed. Amalfi had a near-monopoly of trade in the Tyrrhenian Sea, with vast networks of links, selling Italian products (wood, iron, weapons, wine, fruit) in eastern markets and buying in return spices, perfumes, pearls, jewels, textiles and carpets to sell in the West. The layout of the settlements showed eastern influence: the closely spaced houses climbing up the steep hillsides, connected by a maze of alleys and stairs, are reminiscent of the souks of the Levant. A distinctive Arab-Sicilian architecture originated and developed in Amalfi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the eclipse of the mercantile importance of Amalfi by Genoa, Venice and, above all, Pisa, and its conquest by Spain, it fell into an uninterrupted decline. The only significant change to the landscape was the reinforcement of the system of watchtowers along the coast, to give warning and protection against Turkish attacks. The towns and villages of Costiera Amalfitana are characterized by their architectural monuments, such as the Torre Saracena at Cetara, the Romanesque Cathedral of Amalfi and its 'Cloister of Paradise', with their strong oriental influences, the Church of San Salvatore de' Bireto at Atrani, where the Dogi of Amalfi were elected, and Ravello with its fine cathedral and the superb Villa Rufolo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inland the steep slopes rising from the coast are covered with terraces, revetted with drystone walling and used for the cultivation of citrus and other fruits, olives, vines and vegetables of all kinds. Further inland the hillsides are given over to dairy farming, whose roots are ancient in the area, based on sheep, goats, cattle and buffalo. In some parts of the Costiera the natural landscape survives intact, with little, if any, human intervention. It supports the traditional Mediterranean flora of myrtle, lentisk, broom, euphorbia, etc. Elsewhere there are stands of trees such as holm oak, alder, beech and chestnut. Other biotopes shelter pantropical ferns, butterwort, dwarf palms and endemic carnivorous species. The Costiera is also rich in wildlife. The higher mountain areas are noteworthy for the characteristic mule tracks (&lt;em&gt;mulattiere&lt;/em&gt; ). There are many small streams which in places drop over impressive waterfalls. There is an immense diversity of landscapes, ranging from the coastal settlements through the intensively cultivated lower slopes and large areas of open pastoral land to the dramatic high mountains. In addition, there are 'micro-landscapes' of great scientific interest resulting from topographical and climatic variations, and striking natural formations in the limestone karst at both sea level and above.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Amalfi coast is an area of great physical beauty and natural diversity. It has been intensively settled by human communities since the early Middle Ages. There are a number of towns such as Amalfi and Ravello with architectural and artistic works of great significance. The rural areas show the versatility of the inhabitants in adapting their use of the land to the diverse nature of the terrain, which ranges from terraced vineyards and orchards on the lower slopes to wide upland pastures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Costiera Amalfitana</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>979</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;According to tradition, the Greek town of Akragas was founded by colonists from Rhodes and Crete coming from the founder colony in Sicily, Gela, around 580 BC. However, excavations have indicated that there was an earlier Greek settlement here in the 7th century BC. It is a classic Greek settlement site, on the flanks of a hill on the coast, and this allowed the city to begin to expand from the original acropolis (now occupied by the modem town) and to prosper within a very short time after the 6th century colonization. During the reign of the tyrant Phalaris (570-555 BC) a system of defensive walls was built. to reinforce the natural protection afforded by the difficult topography. It was at this time that the series of so-called Chthonic temples were built on the south-west flank of the Temple hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The political expansionism of Akragas begun under Phalaris reached its height during the rule of the tyrant Thero (488-473 BC). After defeating the Carthaginians decisively in 480 BC at Himera he extended his rule to the northern and eastern coasts of Sicily. The wealth that this brought to the city, and the cultural life that this wealth supported, are illustrated by the great temples that were built at this time on the southern extremity of the hill. One of its most notable sons at this time was the philosopher, doctor, and musician, Empedocles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A democratic regime was established in the later 5th century BC, and the city enjoyed a short period of tranquillity, albeit one of rivalry with Syracuse. This came to a brutal end in 406 BC, when it was besieged and sacked by the Carthaginians. It struggled to regain its former glory, and succeeded briefly under Timoleon, who crushed the Carthaginians in 340 BC and brought in new colonists. However, the city became a prize fought over by Romans and Carthaginians. It first fell into Roman hands in 262 BC, and was definitively incorporated into the Roman Empire in 210 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the last years of the Republic and in the Early Empire, Agrigento, as it became known, benefited from being the only market town still active on the southern coast of Sicily. However, the decline of the Western Empire and the ascendancy of Christianity led to depopulation and impoverishment of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 7th century AD onwards it shrank in size. the older quarters being abandoned and the remaining population clustering on the hill. The reduced settlement was which was successively occupied by the Arabs (who called it Kerkent or Girgent), in 829 and by the Normans (for whom it was Girgenti, the name that it retained until 1927) in 1086.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/831</http_url><id_number>831</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_831.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that Agrigento was one of the greatest cities of the ancient Mediterranean world, and it has been preserved in an exceptionally intact condition. Its great row of Doric temples is one of the most outstanding monuments of Greek art and culture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.2897222200</latitude><location>Province of Agrigento, Sicily</location><longitude>13.5933333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Agrigento was one of the greatest cities of the ancient Mediterranean world, and it has been preserved in an exceptionally intact condition. Its great row of Doric temples is one of the most outstanding monuments of Greek art and culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to tradition, the Greek town of Akragas was founded by colonists from Rhodes and Crete coming from the founder colony in Sicily, Gela, around 580 BC. However, excavations have indicated that there was an earlier classic Greek settlement here in the 7th century BC on the flanks of a hill on the coast, which allowed the city to expand and to prosper within a very short time after colonization. During the reign of the tyrant Phalaris (570-555 BC) defensive walls were built to reinforce the natural protection of the difficult topography. The political expansionism of Akragas begun under Phalaris reached its height during the rule of the tyrant Thero (488-473 BC). After defeating the in 480 BC he extended his rule to the northern and eastern coasts of Sicily. The wealth this brought to the city and the resulting cultural are illustrated by the great temples built at this time on the southern extremity of the hill. A democratic regime was established in the later 5th century BC, and the city enjoyed a short period of tranquillity, albeit one of rivalry with Syracuse. This came to a brutal end in 406 BC, when it was besieged and sacked by the Carthaginians. It struggled to regain its former glory, and succeeded briefly under Timoleon, who crushed the Carthaginians in 340 BC and brought in new colonists. However, the city became a prize fought over by Romans and Carthaginians. It first fell into Roman hands in 262 BC, and was definitively incorporated into the Roman Empire in 210 BC. During the last years of the Republic and in the Early Empire, Agrigento benefited from being the only market town still active on the southern coast of Sicily. However, the decline of the Western Empire and the ascendancy of Christianity led to depopulation and impoverishment of the city. From the 7th century AD onwards it shrank in size; the older quarters being abandoned and the remaining population clustering on the hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Valley of the Temples covers most of the built-up part of the ancient city and its public monuments. It is closed by the ridge running parallel to the sea that was assigned the role of a sacred area in antiquity. The area between the acropolis and the temples was laid out in the early 5th century BC on the traditional Hippodamian grid pattern. The sacred area was created in the second half of the 6th century BC, as shown by the early temples at the western end of the ridge. However, the most impressive remains are those of the temples built during the reign of Thero and after to Herakles, Olympian Zeus, Hera Lacinia, Vulcan and Concord. The Temple of Olympian Zeus, only the foundations and main altar of which survive, was one of the largest of all Greek temples, and it has some unusual features. Instead of the more common open peristyle, it was surrounded by a wall varied by immense Doric columns on the outside and pilasters in the interior. The cella is defined by two rows of massive quadrangular pillars instead of internal walls, and was open to the sky. The so-called Temple of Concord is the most impressive surviving Doric temple in the Greek world after the Parthenon in Athens. It has survived to a remarkable degree owing to its having been adapted for use as a church in the 6th century AD. It is built on a four-level stylobate and is surrounded by 34 columns. Built at the same time as the Temple of Concord and in very similar style is the Temple of Hera Lacinia, at the eastern end of the ridge, where remains of the Greek fortifications can still be seen. It was burned by the Carthaginians in 405 BC and traces of the fire are still visible. The Temple of Herakles is earlier than the other Doric temples on the ridge. The two temples dedicated to the Chthonic divinities, Demeter and Persephone, and that to the Dioscuri were begun in the 6th century BC, but rebuilt in 480-460 BC. In addition to these outstanding monuments, there are substantial excavated areas of the residential area of Hellenistic and Roman Agrigento. A number of the houses have well-preserved mosaic pavements. There are also extensive ancient cemeteries on and south of the ridge with tombs and monuments from the pagan and Christian periods. The so-called Tomb of Theron is actually of early Roman date, but its form, that of a small Ionic shrine set on a podium, is Graeco-Asiatic, originating from Asia Minor. Other features of this site are the upper and lower agoras and the complex network of underground aqueducts.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded as a Greek colony in the 6th century B.C., Agrigento became one of the leading cities in the Mediterranean world. Its supremacy and pride are demonstrated by the remains of the magnificent Doric temples that dominate the ancient town, much of which still lies intact under today's fields and orchards. Selected excavated areas throw light on the later Hellenistic and Roman town and the burial practices of its early Christian inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Area of Agrigento</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>980</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;An earlier rural settlement, generally thought to have been a farm, although on slender evidence, existed on the site where the Late Roman villa was built. Its orientation was the same as that of the baths of the villa, and its foundations were discovered beneath parts of the villa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The existence of baths in the earliest phase of the site suggests that it was the residence of a rich tenant or the steward of a rich landowner. Two portraits were discovered dating from the Flavian period (late 1st century AD) that may represent members of the owner's family. The stratigraphy of this earlier house provides a chronology from the 1st century AD to the Tetrarchy at the end of the 3rd century. This is an obscure period of Sicilian history, when the traditional latifundia system using slave labour underwent considerable changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are indications that the earlier house was destroyed by an earthquake in the first decade of the 4th century, by which time it was probably owned by Marcus Aurelius Maximinianus, a Pannonian who had risen from the ranks of the Roman army to become a general. and then was raised to the status of Augustus by Diocletian. On the violent death of Maximinianus in 3 10 it would have passed to his son and Imperial colleague Maxentius, who lost his life at the hands of Constantine the Great at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in Rome in 3 12.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grandeur and lavishness of the new structure that arose on the ruins of the earlier country house suggests that it was built on the orders, if not of one of these Roman rulers, then of a rich and powerful landowner, some time between 310 and 340. It continued to be occupied up to the Arab invasion of the 9th century, though in a state of increasing degradation. It seems that the final act of destruction was the work of the Norman ruler of Sicily, William I the Bad, around 115 5.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/832</http_url><id_number>832</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_832.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii) and (iii), considering that the Villa del Casale at Piazza Armerina is the supreme example of a luxury Roman villa, which graphically illustrates the predominant social and economic structure of its age. The mosaics that decorate it are exceptional for their artistic quality and invention as well as their extent.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.3661100000</latitude><location>Piazza Armerina, Province of Enna, Sicily</location><longitude>14.3341700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Villa del Casale at Piazza Armerina is the supreme example of a luxury Roman villa, graphically illustrating the predominant social and economic structure of its age. Its decorative mosaics are exceptional for their artistic quality and invention as well as their extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An earlier rural settlement generally thought to have been a farm, although on slender evidence, existed on the site where the late Roman villa was built. Its orientation was the same as that of the baths of the villa, and its foundations were discovered beneath parts of the villa. The existence of baths in the earliest phase of the site suggests that it was the residence of a rich tenant or the steward of a rich landowner. Two portraits were discovered dating from the Flavian period (late 1st century AD) that may represent members of the owner's family. The stratigraphy of this earlier house provides a chronology from the 1st century AD to the Tetrarchy at the end of the 3rd century. There are indications that the earlier house was destroyed by an earthquake in the first decade of the 4th century, by which time it was probably owned by Marcus Aurelius Maximinianus, a Pannonian who had risen from the ranks of the Roman army to become a general, and then was raised to the status of Augustus by Diocletian. On the violent death of Maximinianus in 310 it would have passed to his son and imperial colleague Maxentius, killed at the battle of Milvian Bridge in Rome in 312. The grandeur and lavishness of the structure that arose on the ruins of the house suggests that it was built on the orders, if not of a Roman ruler, then by a rich and powerful landowner, between 310 and 340. It was occupied until the Arab invasion of the 9th century, although in a state of increasing degradation. The final act of destruction was the work of the Norman ruler of Sicily, William I the Bad, around 1155.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This building, which merits the title of 'palace' rather than villa, is designed in the tradition of the Roman villa but on a scale and to a level of luxury with no parallels in the Roman Empire. The area that has been excavated, which is only part of the full establishment and covers about 4,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , may be divided into four zones or groups of rooms, all of them decorated with floor mosaics of superlative quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The villa is built on a series of terraces. The first is the monumental entrance, which opens into a courtyard, on to which faces the elaborate baths complex. The oval &lt;em&gt;palaestra&lt;/em&gt; gives access to an impressive octagonal &lt;em&gt;frigidarium&lt;/em&gt; (cold room) and thence through the tepidar&lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt; um (warm room) out of which open three &lt;em&gt;caldaria&lt;/em&gt; (hot baths). Next comes the impressive main peristyle with its monumental fountain in the centre, and the rooms opening off it. There is a small apsidal shrine to one side. To the south is the third group, around the elliptical peristyle. The spacious &lt;em&gt;triclinium&lt;/em&gt; has apses on three sides and is decorated with mythological scenes, notably the Labours of Hercules. The fourth group lies to the east of the main peristyle, linked by the long Corridor of the Great Hunting Scene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This monumental area contains one of the finest and deservedly most famous mosaic pavements, depicting the capture of wild animals in Africa, with the master and his assistants directing the activities in the centre. This group also includes the basilica, a large hall for receptions, which is paved in marble rather than mosaics. Most of the small private rooms in this part of the complex contain mosaic floors depicting more peaceful and domestic activities. Particularly well known is the group of young women wearing costumes remarkably similar to modern bikinis, engaged in sporting activities. The mosaics are the glory of the Villa del Casale. They date from the most advanced period of mosaic art and were in all probability the work of artists from North Africa, judging by both the quality of the work and the scenes they depict. On stylistic grounds it is believed that at least two master-mosaicists worked on the villa, one working in a more classical style on principally mythological scenes and the other using a more realistic approach for scenes of contemporary life. The range of subject matter is vast: mythology, hunting scenes, flora and fauna, domestic scenes and much more. The columns and walls of the villa were also decorated, with painted plaster, both inside and out, and much of this survives.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Roman exploitation of the countryside is symbolized by the Villa Romana del Casale (in Sicily), the centre of the large estate upon which the rural economy of the Western Empire was based. The villa is one of the most luxurious of its kind. It is especially noteworthy for the richness and quality of the mosaics which decorate almost every room; they are the finest mosaics &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; anywhere in the Roman world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Villa Romana del Casale</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>981</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;During the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (c 1500-800 BC) on Sardinia a unique form of architecture developed: circular defensive towers in the form of truncated cones built of dressed stone, with corbel-vaulted internal chambers. Some (as at Barumini) were surrounded by quadrilobate enclosures consisting of towers linked by massive walls. Villages of small circular-plan houses developed around these strong-points.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The precise dating of the period of building the nuraghi on Sardinia is still the subject of debate among scholars, since there is some conflict between radiocarbon dates and those obtained by conventional archaeological stratigraphy. The influence of the Mycenaean tholos tombs, reflected in the corbelled roofs, now favours an earlier rather than a later dating. It is generally accepted that the central tower at Barumini dates from the later 2nd millennium BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The central defensive structures are considered to have been built by single families or clans. As Sardinian society evolved in a more complex and hierarchical fashion, there was a tendency for the isolated towers to attract additional structures, for social and defensive reasons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The major effort towards the extension and elaboration of the defensive works at Barumini is dated to the Early Iron Age (10th~8th centuries BC), when Sardinia was exposed to Carthaginian incursions. It is significant that the larger nuraghic settlements of this type are located on those parts of the coast, or on the wide coastal plain of the eastern half of the island (as is the case of Su Nuraxi), that were most vulnerable to seabome attacks. It was during this period that the defences at Barumini and elsewhere were strengthened and the villages accreted around the central defences for protection. They became in effect small urban settlements, housing self-sufficient communities with their own range of craftsmen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some time in the 7th century BC Su Nuraxi was sacked by the Carthaginians and the defensive works were slighted. However, it continued as a settlement, the houses being rebuilt in a different style. With the Roman conquest of the island in the 2nd century BC most of the nuraghi went out of use. However, excavations have shown that there were people living at Su Nuraxi until the 3rd century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/833</http_url><id_number>833</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_833.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (iii) and (iv), considering that the nuraghe of Sardinia, of which Su Nuraxi is the pre-eminent example, represent an exceptional response to political and social conditions, making an imaginative and innovative use of the materials and techniques available to a prehistoric island community.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.7058333300</latitude><location>Province of Medio Campidano, Sardinia</location><longitude>8.9913888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;nuraghi&lt;/em&gt; of Sardinia, of which Su Nuraxi is the pre-eminent example, represent an exceptional response to political and social conditions, making an imaginative and innovative use of the materials and techniques available to a prehistoric island community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the middle and late Bronze Age (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1500-800 BC) on Sardinia a unique form of architecture developed: circular defensive towers in the form of truncated cones built from dressed stone, with corbel-vaulted internal chambers. Some (as at Barumini) were surrounded by quadrilobate enclosures consisting of towers linked by massive walls. Villages of small circular-plan houses developed around these strongpoints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The precise dating of the period of building the &lt;em&gt;nuraghi&lt;/em&gt; on Sardinia is still the subject of debate among scholars, as there is some conflict between radiocarbon dates and those obtained by conventional archaeological stratigraphy. The influence of the Mycenaean tholos tombs, reflected in the corbelled roofs, now favours an earlier rather than a later dating. It is generally accepted that the central tower at Barumini dates from the later 2nd millennium BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The central defensive structures are considered to have been built by single families or clans. As Sardinian society evolved in a more complex and hierarchical fashion, there was a tendency for the isolated towers to attract additional structures, for social and defensive reasons. The major effort towards the extension and elaboration of the defensive works at Barumini is dated to the early Iron Age (10th-8th centuries BC) when Sardinia was exposed to Carthaginian incursions. It is significant that the larger &lt;em&gt;nuraghic&lt;/em&gt; settlements of this type are located on those parts of the coast, or on the wide coastal plain of the eastern half of the island (as is the case of Su Nuraxi), that were most vulnerable to seabome attacks. It was during this period that the defences at Barumini and elsewhere were strengthened and the villages accreted around the central defences for protection. They became in effect small urban settlements, housing self-sufficient communities with their own range of craftsmen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some time in the 7th century BC, Su Nuraxi was sacked by the Carthaginians and the defensive works were slighted. However, it continued as a settlement, the houses being rebuilt in a different style. With the Roman conquest of the island in the 2nd century BC most of the &lt;em&gt;nuraghi&lt;/em&gt; went out of use. However, excavations have shown that there were people living at Su Nuraxi until the 3rd century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The principal (and earliest) feature of Su Nuraxi is a massive central tower or keep, built from large dressed stones without the use of mortar (drystone construction). It consists of three chambers, one upon the other and linked by a spiral staircase (the third is only fragmentary). The ceilings of the chambers are of corbelled construction. The structure probably stood originally to a height of at least 18.5m. The four subsidiary towers added later are linked by a massive stone curtain wall. The courtyard that they form is entered through a narrow gate at ground level on the south-east side. This was later sealed and access to the citadel would have been by means of a ladder or some other installation controlled from the interior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These walls were in their turn enlarged and strengthened, and at the same time a second enclosure was constructed, which enclosed the domestic buildings that had been built round the keep in the intervening period. These are for the most part small, circular stone structures consisting of a single room, but one is much larger, 7m in diameter with a bench running round the inside of the walls. This is interpreted as a council chamber associated with some form of urban administration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the sacking of the settlement and the dismantling of the defences by the Carthaginians, new houses were built. They were in a different form from their predecessors, built using small stones and consisting of several small rooms. At a number of points they abut or overlie the earlier defences.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;During the late 2nd millennium B.C. in the Bronze Age, a special type of defensive structure known as &lt;em&gt;nuraghi&lt;/em&gt; (for which no parallel exists anywhere else in the world) developed on the island of Sardinia. The complex consists of circular defensive towers in the form of truncated cones built of dressed stone, with corbel-vaulted internal chambers. The complex at Barumini, which was extended and reinforced in the first half of the 1st millennium under Carthaginian pressure, is the finest and most complete example of this remarkable form of prehistoric architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Su Nuraxi di Barumini</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>982</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological research show that the earliest human occupation identified in this region dates back to over 250,000 years ago, in the Lower Palaeolithic period, when Homo erectus was living in caves along the coast. In the Middle Palaeolithic Homo neanderthalensis moved into the region, and artefacts of the Mousterian Culture have been found on various sites. Homo sapiens sapiens replaced his Neanderthal cousin during the Upper Palaeolithic period and established seasonal camps during this and the subsequent Mesolithic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The good soils and climate favoured the introduction of settled farming during the Neolithic period. Finds of obsidian from the Lipari Islands indicate that maritime trade began at this time, no doubt encouraged by the relatively good harbours along the Lucanian coast and the communication routes afforded by the topography up the river valleys. Neolithic settlements have been discovered in a number of places across the area of the Park. The Gaudo Culture, which established itself over a very wide area of Lucania and Calabria, was instrumental in defining the special role of Cilento in the penetration of the Italian peninsula by more advanced Mediterranean cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Bronze and Iron Ages small groups of warriors and traders moved into to the region. They came in search of metals and brought with them advanced technologies. In response, the scattered peoples of the region formed themselves into larger ethnic groups which resulted in the creation of a protourban social and economic structure. Transhumance pastoralism, perhaps introduced from further north, established itself successfully in the early 2nd millennium BC, and brought with it some profound changes in human settlement, especially in the interior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the 2nd millennium trade with Mycenae had become substantial, and many of the sophisticated cultural and technological elements of Late Bronze Age Greece were introduced. With the collapse of Mycenae this trade with the Eastern Mediterranean declined greatly, to be replaced by active trade within the peninsula itself, since Cilento was also an important boundary zone with the Etruscan cultures of northern Italy. In the 9th-7th centuries BC this resulted in the arrival of a warrior aristocratic society, the Villanovan Culture, from the region around Bologna which imposed its imprint on the landscape and its use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greek colonization began in the late 7th century with coastal trading settlements being established at Agropoli and Poseidonia (Paestum) in the northern part of Cilento. Elea (Velia) was founded in 540 BC and was to become one of the most influential centres of learning in the ancient world. The Eleatic school, based on the affirmation of the identity and eternity of the spirit, was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, and was later to be led by Parmenides and Zeno. It was especially noted for its development of experimental methods, in astronomy and medicine in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 5th century BC the Lucanians of the interior, led by their Shepherd Kings, who had adopted the Greek way of life, defeated the league of Greek coastal cities, apart from Elea, which may well have been spared so as to provide a commercial link with the other Greek colonies around the Mediterranean. A new urban culture grew up, many new towns were founded, and large areas of woodland were felled for agriculture and the planting of olives and vines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region was inevitably incorporated into the territories of Rome in the later 3rd century BC. The network of major highways established by the Romans relegated the ancient system of tracks that traversed Cilento, and as a result the towns in the interior lost much of their importance. It was not until the Western Roman Empire crumbled and its roads and bridges fell into disrepair that the earlier network of communication and settlement came into its own again. During the Middle Ages feudal castles and religious foundations were established within the pre-Roman framework, the Greek and Lucanian towns revived, and the resulting landscape has survived to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/842</http_url><id_number>842</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_842.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; During the prehistoric period, and again in the Middle Ages, the Cilento region served as a key route for cultural, political, and commercial communications in an exceptional manner, utilizing the crests of the mountain chains running east-west and thereby creating a cultural landscape of outstanding significance and quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; In two key episodes in the development of human societies in the Mediterranean region, the Cilento area provided the only viable means of communication between the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian seas, in the central Mediterranean region, and this is vividly illustrated by the relict cultural landscape of today.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.2833333300</latitude><location>Province of Salerno, Campania</location><longitude>15.2666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;During the prehistoric period, and again in the Middle Ages, the Cilento region served as a key route for cultural, political and commercial communications in an exceptional manner, using the crests of the mountain chains running east-west and thereby creating a cultural landscape of outstanding significance and quality between the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cilento National Park is essentially a mountainous region cut by several river valleys sloping down to the Tyrrhenian Sea. The earliest human occupation identified in this region dates back over 250,000 years, when &lt;em&gt;Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; was living in caves along the coast. &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt; replaced his Neanderthal cousin during the Upper Palaeolithic period and established seasonal camps during this and the subsequent Mesolithic period. Neolithic settlements have been discovered in a number of places across the area of the park. During the Bronze and Iron Ages small groups of warriors and traders moved into to the region. By the end of the 2nd millennium, trade with Mycenae had become substantial, and many of the sophisticated cultural and technological elements of late Bronze Age Greece were introduced. With the collapse of Mycenae this trade with the Eastern Mediterranean declined greatly, to be replaced by active trade within the peninsula itself, as Cilento was also an important boundary zone with the Etruscan cultures of northern Italy. Greek colonization began in the late 7th century with coastal trading settlements being established at Agropoli and Poseidonia (Roman Paestum) in the northern part of Cilento. Elea (Velia) was founded in 540 BC and was to become one of the most influential centres of learning in the ancient world. At the end of the 5th century BC, the Lucanians of the interior defeated the league of Greek coastal cities, apart from Elea. The region was incorporated into the territories of Rome in the later 3rd century BC. It was not until the western Roman Empire crumbled and its roads and bridges fell into disrepair that the earlier network of communication and settlement came into its own again. During the Middle Ages feudal castles and religious foundations were established; within the pre-Roman framework, the Greek and Lucanian towns revived.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most noteworthy archaeological site is that of Paestum, the Greek city of Poseidonia. Within the city walls, a number of exceptional public buildings have been revealed between the main north-south axis (&lt;em&gt;cardo maximus&lt;/em&gt; ) and the Sacred Way. The most outstanding of these are the three great temples of Hera, Ceres and Poseidon. The oldest is the Temple of Hera: like the other temples here it is Doric in style. The Temple of Ceres (probably dedicated to Athena) is dated to around 500 BC. Its proportions and use of space in this, the smallest of the Paestum temples, are superior to that of the Temple of Hera. The architect of the Temple of Poseidon (in reality also dedicated to Hera), from the mid-5th century BC, was clearly inspired by the Parthenon in Athens. The remains of the Roman forum built over the Greek agora have been excavated and are on view. This large open space is surrounded by public buildings, identified as the &lt;em&gt;bouleuterion&lt;/em&gt; (council chamber), the &lt;em&gt;curia&lt;/em&gt; (courthouse), and the &lt;em&gt;macellum&lt;/em&gt; (covered market).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much less survives on the site of Elea/Velia. The most striking feature is the monumental Porta Rosa, the oldest and most complete example of a Greek arched town gate. Among other noteworthy features are the imposing defensive walls of the acropolis from the 6th century BC, the fine paved street and the remains of several temples. When the Phocaeans abandoned their coastal site, the remaining inhabitants of Velia established a new town inland. Novi Velia is typical of the medieval towns of Cilento: they are built on strategically defensive sites on hilltops and on the ancient communications routes along the mountain ridges. The houses cluster round a central castle or watchtower, the other prominent feature being the church, and in some cases a monastic group. Of the monastic properties, the most impressive is the Certosa di San Lorenzo at Padula in the Vallo di Diano. Construction began in 1306, but in its present form it is essentially Baroque, built in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cilento is an outstanding cultural landscape. The dramatic groups of sanctuaries and settlements along its three east–west mountain ridges vividly portray the area's historical evolution: it was a major route not only for trade, but also for cultural and political interaction during the prehistoric and medieval periods. The Cilento was also the boundary between the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia and the indigenous Etruscan and Lucanian peoples. The remains of two major cities from classical times, Paestum and Velia, are found there.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park with the Archeological Sites of Paestum and Velia, and the Certosa di Padula</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>993</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/907</http_url><id_number>907</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_907.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (i) and (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Villa Adriana is a masterpiece that uniquely brings together the highest expressions of the material cultures of the ancient Mediterranean world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Study of the monuments that make up the Villa Adriana played a crucial role in the rediscovery of the elements of classical architecture by the architects of the Renaissance and the Baroque period. It also profoundly influenced many 19th and 20th century architects and designers.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.9441666700</latitude><location>Province of Rome, Region of Latium</location><longitude>12.7719722200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Villa Adriana is a masterpiece that uniquely brings together the highest expressions of the material cultures of the ancient Mediterranean world. Study its monuments played a crucial role in the rediscovery of the elements of classical architecture by the architects of the Renaissance and the Baroque period. It also profoundly influenced many 19th- and 20th-century architects and designers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The villa covers more than 120&amp;nbsp;ha on the slopes of the Tiburtine Hills. It was originally occupied by a late Republican villa, the property of Hadrian's wife, Vibia Sabina. The imperial residence was built over it in AD 118-38. It was a symbol of a power that was gradually becoming absolute and which distanced itself from the capital. After Hadrian's death in 138, his successors preferred Rome as their permanent residence, but the villa continued to be enlarged and further embellished. Constantine the Great is alleged to have removed some of its finer pieces to his new capital, Byzantium. The villa was sacked and plundered by successive barbarian invaders and fell into neglect, being used as a quarry by builders and lime-burners. Interest in the ruins was rekindled in the 15th century by Pope Pius II (Aeneas Silvius). Excavations to recover its glories were ordered by Alexander VI at the beginning of the 16th century. When Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este began to construct his nearby Villa d'Este he continued the excavations, supervised by his architect Pirro Ligorio, to obtain works of art to adorn it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The many structures are arranged without any overall plan within this area. They fall into four specific groups. The first group includes the Greek Theatre and the Temple of Aphrodite Cnidi. The theatre, which is in a good state of conservation, although only fragmentary, is of conventional design. Its cavea is cut into the hillside and is some 36&amp;nbsp;m in diameter. The small circular temple is situated in a large semi-circular exedra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second group, including the Maritime Theatre, Court of the Libraries, Latin and Greek Libraries, Imperial Palace and Golden Square, is the core of the complex, aligned with the Vale of Tempe. The various elements are grouped round four peristyles. The Maritime (or Naval) Theatre is a circular structure 43&amp;nbsp;m in diameter; the Ionic marble peristyle encloses a circular moat surrounding a central island with a miniature villa. The Court of the Libraries, the oldest part of the ensemble, is a colonnaded portico with a nymphaeum on its northern side. The two 'libraries' are reached by passages on either side of the nymphaeum. The palace consists of a complex of rooms around a courtyard. The Golden Square is one of the most impressive buildings in the complex: the vast peristyle is surrounded by a two-aisled portico with alternate columns in cipollino marble and Egyptian granite&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third group comprises the Pecile, Stadium and its associated buildings, Small and Large Thermae, Canopus, Serapeum and Cento Camerelle. The Pecile (or Poikile) is a reproduction of an imposing structure in Athens famous for its paintings and its associations with the Stoic philosophers which consists of a large rectangular enclosure. Part of its massive walls survives; they had colonnades on either side. In the centre was a rectangular pool enclosed by a free space, perhaps used as a racetrack. The two sets of baths are conventional in form. The smaller is considered to have been used exclusively by women. The Canopus is an elongated canal imitating the famous sanctuary of Serapis near Alexandria. The semi-circular exedra of the Serapeum is located at its southern end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fourth group includes the Lily Pond, Roccabruna Tower and Academy. The tower is a complex of buildings, the purpose of which is not clearly established. In addition to these structures, there is a complex of underground elements, including &lt;em&gt;cryptoportici&lt;/em&gt; and underground galleries, used for internal communications and storage. A number of the ancient structures are overlaid by a series of farmhouses and other buildings, mostly from the 18th century. They were built directly on the earlier foundations and it is difficult to dissociate them from the ancient structures.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Villa Adriana (at Tivoli, near Rome) is an exceptional complex of classical buildings created in the 2nd century A.D. by the Roman emperor Hadrian. It combines the best elements of the architectural heritage of Egypt, Greece and Rome in the form of an 'ideal city'.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Villa Adriana (Tivoli)</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1060</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/908</http_url><id_number>908</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_908.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; The islands' volcanic landforms represent classic features in the continuing study of volcanology world-wide. With their scientific study from at least the 18th Century, the islands have provided two of the types of eruptions (Vulcanian and Strombolian) to vulcanology and geology textbooks and so have featured prominently in the education of all geoscientists for over 200 years. They continue to provide a rich field for volcanological studies of on-going geological processes in the development of landforms.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.4878611100</latitude><location>Mediterranean Sea - Southern Tyrrhenian Sea</location><longitude>14.9455833300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Isole Eolie (Aeolian Islands) are located off the northern coast of Sicily. The group consists of seven islands (Lipari, Vulcano, Salina, Stromboli, Filicudi, Alicudi and Panarea) and five small islets (Basiluzzo, Dattilo, Lisca Nera, Bottaro and Lisca Bianca) in the vicinity of Panarea. The total area of the Aeolian Islands is 1,216&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The islands range in size from Panarea which is 34&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to Lipari which is 376&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The Aeolian are all of volcanic origin, separated from the Sicilian coast by waters of 200m deep. It seems that they have never been in contact with the Sicilian Island. The islands have provided two of the types of eruptions (Vulcanian and Strombolian) to vulcanology and geology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In terms of size, Vulcano is the third largest island and the most southerly of the Aeolian group. In the past, the island was frequently evacuated due to volcanic activity that periodically takes place in the Great Crater. Nowadays, activity is limited to fumaroles that can be found just about anywhere on the island but tend to be concentrated in the area around the Fossa and on the isthmus between Faraglione and Vulcanello. Panarea is the smallest of the islands. It has a remarkable variety of differing environments in comparison with the other islands, especially in terms of flora and is a fascinating site for naturalists. Stromboli is the only island in the archipelago that has permanent volcanic activity. Eruptions are somewhat fragmented and this type of phenomenon has been labelled 'Strombolian Activity'. The island is the most northerly of the group and its economy is based almost solely on tourism. Despite difficult access, the plains areas were at one time highly fertile and cultivated and Stromboli was renowned for the production of malvasia grapes. Filicudi: recent studies have dated the lava at the centre of the Zucco Grande as being more than 1&amp;nbsp;million years old, thus making it the oldest product yet known from the whole archipelago. Despite its appearance of having been created at the dawn of time and the initial visual impact it has on visitors, Alicudi is the youngest of the islands. The eastern slopes of the island are almost completely covered with terraces that indicate past agricultural activities. The wild western slopes remain uninhabited due to their steepness and inaccessibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Salina rises from the sea capped by the volcanoes Monte dei Porri to the west and Monte Rivi and Monte Fossa delle Felci to the east. Salina, like the other islands making up the archipelago, emerged from the seas during the Quaternary period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation of the Aeolian Islands is mainly dominated by species typical of the Mediterranean region. A total of 900 plant species have been recorded in Aeolian Islands, including four endemic species. Most areas are dominated by a man-modified landscape characterized by a steppe vegetation and abandoned olive and vines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interesting characteristic of Aeolian archipelago fauna is the presence of continental Europe species reaching the southern limit of their distribution. About 40 bird species have been recorded including 10 under the Sicilian Red List of threatened bird species. The islands are also important for migrant bird species, and are an Important Bird Area for congregatory species identified by Birdlife International. Mammals include one endemic subspecies, &lt;em&gt;Eliomys quercinus leparensis&lt;/em&gt;, and seven species of bat have been reported. Seven species of reptile are present in the archipelago, including the newly described &lt;em&gt;Lezard Podarcis raffonei&lt;/em&gt;. Other reptiles include four subspecies of &lt;em&gt;Podarcis raffonei&lt;/em&gt; and two subspecies of &lt;em&gt;Podarcis siculus&lt;/em&gt;. Invertebrate fauna seems relatively well known, with over 15 endemic species described.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological importance is shown by the presence of life from the Neolithic age. Different layers showing prehistoric, protohistoric and ancient history of the Mediterranean Sea have been preserved.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Aeolian Islands provide an outstanding record of volcanic island-building and destruction, and ongoing volcanic phenomena. Studied since at least the 18th century, the islands have provided the science of vulcanology with examples of two types of eruption (Vulcanian and Strombolian) and thus have featured prominently in the education of geologists for more than 200 years. The site continues to enrich the field of vulcanology.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Isole Eolie (Aeolian Islands)</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1061</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Roman plan of the city is based on the set of terraces, the construction of which started in the north-eastern part of the town (close to San Rufino), then extending toward the west. Culturally, the region belonged to Umbria but was on the border with Etruria. Abundant archaeological evidence, in fact, shows that the city's foundation relates to the Umbrian phase, being later taken over by the Romans. The Roman monuments include the Temple of Minerva dating from the 1st century BCE to the time of Augustus, as part of an important sanctuary in the forum area, as well as theatres, bath-houses, and other public buildings. The ancient city walls were about 2300m long, enclosing some 55ha with vast green areas. The extent of the settlement and the fact that it was granted the status of municipium in 89 BCE demonstrate not only its role as a religious centre but also its political and economic significance. From the 3rd century CE, the city shows little evidence of construction until the beginning of the new millennium. Even so, the site continues being associated with religion, and the development and diffusion of Christianity are elements that deeply characterize the scenario, also closely associated with the ancient rituals and therapeutic treatments linked with water. The first Christian martyrs were killed in water, according to a legend, Bishop Rufino being one of them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the period of the barbarian invasions, which caused a considerable reduction in population, the regional layout of Assisi is characterized with the affirmation of Christianity, involving ancient sites associated with water and martyrdom. Water in fact becomes the symbol of life after death and its control takes on a liturgical nature. The territory is marked by the linkages between monastic and religious centres, settlements (eg San Vittorino, San Benedetto), and hermitages (eg Le Carceri). The region was subject to profound changes from the 11th and 12th centuries with the change of land ownership from important patrons to the classes of artisans and merchants. It also meant new types of cultivation and deforestation in view of new dynamism in development. A series of castles were built on the margins of the valley, and others were developed as centres of pastoral culture in the mountain region. In addition, there were new rural settlements, including the characteristic Umbrian building type of tower house, which remains a feature of all Assisi iconography until the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Through the period from the 11th to the 14th centuries, the ancient town of Assisi was subject to important changes. The development focused on four main points: Piazza del Mercato, Murorupto, Santa Maria Maggiore, and San Rufino. The market becomes the centre of noble families, as well as having various churches (San Nicolo, San Paolo, Sant'Agata). The bishop's citadel was built close to the ancient cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore, and San Rufino became the new cathedral in the 11th century, rebuilt in the 13th century. The walled area was enlarged in 1260 and 1316, showing an increase in population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important event in the history of medieval Assisi was undoubtedly the life and work of Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), who initiated the Franciscan Order, one of the most influential monastic orders in the Christian world, and who was canonized in 1228. Francis was born in Assisi and, although he travelled a great deal, some of the key references to his faith are in Assisi, including the grottoes of Le Carceri, San Damiano, and the Porziuncola, where he died. His companion, Clare, later canonized, founded the sister order to the Franciscans. After the canonization of Saint Francis, it was decided to build a monumental church in his honour, involving the Church of Rome as well as the City of Assisi. This construction was followed by the Basilica of Santa Chiara to honour Saint Clare.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the Basilicas of San Francesco and Santa Chiara represented a new input to the urban form of the town, and gave the relatively small medieval settlement a completely new physiognomy. This included the development of the main square over the former forum area with the Temple of Minerva. The construction of the Basilica of San Francesco, in particular, changed the earlier Franciscan symbol of humility into an exaltation of the figure of the saint, and the order thus affirmed its mission in the world. The city walls were once again enlarged in the 14th century, when also the fort, La Rocca, on the top of the hill was rebuilt as part of a series of castles to protect the interests of the papacy in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The social and political events from the 15th to the 18th century left their traces in Assisi, in the form of new construction and improvements in management and draining of arable land. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Assisi was involved in wars with Perugia and in conflicts with Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the city suffered from sacks and fires. Through this period, however, the symbolic importance of Assisi in relation to Saint Francis continued. The first detailed town plan that has survived till today dates from 1599, by Giacomo Lauro, indicates Assisi as the patria of Saint Francis. In the late 15th century the most important urban project was the construction of the public squares in front of the Basilica of San Francesco,. In the 16th century Galeazzo Alessi designed the large basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli down in the valley, and it became a shelter for the Porziuncola of Saint Francis. He also restructured the cathedral of San Rufino and designed the tabernacle for the lower church of the Basilica of San Francesco. In the 17th and 18th centuries the city continued developing and a number of noble families built their palaces in the Baroque style. This period also included the church of San Francesco Converso by Giacomo Giorgetti in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, the discovery of the bodies of Saint Francis and Saint Clare gave new vigour to construction activities, including the restructuring of the convents of S. Damiano and S. Maria di Rivotorto. There were also some changes in the centre of Assisi, including the new postal offices in the Piazza del Comune. After World War II the renewed interest in Assisi provided an incentive for the protection of the historic town and its surroundings. In 1954, Assisi received the first conservation master plan in post-war Italy. At the same time, the entire municipal area became subject to nature protection.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/990</http_url><id_number>990</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_990.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; Assisi represents an ensemble of masterpieces of human creative genius, such as the Basilica of San Francesco, which have made it a fundamental reference for art history in Europe and in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The interchange of artistic and spiritual message of the Franciscan Order has significantly contributed to developments in art and architecture in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; Assisi represents a unique example of continuity of a city-sanctuary within its environmental setting from its Umbrian-Roman and medieval origins to the present, represented in the cultural landscape, the religious ensembles, systems of communication, and traditional land-use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Basilica of San Francesco is an outstanding example of a type of architectural ensemble that has significantly influenced the development of art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Being the birthplace of the Franciscan Order, Assisi has from the Middle Ages been closely associated with the cult and diffusion of the Franciscan movement in the world, focusing on the universal message of peace and tolerance even to other religions or beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.0661666700</latitude><location></location><longitude>12.6224444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Assisi represents a unique example of continuity of a city-sanctuary within its environmental setting from its Umbrian-Roman and medieval origins to the present, represented in the cultural landscape, the religious ensembles, systems of communication, and traditional land use. The Basilica of San Francesco is an outstanding example of a type of architectural ensemble that has significantly influenced the development of art and architecture. The interchange of artistic and spiritual message of the Franciscan Order has significantly contributed to developments in art and architecture in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Assisi is built on the slopes of the hill of Asio, at the foot of Subasio Mountain. The form of the urban settlement is elongated and extends from the south-east towards the north-west. The Roman plan of the city is based on the set of terraces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important event in the history of medieval Assisi was undoubtedly the life and work of Francis of Assisi (1182-1226), who initiated the Franciscan Order and who was canonized in 1228. His companion, Clare, also later canonized, founded the sister order to the Franciscans. After the canonization of St Francis, it was decided to build a monumental church in his honour. This construction was followed by the Basilica of Santa Chiara to honour St Clare. The construction of the Basilica of San Francesco was started in 1228. The lower basilica is entered through an exquisite Gothic portal; the interior is completely covered with frescoes. The earliest of these date from 1253 and are by an unknown artist, the Maestro di San Francesco. Furthermore, the paintings include allegories attributed to Giotto and his school in the presbytery, the &lt;em&gt;Virgin with a Child on the Throne&lt;/em&gt; by Cimabue, and the &lt;em&gt;Crucifixion&lt;/em&gt; by Giotto, the paintings by Pietro Lorenzetti and his assistants, and the Chapel of St-Martin by Simone Martini. The upper basilica has a magnificent east front in white limestone, with a large rose window in the centre. In the interior, the walls are decorated with series of paintings relating to the faith and life of the saint.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of San Rufino probably dates from the 8th century; it was rebuilt by Bishop Ugone around 1036 as a cathedral. The west front is a masterpiece of Umbrian Romanesque architecture, connected with the cathedral and the church of San Pietro of Spoleto. The interior of the church was completely restructured by Galeazzo Alessi in 1571 in simple Renaissance forms. The construction of the basilica to honour St Clare started in 1257, under the direction of Fra' Filippo da Campello. In the exterior the structure is characterized by three large flying buttresses, and close to the apse there is a square bell tower. The plan of the church is based on a Latin cross and the whole interior is painted with a cycle of frescoes illustrating the legend of St Clare by several artists. Originally built outside the city walls, the Benedictine abbey of San Pietro is recorded from 1029; in the mid-12th century it adopted the Cluny reform and it passed later to the Cistercians. The interior is austere, divided in three naves by massive pillars. The Roman temple, traditionally dedicated to Minerva, is relatively well preserved. It was first converted into a church and then, in 1212, into a prison. From 1456 the building was again used as a church, dedicated to Santa Maria della Minerva in 1539.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Carceri are located in a valley of the Mount Subasio and consisted originally of a series of caves for St Francis and his companions. From the 15th to the early 19th centuries a small convent was gradually built on the site of the saint's grotto. San Damiano is a monastic complex, essential for the understanding of the religious awakening of St Francis, as well as being the convent of St Clare, where she also died. Santa Maria degli Angeli is a Renaissance church designed by Galeazzo Alessi in the 16th century to protect the original chapel of Porziuncola, the site from where St Francis sent his order to their mission and the site where he died. The three surviving chapels contain important early paintings, and are carefully preserved as religious relics. The Sanctuary of Rivotorto contains a small medieval complex, preserved as a relic and relating to a site of Franciscan pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Assisi, a medieval city built on a hill, is the birthplace of Saint Francis, closely associated with the work of the Franciscan Order. Its medieval art masterpieces, such as the Basilica of San Francesco and paintings by Cimabue, Pietro Lorenzetti, Simone Martini and Giotto, have made Assisi a fundamental reference point for the development of Italian and European art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Assisi, the Basilica of San Francesco and Other Franciscan Sites</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1154</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Some of the nominated towns (Caltagirone, Mitello) were of pre-medieval origin, and all were in existence in medieval times, characteristically around a castle and with monastic foundations. Most seem to have been changing during the 16th and 17th centuries and then been affected differentially by the 1693 earthquake, which resulted in some 93,000 casualties. Catania, for example, was destroyed, as was Noto on top of Mount Alveria, whereas Mitello was partially destroyed and Ragusa seriously damaged. Reactions to the earthquake also differed, ranging from Catania's complete rebuild on the same site, through Mitello's partial abandonment and Ragusa's combination of new and old, to Noto's complete rebuild on a new site. All the towns saw considerable building activity through the 18th century, notably of churches, large public buildings, and palazzi. Another serious earthquake in 1990 affected some parts of some towns, Ragusa in particular. The nomination is almost entirely based on 18th century urban art and architecture and says nothing about urban economy or urban/rural relationships.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1024</http_url><id_number>1024</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1024.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; This group of towns in south-eastern Sicily provides outstanding testimony to the exuberant genius of late Baroque art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The towns of the Val di Noto represent the culmination and final flowering of Baroque art in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The exceptional quality of the late Baroque art and architecture in the Val di Noto lies in its geographical and chronological homogeneity, as well as its quantity, the result of the 1693 earthquake in this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The eight towns of south-eastern Sicily that make up this nomination, which are characteristic of the settlement pattern and urban form of this region, are permanently at risk from earthquakes and eruptions of Mount Etna.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>36.8931944400</latitude><location>Provinces of Catania, Ragusa, and Syracuse, Sicily</location><longitude>15.0689166700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This group of towns in south-eastern Sicily represents the culmination and final flowering of Baroque art in Europe. The exceptional quality of the late Baroque art and architecture in the Val di Noto lies in its geographical and chronological homogeneity, as well as its quantity, the result of the 1693 earthquake in this region. The towns were all in existence in medieval times, characteristically around a castle and with monastic foundations. Most seem to have been changing during the 16th and 17th centuries and then been affected differentially by the 1693 earthquake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Caltagirone is significant for its multifaceted town planning and architectural facades, and for its unusual link between the pre- and post-1693 periods. Its rich architecture exists inside an urban context resulting from the configuration of the site. The most important buildings include the churches of Santa Maria del Monte, St James the Apostle, St Joseph, St Dominic, the Holy Saviour, St Chiara and St Rita, Jesus, St Stephen, and St Francis of Assisi and, among secular buildings, the Corte Capitanale, Civic Museum, former Pawnshop, and San Francesco Bridge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Militello Val di Catania is significant for its wealth of architecture from the 14th century onwards, and for the outstanding 17th-century walled pre-earthquake town plan which was in the vanguard of Sicilian feudal towns and was then faithfully followed in the late Baroque reconstruction. Principal buildings include the churches of San Nicol&amp;ograve; and Santa Maria della Stella, the latter completed in 1741 on the site of St Anthony the Abbot and the former in the San Leonardo area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Catania acquired a particular quality of urban design when it was rebuilt on a comprehensive, geometric unitary plan amid the rubble of the destroyed city. At its core are the outstanding Piazza del Duomo and the Via dei Crociferi, together with the nearby Badia de Sant'Agata, Collegiata, Benedictine monastery, and Palazzo Biscari.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Modica consists of two urban centres, the older perched on the rocky top of the southern Ibeli hill, the other rebuilt further downhill after the 1693 earthquake with imposing and conspicuous urban monuments such as the Cathedral of St George and the Church of St Peter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Noto is on two levels, an upper part on the plateau and a lower, newer part on the slope below. The latter accommodates the buildings of the nobility and the religious complexes of the 18th century, the topography, town plan and architecture combining to create a spectacular 'Baroque stage set'. It includes nine religious complexes and numerous palazzi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palazzolo has two centres, the medieval one on which a new town was reconstructed on the old site but along a new axis, and a post-1693 'new town' developed along a crescent up to the earliest site of all, the Greek Akrai. The two churches of St Sebastian and Saints Peter and Paul were largely rebuilt after 1693, the latter the centre of the old nobility, the former marking the quarter of the new urban classes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ragusa, the ancient Ibla, is built over three hills separated by a deep valley. It, too, consists of two centres, one rebuilt on the old medieval layout and the other, Upper Ragusa, newly built after 1693. It contains nine major churches and seven major palazzi, all Baroque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Scicli the Via Francesco Mormina Penna stretches to the nearby Beneventano palace, perhaps the only one in Sicily to display fantastic decoration, in an urban setting where churches rise alongside patrician buildings of late Baroque age. Three churches (St John the Evangelist, St Michael and St Teresa) are from the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The eight towns in south-eastern Sicily: Caltagirone, Militello Val di Catania, Catania, Modica, Noto, Palazzolo, Ragusa and Scicli, were all rebuilt after 1693 on or beside towns existing at the time of the earthquake which took place in that year. They represent a considerable collective undertaking, successfully carried out at a high level of architectural and artistic achievement. Keeping within the late Baroque style of the day, they also depict distinctive innovations in town planning and urban building.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Late Baroque Towns of the Val di Noto (South-Eastern Sicily)</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1196</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;On 9 September 1550, Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este (1509- 72) arrived in Tivoli, having obtained the post of governor of the town. The Cardinal came from the cultured background of the Court of Ferrara and had immersed himself in humanist studies. He was therefore an erudite and cultivated art patron who was surrounded by famous artists, painters (Girolamo da Carpi, Girolamo Muziano, Federico Zuccari, Livio Agresti, etc), silversmiths and goldsmiths (Benvenuto Cellini), musicians (Palestrina), and poets (Tasso, Ariosto).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The official residence assigned to him in Tivoli, part of the monastery of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, did not suit him. He therefore decided to build a splendid villa with gardens, the design of which is traditionally attributed to Pirro Ligorio (1500-83), an antiquary and archaeologist who carried out archaeological excavations at the Villa Adriana nearby.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church and monastery stood at the top of a hill, with slopes covered in gardens, vineyards, and a few houses and churches. The cardinal, who was removed from the circles of power in Tivoli and Rome for a while because of simony (1555-59), needed a little over ten years to buy the land and demolish the buildings. Between 1563 and 1565 the land was remodelled to create a steep slope descending to the old monastery and another gentler slope facing the north-east. A terrace was laid out in the south-west, supported by the old wall of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Starting in 1560 great efforts were made to supply the water needed for the numerous fountains that were intended to embellish the garden. First, an aqueduct was built to capture the waters from Monte Sant'Angelo, but this source of water turned out to be inadequate and so an underground canal was dug beneath the town to harness the waters of the Anio river (1564-65).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Once the water supply had been ensured and its flow made possible by the natural gravity created by the different levels of the garden, work started on constructing the fountains, ornamental basins, and grottoes and on laying out the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During this period the old monastery was converted into a villa and the original cloister was modified to become the central courtyard, its south-east wall being that of the old church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The pace of the decoration work for the palace speeded up between 1565 and 1572, the year in which Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este died. Much of the work remained unfinished and many of the fountains for the garden still have to be built&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cardinal Luigi d'Este (1538-86) inherited the property of his uncle but his financial resources only allowed him to complete the work already started and to carry out a few repairs. After the Villa d'Este was placed at the disposal of the Dean of the Holy College of Cardinals, it returned to another cardinal of the house of Este in 1605, Alessandro (1568-1624). He wasted no time in starting a huge programme of work, which was not limited to repairing the damages caused by a lack of maintenance on the part of the Deanery but also included many innovations to the layout of the garden and the decoration of the fountains&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The maintenance, restoration, and layout works (the rotunda of the Cypresses around 1640) continued under the Dukes of Modena, who were related to the House of Este, until 1641. Cardinal Rinaldo I (1618-72) turned to Bernini (the Fountain of the Bicchierone) in 1660-61 and, starting in 1670, the architect Mattia de Rossi carried out more work, including changes to the palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period when the Villa d'Este was abandoned started with Rinaldo II (1655-1736). The situation worsened when the complex passed into the hands of the Hapsburgs in 1803. However, thanks to the work undertaken by Cardinal Gustav von Hohenlohe (1823-96), the villa was saved from what might have been an irreversible loss. In 1920 the Villa d'Este became the property of the Italian State, which initiated a restoration campaign from 1920 to 1930, and another following damage caused by bombing in 1944.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1025</http_url><id_number>1025</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1025.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Villa d’Este is one of the most outstanding examples of Renaissance culture at its apogee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The gardens of the Villa d’Este had a profound influence on the development of garden design throughout Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The principles of Renaissance design and aesthetics are illustrated in an exceptional manner by the gardens of the Villa d’Este.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The gardens of the Villa d’Este are among the earliest and finest of the &lt;em&gt;giardini delle meraviglie&lt;/em&gt; and symbolize the flowering of Renaissance culture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.9639166700</latitude><location>Province of Rome, Region of Latium</location><longitude>12.7962500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The gardens of the Villa d'Este had a profound influence on the development of garden design throughout Europe. They are among the earliest and finest of the &lt;em&gt;giardini delle meraviglie&lt;/em&gt; and symbolize the flowering of Renaissance culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 9 September 1550, Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este (1509-72) arrived in Tivoli, having obtained the post of governor of the town. The official residence assigned to him in Tivoli, part of the monastery of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, did not suit him. He therefore decided to build a splendid villa with gardens, the design of which is traditionally attributed to Pirro Ligorio (1500-83).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ensemble composed of the palace and gardens forms an uneven quadrilateral and covers an area of about 4.5&amp;nbsp;ha. The plan of the villa is irregular because the architect was obliged to make use of certain parts of the previous monastic building. On the garden side the architecture of the palace is very simple: a long main body of three storeys, marked by bands, rows of windows, and side pavilions that barely jut out. This uniform facade is interrupted by an elegant loggia in the middle, with two levels and stair ramps, built by Raffaello da Firenze and Biasioto (1566-67). The lower level is decorated with the Fountain of Leda. The main rooms of the villa are arranged in rows on two floors and open on to the garden. The private apartment of the cardinal, consisting of four rooms, is on the same level as the courtyard, and the reception rooms, linked together at the back by a long corridor called the Manica Lunga, are on the lower level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Villa d'Este garden stretches over two steep slopes, descending from the palace down to a flat terrace in the manner of an amphitheatre. The loggia of the palace marks the longitudinal and central axis of the garden. Five main transversal axes become the central axis from the fixed point of view created by the villa, as each of these axes terminates in one of the main garden fountains. Even though the central aisle stops beyond the axis of the Hundred Fountains to give way to a network of diagonal paths that make it easier to climb back to the palace, the latter remains the main visual axis. The first main transversal axis, bordering the flat part of the garden, the Peschiere, is composed of a row of three basins. At the extreme east of this water chain is the Fontana dell'Organo: it is rectangular in shape with two orders crowned by a double-scrolled pediment. The water organ, the work of Claude V&amp;eacute;nard, was inspired by examples from antiquity: the interaction between water and air produced. [CL - something missing]Beyond the Peschiere, two staircases start climbing towards the villa. The side stairs, the Scalinata dei Bollori of 1567, are flanked by two stepped parapets crowned with basins pouring out torrents of water. Beyond the transversal path of the Dragons, the central stairway is divided into oval flights around the Fontana dei Draghi. This nymphaeum and its exedra is the real centre of the ensemble. Four winged dragons emerge from the middle of the large oval basin, spurting out jets of water. The parapet is ornamented with vases from which water also flows. The Alley of the Hundred Fountains is formed of three long superposed basins, its water crossing the entire garden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the most striking effect is produced by the big cascade flowing out of a krater perched in the middle of the exedra. Jets of water were activated whenever unsuspecting people walked under the arcades. Behind the exedra rises an artificial mountain, with three alcoves holding statues of the Sibylla of Tibur with her son Melicerte (1568) and the river divinities Erculaneo and Anio. To the west is its counterpart, the Fountain of Rome (Rometta) built in 1567-70.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fontana del Bicchierone (Fountain of the Great Glass), built according to a design by Bernini (1660-61) was added to the decoration of the central longitudinal axis in the 17th century. This fountain is in the shape of a serrated chalice, from which a high jet of water falls into a conch shell. During this period the large pergola at the original entrance to the villa was also replaced by the Rotunda of the Cypresses (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1640), a circular area adorned with four small fountains and surrounded by ancient cypress trees.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Villa d'Este in Tivoli, with its palace and garden, is one of the most remarkable and comprehensive illustrations of Renaissance culture at its most refined. Its innovative design along with the architectural components in the garden (fountains, ornamental basins, etc.) make this a unique example of an Italian 16th-century garden. The Villa d'Este, one of the first &lt;em&gt;giardini delle meraviglie&lt;/em&gt; , was an early model for the development of European gardens.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Villa d'Este, Tivoli</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1197</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Val d'Orcia bears testimony from archaeological remains to prehistoric settlement, to an important role during the Etruscan period and to further development during the Roman Empire. The area seems to have been largely abandoned agriculturally in the Middle Ages. A revival in the economy and a certain stability in the 10th and 11th centuries led to the establishment of monasteries, greater use of the Via Francigena and the development of villages under a feudal system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sienna's dramatic growth as a trading state in the 13th and 14th centuries, led it to expand its agricultural base outwards from the periphery of Sienna. The Val d'Orcia was colonised together with other outlying areas such as the Maremma along the coast. The wealth of Siennese merchants was invested in turning the landscape into productive farmland within an innovative land tenure framework. So far from being at the edge of the state, the valley became a focus for display. Merchants supported the development of settlements, built palaces and churches and commissioned paintings that depicted the life of ordinary people in the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sienna's rivalry with Florence, the seat of aristocratic power, lasted for more than two centuries. The weakening of Sienna at the end of the 16th century was followed by a Florentine victory after which the Val d'Orcia gradually declined in economic importance and the Via Francigena became a secondary route for local traffic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The comparative poverty and marginalisation of the area over the following four centuries has had the effect of sustaining traditional land-use patterns and structures. In the 1960s the new laws on land management in Italy which translated tenancies into contracts, and which have led to the abandonment of land in many regions, seem to have had less effect in the Val d'Orcia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the past thirty-five years or so the farmland has undergone some improvements such as an extension of the cultivated land and better control mechanisms for water management. A few areas of intensive change have been put into the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1999 the area was protected as an Artistic, Natural and Cultural Park. This was the initiative of the five municipalities who established a common management body, which was then integrated within the provincial administration.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1026</http_url><id_number>1026</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1026.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Val d&amp;rsquo;Orcia is an exceptional reflection of the way the landscape was re-written in Renaissance times to reflect the ideals of good governance and to create an aesthetically pleasing pictures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The landscape of the Val d&amp;rsquo;Orcia was celebrated by painters from the Siennese School, which flourished during the Renaissance. Images of the Val d&amp;rsquo;Orcia, and particularly depictions of landscapes where people are depicted as living in harmony with nature, have come to be seen as icons of the Renaissance and have profoundly influenced the development of landscape thinking.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.0666666700</latitude><location>Province of Siena, Tuscany</location><longitude>11.5500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Val d'Orcia is an exceptional reflection of the way the landscape was rewritten in Renaissance times to reflect the ideals of good governance and to create an aesthetically pleasing picture. It lies to the south-east of Siena, its northern boundary approximately 25&amp;nbsp;km from the city centre. The landscape reflects colonization by the merchants of Siena in the 14th and 15th centuries. They aimed to create a landscape of efficient agricultural units but also one that was pleasing to the eye. The landscape that resulted was one of careful and conscious planning and design and led to the beginning of the concept of 'landscape' as a man-made creation. The landscape was thus created to be efficient, functional, equitable and aesthetically pleasing. It was based on innovative tenure systems whereby the estates owned by merchants were divided into small properties and cultivated by families who lived on the land. Half of the produce was paid to the merchants as rent - sufficient to allow the merchants to reinvest in further agricultural improvements. The farms were mixed farms cultivating grain, vines, olives, fruit and vegetables and with hay meadows and pastures for livestock interspersed between the farms. Farmers practised transhumance with routes to Meremma and l'Amiata. An illustration of the aim for the farming landscape to create pleasing pictures is the persistent tradition of planting roses to embellish vineyards. Cypresses form a striking addition to the landscape planted along routes and around settlements, their regular form punctuating the rounded shapes of the hills and their dark colour contrasting strikingly with the pale landscape&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The colonization of the landscape involved creating new settlements for farmers and their families and labourers needed to work the land. It also involved greatly enlarging and improving existing villages. The most dramatic example of a planned new town is Pienza, named after its founder Pope Pius II who commissioned in 1459 Bernardo Rossellino to enlarge his village to create an ideal city with cathedral, palaces and civic buildings surrounding a central piazza, thus bringing together civil and religious authorities. Larger fortified settlements on hills include Montalcino, originally a 13th-century frontier post, Radicofani, Castiglion d'Orcia, Rocca d'Orcia and Monticchello. Elsewhere the landscape is studded with smaller villages on smaller hills, some also fortified. In many cases these settlements include remains of 13th-century buildings when Siena first gained control of the area, buildings from the great period of expansion in the 14th and 15th centuries, and also later buildings constructed under Florentine control in the 16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site is significant in that the large farmhouses assume a dominant position in the landscape and are enriched by prominent architectural elements such as loggias, belvederes, porches and avenues of trees bordering the approach roads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The strategic importance of the area, its connection with Siena, and its development, are all intertwined with the Via Francigena which has traversed the area north-south since Roman times (when it was know as the Via Cassia) linking Rome with the north of Italy and France. Since late medieval times, the route has been used an ecclesiastical route, linking the Church of Rome with its dioceses. It also facilitated a flow of pilgrims and merchants and generally allowed the transmission of people and ideas to enter the region. The route fostered the development of fine churches and monasteries such as the Collegiata di San Quirico in the Abbey of Sant'Antimo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Val d'Orcia (and also in Siena) the landscape is strongly associated with utopian ideals. Siena was a sort of 'commune' and the Val d'Orcia a model of sustainable rural development, and both manifested the highest aesthetic qualities. The ideal landscape was painted by Lorenzetti in the Town Hall in Siena in 1338-40; it became reality in the Val d'Orcia and was then immortalized in paintings by artists such as Giovanni di Paolo, and Sano di Petri, who in turn helped to strengthen the ideals.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The landscape of Val d&amp;rsquo;Orcia is part of the agricultural hinterland of Siena, redrawn and developed when it was integrated in the territory of the city-state in the 14th and 15th centuries to reflect an idealized model of good governance and to create an aesthetically pleasing picture. The landscape&amp;rsquo;s distinctive aesthetics, flat chalk plains out of which rise almost conical hills with fortified settlements on top, inspired many artists. Their images have come to exemplify the beauty of well-managed Renaissance agricultural landscapes. The inscription covers: an agrarian and pastoral landscape reflecting innovative land-management systems; towns and villages; farmhouses; and the Roman Via Francigena and its associated abbeys, inns, shrines, bridges, etc.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Val d'Orcia</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1199</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The phenomenon of sacri monti ("sacred mountains") began at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries with the aim of creating in Europe places of prayer as alternative to the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Palestine, access to which was becoming more difficult for pilgrims owing to the rapid expansion of Muslim culture. The Minorite guardians of the Holy Sepulchre selected three sites - Varallo in Valsesia, belonging to the Duchy of Milan, Montaione in Tuscany, and Braga in northern Portugal - at which to build "New Jerusalems" designed to be similar in topography to the original.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within a few years, especially after the Council of Trent in 1535, this model, and in particular that of Varallo, built around 1480, were used for another purpose, and especially in those dioceses coming under the jurisdiction of the Milan Curia. This was to combat the influence of Protestant "Reform" by promoting the creation of more Sacri Monti as concrete expressions of their preaching. These were dedicated not only to Christ but also to cults devoted to the Virgin Mary, saints, the Trinity, and the Rosary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This ideal project, which went into specific standards for the typology and architectural styles to use, received a strong impetus from Carlo Borromeo, Bishop of Milan. In accordance with the ideas that stemmed from the Council of Trent, he went straight ahead with the completion of the Varallo sacro monte before starting work on the others. This phase went on throughout the 17th century until around the middle of the 18th century. Varallo was succeeded by the sacri monti at Crea, Orta, Varese, Oropa, Ossuccio, Ghiffa, Domodossola, and Valperga. Although at the outset these followed certain basic rules, as they were being constructed they developed individual artistic and architectural aspects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other sacri monti were designed and built throughout the 18th century, but many of these were no more than examples of different styles, lacking the religious motivation, the authenticity of composition according to strict rules, and the fine architectural and artistic elements which had marked the earlier phase in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1068</http_url><id_number>1068</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1068.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The implantation of architecture and sacred art into a natural landscape for didactic and spiritual purposes achieved its most exceptional expression in the Sacri Monti (&amp;lsquo;Sacred Mountains&amp;rsquo;) of northern Italy and had a profound influence on subsequent developments elsewhere in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Sacri Monti (&amp;lsquo;Sacred Mountains&amp;rsquo;) of northern Italy represent the successful integration of architecture and fine art into a landscape of great beauty for spiritual reasons at a critical period in the history of the Roman Catholic Church.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.9745555600</latitude><location>Regions of Lombardy and Piedmont</location><longitude>9.1695555560</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The nine &lt;em&gt;Sacri Monti&lt;/em&gt; (Sacred Mountains) of northern Italy are groups of chapels and other architectural features created in the late 16th and 17th centuries and dedicated to different aspects of the Christian faith. In addition to their symbolic spiritual meaning, they are of great beauty by virtue of the skill with which they have been integrated into the surrounding natural landscape of hills, forests and lakes. They also house much important artistic material in the form of wall paintings and statuary.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>&lt;I&gt;Sacri Monti&lt;/I&gt; of Piedmont and Lombardy</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1245</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The necropolis of Cerveteri (Banditaccia) developed from the 9th century BCE. It expanded from the 7th century on, following a precise plan. The ancient history and development of the Tarquinia (Monterozzi) necropolis is similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Earliest evidence of &amp;lsquo;modern' interest in the tombs comes from the Renaissance. It grew in the 17th and 18th centuries, when scholars and artists started to describe and paint the tombs. In the first half of the 19th century the Tarquinia cemetery was studied by scholars and this is when most of the tombs known today were discovered. The site was visited in 1834 by Ludwig I from Bavaria, who ordered the reproduction of the paintings, to decorate the new Alte Pinakothek in Munich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the 1950s research has been carried out using geophysical, non intrusive methods.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1158</http_url><id_number>1158</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1158.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The necropolises of Tarquinia and Cerveteri are masterpieces of creative genius: Tarquinia's large-scale wall paintings are exceptional both for their formal qualities and for their content, which reveal aspects of life, death, and religious beliefs of the ancient Etruscans. Cerveteri shows in a funerary context the same town planning and architectural schemes used in an ancient city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The two necropolises constitute a unique and exceptional testimony to the ancient Etruscan civilisation, the only urban type of civilisation in pre-Roman Italy. Moreover, the depiction of daily life in the frescoed tombs, many of which are replicas of Etruscan houses, is a unique testimony to this vanished culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Many of the tombs of Tarquinia and Cerveteri represent types of buildings which no longer exist in any other form. The cemeteries, replicas of Etruscan town planning schemes, are some of the earliest existing in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.0068333300</latitude><location>Provinces of Rome and Viterbo, Region of Latium</location><longitude>12.1018888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The necropolises of Tarquinia and Cerveteri constitute a unique and exceptional testimony to the ancient Etruscan civilization, the only urban civilization in pre-Roman Italy. Moreover, the depiction of daily life in the frescoed tombs, many of which are replicas of Etruscan houses, is a unique testimony to this vanished culture. Many of the tombs represent types of buildings that no longer exist in any other form. The cemeteries, replicas of Etruscan town planning schemes, are some of the earliest existing in the region. The necropolis of Cerveteri (Banditaccia) developed from the 9th century BC. It expanded from the 7th century onwards, following a precise plan. The ancient history and development of the Tarquinia (Monterozzi) necropolis is similar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Etruscans lived in west-central Italy from the 9th century BC onwards. Their culture reached its height in the 6th century BC. There is no definite answer to the question of the origins of these people. It is certain that no community of the same ethnic and social characteristics occurred elsewhere in Europe or Asia. They spoke a non-Indo-European language of unknown origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Each of these cemeteries is different in the characteristics of the tombs and therefore covers together the Etruscan burial culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thousands of tombs exist in the vast cemetery of Cerveteri: they are organized in a city-like plan, with 'streets', small squares and 'neighbourhoods'. The tombs are of different types depending on period, family status and other criteria. The earliest known are series of rock-cut trenches holding pottery ossuaries containing the ashes of the deceased. Most famous are the tumuli - tombs often containing more than one tomb under an imposing mound. A famous example is known as the 'Hut Shaped Tomb', from the 4th century. It presents an excellent rock-cut hut with all structural and building elements, such as gabled roof, main crossbeam, wood and straw roofing materials as well as stone couches next to the walls. This tomb and others, imitating houses, are the best and only evidence of the residential architecture of the Etruscans. The 6th-century Tomb of the Greek Vases is accessible through a rock-cut &lt;em&gt;dromos&lt;/em&gt; (corridor) that imitates an Etruscan temple. The Tomb of the Moulding (cornice) has two thrones with footstools, cut in the rock, at the sides of its door. It also imitates a contemporary domestic interior. The Tomb of the Capitals has an imitation wooden floor on its ceiling. The most famous among the thousands of the Banditaccia tombs is the 'Tomb of Reliefs'. This 4th-century tomb is accessible via a long rock-cut stairway leading to a large hall with a ceiling supported by two columns with Aeolic capitals. It includes 13 double funerary niches and additional place for 34 bodies on a specially carved ledge. The 13 niches have double cushions with red painted stucco. Many objects are depicted on the stuccoed walls, including weapons and domestic and religious ones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The other cemetery, known as Monterozzi or the necropolis of Tarquinia, is famous for its painted tombs. The tombs are all cut in the rock and accessible via sloping or stepped corridors. Most of them were made for a single couple and constitute one burial chamber. The earliest painted tombs are from the 7th century but only in the 6th century were they fully developed and completely covered with painting. The 4th-century Tomb of the Lionesses consists of a small chamber with gabled roof. The painting depicts flying birds and dolphins and scenes from the life of the Etruscan aristocracy. The 6th-century Tomb of the Hunting Pavilion shows the view seen through the transparent fabric of the pavilion. The Hunting and Fishing Tomb is composed of two chambers. In the first, there is a depiction of Dionysian dancing in a sacred wood, and in the second, a hunting and fishing scene and portraits of the tomb owners. The painted tombs of the aristocracy, as well as more simple ones, are extraordinary evidence of what objects cannot show: daily life, ceremonies and mythology as well as artistic abilities.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These two large Etruscan cemeteries reflect different types of burial practices from the 9th to the 1st century BC, and bear witness to the achievements of Etruscan culture. Which over nine centuries developed the earliest urban civilization in the northern Mediterranean. Some of the tombs are monumental, cut in rock and topped by impressive tumuli (burial mounds). Many feature carvings on their walls, others have wall paintings of outstanding quality. The necropolis near Cerveteri, known as Banditaccia, contains thousands of tombs organized in a city-like plan, with streets, small squares and neighbourhoods. The site contains very different types of tombs: trenches cut in rock; tumuli; and some, also carved in rock, in the shape of huts or houses with a wealth of structural details. These provide the only surviving evidence of Etruscan residential architecture. The necropolis of Tarquinia, also known as Monterozzi, contains 6,000 graves cut in the rock. It is famous for its 200 painted tombs, the earliest of which date from the 7th century BC.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Etruscan Necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1338</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Syracuse, in addition to its own history - one of the most&amp;nbsp;ancient in the Western Mediterranean (excavations and&amp;nbsp;research have revealed a substantial human presence as&amp;nbsp;early as the Neolithic period, and particularly from the 13th&amp;nbsp;century B.C., and have confirmed the presence of the first&amp;nbsp;Greek colonists - Corinthians who arrived according to&amp;nbsp;literary tradition in 734 B.C.) - has experienced most of the&amp;nbsp;vicissitudes of the history of Sicily in general.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Historical summary:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 9th century B.C.:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Phoenicians colonise the island.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 8th century B.C.:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Greeks in turn set up settlement colonies on the&amp;nbsp;eastern coast of Sicily (particularly at Syracuse) and&amp;nbsp;establish trading posts rivalling those of the Phoenicians,&amp;nbsp;and then those of Carthage, the Phoenicians' western&amp;nbsp;metropolis.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 5th-4th centuries B.C.:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Syracuse, the island's main city, exercises hegemonic&amp;nbsp;control over the whole of Sicily (particularly under&amp;nbsp;Dionysius the Elder: 405-367 B.C.).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 212 B.C.:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Rome wins the 1st war against Carthage, conquers Sicily&amp;nbsp;and makes it into a province, which then becomes a&amp;nbsp;veritable granary. Syracuse is occupied after a very long&amp;nbsp;and bitter siege (213-212).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 5th-6th centuries A.D.:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Vandal domination is followed by the Byzantine conquest&amp;nbsp;(which lasted until the 9th century).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 9th-10th centuries:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Arabo-Muslims, after conquering Sicily by defeating&amp;nbsp;the Byzantines, turn it into an emirate. It prospers and&amp;nbsp;Palermo, its capital, becomes a remarkably brilliant&amp;nbsp;cultural and artistic centre.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 1061-1091:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Norman domination of the whole island.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 12th century:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Sicily becomes the centre of a rich and powerful&amp;nbsp;monarchy, with the flowering of a brilliant and composite&amp;nbsp;civilisation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 1197-1250:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The resplendent period of Frederick II Hohenstaufen.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 1266:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Duke of Anjou, Charles I, brother of St Louis, is&amp;nbsp;crowned King of Sicily by the Pope.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 1282-1442:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Sicily is in the control of Aragon.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;- 1442-1458:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The kingdoms of Naples and Sicily are united, forming the&amp;nbsp;Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1200</http_url><id_number>1200</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1200.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The sites and monuments which form the Syracuse/Pantalica ensemble constitute a unique accumulation, through the ages and in the same space, of remarkable testimonies to Mediterranean cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt;The Syracuse/Pantalica ensemble offers, through its remarkable cultural diversity, an exceptional testimony to the development of civilisation over some three millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The group of monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse (between the nucleus of Ortygia and the vestiges located throughout the urban area) is the finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects (Greek, Roman and Baroque).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt;Ancient Syracuse was directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.0594400000</latitude><location>City and Province of Syracuse, Sicily</location><longitude>15.2930600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Syracuse/Pantalica ensemble, through its remarkable cultural diversity, offers exceptional testimony to the development of civilization over some three millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated on the Mediterranean coast in south-eastern Sicily, and having always enjoyed a favourable climate while being relatively free of marked relief, the zone of monuments and archeological sites proposed for inscription on the World Heritage list has been inhabited since protohistoric times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Necropolis of Pantalica extends over some 1,200&amp;nbsp;m from north to south and 500&amp;nbsp;m from east to west in the region of Sortino. In the hilly terrain (caverns and precipices) and a natural environment of great beauty, about 5,000 tombs are visible, most of which have been hewn out of the rock face. Archaeological research has brought to light, in this zone, vestigial remains of dwellings from the period of Greek colonization. Materials of Mycenean origin and monumental structures were recognised, enabling the identification of the Anaktoron (Prince's Palace). Similarly, it has been possible to identify a period of reoccupation of the site in the 9th-10th centuries: the zone was in fact used for the defence against invasions of Sicily by the Arab armies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the side which has been inhabited from around the Neolithic period, and certainly from the start of the 13th century, Syracuse symbolizes by its foundation the development of the Greek presence in the Western Mediterranean. This city, founded in the 8th century was, according to the Ancients, very large and extremely beautiful. Its central nucleus, today the island of Ortygia, controlled two natural ports which had already become famous in ancient times. Ortygia consisted of five parts, giving rise to its alternative name of Pentapolis. The two ports are still identifiable today: Porto Piccolo to the east and Porto Grande to the west. Ortygia has a central main street and a network of other streets reminiscent of the orthogonal plan of the ancient Greek city, constructed in the 7th century BC. The following Greek remains are visible (from north to south):&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Temple of Apollo (Apollonion);&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ionic Temple;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Temple of Athena (Athenaeion);&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Catacombs, the largest except for those in Rome, date from the palaeo-Christian period. Subsequently, many items bearing witness to the troubled history of Sicily remain, from the Byzantines to the Bourbons, with in between the Arabo-Muslims, the Normans, the government of Frederick II (1197-1250), the domination of the Aragons and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies: Church of St John the Baptist (4th-16th centuries), Church of St Martin (6th-14th centuries), Bellomo Palace (13th-18th centuries), Migliaccio Palace, Abeba Dunieli Palace and Francica-Nova Palace (15th century), Church of San Francesco all'Immacolata (13th-18th centuries), Church of the Collegio (built by Jesuits in the 17th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most celebrated monument, with its great square, is the cathedral, which incorporates the remains of a Greek temple dating back to the 6th century BC. The excavations carried out in 1996-98 under the square have advanced knowledge of the history of Syracuse and its ancient monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Constituted in 1952-55, the Archaeological Park of Neapolis includes the most spectacular Greek and Roman monuments bearing testimony to the past of Sicily: the magnificent Greek theatre; the Nymphaeum zone (with the cave); the sanctuary to Apollo; the imposing altar of Hieron II (king of Syracuse in 265-215 BC); the Roman amphitheatre; the great stone quarries, also known as the lautumiae; the Grotticelle necropolis, which contains the so-called tomb of Archimedes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site consists of two separate elements, containing outstanding vestiges dating back to Greek and Roman times: The Necropolis of Pantalica contains over 5,000 tombs cut into the rock near open stone quarries, most of them dating from the 13th to 7th centuries BC. Vestiges of the Byzantine era also remain in the area, notably the foundations of the Anaktoron (Prince’s Palace). The other part of the property, Ancient Syracuse, includes the nucleus of the city’s foundation as Ortygia by Greeks from Corinth in the 8th century BC. The site of the city, which Cicero described as ‘the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of all’, retains vestiges such as the Temple of Athena (5th century BC, later transformed to serve as a cathedral), a Greek theatre, a Roman amphitheatre, a fort and more. Many remains bear witness to the troubled history of Sicily, from the Byzantines to the Bourbons, interspersed with the Arabo-Muslims, the Normans, Frederick II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty (1197–1250), the Aragons and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Historic Syracuse offers a unique testimony to the development of Mediterranean civilization over three millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1377</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>0</danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1211</http_url><id_number>1211</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1211.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.4122222222</latitude><location> Liguria Region, Genoa Province</location><longitude>8.9311111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Strade Nuove and the system of the Palazzi dei Rolli in Genoa&amp;rsquo;s historic centre date from the late 16th and early 17th centuries when the Republic of Genoa was at the height of its financial and seafaring power. The site represents the first example in Europe of an urban development project parcelled out by a public authority within a unitary framework and associated to a particular system of &amp;lsquo;public lodging&amp;rsquo; in private residences, as decreed by the Senate in 1576. The site includes an ensemble of Renaissance and Baroque palaces along the so-called &amp;lsquo;new streets&amp;rsquo; (Strade Nuove). The Palazzi dei Rolli offer an extraordinary variety of different solutions, achieving universal value in adapting to the particular characteristics of the site and to the requirements of a specific social and economic organization. They also offer an original example of a public network of private residences designated to host state visits.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Genoa: &lt;i&gt;Le Strade Nuove&lt;/i&gt; and the system of the&lt;i&gt; Palazzi dei Rolli&lt;/i&gt;</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1388</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Mantua originated as an Etruscan settlement and developed in Roman times to a small fortified town. It was situated on the highest point of what was then an island in a marshy area along the river Mincio. Some traces of the walls and main streets can still be found in today's urban fabric. In 804 AD Mantua was made a bishopric. Thanks to a relic of Christ's blood the city had become an important religious centre. In the 10th century, new walls and a moat were built and, in 1115, Mantua became a free commune.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Through history water regulations have been very important to Mantua and distinguished hydraulic engineering was carried out on many occasions. In 1190, the system of lakes around the city was created with a dam and a bridge across the river, which raised the water level of the upper lake more than four meters. On the dam, twelve water-mills helped to regulate the water. To the south of the city, a canal (the Rio) was dug in the 13th century. It soon became the limit of the extended city - the second ring of growth. At the eastern end of the canal a protected harbour, Porto Catena, was constructed. In the 13th century several towers and palaces were built in the city and two squares, today's Broletto and Piazza delle Erbe. In 1272, the Bonacolsi family seized power and carried on the building activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1328, Luigi Gonzaga staged a coup and his family then stayed in power up to 1707. In 1433, they obtained the title of marquis and, in 1530, duke. The territory was expanded, the navigability of the waterways improved and fortifications built. At the same time, agricultural productivity and trade rose. By the middle of the 14th century, the Gonzagas had acquired sufficient properties for the gradual transformation of the present-day complex of the Ducal Palace. The end of the century saw the beginning of a third ring of growth to the south, with a wide moat, the Fossa Magistrale, marking the outer limit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rule of Gianfrancesco Gonzaga (1407-1444) prepared the way for the Renaissance and brought in new ideas through humanist studies, with Filippo Brunelleschi invited from Florence, contacts with Leon Battista Alberti and the works of Pisanello. This was also a period of urban renewal with the planning of urban spaces as a way of organizing the city and the building of palaces in the new area to the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second part of the 15th century, the period of Ludovico II (1444-1478), gave Mantua a premier role in the development of the Renaissance. A series of architects, artists and artisans arrived in the city and a new artistic language was established. In 1459, Pope Pius II held a diet on the threat from the Turks, which brought many international delegates. In architecture, Leon Battista Alberti and Luca Fancelli were particularly important and, in painting, Andrea Mantegna played the main role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1460s and 70s a marked change took place. Many new palaces and other building were erected and alterations made to old ones. Streets and open spaces were paved. The two Alberti churches, San Sebastiano (1460) and Sant'Andrea (1472) were particularly significant architecturally and a central axis was created through the city. After the death of Ludovico II in 1478, the territory was divided into several small independent states, ruled by different branches of the Gonzaga family. In one of these Sabbioneta was built in the second part of the 16th century. The Mantua court remained as one of the foremost cultural centres of the Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The development continued and consolidated the city, as in the previous century. In 1524, the architect and painter Giulio Romano came to Mantua from Rome and dominated the arts for the coming two decades. In 1525, work started on the suburban villa Palazzo Te outside the moat, marking the southern end of the central axis through the city. In both architecture and painting, this became one of the most influential Mannerist works. Romano was court artist as well as superintendent of works for the city and was responsible for many renewal schemes. City and cultural life flourished and, towards the end of the 16th century, the number of inhabitants exceeded 40.000, almost the same number as today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 17th century the city declined. The direct line of the Gonzaga family came to an end and a war of succession broke out. In 1630, Mantua was besieged and affected by a plague. After a war, Mantua came under Austrian rule in 1707 and entered a relatively calm period as a fortress city. Some new public buildings were erected, among those the Palace of the Academy. The dome was added to the church of Sant'Andrea, the monumental park of the Piazza Virgilana was begun in 1797 and facades throughout the city were painted monochrome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1866, Mantua was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy and gradually the economy began to develop again. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the fortifications were demolished and the moat was covered. There are now wide streets along the southern limits of the historic centre and the railway has been built along the west and south. Open spaces in the heart of the city have been restored and given back their historic character. In 1942 and 1950, plans for the historic centre were produced. In some places new buildings replaced old ones and the Rio has been partially covered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sabbioneta was the capital of one of the smallest states in Italy, created when Mantua was divided into several parts in 1478. These parts were still ruled by different branches of the Gonzaga family. It has been known since Roman times as a locality along the Vitelliana road but, even though it has a long history, it can be considered a new foundation. Sabbioneta is the creation of one man, the ruler of the little state Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna (1531-1591). He had studied the writings and theories of ideal city planning but his aim was to build an impregnable fortress and functioning capital of the state. It is believed that he himself designed the plan and the fortifications with the help of military expertise. The work began sometime between 1554 and 1556.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1588 and 1590, Vincenzo Scamozzi was employed to construct the Teatro all'antica. This is the first properly functioning modern indoor theatre, with specific spaces designed to fulfil the requirements of the theatre. After the death of Vespasiano, Sabbioneta declined. In the 17th century it came under Spanish administration but returned to the Gonzagas of Mantua in 1703. Five years later, however, it was annexed to Guastella and, in 1743, taken over by the Habsburgs.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1287</http_url><id_number>1287</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1287.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.1594444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>10.7944444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mantua and Sabbioneta, in the Po valley, in the north of Italy, represent two aspects of Renaissance town planning: Mantua shows the renewal and extension of an existing city, while 30 km away, Sabbioneta represents the implementation of the period&amp;rsquo;s theories about planning the ideal city. Typically, Mantua&amp;rsquo;s layout is irregular with regular parts showing different stages of its growth since the Roman period and includes many medieval edifices among them an 11th century rotunda and a Baroque theatre. Sabbioneta, created in the second half of the 16th century under the rule of one person, Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna, can be described as a single-period city and has a right angle grid layout. Both cities offer exceptional testimonies to the urban, architectural and artistic realizations of the Renaissance, linked through the visions and actions of the ruling Gonzaga family. The two towns are important for the value of their architecture and for their prominent role in the dissemination of Renaissance culture. The ideals of the Renaissance, fostered by the Gonzaga family, are present in the towns&amp;rsquo; morphology and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mantua and Sabbioneta</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1518</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/395</http_url><id_number>395</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_395.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.7230555600</latitude><location>City and Province of Pisa, Tuscany</location><longitude>10.3963888900</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>Standing in a large green expanse, Piazza del Duomo houses a group of monuments known the world over. These four masterpieces of medieval architecture – the cathedral, the baptistry, the campanile (the 'Leaning Tower') and the cemetery – had a great influence on monumental art in Italy from the 11th to the 14th century.</short_description><site>Piazza del Duomo, Pisa</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1558</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1237</http_url><id_number>1237</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1237.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.6130555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>12.1630555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of the Dolomites comprises a mountain range in the northern Italian Alps, numbering 18 peaks which rise to above 3,000 metres and cover 141,903 ha. It features some of the most beautiful mountain landscapes anywhere, with vertical walls, sheer cliffs and a high density of narrow, deep and long valleys. A serial property of nine areas that present a diversity of spectacular landscapes of international significance for geomorphology marked by steeples, pinnacles and rock walls, the site also contains glacial landforms and karst systems. It is characterized by dynamic processes with frequent landslides, floods and avalanches. The property also features one of the best examples of the preservation of Mesozoic carbonate platform systems, with fossil records.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Dolomites</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1609</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;When the Duke of Savoy, Emmanuel-Philibert (1553-6O), decided to move the seat of his court from Chamb&amp;eacute;ry to Turin in 1562, he assigned an unexpected and decisive role to the latter. The new capital of the Duchy was still a small, fortified medieval town that had remained on the fringes of the main cultural developments of the Renaissance. As a result of the impetus of Emmanuel-Philibert, his successors developed a vast building programme throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, giving the town and its region a Baroque style, the pivot of which is the residences. These pleasure and hunting residences, built in the countryside along the PO, on the hills, and further away in vast wooded areas, also serve as reference points in a system of large estates important in both economic and strategic terms. This programme was the symbol of the absolute power of the Savoy rulers, who built a state and a European capital. They acquired the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily with Victor-Amadeus Il(l713) and that of the Kingdom of Italy with Victor- Emmanuel II (1861), which they kept until the foundation of the Republic in 1946.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of these buildings involves a town planning system that provides links between one palace and another and between the palaces and the villas, at the same time giving an architectural unity and solemnity to the areas that house the seats of power. Thus the group of buildings in the &amp;quot;Command Area,&amp;quot; which are connected with each other starting from the ducal residence and where central power was exercised in its different political, administrative, and cultural forms, together with the palaces of the House of Savoy (Palazzo Madama, Palazzo di Carignano), form the central node, which has a direct relationship with the outlying residences by means of a radial plan, the form of which can be traced from its centre, Turin. They are rapidly accessible from the capital through a network of straight tree-lined roads, which ensure the cohesive and the functional aspects of the ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This system is underpinned by large-scale planning projects. Although the organization of the defences of Turin was Emmanuel-Philibert's major preoccupation, he succeeded in establishing his residence in the former bishop's palace. Between the end of the 16th century and the 18th century, his successors carried out three large expansion projects centred on the Piazza Castello. The first urban and architectural renovation schemes, launched by Charles-Emmanuel I to the plans of the architect Ascanio Vitozzi (late 16th/early 17th century), were designed to create a &amp;quot;Command Area&amp;quot; to the north-east of the city that would be more in keeping with princely rank and be more practical in defensive terms. The former ducal palace, which was slightly away from the centre, was rebuilt on a new orientation so as to be in direct contact with the Piazza Castello. It was also linked with the southern part of the city by opening a new road (1612-15, the present Via Roma) in the direction of the Mirafiori ducal residence in the country (now demolished). This project was a major innovation, since it established bipolarity in urban and territorial terms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1673, Charles-Emmanuel II (1638-75) commissioned Amedeo di CastelIamonte to extend the town eastwards in the direction of the PO. The new main axis, the Via PO, linked the Piazza Castello with the bridge crossing the river in the direction of the hills where the Villa della Regina was built. The opportunity was also taken to extend the Piazza Castello eastwards, and the State Secretariats and the Royal Theatre were later built along its sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Victor-Amadeus II (1675-1730) commissioned Michelangelo Garove, Antonio Bertola, and (from 1716) Filippo Juvarra to carry out the third extension. This was in the direction of the western access to the city, running from the Porta Susina to the Castello di Rivoli and the Palazzina di Stupinigi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Charles-Emmanuel III (1730-73) inherited several projects from his father. He planned the Palazzo Reale, the State Secretariats, and the theatre on the Piazza Castello, and organized a vast rebuilding and extension programme for the residences, involving Filippo Juvarra, followed by Benedetto Alfieri when Juvarra left Turin in 1735.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The relationships and dynastic links that the House of Savoy established with the royal courts in Paris, Lisbon, Madrid, Munich, and Vienna as well as the towns of Italy created a cosmopolitan artistic and cultural milieu at the court of Turin. Emmanuel-Philibert laid the foundations of a court tradition that had not previously existed in Turin. As the two superb volumes of the Theatrum Sabaudiae, published in 1682, demonstrate, the Dukes of Savoy were tireless builders. With ceaseless perseverance, they enriched their family heritage and commissioned internationally famous architects, artists, and gardeners such Ascanio Vitoti, Carlo and Amedeo di Castellamonte, Guarino Guarini, Filippo Juvarra, Michelangelo Garove, Benedetto Altieri, Daniel Seiter, Francesco Solimena, Sebastiano Ricci, Charles Andre Vanloo, Claudio Francesco Beaumont, Francesco Ladatte, Michel Benard, and many others.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/823</http_url><id_number>823</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_823.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iv) and (v), considering that the Residences of the Royal House of Savoy in and around Turin represent a comprehensive overview of European monumental architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, using style, dimensions, and space to illustrate in an exceptional way the prevailing doctrine of absolute monarchy in material terms.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.0725300000</latitude><location>Province of Torino, Piedmont Region</location><longitude>7.6857200000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;When Emmanuel-Philibert, Duke of Savoy, moved his capital to Turin in 1562, he began a vast series of building projects (continued by his successors) to demonstrate the power of the ruling house. This outstanding complex of buildings, designed and embellished by the leading architects and artists of the time, radiates out into the surrounding countryside from the Royal Palace in the 'Command Area' of Turin to include many country residences and hunting lodges.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Residences of the Royal House of Savoy</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1736</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1318</http_url><id_number>1318</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1318.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.0941666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>13.4330555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Longobards in Italy, Places of Power, 568 - 774 A.D.&amp;nbsp;comprises seven groups of important buildings (including fortresses, churches, and monasteries) throughout the Italian Peninsula. They testify to the high achievement of the Lombards, who migrated from northern Europe and developed their own specific culture in Italy where they ruled over vast territories in the 6th to 8th centuries. The Lombards synthesis of architectural styles marked the transition from Antiquity to the European Middle Ages, drawing on the heritage of Ancient Rome, Christian spirituality, Byzantine influence and Germanic northern Europe. The serial property testifies to the Lombards' major role in the spiritual and cultural development of Medieval European Christianity, notably by bolstering the monastic movement.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Longobards in Italy. Places of the Power (568-774 A.D.)</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1780</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Naples (Neapolis = New City) was founded in 470 BC, close to a Cumaean trading port of the 7th century BC, Partenope (later to become Palepolis or Old City when it merged with Naples), after the battle in which the combined forces of Cumae and Syracuse defeated the Etruscan fleet and ended its ambitions to dominate the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was enclosed by walls and laid out on a regular grid, with fine public buildings. The city maintained good relations with Athens, which it supplied with grain from its fertile hinterland. It entered the Roman orbit in the late 4th century BC as a loyal ally during the Samnite wars, but retained its close cultural and linguistic links with Greece. Excavations in recent years have revealed a great deal about the history Of the town. In the Imperial period it expanded to the south and the east. The earthquakes of AD 62 and 79 caused considerable damage, but the town was quickly rebuilt and recovered its importance. However, the later 3rd century saw a decline, illustrated by the abandonment of certain areas, followed by repairs to the defences in the 4th and 5th centuries. In the first half of the 6th century Justinian's general, Belisarius, brought Naples back into the Byzantine orbit, where it remained until it came under Norman domination in 1139/40; at first a dependency of Ravenna, the city became autonomous from 763 onwards, when Stephen became Duke. The cultural connections between Naples and Ravenna are manifested by the architecture and decoration of the many churches and monasteries dating from this period. The town itself stayed roughly the same size, but there was considerable rebuilding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The surrender of the keys of the city to the Norman King Roger II of Sicily saw the initiation of the south Italian kingdom that was to endure, under different names and royal houses, until 1860. A dynastic marriage saw Naples pass to the Swabian Hohenstaufen family in 1189, whose most famous member, Frederick II, founded a university at Naples in 1224 which boasted among its students St Thomas Aquinas. Hohenstaufen threats to the papacy saw Charles of Anjou, brother of St Louis, crowned as King of Sicily in 1265. He moved the capital of his kingdom to Palermo, but Naples prospered and expanded during the two centuries of Angevin rule, as both administrative centre and port, and it was embellished with many artistic and architectural treasures, such as the convents of Santa Chiara and San Lorenzo Maggiore and the churches of Donnaregina and l'lncoronata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1442 the Angevin dynastic crisis led to the accession of the first Aragonese king, Alfonso I, who was responsible for much building in Naples, including the Castelnuovo, largely in the Tuscan style, and considerable remodeling of its street pattern and defences. Following a Short period of French rule (1495-1503), Naples came under the rule of a viceroy as a province of the Spanish empire. This was a period of great misery for most of the south of Italy, including Naples, even though some improvements were carried out in the city, notably by the viceroy Pedro Alvarez de Toledo (1532-33).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Treaty of Vienna in 1738 recognized Charles II, son of Philip V of Spain, as King of Naples and Sicily, and Naples became once again the capital of an autonomous kingdom. Like the rest of Italy, Naples came under French rule in the Napoleonic period, and benefited from some ambitious urban projects. With the return of the Bourbons in 1815, Ferdinand IV took the name and title Of Ferdinand I, King of the Two Sicilies. The Bourbon dynasty was brought to an end with the entry of Garibaldi's army in 1860.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/726</http_url><id_number>726</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_726.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.8513888900</latitude><location>City and Province of Naples, Campania</location><longitude>14.2627777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Naples is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, whose contemporary urban fabric preserves the elements of its long and eventful history. Its street pattern, its wealth of historic buildings from many periods, and its setting on the Bay of Naples give it an outstanding universal value without parallel, and one that has had a profound influence in many parts of Europe and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much of the significance of Naples is due to its urban fabric, which represents twenty-five centuries of growth. Little survives above ground of the Greek town, but important archaeological discoveries have been made in excavations since the end of the Second World War. Three sections of the original town walls of this period are visible in the north-west. The surviving Roman remains are more substantial, notably the large theatre, cemeteries and catacombs. The street layout in the earliest parts of the city owes much to its classical origins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period that followed the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West saw the beginning of church-building on a substantial scale, and churches such as those of San Gennaro extra moenia, San Giorgio Maggiore, and San Giovanni Maggiore have surviving elements of 4th- and 5th-century architecture. The chapel of Santa Restituta in the 14th-century cathedral is reputed to be the first Christian basilica in Naples. The Castel dell'Ovo is one of the most substantial survivals from the Norman period. Built as a fortress-monastery on the site of the villa of Lucullus, it was subsequently remodelled on several occasions, and given its present form at the end of the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Norman-Swabian period the city remained largely within its classical walls, but the arrival of the Angevin kings saw it begin to expand and to absorb the suburbs and neighbouring villages. The influence of western art and architecture began to assert itself at this time. French Gothic pervaded both religious and domestic architecture. From the Angevin period date religious structures - the new cathedral, the churches of San Lorenzo Maggiore, San Domenico Maggiore, Santa Chiara and others, and the secular buildings Castel Nuovo, Castel Capuano and Palace of the Prince of Taranto. The strongest influence came from southern France, and there is much fine Proven&amp;ccedil;al Gothic architecture in Naples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The accession of the Aragonese dynasty saw much building and rebuilding. The town walls were refurbished and rationalized. The Renaissance heritage of Naples is mainly the work of Italian architects, with some from Catalonia. The San Severino Palace, now demolished, was one of the most lavish buildings of its period. A number of major churches date from this period (Santa Caterina a Formiello and the Monteoliveto complex). The early 16th century saw the beginning of two centuries of Spanish rule, and the strengthening once again of the defences, particularly during the twenty years of the viceroyalty of Pedro de Toledo, who initiated a planning policy for the city as part of his efforts to carry out a social reorganization. The Royal Palace was built in 1600 and fills one side of the imposing Piazza del Plebiscito. Church building included such foundations as the Monte dei Poveri Vergognosi charitable institution, the convent of Sant'Agostino degli Scalzi, and the Jesuit College on Capodimonte.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Suburbs continued to grow outside the and these, too, saw the erection of large religious and secular structures. Quarters both inside and outside the walls became specialized according to nationality, social grade, and trade. The port also grew to meet the City's increasing requirements in the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century saw more radical changes in the street plan, notably the creation of the Piazza Mercato during the reign of Ferdinand IV after an area of wooden barrack buildings was destroyed by fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following unification in 1860, a great deal of planning and rehabilitation took place. What had become slum quarters were cleared, as a result of which many earlier buildings were swept away and new roads were built, cutting through earlier street patterns.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From the Neapolis founded by Greek settlers in 470 B.C. to the city of today, Naples has retained the imprint of the successive cultures that emerged in Europe and the Mediterranean basin. This makes it a unique site, with a wealth of outstanding monuments such as the Church of Santa Chiara and the Castel Nuovo.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Naples</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1867</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/175</http_url><id_number>175</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_175.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.8577777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>11.3041666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Twelve villas and two gardens spread across the Tuscan landscape make up this site which bears testimony to the influence the Medici family exerted over modern European culture through its patronage of the arts. Built between the 15th&amp;nbsp;and 17th&amp;nbsp;centuries, they represent an innovative system of construction in harmony with nature and dedicated to leisure, the arts and knowledge. The villas embody an innovative form and function, a new type of princely residence that differed from both the farms owned by rich Florentines of the period and from the military might of baronial castles. The Medici villas form the first example of the connection between architecture, gardens, and the environment and became an enduring reference for princely residences throughout Italy and Europe. Their gardens and integration into the natural environment helped develop the appreciation of landscape characteristic Humanism and the Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medici Villas and Gardens in Tuscany</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1891</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1427</http_url><id_number>1427</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1427.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.7561111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>14.9966666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mount Etna&amp;nbsp;is an iconic site encompassing 19,237 uninhabited hectares on the highest part of Mount Etna, on the eastern coast of Sicily. Mount Etna is the highest Mediterranean island mountain and the most active stratovolcano in the world. The eruptive history of the volcano can be traced back 500,000 years and at least 2,700 years of this activity has been documented. The almost continuous eruptive activity of Mount Etna continues to influence volcanology, geophysics and other Earth science disciplines. The volcano also supports important terrestrial ecosystems including endemic flora and fauna and its activity makes it a natural laboratory for the study of ecological and biological processes. The diverse and accessible range of volcanic features such as summit craters, cinder cones, lava flows and the Valle de Bove depression have made the site a prime destination for research and education.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Etna</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1910</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1390</http_url><id_number>1390</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1390.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.6086111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>7.9636111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This landscape covers five distinct wine-growing areas with outstanding landscapes and the Castle of Cavour, an emblematic name both in the development of vineyards and in Italian history. It is located in the southern part of Piedmont, between the Po River and the Ligurian Apennines, and encompasses the whole range of technical and economic processes relating to the winegrowing and winemaking that has characterized the region for centuries. Vine pollen has been found in the area dating from the 5th century BC, when Piedmont was a place of contact and trade between the Etruscans and the Celts; Etruscan and Celtic words, particularly wine-related ones, are still found in the local dialect. During the Roman Empire, Pliny the Elder mentions the Piedmont region as being one of the most favourable for growing vines in ancient Italy; Strabo mentions its barrels.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vineyard Landscape of Piedmont: Langhe-Roero and Monferrato</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1971</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1487</http_url><id_number>1487</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1487.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.1108333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>13.3530555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the northern coast of Sicily, Arab-Norman Palermo includes a series of nine civil and religious structures dating from the era of the Norman kingdom of Sicily (1130-1194): two palaces, three churches, a cathedral, a bridge, as well as the cathedrals of Cefalú and Monreale. Collectively, they are an example of a social-cultural syncretism between Western, Islamic and Byzantine cultures on the island which gave rise to new concepts of space, structure and decoration. They also bear testimony to the fruitful coexistence of people of different origins and religions (Muslim, Byzantine, Latin, Jewish, Lombard and French).&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2048</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/174</http_url><id_number>174</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_174.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.7730600000</latitude><location>City and Province of Florence, Tuscany</location><longitude>11.2561100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Starting in the 15th century, Florence exerted a powerful influence on the development of architecture and the monumental arts, first in Italy, and then throughout Europe. The historic centre attests in an exceptional manner, and by its unique coherence, to its power as a merchant-city of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Between the 14th and 17th centuries it was covered with prestigious buildings which illustrated the munificence of the bankers and princes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded in 59 BC as a Roman colony known as Florentia, only in the 11th century did the free commune of Florence begin to succeed - both politically and economically - where other cities of Tuscany had failed, with the slow but unrestrainable process culminating in the annexation of Siena in 1557. In the 15th century, the city reached the apex of its splendour, thanks partly to the presence in Florence of such geniuses as the architects Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti, the painters Masaccio, Paolo Uccello and Sandro Botticelli, and the sculptors Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Luca della Robbia, as well as the unforgettable Michelangelo Buonarotti and Leonardo da Vinci.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As early as the 15th century, the republican government was abolished and the Medici dynasty took over. Despite repeated attempts (all unsuccessful) to restore the republic, the Medicis ruled the Grand Duchy of Tuscany until it died out in 1737. Rule then passed to the Lorraine family, which remained in power until 1859 when Florence was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy. It was the political capital of Italy between 1865 and 1870, in addition to being the cultural capital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built over the Roman city, the historic centre of Florence may best be described as a treasure chest of works of art and architecture. Defined by the 14th-century walls, and built up thanks to the enormous business and economic power which Florence achieved, the two succeeding centuries were Florence's golden age. The spiritual focus of the city is the Cathedral Piazza of Santa Maria del Fiore, with Giotto's campanile on one side and the Baptistry of St John in front, with the Gates of Paradise by Lorenzo Ghiberti. Going north from here, one comes across the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi by Michelozzo and St Lawrence's Basilica by Brunelleschi with the sacristies inside designed by Donatello and Michelangelo. Further on are the Museum of St Mark's, with Fra Angelico's masterpieces, the Galleria dell'Accademia with Michelangelo's &lt;em&gt;David&lt;/em&gt; (1501-4) and the Santissima Annunziata Piazza with the Lodge of the Holy Innocents by Brunelleschi. On the south side of the cathedral is the political/cultural centre of Florence, with the Palazzo Vecchio and the Galleria degli Uffizi nearby. Close to these are the Museo del Bargello and the Basilica of the Holy Cross. Across the Ponte Vecchio is the Oltrarno quarter, with the Pitti Palace and Boboli Gardens. Still in the Oltrarno, mention must be made of the Holy Ghost Basilica by Filippo Brunelleschi and the Carmelite Church, with its frescoes by Masolino, Masaccio and Filippino Lippi. To the west of the cathedral are the imposing Strozzi Palace and the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, its facade designed by Leon Battista Alberti.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre may be admirably viewed in its entirety from the surrounding hills, especially Piazzale Michelangelo (just under the Romanesque Basilica of San Miniato), or Fiesole, both of which offer some of the most spectacular views in the Arno valley.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built on the site of an Etruscan settlement, Florence, the symbol of the Renaissance, rose to economic and cultural pre-eminence under the Medici in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its 600 years of extraordinary artistic activity can be seen above all in the 13th-century cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore), the Church of Santa Croce, the Uffizi and the Pitti Palace, the work of great masters such as Giotto, Brunelleschi, Botticelli and Michelangelo.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Florence</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2127</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1538</http_url><id_number>1538</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1538.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.4575000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>7.8691666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The industrial city of Ivrea is located in the Piedmont region and developed as the testing ground for Olivetti, manufacturer of typewriters, mechanical calculators and office computers. It comprises a large factory and buildings designed to serve the administration and social services, as well as residential units. Designed by leading Italian urban planners and architects, mostly between the 1930s and the 1960s, this architectural ensemble reflects the ideas of the Community Movement (Movimento Comunità). A model social project, Ivrea expresses a modern vision of the relationship between industrial production and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ivrea, industrial city of the 20th century</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2163</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Aquileia was founded by the Romans as a Latin colony in 181 BC in the north-eastern corner of the plain of the Po at the northern end of the Adriatic. It communicated with the sea by means of the Natissa (Natiso) river. Originally conceived as an outpost against Gallic and Istrian barbarians, it quickly became a major trading centre, linking central Europe with the Mediterranean. Among the goods that it traded through its great river port were wine, oil, furs, iron, and slaves. It was also the southern terminus of the amber route, dating from prehistory, and this prized product from the Baltic was worked by Aquileian craftsmen for sale throughout the Empire. High-quality glassware became an important manufacture following the establishment of a workshop there in the 1st century AD by the celebrated Phoenician craftsman Ennion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 90 BC it had been elevated to the status of municipium and its citizens were accorded full rights of Roman citizenship. Its wealth resulted in the town being endowed with many magnificent public buildings, and the private residences of its rich merchants were opulently decorated. It is estimated that its population had reached over 200,000 by the end of the 1st century BC. During the 4th century Imperial residences were built in Aquileia, and it was the seat of an Imperial mint between 284 and 425 AD. Of especial importance was the construction in the second decade of the 4th century of a basilica by Bishop Theodorus, following the sanctioning of public worship by the Edict of Milan in 313.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All this was to come to a violent end in 452, when Aquileia was sacked by the Huns led by Attila. The survivors clustered in a drastically reduced settlement around the Basilica, in the area of the small present-day town, which occupies only a fraction of the Roman city. Its mercantile role was assumed later by Venice, which provided a similar trading link between central Europe and the Mediterranean. However, Aquileia retained its spiritual significance, becoming the seat of a patriarchate whose territory extended westwards as far as Como and embraced a large area of modern Austria, Slovenia, and Croatia. The Patriarchate of Aquileia, which survived until 1751, played a key role in the evangelization of this region and the great Basilican Complex still serves as its spiritual centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/825</http_url><id_number>825</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_825.jpg</image_url><iso_code>it</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: Aquileia was one of the largest and most wealthy cities of the Early Roman Empire. Criterion iv: By virtue of the fact that most of ancient Aquileia survives intact and unexcavated, it is the most complete example of an Early Roman city in the Mediterranean world. Criterion vi: The Patriarchal Basilican Complex in Aquileia played a decisive role in the spread of Christianity into central Europe in the early Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.7683333300</latitude><location>Province of Udine, Friuli-Venezia Giulia Region</location><longitude>13.3675000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;By virtue of the fact that most of ancient Aquileia, one of the largest and most wealthy cities of the early Roman Empire, survives intact and unexcavated, it is the most complete example of an early Roman city in the Mediterranean world. The Patriarchal Basilican Complex in Aquileia played a decisive role in the spread of Christianity into central Europe in the early Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aquileia was founded by the Romans as a Latin colony in 181 BC in the north-eastern corner of the plain of the Po as an outpost against Gallic and Istrian barbarians. It quickly became a major trading centre, linking central Europe with the Mediterranean. By 90 BC it had been elevated to the status of &lt;em&gt;municipium&lt;/em&gt; and its citizens were accorded full rights of Roman citizenship. Its wealth resulted in the town being endowed with many magnificent public buildings, and the private residences of its rich merchants were opulently decorated. During the 4th century imperial residences were built in Aquileia, and it was the seat of the Imperial Mint between AD 284 and AD 425. Of particular importance was the construction in the second decade of the 4th century of a basilica, following the sanctioning of public worship by the Edict of Milan in 313. All this was to come to a violent end in 452, when Aquileia was sacked by the Huns led by Attila. Its mercantile role was assumed later by Venice. However, Aquileia retained its spiritual significance, becoming the seat of a patriarchate which survived until 1751, and played a key role in the evangelization of this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have revealed part of the forum and its Roman basilica, the Republican &lt;em&gt;macellum&lt;/em&gt; , one of the sets of baths, and two luxurious residential complexes. Outside the late city walls, a cemetery with some impressive funerary monuments, the amphitheatre and the circus have been revealed. The most striking remains of the Roman city are those of the port installations, a row of warehouses and quays that stretch a long distance along the bank of the river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dominant feature of Aquileia is the basilica. Bishop Theodorus constructed a horseshoe-shaped complex of three main halls, but this proved inadequate to house the worshippers and pilgrims and so in 345 a vast structure replaced the northern arm. This was destroyed by the Huns, along with the entire complex, and never rebuilt. When the survivors returned they concentrated on the ruins of the southern hall, which was restored. After a period of neglect, work was begun in the 9th century by Bishop Maxentius, with financial support from Charlemagne. Despite severe damage during the 10th-century Magyar invasions and an earthquake in 988, the work was completed in 1031. The basilica is essentially Romanesque, although there are some Gothic features resulting from reconstruction after an earthquake in 1348. The most striking feature of the interior is the huge mosaic in the southern hall of the 4th-century structure, not revealed until the 11th-century clay floor was removed in 1909. The subjects depicted include symbolic subjects, portraits of donors, scenes from the Gospels and dedicatory inscriptions. At the eastern end is a sea scene with twelve fishermen, representing the Apostles, along with the story of the prophet Jonah. At the east end the crypt of the frescoes, dating from the 6th or 7th centuries, was constructed to house relics of martyrs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A door at the east end of the basilica gives access to the Crypt of the Excavations, revealed during the early decades of the 20th century. Here are preserved mosaics from the 1st-century suburban villa selected as the site of the basilica in the 4th century, and the foundations of the transverse and north halls of the complex not rebuilt after destruction by Attila. The mosaics are enigmatic in subject matter, full of references to esoteric cults. The west entrance to the basilica is sheltered by a portico built in the early 9th century, which gives access to the contemporary baptistry. This is typically octagonal in plan and encloses a hexagonal baptismal pool, reproducing the Chi-Rho monogram of Christ. This is surrounded by a colonnade supporting an ambulatory. The final component of the complex is the bell tower, a massive structure that has survived unscathed since it was built in 1031. There is a second basilical complex at Monastero, now serving as the Palaeo-Christian Museum. This equally imposing 4th-century structure also houses a remarkable floor mosaic.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Aquileia (in Friuli-Venezia Giulia), one of the largest and wealthiest cities of the Early Roman Empire, was destroyed by Attila in the mid-5th century. Most of it still lies unexcavated beneath the fields, and as such it constitutes the greatest archaeological reserve of its kind. The patriarchal basilica, an outstanding building with an exceptional mosaic pavement, played a key role in the evangelization of a large region of central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Area and the Patriarchal Basilica of Aquileia</site><states>Italy</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2319</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1356</http_url><id_number>1356</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1356.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jm</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.0775000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-76.5711111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site encompasses a rugged and extensively forested mountainous region in the south-east of Jamaica, which provided refuge first for the indigenous Tainos fleeing slavery and then for Maroons (former enslaved peoples). They resisted the European colonial system in this isolated region by establishing a network of trails, hiding places and settlements, which form the Nanny Town Heritage Route. The forests offered the Maroons everything they needed for their survival. They developed strong spiritual connections with the mountains, still manifest through the intangible cultural legacy of, for example, religious rites, traditional medicine and dances. The site is also a biodiversity hotspot for the Caribbean Islands with a high proportion of endemic plant species, especially lichens, mosses and certain flowering plants.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Blue and John Crow Mountains </site><states>Jamaica</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2015</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Buddhism entered Japan from China via Korea in the mid-6th century AD. In the 7th century the pious Prince Regent Shotoku founded the religious centres of Horyu-ji and Chugu-ji. The Hokki-ji complex was founded later, in his memory, on the site of Shotoku's palace by his son, Yamashiro-no Oe-No O.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Adisastrous fire destroyed the original Horyu-jibuildings in 670, but structural remains survive below ground in the precinct known as Wakakusa Garan to the southeast of the later West Temple (Sai-in). Rebuilding commenced almost immediately and continued into the early years of the 8th century. The West Temple was completed first, followed by the East Temple (To-in) on the site of Shotoku's Ikaruga Palace. The great temple complex attracted a number of monasteries (Shi-in); these began as communities of Buddhist priests grouped around lecture halls, but in the 11th century they were gradually extended by the construction of temples, built by the priests and their disciples.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From its foundation Horyu-ji was considered to be the temple which guarded the Empire, and so it always enjoyed the protection of the Imperial family. In addition, the cult of Prince Shotoku, which began in the 12th century, attracted many pilgrims, and as a result Horyu-ji was always immaculately maintained and conserved. Hokki-ji was almost completely destroyed at the end of the 16th century during political disturbances and only the three-storey pagoda remains from the original construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the Meiji restoration of 1868, which was accompanied by a more prominent role for Shintoism, Horyu-ji fell into a decline. However, the pioneering Law for the Preservation of Ancient Shrines and Temples 1897 resulted in it becoming the subject of a major restoration effort, and it has retained its primacy in Japanese conservation policies and programmes since that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/660</http_url><id_number>660</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_660.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.6166666700</latitude><location>Nara Prefecture</location><longitude>135.7333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist monuments in the Horyu-ji area are the earliest Buddhist monuments in Japan, dating from shortly after the introduction of Buddhism to the country, and had a profound influence on subsequent religious architecture. They represent the adaptation of Chinese Buddhist architecture and temple layout to Japanese culture and the subsequent development of a distinct indigenous style.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Buddhism entered Japan from China via Korea in the mid-6th century AD. In the 7th century the pious Prince Regent Shotoku founded the religious centres of Horyu-ji and Chugu-ji. A disastrous fire destroyed the original Horyu-ji buildings in 670, but structural remains survive below ground in the precinct known as Wakakusa Garan to the south-east of the later West Temple (Sai-in). Rebuilding commenced almost immediately and continued into the early years of the 8th century.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The West Temple was completed first, followed by the East Temple (To-in) on the site of Shotoku's Ikaruga Palace. The great temple complex attracted a number of monasteries (Shi-in); these began as communities of Buddhist priests grouped around lecture halls, but in the 11th century they were gradually extended by the construction of temples, built by the priests and their disciples.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;From its foundation Horyu-ji was considered to be the temple that guarded the empire, and so it always enjoyed the protection of the imperial family. In addition, the cult of Prince Shotoku, which began in the 12th century, attracted many pilgrims, and as a result Horyu-ji was always immaculately maintained and conserved.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Hokki-ji was almost completely destroyed at the end of the 16th century during political disturbances and only the three-storey pagoda remains from the original construction. With the Meiji restoration of 1868, which was accompanied by a more prominent role for Shintoism, Horyu-ji fell into a decline. However, the pioneering Law for the Preservation of Ancient Shrines and Temples (1897) resulted in it becoming the subject of a major restoration effort, and it has retained its primacy in Japanese conservation policies and programmes since that time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The plan of Horyu-ji is patterned on the Chinese style of building in the Six Dynasties Period (Bai-wei: 222-589), with a relatively asymmetrical arrangement of the buildings. The structures are based on the Chinese bay system, a modified version of post-and-lintel construction with intricate bracketing designed to transfer the weight of the heavy tiled roof down to the massive wooden supporting columns. They are especially noteworthy for the skilful use of &lt;em&gt;entasis&lt;/em&gt; on the columns and their cloud-shaped brackets.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site covers 48 buildings in total - 21 in Horyu-ji East Temple, 9 in Horyu-ji West Temple, 17 monasteries and other buildings, and the Hokki-ji pagoda. Of these, 28 were built before or during the 8th century - the Kondo (main half), Gojunoto (five-storey pagoda), Chumon (inner gate), and Kairo (roofed corridor) of Horyu-ji West Temple and the Sanjunoto (three-storey pagoda) of Hokki-ji. These may justifiably be claimed to be the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The four old buildings in the Horyu-ji West Temple (Sai-in) all date from 680-710. They are surrounded by ancillary buildings such as priests' living quarters, refectories, gates, etc. Fifteen buildings in the complex are designated National Treasures and six are Important Cultural Properties. Two of the buildings in the Horyu-ji East Temple (To-in) date from the first half of the 8th century - the Yumedono (main hall), an exceptional octagonal building, and the Denpodo (lecture hall). Another important structure, rebuilt in the 13th century, is the Raido (worship hall), which houses ashes of the Buddha. Three buildings in this group are National Treasures and six are important cultural properties. Of the Horyu-ji monasteries (Shi-in), most of which date to the 13th-17th centuries, 14 are designated as Important Cultural Properties. The Hokki-ji Sanjunoto (three-storey pagoda), the completion of which is dated to 705 by an inscription, is designated as a National Treasure.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;There are around 48 Buddhist monuments in the Horyu-ji area, in Nara Prefecture. Several date from the late 7th or early 8th century, making them some of the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world. These masterpieces of wooden architecture are important not only for the history of art, since they illustrate the adaptation of Chinese Buddhist architecture and layout to Japanese culture, but also for the history of religion, since their construction coincided with the introduction of Buddhism to Japan from China by way of the Korean peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Buddhist Monuments in the Horyu-ji Area</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>781</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Himeji is sited at an important communications centre and as a result the Regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi built a castle there in the closing years of the 16th century, part of the network of such fortresses that he created all over Japan to ensure its continued unification. The first castle was destroyed by Ikeda Terumas, who became the feudal lord of the area under the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1600, but he quickly erected a new fortress, most of which survives to the present day. It comprised two concentric enclosures defined by walls and moats, containing keeps and turrets as well as residences for his samurai (warriors). Part of the west bailey (Nishi-no-maru) was remodelled by Honda Tadamasa, lord of the castle in 1617, as quarters for his wife, daughter of the Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu. It remained the centre of this feudal domain for 270 years and a town grew up around it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the end of the Shogunate and restoration of the Meiji dynasty in 1868, Himeji-jo was taken over by the new government as a military establishment, when part of the west bailey and the samurai houses were dernolished and replaced by military structures. Unlike many other feudal castles in Japan, Himeji-jo was preserved in its original form, thanks to the intervention of army officers such as Colonel Nakamura Shigeto, and it was given protection under successive monuments protection acts (see Legal Status below) .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1945 the military facilities in and around the castle were demolished and replaced by public buildings for official use. The inn er buildings were, however, not touched and retained their 17th century form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/661</http_url><id_number>661</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_661.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.8333333300</latitude><location>Hyogo Prefecture</location><longitude>134.7000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Himeji-jo is a masterpiece of wooden construction, the finest surviving example of early 17th-century Japanese castle architecture, and preserves all its significant features intact. The castle is also a powerful and evocative symbol of the feudalism that prevailed in Japan until the Meiji restoration of 1868.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Himeji is situated at an important communications centre and as a result the regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi built a castle there in the closing years of the 16th century, part of the network of such fortresses that he created all over Japan to ensure its continued unification. The first castle was destroyed by Ikeda Terumas, who became the feudal lord of the area under the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1600, but he quickly erected a new fortress, most of which survives to the present day. It comprised two concentric enclosures defined by walls and moats, containing keeps and turrets as well as residences for his samurai (warriors). Part of the west bailey (Nishi-no-maru) was remodelled by Honda Tadamasa, lord of the castle in 1617, as quarters for his wife, daughter of the Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu. It remained the centre of this feudal domain for 270 years and a town grew up around it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the end of the shogunate and the restoration of the Meiji dynasty in 1868, Himeji-jo was taken over by the new government as a military establishment, when part of the west bailey and the samurai houses were demolished and replaced by military structures. Unlike many other feudal castles in Japan, Himeji-jo was preserved in its original form, thanks to the intervention of army officers such as Colonel Nakamura Shigeto, and it was given protection under successive monuments protection acts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1945 the military facilities in and around the castle were demolished and replaced by public buildings for official use. The inner buildings were, however, not touched and retained their 17th-century form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Himeji-jo is an archetypal early 17th-century castle complex in design and layout, comprising 83 buildings in all. Only the east gate of one section of the second bailey survives from the castle built by Hideyoshi; the remainder dates from 1601-9, plus the towers of Nishi-no-Maru (after 1617).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The centre of the complex is the Tenshu-gun, consisting of a main keep and three subsidiary keeps, with connecting structures. This is surrounded by a system of watchtowers, gates and plastered earthen walls. Set on a low hill, it is visible from every part of the city. The main keep (Dai-Tenshu) has six interior storeys and a basement. The main access is from the south-west, through a covered corridor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The striking appearance of this great wooden structure with its white plastered walls is the source of the name by which it is often known, the Castle of the White Heron (Shirasagi-jo).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many castles were built in Japan in the early years of the shogun period. Most of these have subsequently been demolished and others were destroyed during the Second World War. Of the handful that survives, Himeji-jo is the most complete and unaltered, largely thanks to the efforts of army officers after the Meiji restoration. The conservation work between 1934 and 1964 was carried out using the advanced techniques developed in Japan for large wooden structures and in conformity with established principles of authenticity in design, materials, techniques, and environment.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Himeji-jo is the finest surviving example of early 17th-century Japanese castle architecture, comprising 83 buildings with highly developed systems of defence and ingenious protection devices dating from the beginning of the Shogun period. It is a masterpiece of construction in wood, combining function with aesthetic appeal, both in its elegant appearance unified by the white plastered earthen walls and in the subtlety of the relationships between the building masses and the multiple roof layers.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Himeji-jo</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>782</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The area recommended for World&amp;nbsp;Heritage Status is protected under several pieces of legislation.&amp;nbsp;A National Park Special Area, (Kirishima Yaku National Park) was&amp;nbsp;gazetted in 1964 under the National Parks Law, comprising land on&amp;nbsp;Yaku Island and Kirishima National Park on Kyushu mainland. A&amp;nbsp;Wilderness area of 1219ha, designated under the Nature&amp;nbsp;Conservation Law in 1975, forms a small part of the centre of the&amp;nbsp;recommended area. Under the Law of Protection of Cultural&amp;nbsp;Properties, 4300ha was established as a Special Natural Monument&amp;nbsp;Area. This lies entirely within the nominated property. A Forest&amp;nbsp;Ecosystem Reserve was established in 1992, comprising the&amp;nbsp;nominated area and various adjacent blocks of land. The centre of&amp;nbsp;Yakushima Island, and parts of the island's southern and western&amp;nbsp;coastal lowlands were accepted as a Biosphere Reserve in 1980.&amp;nbsp;Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/662</http_url><id_number>662</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_662.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.3333333300</latitude><location>Kamiyaku-cho and Yaku-cho, Kumage-gun Kagoshima Prefecture</location><longitude>130.5333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Yaku Island, in the northern end of the Ryukyu archipelago, is separated from the southernmost tip of Kyushu mainland by a 120&amp;nbsp;m deep, 60&amp;nbsp;km wide strait. The nominated area has a complex, sinuous boundary, which is less than 1&amp;nbsp;km wide in some places. The site lies, in the centre of the island, with arms stretching west, south and east. The western arm extends down to the coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yakushima is almost 2,000&amp;nbsp;m high and is the highest mountain in southern Japan. Several peaks are over 1,800&amp;nbsp;m with mountain ridges over 1,000&amp;nbsp;m surrounding these central high peaks. Topography from coastline to the mountainous summits is extremely steep. The predominant bedrock is granite. At the foot of the central mountain areas are small areas of sand stone and shale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation is significantly different from the mainland. Vertical vegetation distribution is distinct, with subtropical vegetation near the coastline, and warm temperate, temperate, cool temperate and subalpine species further inland as altitude increases. Cool temperate zone coniferous forest occurs, rather than the cool temperate beech forests typical of the mainland. Warm temperate broad leaved forest previously covered extensive areas of south Japan. This has largely been removed, due to high human population pressure, and the warm temperate forest trees in Yakushima are thus some of the few remaining in Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of great significance to the area is the presence of indigenous Japanese cedar, known colloquially as 'sugi'. Sugi can reach more than 1,000 years of age on stable sites under the climate of the island: specimens younger than 1,000 years are known as 'Kosugi'; older specimens, which may reach 3,000 years, are known as 'Yakusugi' and are found between 600&amp;nbsp;m and 1,800&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora is very diverse for such a small island, comprising more than 1900 species and subspecies. Of these, 94 are endemic, mostly concentrated in the central high mountains. More than 200 species are at the southern limit of their natural distribution and a number are at their northern limit. A distinctive characteristic of the vegetation is the exuberance of epiphytes, particularly at higher elevations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna of the island is diverse, with 16 mammal species. Four mammal subspecies, including Japanese macaque and sika deer, are endemic to the island. A further four subspecies are endemic to both Yaku Island and the neighbouring island of Tanegashima. Among the 150 bird species present, four, including Ryukyu robin and Japanese wood pigeon, have been designated as Natural Monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Traditionally, the Island Mountains have been considered to have a spiritual value and the 'Yakusugi' were revered as sacred trees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yakushima occupies a strategic situation on the boundary between the Holoarctic and Palaeotropic biogeographic regions, and much of its conservation value is reflected in the 200 plant species which have the southern limit of their natural distribution on the island. The altitudinal continuum of the forests across some 2,000&amp;nbsp;m is considered to be not only the best in the Japanese archipelago, but the best remaining in East Asia. Ancient yakusugi trees are of prime conservation value to the island.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the interior of Yaku Island, at the meeting-point of the palaearctic and oriental biotic regions, Yakushima exhibits a rich flora, with some 1,900 species and subspecies, including ancient specimens of the sugi (Japanese cedar). It also contains a remnant of a warm-temperate ancient forest that is unique in this region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Yakushima</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>783</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/663</http_url><id_number>663</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_663.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.4700000000</latitude><location>Ajigasawa-machi, Nishitsugaru-gun, Aomori Prefecture; Fukaura-machi, Nishitsugaru-gun, Aomori Prefecture; Iwasaki-mura, Nishitsugaru-gun, Aomori Prefecture; Fujisato-machi, Yamamoto-gun, Akita Prefecture</location><longitude>140.1300000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the mountains of northern Honshu, the area includes the last remaining virgin stand of Siebold's beech forest, the typical Japanese climax temperate forest. The area covers about one-third of the Shirakami Mountains which are a heavily dissected range with summits rising to just over 1,200&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shirakami Mountains extend over 450&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and comprise a maze of steep sided hills with summits. The mountains were rapidly uplifted during the Quaternary, causing faulting which has resulted in a dynamic landscape with numerous mass movements. More than 50% of the area comprises deep valleys with steep slopes. Many streams have their sources within the area and it is an important water catchment area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than 500 plant species have been identified from Shirakami. This figure is not particularly high compared with other mountainous areas in Japan, but does include many plant species characteristic of the country, and many species generally seen in its alpine and subalpine zones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All mammals found in northern Honshu exist in the area, other than two species whose existence is restricted by heavy snowfall. The 87 bird species currently identified from the area include Golden eagle, which has limited breeding record and is endangered in Japan. Three nesting pairs of Black Woodpecker, also endangered are found in the core zone. Hodgson's hawk eagle, has also been recorded in the site as well as Japanese serow. Japanese black bear is common. Seven species of reptile and nine amphibians have been recorded. The insect fauna is particularly rich, with 2,212 recorded species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The beech forest is virtually entirely undisturbed; the area is a wilderness with no access trails or man-made facilities. Occasional use by bear hunters occurs but other wildlife is fully protected. A 6,800&amp;nbsp;ha buffer zone surrounds the property within which no extractive activities are allowed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Special hunting techniques and faith ceremonies, by a group of hunters, known as 'Matagi', surround bear hunting in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the mountains of northern Honshu, this trackless site includes the last virgin remains of the cool-temperate forest of Siebold's beech trees that once covered the hills and mountain slopes of northern Japan. The black bear, the serow and 87 species of birds can be found in this forest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Shirakami-Sanchi</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>784</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Buddhism bad already been introduced from China and Chinese culture was having a profound influence on Japan when the capital was moved from Heijo-ko (Nara), after ten years at Nagaoka, to Kyoto, under the name of Heian-ko, in AD 794. The plan of the city, measuring 4.5 km east-west and 5.1 km northsouth, was modelled on Chinese cities such as Changshan, capital of T'ang China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was the heart of the aristocratie society that clustered around the Imperial court for the four centuries of the Heian Period (794-1192). For most of this period there was a prohibition on the building of Buddhist temples inside the city, apart from the two Imperial temples (To-ji and Sai-ji). Properties on the nominated list that date from the foundation ofHeian-kyo are Kamowakeikauchi-jinja (Shinto shrine ), Kamomioya-jinja (Shinto sbrine), Kyo-o-gokoku-ji (To-ji: Buddhist temple), Kiyomizu-dera (Buddhist temple), and Enryaku-ji (Buddhist temple); the two large Buddhist temples of Daigo-ji and NifiiUl-ji are representative of the early Heian Period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the Heian Period the military samurai class was growing in power, and the resulting unrest, coupled with the fact that the world would enter mnppo (the last years of Buddhist law), according to Buddhist doctrine, in 1052, led to an increase in religions fervour. The Buddhist temple of Byodo-in and the Ujigami-jinja date from this period. A civil warin 1185 led to the establishment of a samurai military regime at Kamakura; however, the Imperial court remained at Kyoto. The Sekisui-in at Kozan-ji is the best example of the residential architecture of the Kamakura Period, which ended in 1332 with the establishment of the Muromachi Shogunate. This period saw the building of large temples of the Rinzai Zen sect, such as Tenryu-ji, and the creation of Zen gardens, of which that at Saiho-ji is a representative example. At the end of the 14th century the Muromachi Shogunate reached the apogee of its power, and this is reflected in buildings such as the villa of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, which later became the Buddhist temple Rokuon-ji. The villa of a later Shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, built in a more refined style in the mid 15th century, was also converted into a temple, Jisho-ji. Garden design was refined into pure art, as demonstrated by the garden of the abbot's residence at Ryoan-ji.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much of Kyoto was destroyed in the Onin War (1467-77), but it was rebuilt by a new urban merchant class, who replaced the aristocrats who bad fied during the war. In 1568 Oda Nobunaga seized power, and he was followed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who unified the country and built a 23 km wall round Kyoto. The centre of power moved to Edo (present-day Tokyo) when a new Shogunate was established under Tokugawa Ieyasu. The authority of the Tokugawa Shogunate was given material form in Kyoto with the construction of the strong castle of Nijo-jo at the heart of the city. At the same time Hideyoshi' s defences were dismantled. The political stability of the Momoyama Period (1573-1614) saw a new spirit of confidence develop among both the military and the merchants, and this is reflected in the opulence and boldness of the architecture, represented by the Sanpo-in residential complex and garden at Daigo-jo and the prayer and reception halls at the Buddhist temple of Hongan-ji, moved by Hideyoshi from Osaka to Kyoto as a symbol of the city's revival.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/688</http_url><id_number>688</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_688.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.9805555600</latitude><location>Kyoto and Shiga prefectures</location><longitude>135.7694444000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kyoto was the main centre for the evolution of religious and secular architecture and of garden design between the 8th and 17th centuries, and as such it played a decisive role in the creation of Japanese cultural traditions which, in the case of gardens in particular, had a profound effect on the rest of the world from the 19th century onwards. Buddhism had already been introduced from China and Chinese culture was having a profound influence on Japan when the capital was moved from Heijo-ko (Nara), after 10 years at Nagaoka, to Kyoto, under the name of Heian-ko, in AD 794. The city plan was modelled on Chinese cities such as Changshan, capital of Tang China. It was the heart of the aristocratic society that clustered around the imperial court for the four centuries of the Heian period (794-1192). For most of this period there was a prohibition on the building of Buddhist temples inside the city, apart from the two imperial temples (To-ji and Sai-ji).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Properties on the World Heritage site that date from the foundation of Heian-kyo are Karmwakeikauchi-jinja (Shinto shrine), Amomioya-jinja (Shinto shrine), Kyo-o-gokoku-ji To-ji (Buddhist temple), Kiyornim-dera (Buddhist temple), and Enryaku-ji (Buddhist temple); the two large Buddhist temples of Daigo-ji and Ninna-ji are representative of the early Heian period. By the end of the Heian period the military samurai class was growing in power, and the resulting unrest, coupled with the fact that the world would enter its final years, according to Buddhist doctrine, in 1052, led to an increase in religious fervour. The Buddhist temple of Byodo-in and the Ujigami-jinja date from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A civil war in 1185 led to the establishment of a samurai military regime at Kamakum; however, the imperial court remained at Kyoto. The Sekisui-in at Kozan-ji is the best example of the residential architecture of this period, which ended in 1332 with the establishment of the Muromachi Shogunate. This period saw the building of large temples of the Rinzai Zen sect, such as Temyu-ji, and the creation of Zen gardens, of which that at Saiho-ji is a representative example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 14th century, the Muromachi Shogunate reached the apogee of its power, and this is reflected in buildings such as the villa of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, which later became the Buddhist temple Rokuon-ji. The villa of a later shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, built in a more refined style in the mid-15th century, was also converted into a temple, Jisho-ji. Garden design was refined into pure art, as demonstrated by the garden of the abbot's residence at Ryoan-ji. Much of Kyoto was destroyed in the Onin War (1467-77), but it was rebuilt by a new urban merchant class, who replaced the aristocrats who had fled during the war. In 1568 Oda Nobunaga seized power, and he was followed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who unified the country and built a 23 km wall round Kyoto. The centre of power moved to Edo (present-day Tokyo) when a new shogunate was established under Tokugawa Ieyasu. The authority of the Tokugawa Shogunate was given material form in Kyoto with the construction of the strong castle of Ngo-jo at the heart of the city. At the same time Hideyoshi's defences were dismantled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The political stability of the Momoyama period (1573-1614) saw a new spirit of confidence among both the military and the merchants, reflected in the opulence and boldness of the architecture, represented by the Sanpo-in residential complex and garden at Daigo-jo and the prayer and reception halls at the Buddhist temple of Hongan-ji, moved from Osaka to Kyoto as a symbol of the city's revival. The beginning of the long Edo period (1615-1867) saw Heian temples and shrines, such as Kiyomimdera, being restored in traditional style. During this period the supremacy of Kyoto as a centre of pilgrimage became established. After the Meiji restoration of 1868 the capital and the imperial court moved to Tokyo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One of the results was the adoption of a modernization policy that led to the transformation of Kyoto into a modern city. This caused the city's cultural heritage to be neglected; however, the national government was aware of what was happening, and introduced the first ordinance for the protection of antiquities in 1871. This was superseded in 1897 by the important Ancient Shrines and Temples Preservation Law, which marked the beginning of the protection and conservation programmes of modern Japan.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in A.D. 794 on the model of the capitals of ancient China, Kyoto was the imperial capital of Japan from its foundation until the middle of the 19th century. As the centre of Japanese culture for more than 1,000 years, Kyoto illustrates the development of Japanese wooden architecture, particularly religious architecture, and the art of Japanese gardens, which has influenced landscape gardening the world over.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto (Kyoto, Uji and Otsu Cities)</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>814</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;ln the 8th centurv AD the Shirakawa-go/Gokayama area was opened up as a place for ascetic religious mountain worship, centred on Mount Hakusan, for a religious order that combined ancient pre-Buddhist beliefs with Esoteric Buddhism. In the later 13th centurv it came under the influence of the powerful Tendai Esoteric sect. which was in turn replaced by the Jo do Shinshu sect, which still very influential in the area. lts teachings played an important role in the development of the social structure of the region, based on the kumi system of mutual cooperation between neighbouring households.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest written documents confirming Shirakawa-go as the name of the area date back to the mid-12th centurv; Gokayama does not appear until the beginning of the 16th centurv. The village name of Ogimachi is found in late 15th centurv documents, Ainokura in the mid-16th centurv, and suganuma in the early 17th century. Shirakawa-go was part of the territory of the Takayama Clan at the beginning of the Edo Period, but from the late 17th centurv until the Meiji Resto ration of 1868 it was under the direct control of the Edo Bakufu (military government). Gokavama was under direct rule by the Kanazawa Clan throughout the Edo Period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of the mountainous terrain traditional Japanese rice-field production was not wholly successful in the a rea, and so the farmers turned to alternative grains such as buckwheat and millet, cultivated in small fields, but even with these the farming was at little higher than subsistence 1eve1. The few marketable products from the area were Japanese paper (washi), made from the fibres of the paper mulberrv, which occurs naturally in the area, nitre (calcium nitrate) for gunpowder production, and the basic products of sericulture (silkworms and raw silk thread). Paper production continued throughout the Edo Period, but declined when western paper-making processes were introduced in the 19th century. Nitre production, which had begun in the mid 17th centurv, was also brought to an end with the importation of cheap saltpetre from Europe at the same time. The silk industrv survived longer, from the late 17th century until the 19705; its requirement of large enclosed spaces for silkworm beds and storage of mulberrv leaves, was an important factor in the development of the gassho-style house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/734</http_url><id_number>734</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_734.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.4000000000</latitude><location>Gifu and Toyama prefectures</location><longitude>136.8833333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama are outstanding examples of traditional human settlements that are perfectly adapted to their environment and their social and economic raison d'&amp;ecirc;tre and have adjusted successfully to the profound economic changes in Japan in the past half-century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 8th century AD this area was opened up as a place for ascetic religious mountain worship, centred on Mount Hakusan, for an order that combined ancient pre-Buddhist beliefs with esoteric Buddhism. In the 13th century it came under the influence of the Tendai Esoteric sect, and then by the Jodo Shinshu sect, which is still influential in the area. Its teachings played an important role in the development of the social structure of the region, based on the &lt;em&gt;kumi&lt;/em&gt; system of mutual cooperation between neighbouring households.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shirakawa-go was part of the territory of the Takayama Clan at the beginning of the Edo period, but from the late 17th century until the Meiji Restoration of 1868 it was under the direct control of the Edo Bakufu (military government). Gokayama was under direct rule by the Kanazawa Clan throughout the Edo period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of the mountainous terrain, traditional rice-field production was not wholly successful in the area, and so the farmers turned to alternative grains such as buckwheat and millet, cultivated in small fields, but even with these the farming was at little higher than subsistence level. The few marketable products from the area were Japanese paper, made from the fibres of the paper mulberry, which occurs naturally in the area, nitre (calcium nitrate) for gunpowder production, and the basic products of sericulture (silkworms and raw silk thread). Paper production declined in the 19th century, and nitre production was brought to an end with the importation of cheap saltpetre from Europe at the same time. The silk industry survived longer, from the late 17th century until the 1970s; its requirement of large enclosed spaces for silkworm beds and storage of mulberry leaves was an important factor in the development of the &lt;em&gt;gassho&lt;/em&gt; -style house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The central part of Ogimachi is located on a terraced plateau east of the Sho River. Most of the houses are on individual lots separated by cultivated plots of land, reflecting traditional land use. On the sloping land near the base of the mountain the houses are on terraces supported by stone retaining walls. Their boundaries are defined by roads, irrigation channels or cultivated plots rather than walls or hedges, and so the landscape is an open one. Most have ancillary structures such as wooden-walled storehouses and grain-drying shelters, which are usually well away from the dwelling houses to minimize fire risk. The house lots are surrounded by irrigated rice fields and city-crop fields, also small and irregular in shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The designated group of historic buildings is composed of 117 houses and seven other structures. Of these, six are in the gassho style, most built during the 19th century; they are all aligned parallel to the Sho River, giving a very harmonious and impressive landscape. Seven houses are post-and-beam structures with rafter-framed roofs, built in the 20th century and with an overall resemblance to the &lt;em&gt;gassho&lt;/em&gt; style. The village has two Buddhist temples, Myozen-ji and Honkaku-ji. The guardian deity of the village is housed in the Shinto shrine, Hachiman Jinja, situated at the base of the mountain and surrounded by a cedar grove.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ainokura village is similarly located on a terraced plateau above the Sho River. Its layout is focused on the old main road. The houses and plots are broadly identical in form and size with those at Ogimachi. The group of historic buildings includes twenty &lt;em&gt;gassho&lt;/em&gt; -style houses, most with a four-room square layout. The guardian deity of the village is housed in the Jinushi Jinja Shinto shrine, and the Buddhist centre is the Shonen-ji temple of the Jodo Shinshu sect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Suganuma is similar to those of Ogimachi and Ainokura, on a terrace overlooking the Sho River, but it is much smaller, with only eight households and a population of 40 people. Nine &lt;em&gt;gassho&lt;/em&gt; houses survive, the most recent built as late as 1929. They resemble those of Ainokura rather than Ogimachi.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in a mountainous region that was cut off from the rest of the world for a long period of time, these villages with their Gassho-style houses subsisted on the cultivation of mulberry trees and the rearing of silkworms. The large houses with their steeply pitched thatched roofs are the only examples of their kind in Japan. Despite economic upheavals, the villages of Ogimachi, Ainokura and Suganuma are outstanding examples of a traditional way of life perfectly adapted to the environment and people's social and economic circumstances.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>868</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1910 the Hiroshima Prefectural Assembly decided to build the Hiroshima Commercial Exhibition Hall to promote industrial production in the prefecture. Work started on a site on the eastern side of the Motoyasu River, to the designs of the Czech architect,Jan Letzel, in 1914 and was completed the following year. In 1933 its name was changed to the Hiroshima Prefectural industrial Promotion Hail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the first atom bomb exploded over Hiroshima at 8.15 am on 6 August 1945, causing the deaths of 140,000 people, this building was the only one left standing near the hypocentre of the bomb blast, albeit in skeletal form. It was preserved in that state when reconstruction of the city began, and became known as the Genbaku Dome (Atomic Bomb Dome). In 1966 Hiroshima City Council adopted a resolution that the Dome should be preserved in Perpetuity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Peace Memorial Park, in which the Dome is the principal landmark, was laid out between 1950 and 1964. The Peace Memorial Museum in the Park was opened in 1955. Since 1952 the Park has been the scene of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony, held annually on 6 August&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/775</http_url><id_number>775</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_775.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) on the World Heritage List, exceptionally on the basis of cultural criterion (vi).&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.3833333300</latitude><location>Hiroshima Prefecture</location><longitude>132.4500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome), is a stark and powerful symbol of the achievement of world peace for more than half a century following the unleashing of the most destructive force ever created by humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1910 the Hiroshima Prefectural Assembly decided to build the Hiroshima Commercial Exhibition Hall to promote industrial production in the prefecture. Work started on a site on the east side of the Motoyasu River, to the designs of the Czech architect Jan Letzel, in 1914 and was completed the following year. In 1933 its name was changed to the Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the first atom bomb exploded over Hiroshima at 8.15 on the morning of 6 August 1945, causing the deaths of 140,000 people, this building was the only one left standing near the hypocentre of the bomb blast, albeit in skeletal form. It was preserved in that state when reconstruction of the city began, and became known as the Genbaku (Atomic Bomb) Dome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1966 Hiroshima City Council adopted a resolution that the dome should be preserved in perpetuity. The Peace Memorial Park, in which the dome is the principal landmark, was laid out between 1950 and 1964. The Peace Memorial Museum in the park was opened in 1955. Since 1952 the park has been the scene of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony, held annually on 6 August.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall was a three-storey brick building with a five-storey central core topped by a steel-framed elliptical dome clad with copper. It covered 1,023&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and stood to a height of 25&amp;nbsp;m. The exterior walls were faced with stone and cement plaster. The dome was reached via a staircase located at the central entrance. The main building, some 150&amp;nbsp;m from the hypocentre of the explosion, was almost completely shattered and gutted: the roof and floor collapsed, along with most of the interior walls from the second floor upwards. However, because the force of the blast came from almost directly above, the foundations of the core section of the building under the dome remained standing. The remains of the fountain that had stood in the Western-style garden on the south side of the hall also survive. In its present form the building preserves in every detail its exact state after the blast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The authenticity of the Genbaku Dome is not open to challenge: the ruined structure stands exactly as it did after the atomic bomb exploded on 6 August 1945. The only interventions since that time have been minimal, designed to ensure the continuing stability of the ruins. This may be likened to work carried out on archaeological sites around the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) was the only structure left standing in the area where the first atomic bomb exploded on 6 August 1945. Through the efforts of many people, including those of the city of Hiroshima, it has been preserved in the same state as immediately after the bombing. Not only is it a stark and powerful symbol of the most destructive force ever created by humankind; it also expresses the hope for world peace and the ultimate elimination of all nuclear weapons.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome)</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>917</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;ltsukushima Island is one of many in the western part of the Setonaikai (Set0 Inland Sea), between the islands of Honshu and Shikoku. Because it has the region's highest mountain, Mount Misen (530 m), it has been worshipped by people in the region since ancient times: they felt such awe that they dared not set foot on it, worshipping it from afar. However, their faith was so great that they were driven to construct shrines on the shores of the island on more than one occasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is thought that Itsukushima-jinja was founded in 593, although its existence is not confirmed before 811. The Nihon Koki states that ltsukushima no kami (the god of Itsukushima) took his place among the celebrated gods, and the Imperial household began to present hei (sacred staffs with cut paper at the top) to the shrine. It became known as a sacred shrine in the COUntn/ of Aki during the Heian Period (794-1184).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is not known when building work began. However, it is recorded that Saeki Kagehiro, a Shinto Priest, reported to the Imperial Court that he reconstructed the main shrine buildings in 1168: during this work the scale of the buildings was increased and the roofing of some was changed from shingles to Japanese cypress bark. This reconstruction, believed to have been financed by Taira no Kiyomori, the most powerful leader of the time, Set the Standards for subsequent reconstructions in both scale and composition. Kiyomori believed that he owed his successful record in the civil wars of Hogen and Heiji and his subsequent political promotion to his religious faith in Itsukushima-jinja, and the belief that the god of ltsukushima was a guardian deity of the Heike family deepened his veneration of the shrine, where he worshipped on every important political occasion of his life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reconstructed main shrine buildings were destroyed by fire in 1207 in the Kamakwa Period (1185-1332) and reconstructed eight years later, only to be burnt down once again in 1223. This time the reconstruction took longer, not being completed until 1241; the major surviving shrine buildings date from this reconstruction. From this time onwards, total reconstruction of the complex became too large a task and so buildings were reconstructed on an individual basis. During the Kamakuta Period the shrine was under the Patronage of the feudal government, but in the succeeding Muromachi Period (1333-1572) this came to an end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since ltsukushima-jinja was built by the sea, it suffered repeated damage from wind and flooding, but each time it was restored with the support of influential people at national and local level throughout the ages. The Otorii (large Shrine gate), Set in the sea, was especially vulnerable and was frequently reconstructed, most recently in 1875. New buildings were also added to the main compound, to create the present ensemble - the Gojunoto (five-storey pagoda) in 1407, the Tahoto (two-storey pagoda) in 1523, the Sessha Tenjin-sha Honden in 1556, and the MaSSha Hokoku-jinja Honden (Senjokaku) in 1587.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;ltsukushima Island has an important commercial role in the Inland Sea by virtue of its position. By the late Muromachi Period (1233-1573) a market had been opened on the island, round which an urban area developed. A Buddhist temple was erected near the summit of Mount Misen, and this also attracted many pilgrims and visitors. The island lost the somewhat forbidding character as a sacred island reserved exclusively for the act of worship, that it had had in ancient times and became an open island possessing great beauty from its integrated landscape of religious buildings and natural features, so that by the middle of the Edo Period (1600-1866) it had become acknowledged as one of the Three Most Scenic Places in Japan (Aki no Miyaiima).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/776</http_url><id_number>776</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_776.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (ii), (iv) and (vi) as the supreme example of this form of religious centre, setting traditional architecture of great artistic and technical merit against a dramatic natural background and thereby creating a work of art of incomparable physical beauty.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.2944166700</latitude><location>Hiroshima Prefecture</location><longitude>132.3246389000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The shrine buildings of Itsukushima-jinja are in the general tradition of Shinto shrine architecture in Japan, generally constructed at the foot of a mountain. They have preserved the styles prevailing from the late 12th to the early 13th centuries and are important as examples of the ancient type of shrine architecture integrated with the surrounding landscape, the physical manifestation of human worship of nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The buildings consist of the main shrine buildings (Honsha), constructed and composed to achieve harmony within a single design concept, and the other buildings that have been added to them over a long period of history. Each building has high architectural quality in itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architectural style of the north-facing Honsha buildings and the west-facing buildings of the Sessha Marodo-jinja, connected by the &lt;em&gt;kairo&lt;/em&gt; (roofed corridor), was influenced by the aristocratic dwelling-house style of the Heian period. The frontal view of the buildings, with the mountain as a backdrop, is emphasized; the entire area, from the &lt;em&gt;Otorii&lt;/em&gt; in the foreground to the mountain in the background, resembles a succession of folding screens. The delicate forms of the red-painted buildings in front of the dark green of the mountain create a striking composition with sharp contrasts of colour and mass.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like many other Shinto shrines that had constructed Buddhist buildings, Itsukushima-jinja lost many of them after the rejection of Buddhism with the Meiji Restoration of 1868. The few that survive in the surrounding hills are considered to be as indispensable to the history of ltsukushima-jinja as its Shinto monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Honsha: the buildings, consisting of the &lt;em&gt;Haraiden&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Haiden&lt;/em&gt; (worship hall), &lt;em&gt;Heiden&lt;/em&gt; (Hei hall) and &lt;em&gt;Honden&lt;/em&gt; (main hall) are on the axis of the &lt;em&gt;Otorii&lt;/em&gt; . The &lt;em&gt;Haraiden&lt;/em&gt; projects out towards the sea and the &lt;em&gt;Haiden&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Honden&lt;/em&gt; , linked by the &lt;em&gt;Heiden&lt;/em&gt; and covered by a single roof structure, are ranged behind it, parallel to the sea. They give a calm and elegant impression with the delicate lines of their generously spreading eaves, the soft roof surfaces, and the horizontal lines of the floors, &lt;em&gt;nageshi&lt;/em&gt; (horizontal tie-beams), and &lt;em&gt;kahiranuki&lt;/em&gt; (head tie-beams). They are supported on structural frames composed of massive wooden columns and &lt;em&gt;kumimono&lt;/em&gt; (brackets).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In front of the &lt;em&gt;Haraiden&lt;/em&gt; is the &lt;em&gt;Hirabutai&lt;/em&gt; (ceremonial platform), which is connected by a plank floor to the &lt;em&gt;Higashi-kairo&lt;/em&gt; (east corridor) and the &lt;em&gt;Nishi-kairo&lt;/em&gt; (west corridor) for access from other parts of the complex. The &lt;em&gt;Hirabutai&lt;/em&gt; projects forward and is the setting for the &lt;em&gt;Takabutai&lt;/em&gt; (stage), with vermilion lacquered balustrades on four sides. The court dances performed on this stage were brought from the capital in the Heian period (794-1184) and have been preserved by the priests of ltsukushima for more than eight centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sessha Marodo-jinja shrine complex, north-east of the Honsha group, faces west. Its components (&lt;em&gt;Haraiden&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Haiden&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Heiden&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Honden&lt;/em&gt; ) are laid out in the same form as those of the Honsha, and are very similar in style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area contains the ancillary buildings associated with Shintoism and Buddhism that accreted over the centuries around the famous Shinto shrine. These include the &lt;em&gt;Gojunoto&lt;/em&gt; (five-storey pagoda), &lt;em&gt;Tahoto&lt;/em&gt; (two-storey pagoda), &lt;em&gt;Sessha Tenjin-sha Honden&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Massha Hokoku-jinja Honden&lt;/em&gt; (Senjokaku).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The island of Itsukushima, in the Seto inland sea, has been a holy place of Shintoism since the earliest times. The first shrine buildings here were probably erected in the 6th century. The present shrine dates from the 12th century and the harmoniously arranged buildings reveal great artistic and technical skill. The shrine plays on the contrasts in colour and form between mountains and sea and illustrates the Japanese concept of scenic beauty, which combines nature and human creativity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Itsukushima Shinto Shrine</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>918</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 710 the capital of Japan was transferred by Empress Gemmei from Fujiwara to Nara, which prospered as the political, economic, and cultural centre of the country for the next 74 years, during what is known as the Nara Period. The site of Heij&amp;ocirc;-ky&amp;ocirc; was carefully selected in accordance with the Chinese geomantic principles governing the location of an imperial palace. A grand city plan, based on Chinese examples such as Chang'an, was laid out, with palaces, Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, public buildings, houses, and roads on an orthogonal grid. It covered an area of 2500ha, and its population is estimated to have been around 100,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The palace itself, located at the northern end of the central avenue, occupied 120ha. It comprised the official buildings where political and religious ceremonies took place, notably the Daigokuden (imperial audience hall) and Ch&amp;ocirc;d&amp;ocirc;-in (state halls), and the imperial residence (Dairi), together with various compounds for administrative and other purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During this period an integrated imperial policy for the promotion of Buddhism was developed and applied from Nara. Emperor Sh&amp;ocirc;mu ordered temples and convents to be built in all the provinces, and built T&amp;ocirc;dai-ji in 745 as the central provincial temple in Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 784 the imperial capital moved to Nagaoka for a mere nine years, and then to Kyoto (Heian), where it was to remain until 1184. The site of the abandoned Nara capital became paddy fields.. However, most of the temples and shrines survived intact; they maintained their high status and imperial patronage. As a result a new town developed around them which became known as Nanto (South Capital). The temple area around T&amp;ocirc;dai-ji, K&amp;ocirc;fuku-ji, Gang&amp;ocirc;-ji, and Kasuga- Taisha was particularly prosperous, and it was here that the modern city of Nara was to develop in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1180, however, T&amp;ocirc;dai-ji and K&amp;ocirc;fuku-ji were burnt to the ground in a period of internal strife. They were to be rebuilt soon afterwards, at the beginning of the Kamakura Shogunate (1185). Whilst K&amp;ocirc;fuku-ji adopted the traditional Japanese Way&amp;ocirc; style, however, T&amp;ocirc;kai-ji was to be rebuilt in the Daibutsuy&amp;ocirc; (Great Buddha) style, introduced from Sung Dynasty China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nara temples were to lose their prestige in the Muromachi Period (1333-1572). They suffered grievously from damage by fire: at T&amp;ocirc;dai-ji, for example, the T&amp;ocirc;t&amp;ocirc; (east pagoda), K&amp;ocirc;d&amp;ocirc; (lecture hall), S&amp;ocirc;b&amp;ocirc; (priests' living quarters), Kond&amp;ocirc; (Great Buddha Hall), Ch&amp;ucirc;mon (middle gate), and Kair&amp;ocirc; (cloister) were all destroyed in different periods of unrest. Some buildings were reconstructed during the early Edo Period (1615-1867), with the assistance of the Shogunate. Although the Kond&amp;ocirc; was reduced to twothirds of its original floor area, it is still the largest extant wooden structure in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/870</http_url><id_number>870</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_870.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The historic monuments of ancient Nara bear exceptional witness to the evolution of Japanese architecture and art as a result of cultural links with China and Korea which were to have a profound influence on future developments. Criterion (iii): The flowering of Japanese culture during the period when Nara was the capital is uniquely demonstrated by its architectural heritage. Criterion (iv): The layout of the Imperial Palace and the design of the surviving monuments in Nara are outstanding examples of the architecture and planning of early Asian capital cities. Criterion (vi): The Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines of Nara demonstrate the continuing spiritual power and influence of these religions in an exceptional manner.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.6755555600</latitude><location>Nara Prefecture</location><longitude>135.8394444000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara bear exceptional witness to the evolution of Japanese architecture and art as a result of cultural links with China and Korea, which were to have a profound influence on future developments. They vividly illustrate a critical period in the cultural and political development of Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 710 the capital of Japan was transferred from Fujiwara to Nara, which prospered as the political, economic and cultural centre of the country for the next 74 years, during the Nara period. The site of Heij&amp;ocirc;-ky&amp;ocirc; was carefully selected in accordance with Chinese geomantic principles. A grand city plan, based on Chinese examples such as Chang'an, was laid out, with palaces, Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines, public buildings, houses, and roads on an orthogonal grid. The palace itself, located at the northern end of the central avenue, occupied 120&amp;nbsp;ha. It comprised the official buildings where political and religious ceremonies took place, notably the Daigokuden (imperial audience hall) and Ch&amp;ocirc;d&amp;ocirc;-in (state halls), and the imperial residence (Dairi), together with various compounds for administrative and other purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 784 the imperial capital moved to Nagaoka for nine years, and then to Kyoto (Heian), where it was to remain until 1184. The abandoned Nara capital became paddy fields. However, most of the temples and shrines survived intact; they maintained their high status and imperial patronage. A new town developed around them known as Nanto (South Capital). The temple area around T&amp;ocirc;dai-ji, K&amp;ocirc;fuku-ji, Gang&amp;ocirc;-ji and Kasuga-Taisha was particularly prosperous, and it was here that the modern city developed in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The T&amp;ocirc;dai-ji consists of a group of buildings. The Kond&amp;ocirc; (Great Buddha Hall) houses the seated image of the Vairocana (Great) Buddha. It is a monumental seven-bay wooden structure, and the bronze statue is some 15&amp;nbsp;m high. The K&amp;ocirc;fuku-ji, erected in Fujiwara, was rebuilt in Nara when the capital moved there in 710. The Gang&amp;ocirc;-ji was the first Buddhist temple in Japan, built by Soga-no-Umako in the 6th century and originally known as Asuka-dera. It was transferred from Asuka in 718 when the capital moved to Nara. Much of it was destroyed by fire in 1451.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;dai-ji, originally built by the Chinese high priest Jian Zhen (Ganjin) in 759 for students of Buddhism, is unusual in having suffered very little from fire or other forms of disaster. Its main features are the Kond&amp;ocirc; (main hall, the only extant example built in the Nara period and very important in the study of Japanese temple architecture), K&amp;ocirc;d&amp;ocirc; (lecture hall, originally a state assembly hall in the Nara Palace and the only surviving example of the architecture of the palace), Kor&amp;ocirc; (sutra repository), and H&amp;ocirc;z&amp;ocirc; and Ky&amp;ocirc;z&amp;ocirc; (two Nara repositories in 'log-house' style).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kasuga-Taisha: according to legend the Kasuga-Taisha (Kasuga Great Shrine) was founded in 768, but its origins are believed to go back to the beginning of the Nara period. It is located at the foot of two sacred mountains: Kasugayama and Mikasayama. The buildings of Kasuga-Taisha have been restored and reconstructed on many occasions following decay and destruction. The buildings are all within the shrine precinct and, according to tradition, are roofed with cypress-bark shingles, so as to harmonize with their natural environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kasugayama Primeval Forest: the natural environment is an integral element of all Shinto shrines. In the case of Kasuga-Taisha this is provided by Kasugayama, which has been preserved as a sacred forest. There is no form of human intervention beyond the provision of footpaths for worshippers and pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nara Palace site contains all the elements necessary to meet the official and private requirements of the imperial family. These included the Daigokuden (imperial audience hall), Ch&amp;ocirc;d&amp;ocirc;-in (state halls), Dairi (imperial residence), offices, workshops, stores, stables, etc. The compound was enclosed by earthen ramparts (Tsuji-ogaki) some 5&amp;nbsp;m high and crossed by 12 gates. The main entrance was the Suzaku Gate in the middle of the south wall, giving access to the Daigokuden and Ch&amp;ocirc;d&amp;ocirc;-in, the most important buildings in the imperial complex, used for political ceremonies and banquets.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Nara was the capital of Japan from 710 to 784. During this period the framework of national government was consolidated and Nara enjoyed great prosperity, emerging as the fountainhead of Japanese culture. The city's historic monuments &amp;ndash; Buddhist temples, Shinto shrines and the excavated remains of the great Imperial Palace &amp;ndash; provide a vivid picture of life in the Japanese capital in the 8th century, a period of profound political and cultural change.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1021</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural property proposed for inscription is linked to a cult that goes back to the end of the 8th century, when a Buddhist monk, Shodo, erected the first buildings on the slopes of the Nikko, which had been worshipped as a sacred mountain since time immemorial. Certain buildings in the Futarasan-jinja and Rinn&amp;ocirc;-ji groups belong to this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 12th century, the Kamakura Shogunate established itself in the region of Kanto. This enabled Nikko to strengthen its position further as a major sacred site in Kanto, not only because of its mountainous situation but also because of its religious edifices. However, the site was more or less abandoned owing to the upheavals of the Muromachi period, in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The temples were rehabilitated at the beginning of the 17th century. Nikko was chosen as the site for the T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu, a sanctuary composed of several buildings erected to house the mausoleum of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate. This regime was in power for over 250 years in the history of Japan. Since this period, Nikko has played a very important role as a symbol of national sovereignty, not only in the eyes of local authorities but also those of leaders of neighbouring countries who sent their emissaries to pay tribute to Ieyasu, a deified personage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1871, the Meiji government decided to divide the site and its religious buildings, which came under one religious authority, into three groups entrusted to three separate religious organizations: Futarasan-jinja and T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu for the Shinto cult, and Rinn&amp;ocirc;-ji for Buddhism. This reorganization entailed moving and restoring certain buildings. The sacred and prestigious character of the site made it possible to guarantee the preservation of Nikko which was placed under legal protection as of 1897, a measure subsequently reinforced on several occasions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/913</http_url><id_number>913</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_913.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (i): The Nikko shrines and temples are a reflection of architectural and artistic genius; this aspect is reinforced by the harmonious integration of the buildings in a forest and a natural site laid out by people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iv): Nikko is a perfect illustration of the architectural style of the Edo period as applied to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. The Gongen-zukuri style of the two mausoleums, the T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu and the Taiy&amp;ucirc;-in Reiby&amp;ocirc;, reached the peak of its expression in Nikko, and was later to exert a decisive influence. The ingenuity and creativity of its architects and decorators are revealed in an outstanding and distinguished manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (vi): The Nikko shrines and temples, together with their environment, are an outstanding example of a traditional Japanese religious centre, associated with the Shinto perception of the relationship of man with nature, in which mountains and forests have a sacred meaning and are objects of veneration, in a religious practice that is still very much alive today.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>36.7475000000</latitude><location>Tochigi Prefecture</location><longitude>139.6105556000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Nikko is a perfect illustration of the architectural style of the Edo period as applied to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. The ingenuity and creativity of its architects and decorators are revealed in an outstanding and distinguished. The shrines and temples, together with their environment, are an outstanding example of a traditional Japanese religious centre, associated with the Shinto perception of the relationship of man with nature, in which mountains and forests have a sacred meaning and are objects of veneration, in a religious practice that is still very much alive today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 8th century a Buddhist monk, Shodo, erected the first buildings on the slopes of Nikko sacred mountain, which had been worshipped since time immemorial. At the end of the 12th century, the Kamakura Shogunate established itself in the region of Kanto, enabling Nikko to strengthen its position further as a major sacred site in Kanto. However, the site was abandoned owing to the upheavals of the Muromachi period, in the 16th century. It was chosen as the site for the T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu, a sanctuary composed of several buildings erected to house the mausoleum of T Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate. This regime was in power for over 250 years in the history of Japan. Since this period, Nikko has played a very important role as a symbol of national sovereignty, not only in the eyes of local authorities but also those of leaders of neighbouring countries who sent their emissaries to pay tribute to Ieyasu, a deified personage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1871, the Meiji government decided to divide the site and its religious buildings into three groups entrusted to three separate religious organizations: Futarasan-jinja and T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu for the Shinto cult and Rinn&amp;ocirc;-ji for Buddhism. This reorganization entailed moving and restoring certain buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Futarasan-jinja: devoted to the three divinities of Mount Nantai, it forms a complex of buildings. Most of them were restored or built in the 17th century, following old traditions, and they exerted a general influence in the layout of shrines throughout Japan. Among the buildings, mention should be made of the Honden and the Haiden, the heart of the shrine, the Betsug&amp;ucirc; Takino-o-jinja Honden, with a construction plan dating back to the year 825, and the Shin-yosha, the oldest example of an architectural style which was to inspire the first construction phases of the T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu. The Shinky&amp;ocirc; is also part of the Futarasan-jinja. This sacred bridge, straddling the river Daiya, appears to belong to the Muromachi period. Its present configuration, a vermilion lacquer bridge resting on massive stone pillars, goes back to 1636.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu: this shrine, founded in the 17th century, comprises a large number of buildings. A suite of three sacred chambers is a perfect illustration of the H-shaped architectural layout known as Gongen-zukuri. The Sh&amp;ocirc;men Karamon and the Haimen Karamon, a masterpiece of craftsmanship is inspired by a foreign style, hence the common name of 'Chinese door'. The Y&amp;ocirc;meimon, erected in 1636, is probably the best-known example of the architectural style of Nikko. It is covered in a profusion and infinite variety of decoration. The T&amp;ocirc;zai Sukibe, also dating to 1636, is a wall about 160&amp;nbsp;m long, surrounding the &lt;em&gt;Honden&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Ishinoma&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Haiden&lt;/em&gt; group. The T&amp;ocirc;zai Kairo, a corridor 220&amp;nbsp;m long, with a southern section formed of 25 sculpted panels, surrounds three sides of the same &lt;em&gt;Honden&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Ishinoma&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Haiden&lt;/em&gt; group.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Rinn&amp;ocirc;-ji: the origin of this Buddhist temple goes back to the 8th century, and it has always remained a place of worship. Major constructions were added at the beginning of the Edo period, especially in 1653 for the mausoleum of the third shogun, Togukawa Iemitsu. The group, in the Gongen-zukuri shape and style and composed of the Taiy&amp;ucirc;-in Reiby&amp;ocirc; Honden, Ainoma and Haiden, is listed as a National Treasure. It is a pure masterpiece of architecture and decoration.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thanks to centuries of landscaping, the temples and shrines blend harmoniously into their natural setting. The buildings are arranged on the mountain slopes in such a way as to create different visual effects. Thousands of Japanese cedars (&lt;em&gt;Cryptomeria&lt;/em&gt; ) were planted during the T&amp;ocirc;sh&amp;ocirc;gu construction period in the early 17th century. This forest provides an exceptional natural bower for the shrines and temples, adding considerably to the beauty and sacred character of the site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The shrines and temples of Nikko, together with their natural surroundings, have for centuries been a sacred site known for its architectural and decorative masterpieces. They are closely associated with the history of the Tokugawa Shoguns.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Shrines and Temples of Nikko</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1066</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 10th-12th centuries, Ryukyuan farming communities (gusukus) began to enclose their villages with simple stone walls for protection. From the 12th century onwards powerful groups, known as aji, began to emerge. They enlarged the defences of their own settlements, converting them into fortresses for their own households; these adopted the term gusuku to describe these formidable castles. There followed a continual struggle for supremacy between the aji, which did not coalesce until the 15th century into three main kingdoms - Hokuzan (North Mountain), Ch&amp;ucirc;zan (Central Mountain), and Nanzan (South Mountain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sanzan (Three Mountain) period was marked by many changes in Ryukyuan society and economy. Improved tools and techniques resulted in enormous growth in agricultural production. There was intensive trade from the Sanzan Period onwards with Song Dynasty China, mainland Japan, the Korean peninsula, and south-east Asia, reaching its peak between the end of the 14th century and the mid 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This period came to an end in 1429 when Ryukyu was finally united by the Ch&amp;ucirc;zan ruler into a single kingdom. The first king was expelled in a coup-d'&amp;eacute;tat in 1469, but the kingdom survived intact until 1879; the two periods are known as the First and Second Sh&amp;ocirc; Dynasty respectively. The third king of the Second Sh&amp;ocirc; Dynasty, Sh&amp;ocirc; Shin, consolidated the administration of the kingdom, instituting strong centralized control of both the political and the religious system. &lt;br /&gt; The Kingdom was conquered from Japan in 1609 by the Satsuma fief during the Tokugawa Shogunate, but the new overlords retained the Ryukyuan monarchy as its local administration. It also provided valuable links with the rest of the world at a period when Japan was virtually closed to all overseas contacts. With the end of the Shogunate at the Meiji Restoration in 1868, it survived briefly as the &amp;quot;Ryukyu Domain,&amp;quot; but in 1879 the Ryukyu Kingdom was abolished and the islands became the Okinawa Prefecture under the new administrative system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ryukyu was the scene of heavy bombardment and bitter land fighting at the end of World War II; many lives were lost and the cultural properties were grievously damaged. It was under US administration until 1972, when control was returned to Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/972</http_url><id_number>972</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_972.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span class="CmCaReT" style="display: none;"&gt;�&lt;/span&gt;Criterion ii For several centuries the Ryukyu islands served as a centre of economic and cultural interchange between south-east Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, and this is vividly demonstrated by the surviving monuments. Criterion iii The culture of the Ryukyuan Kingdom evolved and flourished in a special political and economic environment, which gave its culture a unique quality. Criterion vi The Ryukyu sacred sites constitute an exceptional example of an indigenous form of nature and ancestor worship which has survived intact into the modern age alongside other established world religions.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>26.2086111100</latitude><location>Okinawa Prefecture</location><longitude>127.6827778000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;For several centuries the Ryukyu Islands served as a centre of economic and cultural interchange between South-East Asia, China, Korea and Japan, and this is vividly demonstrated by the surviving monuments. The culture of the Ryukyuan Kingdom evolved and flourished in a special political and economic environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 10th-12th centuries, Ryukyuan farming communities (&lt;em&gt;gusuku&lt;/em&gt; ) began to enclose their villages with simple stone walls for protection. From the 12th century onwards powerful groups known as &lt;em&gt;aji&lt;/em&gt; began to emerge. They enlarged the defences of their own settlements, converting them into fortresses for their own households; these adopted the term &lt;em&gt;gusuku&lt;/em&gt; to describe these formidable castles. There&lt;em&gt; followed a continual struggle for supremacy between the aji&lt;/em&gt; , which did not coalesce until the 15th century into three main kingdoms - Hokuzan (North Mountain), Ch&amp;ucirc;zan (Central Mountain), and Nanzan (South Mountain).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tamaudun Royal was built by Sh&amp;ocirc; Shin around 1501 as a symbol of royal power, and to take advantage of the Ryukyuan people's practice of worshipping at the tombs of ancestors. It is carved into the limestone bedrock and covered by a gabled pantile roof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sonohyan-utaki Ishimon (Stone Gate of the Sonohyan Shrine) was erected in 1519 by Sh&amp;ocirc; Shin, fronting a sacred forest (Sonohyan-utaki). It was considered to be the guardian shrine of the Ryukyu Kingdom, where prayers were offered for peace and security at annual ritual ceremonies. It represents the unique style of stone architecture developed in Ryukyu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nakijin-j&amp;ocirc; (Nakijin Castle) became the residence of the Ryukyuan Kingdom governor. Work began on its construction in the late 13th century and it had reached its final form by the beginning of the 15th century. The castle is strategically sited on a lone hill, well defended by natural features (river, cliffs and deep valley).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Zakimi-j&amp;ocirc; (Zakimi Castle) was built in the early 15th century by a powerful chieftain, Gosamaru. After the establishment of the Ryukyu Kingdom it served to watch over the survivors of the Hokuzan Kingdom, who had fled to the west coast of Okinawa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Katsuren-j&amp;ocirc; (Katsuren Castle), built in the 12th-13th centuries, was the stronghold of another powerful chieftain, Amawari. Sited on a dominant hill, it comprises four linked enclosures with walls of coralline limestone. There are several ancient places of worship, in particular the shrine dedicated to Kobazukasa, a round stone column in the middle of the first enclosure, is still of considerable spiritual significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nakagusuku-j&amp;ocirc; (Nakagusuku Castle), built in the turbulent final years of the 14th century and extended in the mid-15th century, consists of six enclosures, arranged in a line on a steep promontory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shuri-j&amp;ocirc; (Shuri Castle) built in the second half of the 14th century, was the main castle of the kings of Ch&amp;ucirc;zan and, after unification, of the Ryukyu Kingdom. The hill on which it stands dominates Naha City and its port. It is divided into inner and outer enclosures, conforming with the topography. The castle's enclosure walls, built with random bonding of coralline limestone, extend over 1,080&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shikinaen, a royal garden villa, is recorded as having been constructed in 1799. The plan shows Japanese influence, although Chinese features are to be found in some structures. The result is, however, uniquely Ryukyuan. Around the pool are disposed walkways, pavilions, artificial hills and flower gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;S&amp;ecirc;fa-utaki became one of the most sacred places in the new religion. There are several places of worship, three of them linked by stone-flagged paths. There are few material indications of the significance of S&amp;ecirc;fa-utaki: it is essentially a densely wooded hill on which the shrines and prayer sites have an ageless spiritual quality that derives from their setting rather than man-made symbols.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Five hundred years of Ryukyuan history (12th-17th century) are represented by this group of sites and monuments. The ruins of the castles, on imposing elevated sites, are evidence for the social structure over much of that period, while the sacred sites provide mute testimony to the rare survival of an ancient form of religion into the modern age. The wide- ranging economic and cultural contacts of the Ryukyu Islands over that period gave rise to a unique culture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gusuku Sites and Related Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1136</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1193</http_url><id_number>1193</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1193.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix): &lt;/em&gt;Shiretoko provides an outstanding example of the interaction of marine and terrestrial ecosystems as well as extraordinary ecosystem productivity, largely influenced by the formation of seasonal sea ice at the lowest latitude in the northern hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x): &lt;/em&gt;Shiretoko has particular importance for a number of marine and terrestrial species. These include a number of endangered and endemic species, such as the Blackiston&amp;rsquo;s Fish owl and the plant species Viola kitamiana. The site is globally important for a number of salmonid species and for a number of marine mammals, including the Steller&amp;rsquo;s sea Lion and a number of cetacean species. The site has significance as a habitat for globally threatened sea birds and is a globally important area for migratory birds.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.9494400000</latitude><location>Hokkaido prefecture</location><longitude>144.9658300000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Shiretoko Peninsula is located in the north-east of Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan. The site includes the land from the central part of the peninsula to its tip (Shiretoko Cape) and the surrounding marine area. It provides an outstanding example of the interaction of marine and terrestrial ecosystems as well as extraordinary ecosystem productivity, largely influenced by the formation of seasonal sea ice at the lowest latitude in the northern hemisphere. It has particular importance for a number of marine and terrestrial species, some of them endangered and endemic, such as Blackiston&amp;rsquo;s fish owl and the Viola kitamiana plant. The site is globally important for threatened seabirds and migratory birds, a number of salmonid species, and for marine mammals including Steller&amp;rsquo;s sea lion and some cetacean species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Shiretoko</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1370</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;According to the dossier, although there is some evidence to suggest that the silver seams were known in the 14th century, the Iwami Ginzan Silver bearing seams were &amp;lsquo;discovered' in 1526, and almost immediately developed by Kamiya Jutei, a powerful merchant of Hakata, then the largest trading port in Japan. Jutei operated under the protection of the &amp;Ocirc;uchi family, a feudal clan who controlled the Iwami region and whose wealth was based on trade with China and Korea. Around 1533 the more efficient &amp;lsquo;cupellation' smelting technique was introduced to the mines possibly from Korea, and this dramatically increased the output of the mines to the extent that the in the late 1530s, the amount of silver which was offered as the tribute to the &amp;Ocirc;uchi Family increased from 16 to 80 kg per year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1530s and 1540s, the &amp;Ocirc;uchi family's authority of the silver mines was repeatedly challenged by neighbouring land owners who fought for control of the highly profitable mines. The three fortresses around the mines date from this time. In the 1550s the Amago family took control for ten years followed by the M&amp;ocirc;ri family in 1561. The M&amp;ocirc;ri family established their vassals in the surrounding area and created two new routes to the newly developed ports of Yunotsu and Okidomari.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After a series of national wars over the next twenty years, Tokugawa Ieyasu, became the ultimate victor. In 1600 he took over the seat of power, establishing the Tokugawa Edo Shogunate and expropriated gold mines and silver mines throughout Japan. Okubo Nagayasu was appointed to administer the mines and developed new shafts and increased silver production. The mine business was run by mining directors called yamashi, who paid silver as commission to the Edo Shogunate. Yasuhara Dembei, the yamashi who operated the Kamaya-mabu and other mine shafts under contract with the Tokugawa Family around 1600-1602, paid 13,500 kg of silver in one year to the Edo Shogunate. The digging of silver ore was carried out by miners who were employed under contract to the yamashi although few details are available to suggest whether miners were indentured or self regulated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The early 17th century was the heyday of the mines with as many as ten thousand people employed. The Dutch and English furthered international trade and within Japan relatively settled times led to the flourishing of towns which further increased demand for silver. Silver production was operated by the private capital of the yamashi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 17th century administration of the silver mine and its surrounding area came under the control of a magistrate deployed by the central national government, the Edo Shogunate, and this further increased output. Few specific silver production figures are provided in the nomination dossier and no quantitative information is available to provide a clearer impression of the impact of the mine on the economies of the wider region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The silver production at the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine reached its peak in the 1620s-1640s and started to decline gradually after that. As mine shafts were dug deeper into the ground, it became more difficult to work and more costly to drain out water, making silver production less profitable. In 1691, 63 of a total of 92 mine shafts were closed; in 1729, 74 of a total of 129 mine shafts were closed; and in 1823, 247 of a total of 279 mine shafts were not in operation. The silver production that had averaged 1,000 to 2,000 kg annually in the late 17th century decreased to 100 kg or so in the mid-19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Edo Shogunate fell in 1868, the Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine was privatized in 1869 by the new national government. In 1887, a private company named Fujitagumi resumed operation of the silver mine and renamed it &amp;Ocirc;mori K&amp;ocirc;zan (&amp;Ocirc;mori mine). In 1895, a refinery was constructed at Shimizudani, introducing western technology, but it was closed after little more than one year. In its place, another refinery was constructed at K&amp;ocirc;jidani at the western foot of Mount Y&amp;ocirc;gaisan, where smelting and refining, mainly of copper but also of gold and silver, was carried out. However, because the price of copper dropped and cheap copper started to be imported after World War I, the mine was forced to close in 1923. Later in 1942, an attempt was made to reopen the mine to meet the demand for metal during World War II, but this failed due to damage from a typhoon in 1943.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Details of the history of the mines in relation to its political context cannot be matched by equivalent detail for the history of technological transfer to the rapidly developing mines in Japan. The transfer of the &amp;lsquo;cupellation' to other silver mines in Japan is noted in the dossier but little is available on the impact of other mining and smelting techniques. Evidence for how cupellation was transferred to Japan, how it spread within Japan, the origins of this technique as used in Japan, and its relationship to the cupellation technique known in the west since antiquity, are not available.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dossier does not relate the technology to archaeological evidence - although as yet very little of the mines have been explored. Thus it is not possible to detail neither how technology developed within Japan in its long period of isolation from Western influences nor whether this was pioneering, as suggested in the dossier. Nor can the history of Iwami Ginzan's role as perhaps the major supplier of newly mined silver in Japan and its impact on its commerce and that of its neighbours, be set down. There appears to be strong evidence that Japanese silver exports in the 17th century increased to compensate for the decline of those in Latin America, but supporting evidence is unavailable.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1246</http_url><id_number>1246</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1246.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.1127777777</latitude><location>Shimane Prefecture, Ohda City District</location><longitude>132.4350000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine in the south-west of Honshu Island is a cluster of mountains, rising to 600 m and interspersed by deep river valleys featuring the archaeological remains of large-scale mines, smelting and refining sites and mining settlements worked between the 16th and 20th centuries. The site also features routes used to transport silver ore to the coast, and port towns from where it was shipped to Korea and China. The mines contributed substantially to the overall economic development of Japan and south-east Asia in the 16th and 17th centuries, prompting the mass production of silver and gold in Japan. The mining area is now heavily wooded. Included in the site are fortresses, shrines, parts of Kaid&amp;ocirc; transport routes to the coast, and three port towns, Tomogaura, Okidomari and Yunotsu, from where the ore was shipped.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine and its Cultural Landscape</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1737</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1362</http_url><id_number>1362</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1362.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.7183333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>142.0997222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property numbers more than 30 islands clustered in three groups and covers surface area of 7,939 hectares. The islands offer a variety of landscapes and are home to a wealth of fauna, including the Bonin Flying Fox, a critically endangered bat, and 195 endangered bird species. Four-hundred and forty-one native plant taxa have been documented on the islands whose waters support numerous species of fish, cetaceans and corals. Ogasawara Islands' ecosystems reflect a range of evolutionary processes illustrated through its assemblage of plant species from both southeast and northwest Asia, alongside many endemic species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ogasawara Islands</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1770</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1277</http_url><id_number>1277</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1277.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.0011111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>141.1077777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Hiraizumi - Temples, Gardens and Archaeological Sites Representing the Buddhist Pure Land&amp;nbsp;comprises five sites, including the sacred Mount Kinkeisan. It features vestiges of government offices dating from the 11th and 12th centuries when Hiraizumi was the administrative centre of the northern realm of Japan and rivalled Kyoto. The realm was based on the cosmology of Pure Land Buddhism, which spread to Japan in the 8th century. It represented the pure land of Buddha that people aspire to after death, as well as peace of mind in this life. In combination with indigenous Japanese nature worship and Shintoism, Pure Land Buddhism developed a concept of planning and garden design that was unique to Japan.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hiraizumi – Temples, Gardens and Archaeological Sites Representing the Buddhist Pure Land</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1771</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1418</http_url><id_number>1418</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1418.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.3608333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>138.7275000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The beauty of the solitary, often snow-capped, stratovolcano, known around the world as Mount Fuji, rising above villages and tree-fringed sea and lakes has long been the object of pilgrimages and inspired artists and poets. The inscribed property consists of 25 sites which reflect the essence of Fujisan’s sacred and artistic landscape. In the 12th century, Fujisan became the centre of training for ascetic Buddhism, which included Shinto elements. On the upper 1,500-metre tier of the 3,776m mountain, pilgrim routes and crater shrines have been inscribed alongside sites around the base of the mountain including Sengen-jinja shrines, Oshi lodging houses, and natural volcanic features such as lava tree moulds, lakes, springs and waterfalls, which are revered as sacred. Its representation in Japanese art goes back to the 11th century, but 19th century woodblock prints of views, including those from sand beaches with pine tree groves have made Fujisan an internationally recognized icon of Japan and have had a deep impact on the development of Western art. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fujisan, sacred place and source of artistic inspiration</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1883</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1449</http_url><id_number>1449</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1449.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.2552777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>138.8877777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property is a historic sericulture and silk mill complex established in the late 19th and early 20th century in the Gunma prefecture, north-west of Tokyo. It consists of four sites that correspond to the different stages in the production of raw silk: a large raw silk reeling plant whose machinery and industrial expertise were imported from France; an experimental farm for production of cocoons; a school for the dissemination of sericulture knowledge; and a cold-storage facility for silkworm eggs. The site illustrates Japan’s desire to rapidly access the best mass production techniques, and became a decisive element in the renewal of sericulture and the Japanese silk industry in the last quarter of the 19th century. Tomioka Silk Mill and its related sites became the centre of innovation for the production of raw silk and marked Japan’s entry into the modern, industrialized era, making it the world’s leading exporter of raw silk, notably to Europe and the United States.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tomioka Silk Mill and Related Sites</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1992</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1484</http_url><id_number>1484</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1484.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.4305555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>131.4122222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;The site encompasses a series of twenty three component parts, mainly located in the southwest of Japan. It bears testimony to the rapid industrialization of the country from the middle of the 19&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century to the early 20&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century, through the development of the iron and steel industry, shipbuilding and coal mining. The site illustrates the process by which feudal Japan sought technology transfer from Europe and America from the middle of the 19&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century and how this technology was adapted to the country’s needs and social traditions. The site testifies to what is considered to be the first successful transfer of Western industrialization to a non-Western nation.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sites of Japan’s Meiji Industrial Revolution: Iron and Steel, Shipbuilding and Coal Mining</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2045</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1535</http_url><id_number>1535</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1535.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.2450000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>130.1055555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located 60 km off the western coast of Kyushu island, the island of Okinoshima is an exceptional example of the tradition of worship of a sacred island. The archaeological sites that have been preserved on the island are virtually intact, and provide a chronological record of how the rituals performed there changed from the 4th to the 9th centuries AD. In these rituals, votive objects were deposited as offerings at different sites on the island. Many of them are of exquisite workmanship and had been brought from overseas, providing evidence of intense exchanges between the Japanese archipelago, the Korean Peninsula and the Asian continent. Integrated within the Grand Shrine of Munakata, the island of Okinoshima is considered sacred to this day.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sacred Island of Okinoshima and Associated Sites in the Munakata Region </site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2149</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 3rd to the 2nd century BC, when rice culture was introduced into Japan and settlements began to develop in the lowlands, the Shinto religion, in which natural features such as mountains, forests, rocks and trees were revered as gods, came to be embraced - perhaps as a link to ancient dwelling sites in the hills. The mountain gods were thought to control water, essential for rice growing in the plains, and gold ore, needed as towns developed. It was also believed that the god who guided the first Emperor to build Nara the first capital resided in the mountains. Thus the Shinto religion came to be influential not only in rural areas but also in the towns as they were formed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century coincided with the development by the government of a centralised system of laws, following examples in China and the Korean peninsula. The government adopted Buddhism as the guardian religion for the nation and in the mid 8th century temples were built in each province of Japan. At the same time the concept of the Pure Land associated with the Kii Mountains begun to gain ground and people started to undertake training in the mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 8th century the capital was moved to Kyoto and in the following century the esoteric Buddhist sect Mikkyo was brought to Japan from China. This stressed the belief that mountains are places for training to attain awakening. Out of this developed the local Shingon sect and many new temples were constructed in the Kii Mountains. The rise of Mikkyo/Shingon coincided with the rise in power of aristocrats whose authority was based on land ownership. They embraced this new sect, as did the Emperor who hosted various religious rites in what were coming to be seen as the sacred Kii Mountains. The new sect also interacted with Shintoism, a fusion that had been in existence since the 8th century and from this interaction the uniquely Japanese Shinto-Buddhist religion emerged which was to be a powerful force until the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growth of pilgrims visiting sites in the Kii Mountains seems to have coincided with the rise of social unrest around the capital in the 9th to the 10th centuries. It was at this time that many of the pilgrim routes were laid out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the following two centuries, 11th and 12th, the distinctly Japanese flowering of Buddhist practices, and the buildings that were associated with these beliefs, were strengthened by the government's decision to stop sending delegations to China. The consecration of the three main sites in the Kii Mountains were all progressed, and gained considerable support from people who were wanting escape from the worsening social conditions characterised by conflict between samurai. The Imperial family, aristocrats and samurai all became benefactors of new temples and land to support them, as a means of guaranteeing a better life in the hereafter and a retired Emperor made a first pilgrimage to Koyasan and Kumano Sanzan in the late 1tth century - stimulating others to follow in ever larger numbers. This prompted the development of hospices, the improvement of shrines and temples, the construction of Oji shrines along the main routes, and the funding by the Imperial family and aristocrats of people to manage the sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kii Mountain sites were thus established by the end of the 12th century as the main sacred mountain site in Japan, and attained a status which would persist to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 12th century the government was moved to Kamkura -although the ruling family remained in Kyoto. From the 14th to the 16th century conflict between Imperial factions, the grip on power by the samurai and battles between feudal lords meant a weakening of Imperial and centralised authority, but at the same time the growth of a monetary economy and improved methods of production led to a new rich class. Pilgrimages were now extended to anyone who could afford the journey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 17th until 1868 a powerful feudal government was established in Edo (later Tokyo) and much of the land associated with temples was absorbed by the government. Support however for the temples continued form the government and ordinary people. At the same time improved roads made travel easier and the number of pilgrims begun to increase, as did those wanting to travel as tourists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1868 the Emperor took control from the feudal government and the Imperial capital was moved to Tokyo. The new government introduced measures to control religions in Japan, and issued the Shintoism and Buddhism Separation Decree in 1868. This prohibited activities related to the Shinto-Buddhist fusion and statues of Buddha were removed from shrines. However because of the strong support by society at large for the Kii Mountains and their shrines, many survived. Such was the outflow of cultural properties from Japan as a result of the law that in 1897 the government brought in the Ancient Shrines and Temples Preservation Law, strengthening it is 1929, and extending it in 1919 to include natural sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After World War II, with the revitalising of the economy, visitors once again returned to the Kii Mountains and still visit in large numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1142</http_url><id_number>1142</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1142.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The monuments and sites that form the cultural landscape of the Kii Mountains are a unique fusion between Shintoism and Buddhism that illustrates the interchange and development of religious cultures in East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in the Kii Mountains, and their associated rituals, bear exceptional testimony to the development of Japan’s religious culture over more than a thousand years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Kii Mountains have become the setting for the creation of unique forms of shrine and temple buildings which have had a profound influence on the building of temples and shrines elsewhere in Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Together, the sites and the forest landscape of the Kii Mountains reflect a persistent and extraordinarily well-documented tradition of sacred mountains over the past 1200 years.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>33.8369444400</latitude><location>Mie, Nara and Wakayama Prefectures</location><longitude>135.7763889000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples that form the cultural landscape of the Kii Mountains are a unique fusion between Shintoism and Buddhism illustrating the interchange and development of religious cultures in East Asia. They have become the setting for the creation of unique forms of shrine and temple buildings that have had a profound influence on the building of temples and shrines elsewhere in Japan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of three sacred sites in the heavily forested Kii Mountains, a peninsula jutting into the Pacific, and a complex pattern of tracks and paths that link the sites together and to the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto to the north, which flourished from the 6th century to 1868. The steep, rugged mountains of the Kii Peninsula rise to 1,000-2,000&amp;nbsp;m and are heavily wooded. The natural beauty of the area, and its harsh but serene mountain environment, has probably been revered since prehistoric times. The three specific sites had become established as major sacred sites as early as the 11th or 12th centuries, attracting a great number of worshippers. The area is still part of the living culture of Japan and the sites are heavily visited and used for ritual purposes and for hiking. The pilgrim routes are not all contiguous as there are sections excluded where they have been influenced by modern development. The forested mountains underpin the significance of the whole site, for it is the beauty and drama of the mountains and their contrast with the seascape to the south which has attracted people for at least 2,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Each of the three shrines contains both buildings and objects, such as temples, shrines, statues and stupas, as well as revered natural elements such as trees, waterfalls, rocks, etc. The built structures are almost all of wood, constructed in a post and pillar construction similar to Japanese houses. Many have been successively rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yoshino and Omine: this is the northern-most site near to Nara. The Yoshino or northern part of the site was by the mid-10th century known as the most important sacred mountain in Japan and its reputation had reached China. It was the object of mountain worship, Shinto, in the 7th and 8th centuries and later in the 8th century became one of the prime sacred places for the Shugen sect of ascetic Buddhism. Omine, the southern part, was also associated with the Shugen sect and, in particular, with ascetic practices connected to the harsh mountain environment. This site consists of groups of buildings in what is said to be a unique architectural style constructed as an embodiment of Shinto-Buddhist religious fusion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kumano Sanzan: This site is the furthest south. The shrine buildings are said to show outstanding wooden architectural styles that have no comparators. Within the site are three main shrines, and two temples, connected by a pilgrims' route. They reflect Shinto and the Shugen sect of Shinto-Buddhism, and were also closely associated with the search for the pure Buddhist land in the southern sea&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Koyasan: This site south of Nara is partly in an alpine basin at an altitude of 800&amp;nbsp;m and partly at the foot of the mountains. It is actively used for annual festivals and rituals dedicated to the deity of the land and the rites of the Buddhist Shingon sect.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pilgrim routes: As the sacred sites became established and well visited in the 11th or 12th centuries, a series of pilgrim routes were developed linking the sites to Kyoto and to other places throughout Japan - some based on earlier tracks. The routes in the mountains were designed to be arduous and the journey over them part of the religious experience, rather than a means to an end. Most of the routes are no more than 1m wide and of earth; in a few places stone steps or stone pavements were constructed, such as the 34&amp;nbsp;km stretch of stone paving through the forest, part of the Kumano Sankeimichi route between Kumano Sanzen and Ise Jungu.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Set in the dense forests of the Kii Mountains overlooking the Pacific Ocean, three sacred sites – Yoshino and Omine, Kumano Sanzan, Koyasan – linked by pilgrimage routes to the ancient capital cities of Nara and Kyoto, reflect the fusion of Shinto, rooted in the ancient tradition of nature worship in Japan, and Buddhism, which was introduced from China and the Korean Peninsula. The sites (506.4 ha) and their surrounding forest landscape reflect a persistent and extraordinarily well-documented tradition of sacred mountains over 1,200 years. The area, with its abundance of streams, rivers and waterfalls, is still part of the living culture of Japan and is much visited for ritual purposes and hiking, with up to 15 million visitors annually. Each of the three sites contains shrines, some of which were founded as early as the 9th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2183</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1495</http_url><id_number>1495</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1495.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jp</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.8022222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>128.9038888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the north-western part of Kyushu island, this serial property consists of ten villages, remains of the Hara Castle and a cathedral, dating from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They reflect the era of prohibition of the Christian faith, as well as the revitalization of Christian communities after the official lifting of prohibition in 1873.  These sites bear unique testimony to a cultural tradition nurtured by hidden Christians in the Nagasaki region who secretly transmitted their faith during the period of prohibition from the 17th to the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki Region</site><states>Japan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2216</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1982</danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/148</http_url><id_number>148</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_148.jpg</image_url><iso_code></iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.7833333300</latitude><location>Jerusalem District</location><longitude>35.2166666700</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;As a holy city for Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Jerusalem has always been of great symbolic importance. Among its 220 historic monuments, the Dome of the Rock stands out: built in the 7th century, it is decorated with beautiful geometric and floral motifs. It is recognized by all three religions as the site of Abraham's sacrifice. The Wailing Wall delimits the quarters of the different religious communities, while the Resurrection rotunda in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre houses Christ's tomb.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls</site><states>Jerusalem (Site proposed by Jordan)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>165</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/326</http_url><id_number>326</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_326.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.3305600000</latitude><location>Ma’an Governorate</location><longitude>35.4433300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Inhabited since prehistoric times, the Nabataean caravan city of Petra, situated between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea, was an important crossroads between Arabia, Egypt and Syria-Phoenicia and bears a unique testimony of a disappeared civilization in which ancient Eastern traditions blended with Hellenistic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Petra lies south of modern Amman on the edge of the mountainous desert of Wadi Araba, surrounded by towering hills of sandstone which gave the city some natural protection against invaders. It was for centuries the meeting point of the main routes used by camel caravans transporting spices between the Mediterranean and the Near East, Africa and India. Petra was first established around the 6th century BC by the Nabataean Arabs, a Semitic people who laid the foundations of a commercial empire that extended into Syria. In AD 106 Trajan annexed the Nabataean Kingdom as part of the province of Arabia. The many earthquakes that hit Petra triggered a slow decline for the city, which was not halted by its designation as an Archiepiscopal See. The Arabs conquered the city in 636 but it remained distant from the pilgrim road to Mecca. The Crusaders constructed a fort there in the 12th century and Petra returned to its ancient splendour, but soon they withdrew, leaving Petra to the local people until the early 19th century, when it was visited by the Swiss explorer Burckhardt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;North from the Khazneh lies the massif of Jebel Khubtha. Three large structures (Royal Tombs) are carved into the rock face, which is known as the King's Wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;First is the Urn Tomb, a well-preserved monument that faces on to an open terrace fronted by a double row of vaults. A colonnaded cloister runs along the northern side of the terrace. The elaborate facade fronts a single, unadorned room. The walls are smooth, the interior corners exact. The only decoration to be seen at present comes from the beautiful whorls of different-coloured sandstone in the walls, ceiling and floor of the chamber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Corinthian Tomb, a smaller version of the Khazneh, is followed by the Palace Tomb (Silk Tomb), named from the extraordinary chromatic effect of the rock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some distance away from the Royal Tombs, to the north, there is a tomb built in 130 for the Roman governor of the city under Hadrian, Sextius Florentinus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Khazneh el Faroun, or the Treasury of the Pharaoh, is an imposing facade standing some 40&amp;nbsp;m tall, cut directly from the rock of the mountainside. On the lower floor is a portico with six columns, crowned by floral capitals and surmounted by a fronton; the third floor is divided into three parts at the centre is a tholos with a conical roof, surmounted by a urn, and on either side two half-frontons, supported by columns. An architectural and sculptural decoration of the highest quality adorns the architecture elements and the front of the building. The Khazneh is the only rock-cut building in Petra that presents absolutely no Nabataean element and attests to link exclusively with the Alexandrian world and Hellenistic artistic traditions. Behind the impressive facade, a large square room has been carved out of the rock of the cliff. This is typical of the tombs in Petra; the interiors are as plain as the exteriors are intricate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Siq is the gorge formed by the torrent, the Musa, which the Nabataeans blocked with a dam and channelled to carry drinking water to the city; along the rock walls of the Siq there is a succession of inscriptions, niches and small votive altars, but also reliefs and sculptures that depict a caravan of men and camels. Once inside, the Siq narrows to little more than 5&amp;nbsp;m in width, whereas the walls tower up hundreds of metres on either side. The floor, originally paved, is now largely covered with soft sand, although evidence of Nabataean construction can still be seen in some places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are also noteworthy relics from Roman times: at the southern edge of the valley stands the 1st century AD theatre, carved almost entirely in the rock, which could hold more than 8,000 spectators, while at the end of the Siq the ruins open out of the colonnaded way. Set on a promontory that overlooks the valley of Petra to the west, accessible via a type of sacred stepped way cut into the rock, is another building with an imposing facade carved out of the rock: this is al-Dayr, the austerity and the simplicity of which join to demonstrate the original local version of elements of the Hellenistic tradition. The structure of the interior is devoid of any funeral installation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inhabited since prehistoric times, this Nabataean caravan-city, situated between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea, was an important crossroads between Arabia, Egypt and Syria-Phoenicia. Petra is half-built, half-carved into the rock, and is surrounded by mountains riddled with passages and gorges. It is one of the world's most famous archaeological sites, where ancient Eastern traditions blend with Hellenistic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Petra</site><states>Jordan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>370</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/327</http_url><id_number>327</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_327.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.8019400000</latitude><location>Eastern desert – Az Zarqa' Governorate</location><longitude>36.5858300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Quseir Amra bears exceptional testimony to the Omayyad civilization which was imbued with a pre-Islamic secular culture whose austere religious environment only left behind insignificant traces in the visual arts. It is the best conserved architectural ensemble, if not the most complete, of all the Omayyad palaces and castles in Jordan and Syria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built in the early 8th century AD, this exceptionally well-preserved desert castle was both a fortress with a garrison and a residence of the Umayyad caliphs. The most outstanding features of this small pleasure palace are the reception hall and the hammam, both richly decorated with figurative murals that reflect the secular art of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Approximately 85&amp;nbsp;km east of Amman and not far from the caravan trail which passes through Azrak, Kharaneh and Tubah, Quseir Amra is one of the many residences which the Omayyad caliphs built in the desert of present-day Syria and Jordan. These 'castles of the desert' had various roles. They were fortresses where garrisons could be lodged, on at least an occasional basis; they were places of relaxation where the caliphs could come back into contact with the traditional existence of Bedouin nomads. The fortress of Quseir Amra, square in shape, is in ruins with no thing more than the foundations remaining. But the small country house with its three-nave reception hall and hammam still exists with its extraordinary mural decorations. These murals, which were discovered by the Austrian, Alois Musil, in 1898 and made known in 1907, were restored by a team of Spanish specialist headed by the archaeologist, Martin Almagro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Quseir Amra, which was probably built under Walled I (705-15), although a more recent theory suggests the reign of Walled II (743-44), is interesting first of all because of the remarkable architectural structure of the reception hall and also due the existence of a very extensive bath complex. Supplied by a noria and an aqueduct, it resembles Roman baths with its three rooms: the changing-room (&lt;em&gt;apodyterium&lt;/em&gt;), the warm bath (&lt;em&gt;tepidarium&lt;/em&gt;) and the hot bath (&lt;em&gt;caldarium&lt;/em&gt;), in addition to the service room.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;What gives Quseir Amra its uniqueness, however, is the figurative painting on the walls and vaults of the reception hall and hammam. There are historical themes (royal figures who were defeated by the Omayyad caliph) and mythological representations as well (the muses of Poetry, Philosophy and History, with their names in Greek), a zodiac, hunting scenes and hammam scenes as well as some imaginary themes (animal musicians, a hunter being chased by a lion), etc.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the early 8th century, this exceptionally well-preserved desert castle was both a fortress with a garrison and a residence of the Umayyad caliphs. The most outstanding features of this small pleasure palace are the reception hall and the &lt;em&gt;hammam&lt;/em&gt;, both richly decorated with figurative murals that reflect the secular art of the time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Quseir Amra</site><states>Jordan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>372</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1093</http_url><id_number>1093</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1093.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jo</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; Um er-Rasas is a masterpiece of human creative genius given the artistic and technical qualities of the mosaic floor of St Stephen's church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Um er-Rasas presents a unique and complete (therefore outstanding) example of stylite towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; Umm er-Rasas is strongly associated with monasticism and with the spread of monotheism in the whole region, including Islam.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>31.5016700000</latitude><location>Madaba Governorate</location><longitude>35.9205600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Umm er-Rasas is strongly associated with monasticism and with the spread of monotheism, including Islam, throughout the region. The artistic and technical qualities of the mosaic floor of St Stephen's church justify describing Um er-Rasas as a masterpiece of human creative genius. It also presents a unique and complete (therefore outstanding) example of stylite towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is an archaeological site of the Roman, Byzantine and early Muslim periods. The site was founded in the 3rd century AD as a Roman military camp, closely associated with the frontier (&lt;em&gt;limes&lt;/em&gt;) of the Roman Empire, the border with the desert and possibly with the eastern branch of the incense route.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The large camp (&lt;em&gt;castrum&lt;/em&gt;) gave the site its ancient name - Kastron Mefa'a. The roughly square fortified castrum (about 50&amp;nbsp;m by 150&amp;nbsp;m is almost unexcavated. While the castrum itself became the core of the later settlement, the ruins of the Byzantine settlement outside it cover an area of about 200&amp;nbsp;m by 300&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the visible and partly excavated structures on the site are several churches. These can be easily identified before excavations, and attracted the main attention of archaeologists working on the site since 1986. For this reason much less is known of the character of housing, town plan and daily life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the extraordinary remains on the site are several mosaic floors, one of which of special importance. The mosaic floor of the Church of St Stephen shows an incredible representation of towns in Palestine, Jordan and Egypt, including their identification. At a short distance from the town, a well-preserved tall tower from the Byzantine period is probably the only existing remain of a well-known practice in this part of the world - of the stylite ascetic monks (i.e. monks sitting in isolation for long periods on top of a column or tower). The tower has no stairs and is in a relatively isolated area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Um er-Rasas is surrounded and dotted with remains of ancient agricultural cultivation, from water reservoirs to terracing, water channels, dams and cisterns. There are two small cemeteries on the site, one immediately to the west and the other to the east. The Eastern is an old Bedouin cemetery, whereas the Western is a modern one. About 150&amp;nbsp;m separate the site and the main modern north-south road.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In this area there are several ruins of relatively new structures, from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, but now abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Most of this archaeological site, which started as a Roman military camp and grew to become a town from the 5th century, has not been excavated. It contains remains from the Roman, Byzantine and Early Muslim periods (end of 3rd to 9th centuries AD) and a fortified Roman military camp. The site also has 16 churches, some with well-preserved mosaic floors. Particularly noteworthy is the mosaic floor of the Church of Saint Stephen with its representation of towns in the region. Two square towers are probably the only remains of the practice, well known in this part of the world, of the stylites (ascetic monks who spent time in isolation atop a column or tower). Um er-Rasas is surrounded by, and dotted with, remains of ancient agricultural cultivation in an arid area.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Um er-Rasas (Kastrom Mefa'a)</site><states>Jordan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1271</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1377</http_url><id_number>1377</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1377.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.6397222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.4338888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 74,000-hectare property, inscribed as a mixed natural and cultural site, is situated in southern Jordan, near the border with Saudi Arabia. It features a varied desert landscape consisting of a range of narrow gorges, natural arches, towering cliffs, ramps, massive landslides and caverns. Petroglyphs, inscriptions and archaeological remains in the site testify to 12,000 years of human occupation and interaction with the natural environment. The combination of 25,000 rock carvings with 20,000 inscriptions trace the evolution of human thought and the early development of the alphabet. The site illustrates the evolution of pastoral, agricultural and urban activity in the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wadi Rum Protected Area</site><states>Jordan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1758</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1446</http_url><id_number>1446</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1446.jpg</image_url><iso_code>jo</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.8372222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.5527777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the eastern bank of the River Jordan, nine kilometres north of the Dead Sea, the archaeological site consists of two distinct areas: Tell Al-Kharrar, also known as Jabal Mar-Elias (Elijah’s Hill) and the area of the churches of Saint John the Baptist near the river. Situated in a pristine natural environment the site is believed to be the location where Jesus of Nazareth was baptized by John the Baptist. It features Roman and Byzantine remains including churches and chapels, a monastery, caves that have been used by hermits and pools in which baptisms were celebrated, testifying to the religious character of the place. The site is a Christian place of pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Baptism Site “Bethany Beyond the Jordan” (Al-Maghtas)</site><states>Jordan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2019</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Sufism (tasawwuf from &amp;lsquo;wool' in Arabic) is a mystic movement in Islam. It has been considered as the inner, mystical, or psycho-spiritual dimension of this religion, developing as a spiritual movement from the 9th and 10th centuries. Sufist ideas evolved particularly in the 12th and 13th centuries in the thoughts and writings of people such as: Attar (perished in1221), Ibn Arabi (1165-1240) and Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207-1273).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Starting in the 12th century, Sufism also developed into several regional schools, of which the Turkic branch was headed by Khoja Ahmed Yasawi. Sufism has been seen as one of the forces that sustained the diffusion of Islam, preventing its downfall, especially in the difficult period after the Mongol invasion in the 12th century. Yasawi was born in Yasi or in Ispidjab (Sairam), in 1103. After initial education by his father he studied in Bukhara, one of the principal centres of Islam at the time. He spent most of his life in Yasi, and died there in 1166. His contribution was crucial for Central Asia, where he popularized Sufism, and contributed to the diffusion of Islam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The town of Turkestan: &lt;/strong&gt;The modern town of Turkestan is referred to ancient Kazakh towns, and its origins go back to the early Middle Ages. Until the 16th century, it was called Yasi. At first it was a suburban area of Shavgar, in the region of Syr Daria, the crossroads of agricultural and nomadic cultures. Shavgar developed into a large handicraft and trade centre, but from the 12th century, Yasi gained importance over this. It was also one of the few places that do not seem to have been destroyed by the Mongols in the 13th century. Pilgrimage to the tomb of Ahmed Yasawi was another factor that contributed to its development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1370s, Timur (Tamerlane) (1328-1405) became the new ruler of Central Asia, and his reign extended from Mesopotamia and Iran to Transoxiana. His capital was in Samarqand. Timur's policies involved the construction of monumental public and cult buildings (mosques, mausoleums, madrasahs) in regions such as Syr Daria, where towns were vital outposts on the northern frontier of his possessions, including the Mausoleum of Ahmed Yasawi. Timur's wish was to contribute to the diffusion of Islam, but even more so to fulfil specific political objectives. Considering that the Sufi orders determined the support of nomadic tribes in the steppes, the construction of this remarkable sanctuary aimed to gain the support of the Sufis and of the large nomad community, who otherwise might have presented a risk for his ruling. He is reported to have participated personally in the design of the Mausoleum, which was built parallel with the Mosque of Samarkand. For the first time here, Timur used a team of immigrated skilled master builders from Shiraz and Isfahan. The building also represented an experiment, where he introduced innovative spatial arrangements, types of vaults and domes, that were later implemented in the capital cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th to 18th centuries Turkestan was the capital and residence of the Kazakh Khanship, developing into its largest trade and craft centre. The Mausoleum of Ahmed Yasawi was the outstanding monument of the town, and several prominent personalities were buried close to it. However, the political struggles and the shift of trade to sea routes resulted in the decline of urban life. In 1864 Turkestan was invaded by the Russian army. The old town was destroyed and deserted. A new railway station was built far from the old town, becoming the new centre for development. Some vernacular dwellings were built closer to the old town, called &amp;lsquo;Eski Turkistan'. Today, the old town is an archaeological site, and one of the 14 Reserve Museum sites in Kazakhstan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;The Mausoleum:&lt;/strong&gt; the construction took place between 1389 and 1399, continuing until the death of Timur in 1405. The building was left unfinished at the entrance and some parts of the interior, thus providing documented evidence of the working methods at that time. In the 16th century, the mausoleum went through some repair and reconstruction on the main portal; the arch was repaired by the order of Abdullah-Khan, the governor of Bukhara. From this time until the 19th century, Turkestan was the residence of the Kazakh khans. In the 19th century, Kokand khan turned the mausoleum into a fortress, and built a defence wall around it in mud brick. In 1864, when the Russian army took over Turkestan, the building was in a poor state of repair. In 1872, the authorities decided to preserve it. From 1938 there has been regular maintenance, and since 1945 several restoration campaigns have been carried out, the latest from 1993 to 2000. In the Soviet period, this monument was treated as a historic building and a museum. Since the independence of Kazakhstan in 1991, its spiritual function has prevailed, and it has even come to epitomize national identity.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1103</http_url><id_number>1103</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1103.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion i: The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi is an outstanding achievement in the Timurid architecture, and it has significantly contributed to the development of Islamic religious architecture. Criterion iii: The mausoleum and its site represent an exceptional testimony to the culture of the Central Asian region, and to the development of building technology. Criterion iv: The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi was a prototype for the development of a major building type in the Timurid period, becoming a significant reference in the history of Timurid architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.2930555600</latitude><location>South Kazakhstan Oblast, City of Turkestan</location><longitude>68.2744444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi and its site represent an exceptional testimony to the culture of the Central Asian region, and to the development of building technology. It was a prototype for the development of a major building type in the Timurid period, becoming a significant reference in the history of Timurid architecture and contributing significantly to the development of Islamic religious architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of the modern town of Turkestan go back to the early Middle Ages. At first known as Yasi, it was a suburban area of Shavgar, in the region of Syr Daria, the crossroads of agricultural and nomadic cultures. Shavgar developed into a large handicraft and trade centre, but from the 12th century, Yasi gained in importance over it. Pilgrimage to the tomb of Ahmed Yasawi was another factor that contributed to its development. In the 1370s, Timur (Tamerlane, &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1336-1405) became the new ruler of Central Asia, and his reign extended from Mesopotamia and Iran to Transoxiana. His capital was Samarkand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Timur's policies involved the construction of monumental public and cult buildings (mosques, mausoleums, &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; ) in regions such as Syr Daria, where towns were vital outposts on the northern frontier of his possessions, including the Mausoleum of Ahmed Yasawi. Timur's wish was to contribute to the diffusion of Islam, but even more so to fulfill specific political objectives. The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, a distinguished Sufi master of the 12th century, is situated in southern Kazakhstan, in the city of Turkestan (Yasi). The mausoleum is placed in the area of the former citadel, in the north-eastern part of the ancient town, now an open archaeological site. To the south, there is a nature protection area; on the other sides the modern city of Turkestan surrounds the site. The property is limited to the mausoleum of Ahmed Yasawi; the buffer zone covers the archaeological area of the ancient town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mausoleum was built between 1389 and 1399, continuing until the death of Timur in 1405. The building was left unfinished at the entrance and some parts of the interior, thus providing documented evidence of the working methods at that time. In the 16th century, the mausoleum went through some repair and reconstruction on the main portal; the arch was repaired by Abdullah Khan, the governor of Bokhara. From this time until the 19th century, Turkestan was the residence of the Kazakh khans. In the 19th century, Kokand Khan turned the mausoleum into a fortress, and built a defensive wall around it in mud brick.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mausoleum is one of the largest built in the Timurid period. There are some other buildings in the vicinity, including mausolea for distinguished persons, small mosques, and a medieval bath house. On the north side, the mausoleum is separated from the new town by a section of the ancient citadel wall, which has here been reconstructed. The structure of the building is in fired brick with mortar of gypsum mixed with clay (ganch). The foundations were originally built from layers of clay, but these have recently been rebuilt in concrete. The main entrance is from the south-east through the &lt;em&gt;iwan&lt;/em&gt; into the large square Main Hall, Kazandyk, covered with a conic-spherical dome, the largest in Central Asia (18.2&amp;nbsp;m in diameter). In the centre of this hall is a bronze cauldron (&lt;em&gt;kazan&lt;/em&gt; ) for ritual purposes, dated 1399. The tomb of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi (Gur khana), the most important space, is situated on the central axis at the end of the building in the north-west. The sarcophagus is in the centre of this space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The building has spaces assigned for several functions: as meeting rooms, a refectory (Ash khana), a library (Kitab khana), and a mosque. The mosque is the only room where fragments of the original wall paintings are preserved, which are geometric and floral ornaments in light blue color. The intrados of the domes is decorated in alabaster stalactites (&lt;em&gt;muqarnas&lt;/em&gt; ). In the exterior, the walls are covered with glazed tiles with large geometric patterns with epigraphic ornaments, characteristic of Timurid architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are fine Kufic inscriptions on the walls and texts from the Qu'ran on the drums of the domes. The building remained unfinished at the death of Timur in 1405, and was never completed, and so the main entrance still lacks the surface finish and the two minarets that were planned.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, in the town of Yasi, now Turkestan, was built at the time of Timur (Tamerlane), from 1389 to 1405. In this partly unfinished building, Persian master builders experimented with architectural and structural solutions later used in the construction of Samarkand, the capital of the Timurid Empire. Today, it is one of the largest and best-preserved constructions of the Timurid period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi</site><states>Kazakhstan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1281</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The petroglyphs with their associated settlements, burial&amp;nbsp;grounds and altars, reflect the social and cultural life of the&amp;nbsp;inhabitants of the area from the Bronze Age to the early&amp;nbsp;20th century - as discussed above.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Throughout the whole period no dwellings were&amp;nbsp;constructed in the canyon where the five major groups of&amp;nbsp;images are found. The tombs and cult structures are found&amp;nbsp;in the neighbouring valley, while there is a large scatter of&amp;nbsp;settlements, burial grounds and small petroglyphs sites all&amp;nbsp;over the mountain periphery. From this disposition, it has&amp;nbsp;been posited that the central area was a cult zone and was&amp;nbsp;separated from the residential periphery by a neutral area,&amp;nbsp;containing no remains. In the early Iron Age the&amp;nbsp;residential area was substantially enlarged but still didn't&amp;nbsp;touch the cult zone. In the Middle Ages the residential area&amp;nbsp;is reduced but still occupies the same sites. In the 19th&amp;nbsp;century came a complete change: many Kazakh winter&amp;nbsp;dwellings appear in new places and in neighbouring&amp;nbsp;gorges, as well as occupying old sites. Many large&amp;nbsp;patronymic groups of dwellings ringed the cult area -&amp;nbsp;which still seemed to have significance.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The 1930s and 40s collectivisation removed people from&amp;nbsp;Tamgaly. Only in 1956 did people once again live there as&amp;nbsp;part of a Soviet farm. They came from Russia and Ukraine.&amp;nbsp;Later Kazakhs migrated from China and together these&amp;nbsp;newcomers absorbed the few local people who were the&amp;nbsp;repository of ancient local traditions. A track was&amp;nbsp;constructed across the site and until 2001 heavy vehicles&amp;nbsp;drove right near the rocks.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Respect for the cult areas remains amongst the Muslim&amp;nbsp;population who hold traditional festivals, which recall&amp;nbsp;ancient traditions, such as hanging rags on bushes near the&amp;nbsp;springs. Their direct relationship with the petroglyphs has,&amp;nbsp;however, been broken.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The rock art site has been known since 1957.&amp;nbsp;Archaeological research has been carried out under the&amp;nbsp;supervision of Dr Alexey E. Rogozhinsky. The&amp;nbsp;methodologies used by the research team are of the highest&amp;nbsp;standards. The Tamgaly rock art can be considered as one&amp;nbsp;of the best studied in central Asia. The Republic of&amp;nbsp;Kazakhstan has created a Central Asian Petroglyphs&amp;nbsp;Database and a workshop was held in the area in 2003 to&amp;nbsp;develop this.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1145</http_url><id_number>1145</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1145.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The dense and coherent group of petroglyphs, with sacred images, altars and cult areas, together with their associated settlements and burial sites, provide a substantial testimony to the lives and beliefs of pastoral peoples of the central Asian steppes from the Bronze Age to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.8033333300</latitude><location>Almaty Oblast</location><longitude>75.5350000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The dense and coherent group of petroglyphs at Tamgaly, with sacred images, altars and cult areas, together with their associated settlements and burial sites, provide a substantial testimony to the lives and beliefs of pastoral peoples of the central Asian steppes from the Bronze Age to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gorge and its surrounding rocky landscape have attracted pastoral communities since the Bronze Age, and have come to be imbued with strong symbolic associations. Rock petroglyphs on unsheltered rock faces are the most abundant monument. They are formed using a picking technique with stone or metal tools. No painted images have been found. Over 5,000 images have been recorded in 48 different complexes. Overall the petroglyphs appear to cover a period from the second half of the 2nd millennium BC right through to the beginning of the 20th century. The images have been associated with five distinct phases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Middle Bronze Age - Tamgaly type petroglyphs The most exceptional engravings come from the earliest period - large figures deeply cut with a wide repertoires of images including solar deities (sun-heads), zoomorphic beings, syncretic subjects, disguised people, and a wide range of animals. They date to the second half of the 14th and the 13th centuries BC.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Late Bronze Age - transitional These are much smaller, less well formed images than the earlier ones. The repertory is less varied, but with more scenes from life, particularly pastoral life, which reflects the rise of nomadic cattle breeding activities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Early Iron Age - Sakae, Wusun peoples These are the most numerous images in Tamgaly but they are not homogeneous, their variety reflecting their creation by different peoples who inhabited the area between the end of the 1st millennium BC and the first half of the 1st millennium AD. The scenes still show the hunt of wild animals, but camels also begin to appear.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Middle Ages - ancient Turks These differ from previous images in reflecting the symbols of power of the emerging steppe empires in the 6th-12th centuries AD, with their aristocratic military leaders and cattle breeding cultures. Warriors, standard-bearers, archers, banners and horse equipment all appear.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Modern period - Dzungarians and Kazakh peoples After the conquest by Mongolia in the 13th-14th centuries, engraving largely ceases until the 19th and 20th centuries when popular Kazakh figures display a burst of artistic creativity.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ancient settlements, burial sites and quarries mainly occupy the flat areas of the lower hills. The stone-built remains consist of clusters of one or two houses and animal enclosures. Some settlements were used only seasonally in the winter months, by cattle breeders, whereas others were permanent dwellings. Also in the area are summer dwellings for shepherds who spent winter lower down on the plains. Many ancient burials are known on the site. These come in two basic types: a stone enclosure with boxes and cists, dating from the middle/late Bronze Age, and (later) mounds (&lt;em&gt;kurgans&lt;/em&gt; ) of stone and earth built above tombs. The latter seem to date from the early Iron Age to the present day. Ancient quarries are found associated with the Bronze Age cemeteries, providing the large stone slabs used in the construction of cists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sacred sites The central canyon is devoid of dwellings and also contains the densest concentration of engravings and what are believe to be altars, located near rocks with petroglyphs, which it is suggested functioned as places for sacrificial offerings. It seems that the central area as a whole was imbued as a sacred site or cult area. Elsewhere, stone fences, some engraved, are arranged around the top of rocks or hills near permanent Kazakh villages. Within the roughly circular enclosures, between 3.5&amp;nbsp;m and 10&amp;nbsp;m in diameter, are usually found a rich cultural layer of animal bones, suggesting ritual associations. None of these sacred sites has been excavated.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Set around the lush Tamgaly Gorge, amidst the vast, arid Chu-Ili mountains, is a remarkable concentration of some 5,000 petroglyphs (rock carvings) dating from the second half of the second millennium BC to the beginning of the 20th century. Distributed among 48 complexes with associated settlements and burial grounds, they are testimonies to the husbandry, social organization and rituals of pastoral peoples. Human settlements in the site are often multilayered and show occupation through the ages. A huge number of ancient tombs are also to be found including stone enclosures with boxes and cists (middle and late Bronze Age), and mounds (kurgans) of stone and earth (early Iron Age to the present). The central canyon contains the densest concentration of engravings and what are believed to be altars, suggesting that these places were used for sacrificial offerings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Petroglyphs within the Archaeological Landscape of Tamgaly</site><states>Kazakhstan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1326</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1102</http_url><id_number>1102</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1102.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.4333333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>69.1888888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Saryarka - Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan comprises two protected areas: Naurzum State Nature Reserve and Korgalzhyn State Nature Reserve totalling 450,344 ha. It features wetlands of outstanding importance for migratory water birds, including globally threatened species, among them the extremely rare Siberian white crane, the Dalmatian pelican, Pallas&amp;rsquo;s fish eagle, to name but a few. These wetlands are key stopover points and crossroads on the Central Asian flyway of birds from Africa, Europe and South Asia to their breeding places in Western and Eastern Siberia. The 200,000 ha Central Asian steppe areas included in the property provide a valuable refuge for over half the species of the region&amp;rsquo;s steppe flora, a number of threatened bird species and the critically endangered Saiga antelope, formerly an abundant species much reduced by poaching. The property includes two groups of fresh and salt water lakes situated on a watershed between rivers flowing north to the Arctic and south into the Aral-Irtysh basin.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Saryarka – Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan</site><states>Kazakhstan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1543</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Gazetted as a National Park in 1973; Central Island National Park was established in 1985.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/801</http_url><id_number>801</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_801.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed this property on the basis of natural &lt;em&gt;criteria (viii)&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;(x)&lt;/em&gt; for the discoveries of mammal fossil remains in the site which led to the scientific reconstruction of the palaeo-environment of the entire Turkana Lake basin of the Quarternary Period. The Lake Turkana ecosystem with its diverse bird life and desert environment offers an exceptional laboratory for studies of plant and animal communities.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>3.0513055560</latitude><location></location><longitude>36.5036666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The most saline of Africa's large lakes, Turkana is an outstanding laboratory for the study of plant and animal communities. The three National Parks serve as a stopover for migrant waterfowl and are major breeding grounds for the Nile crocodile, hippopotamus and a variety of venomous snakes. The Koobi Fora deposits, rich in mammalian, molluscan and other fossil remains, have contributed more to the understanding of palaeo-environments than any other site on the continent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is characterized by a semi-desert habitat. The open plains are flanked by volcanic formations including Mount Sibiloi, the site of the remains of a petrified forest possibly 7 million years old. The Central Island, in the middle of Lake Turkana is a volcanic island (500 ha). The lake shore is mostly rocky or sandy, with little aquatic vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Grassy plains with yellow spear grass and &lt;em&gt;Commuphera&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Acacia&lt;/em&gt; species predominate. Scrubby salvadora bush is found on Central Island. The north-eastern shore of the lake is mostly rocky or sandy, with little aquatic vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mammals include Burchell's and Grevy's zebras, Grant's gazelle, Beisa oryx, hartebeest, topi, lesser kudu, lion, cheetah and crocodiles. Lake Turkana is an important flyway for north-bound migrants. A total of over 350 species of aquatic and terrestrial bird have been recorded in Lake Turkana. Central Island has a breeding population of African skimmer, which nests in banks. It is also an important staging post for migrating birds including warblers, wagtails and little stints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At Koobi Fora to the north of Alia Bay, extensive palaeontological finds have been made, including the evidence of the existence of a relatively intelligent hominid 2 million years ago (reflecting the change in climate from that supporting moist forest grasslands to present-day desert). These human fossils include the remains of &lt;em&gt;Australopithecus robustus&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Homo habilis&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Homo erectus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens&lt;/em&gt; . Other findings include a wide diversity of ancestors of modern animal species. There are over 100 archaeological sites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2001</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The most saline of Africa's large lakes, Turkana is an outstanding laboratory for the study of plant and animal communities. The three National Parks serve as a stopover for migrant waterfowl and are major breeding grounds for the Nile crocodile, hippopotamus and a variety of venomous snakes. The Koobi Fora deposits, rich in mammalian, molluscan and other fossil remains, have contributed more to the understanding of paleo-environments than any other site on the continent.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lake Turkana National Parks</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>947</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The early phase&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Lamu represents the Swahili culture, resulting from interaction between the Bantu, Arabs, Persians, Indians, and Europeans (in Arabic sawāhilī, "of the coast"). The Swahili language is principally a mixture of Bantu and Arabic. The relevant cultural region extends from the island of Lamu in the north to Tanzania and Mozambique in the south, along the East African coast.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of the town of Lamu date back to the 12th century, but the site was probably inhabited earlier. Archaeological evidence shows that there were two early Swahili settlements surrounded by walls, one to the south and the other to the north of the present town, which flourished in the early 13th century among the independent city states on the East African coast. It has been recorded as a large town with the office of Qadi (Muslim judge) in the mid 15th century. It first developed in the form of small clusters of stone buildings, including the Council Chamber, in the northern part of the present town (Pangahari, Yumbe) where the Friday mosque still is. The original market (Utuku Mkuu, the Great Market) lay west of this area. Later the town extended to the south (Mtamwini), an area north of the Fort, thus representing the full extent of the town in the 18th century. Lamu then came under Omani rule and was subject to the influx of Indian merchants from Gujerat in the 19th century. This period saw the building of the new Fort, and the development of the bazaar street, Usita wa Mui, and the area along the shore line.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Lamu was first developed by local Bantu people together with maritime traders from the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf, and the Far East. The town merchants prospered acting as middlemen between the interior and the sea, exporting ivory and timber in exchange for manufactured goods such as cloth, porcelain and spices across the Indian Ocean. In 1506 Lamu was invaded by the Portuguese, who monopolized shipping and suppressed coastal trade; consequently, the once prosperous city state lost its position, and gradually declined. In 1585 and 1588 Lamu and other coastal towns suffered from raids by Turks and rose in rebellion but were crushed by the Portuguese. In 1652 the Sultanate of Oman was persuaded to help the city states to overthrow the Portuguese regime, which was accomplished in 1698.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Oman period&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Under Omani protection the coastal commerce slowly regained its momentum, leading to a further development of Lamu and the construction, by skilled craftsmen and slave labour, of town houses and mosques using coral stone and mangrove timber. The merchants' houses were decorated with Chinese porcelain, and slaves were used to maintain plantations, keeping a share of the crops in return. In 1744 the Mazrui clan started ruling Mombasa, forming an alliance with the town of Pate in the north and forcing Lamu to strengthen its defences. After winning a battle in 1813, Lamu invited Seyyid Said Ibn Sultan-al-Busaidi, the Sultan of Oman, to install a garrison to protect the town, leading to the construction of the Fort, which was completed in 1821. In 1840 the capital of Seyyid Said was transferred from Oman to Zanzibar, helping Lamu to prosper. In the 1880s the Sultan of Zanzibar was granted the islands of Zanzibar, Maria, Pemba, and Lamu, and a strip of the mainland up to Kipini in the north. The inland was declared open for European exploitation.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Until the end of the 19th century the population contained a large number of slaves providing cheap labour and living both in the hinterland and in households. Freemen consisted of three social groups: the often land-owning merchants who lived in stone houses, the shariffs who claimed to be descendants of the Prophet Mohammed, and the fishermen and artisans. In the 19th century Lamu became an important religious centre as a result of tarika (The Way of the Prophet) activities introduced by Habib Swaleh, a shariff, who had many ancestors traced directly back to the Prophet Mohammed. The religious annual festival of Maulidi has continued up to the present day, attracting Muslim followers. Lamu has also become an important Islamic and Swahili educational centre in East Africa, owing to the relatively unchanged and conservative character of its Muslim society.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;THE BRITISH PERIOD&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1890 the entire coastal strip north of Zanzibar was assigned to the Imperial British East Africa Company. The East African Protectorate was established in 1895 and organized into provinces and districts under the new British administration in 1898. Lamu became the headquarters of Lamu District, administered by a resident British officer together with a Muslim officer (Liwali, Viceroy). During the British rule many houses were built on the reclaimed seafront, but after the construction of the railroad from Mombasa to Uganda in 1901 and the transfer of Protectorate government from Mombasa to Nairobi the town's economy gradually declined. This was caused partly by the abolition of slavery at the end of the 19th century and the loss of cheap labour. In a way, this contributed to Lamu retaining its traditional character.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;KENYA&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1963 Lamu became part of the independent state of Kenya. Aware of the cultural significance of the town, the government authorized the first conservation study, sponsored by UNESCO, in 1974 and the old town was gazetted as a national monument in 1983.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1055</http_url><id_number>1055</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1055.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion ii The architecture and urban structure Lamu graphically demonstrate the cultural influences that have come together there over several hundred years from Europe, Arabia, and India, utilizing traditional Swahili techniques to produce a distinct culture. Criterion iv The growth and decline of the seaports the East African coast and interaction between the Bantu, Arabs, Persians, Indians, and Europeans represents significant cultural and economic phase in the history the region which finds its most outstanding expression Lamu Old Town. Criterion vi Its paramount trading role and its attraction for scholars and teachers gave Lamu an important religious function in the region. It continues to be significant centre for education in Islamic and Swahili culture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-2.2844444440</latitude><location>Coast Province, Lamu District</location><longitude>40.8525000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The growth and decline of the seaports on the East African coast and interaction between the Bantu, Arabs, Persians, Indians and Europeans represent a significant cultural and economic phase in the history of the region, which finds its most outstanding expression in Lamu Old Town. The architecture and urban structure of Lamu graphically demonstrate the cultural influences that came together over several hundred years from Europe, Arabia and India, using traditional Swahili techniques to produce a distinct culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lamu represents the Swahili culture, resulting from interaction between the Bantu, Arabs, Persians, Indians and Europeans. The origins of the town date back to the 12th century, but the site was probably inhabited earlier. The present town flourished in the early 13th century among the independent city states on the East African coast. In 1506 it was invaded by the Portuguese, who monopolized shipping and suppressed coastal trade, causing the once prosperous city state to lose its position and gradually decline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under Omani protection the coastal commerce slowly regained its momentum, leading to a further development of Lamu and the construction, by skilled craftsmen and slave labour, of town houses and mosques using coral stone and mangrove timber. In 1890 the entire coastal strip north of Zanzibar was assigned to the Imperial British East Africa Company. The East African Protectorate was established in 1895 and organized into provinces and districts under the new British administration in 1898. In 1963 Lamu became part of the independent state of Kenya.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lamu is located on an island known by the same name on the east coast of Africa some 250&amp;nbsp;km north of Mombasa. The town is made up of two distinct sections, one built from stone and the other from mud brick. The old town centre consists of large houses of coral stone and mangrove timber. The relatively larger, surrounding area consists of mud, wattle and &lt;em&gt;makuti&lt;/em&gt; houses. The whole built area covers about 37&amp;nbsp;ha, while the stone town is about 15.6&amp;nbsp;ha, articulated in three distinct areas. The oldest part of the town is in the north, the areas of Pangahari and Yumbe with the Council Chamber and the Friday Mosque, then expanding to the west and south in the 18th century (Mkomani area); the bazaar street runs north-south behind the seafront; the fort and the houses on the seafront were built in the 19th century. The approximately 400 houses of the Mkomani area date mainly from the 18th century, forming the largest and historically and architecturally the most interesting part of the old town. It is characterized by narrow streets and two- to three-storey buildings, mingled with small gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Swahili houses are marked with simplicity and uniformity in their exteriors, but they have elaborately carved wooden doors particularly characteristic to Lamu. The massive walls are covered with lime mortar. The houses have an entrance porch (&lt;em&gt;daka&lt;/em&gt; ) and an interior vestibule (&lt;em&gt;tekani&lt;/em&gt; ) with seats. Inside the house the spaces develop around small courtyards (&lt;em&gt;kiwanda&lt;/em&gt; ) and open galleries (&lt;em&gt;misana&lt;/em&gt; ); they are decorated with painted ceilings, large niches (&lt;em&gt;madaka&lt;/em&gt; ), small niches (&lt;em&gt;zidaka&lt;/em&gt; ) and Chinese porcelain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lamu Fort was built between 1813 and 1821 in the southern corner of the old stone town, encouraging new development, particularly on the seafront. The fort is a massive multi-storey building with a central courtyard which has become an image of the Lamu community, being now used for weddings, meetings and theatre productions. The buildings on the seafront with their arcades and open verandahs provide a unified visual impression of the town when approaching it from the sea. One of the largest buildings on the seafront (dating from 1892) has been acquired as the Lamu Museum, exemplifying the finest characteristics of the verandah-style construction in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The section consisting of mud-brick buildings covers an area of some 21&amp;nbsp;ha and is spread between Langoni (the oldest part south of the fort), Tundami (north of the old town), and Gademi (the newest part, west of the old town). Having first developed spontaneously, many of the houses have been transformed into permanent buildings with concrete block walls and corrugated iron roofs. Such development has taken place particularly after fires in 1962 and 1981.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Lamu Old Town is the oldest and best-preserved Swahili settlement in East Africa, retaining its traditional functions. Built in coral stone and mangrove timber, the town is characterized by the simplicity of structural forms enriched by such features as inner courtyards, verandas, and elaborately carved wooden doors. Lamu has hosted major Muslim religious festivals since the 19th century, and has become a significant centre for the study of Islamic and Swahili cultures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lamu Old Town</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1229</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Oral tradition relates that the Mijikenda migrated south from a homeland known as Singwaya, said to be north of Tana in present day Somalia, sometime in the 16th century. Their migration was prompted by the expansion of pastoralists particularly the Akwavi Maasai, Galla or Orma. Tradition further relates that the original settlers founded six individual fortified villages known as makaya on the ridge running parallel to the Kenyan Coast. Three more kayas were added at some time later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The A-Digo clan are said to be the first group to leave the Singwaya ancestral homelands, followed by the A-Ribe, A-Giriama, A-Jibana, A-Chony, and A-Kambe. There are several oral traditions related to their migration, but all report that they settled in places on the way and in time split into two groups, founding Kaya Kinondo and Kaya Kwale. At the beginning of the 17th century further dispersal took place from the two main centres and secondary kayas were established. From Singwaya, each of the groups brought their own ritual talisman known as fingo, which were buried in the new settlements. The Rabai, Kauma and Digo people formed later along the coast of what is now Kenya, assimilated Mijikenda identity and built their own kayas. From details in the legends, the date of establishment of the first kayas is suggested to be around 1560 and the last 1870. For centuries the legends purport, the early kayas thrived with their inhabitants developing distinctive languages and customs. Eventually dispersal away from the fortified villages began due to population pressure and internal conflicts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The legends are said to be corroborated by 19th century written histories of the Swahili coastal trading towns which flourished from the 12th to the 14th centuries with the traders from the coast intermixing with people inland. These suggest an influx of Mijikenda people around the 17th century. Support is also found in Portuguese 17th century documentation which implies the Mijikenda were settled along the coast by the early 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It has also been suggested that studies of coastal languages can also offer support for the legends. The nine separate dialects which the nine clans of Mijikenda speak are closely related and linked to other languages along the coast of Kenya and Tanzania. Studies of these languages suggest that a proto &amp;lsquo;Sabaki' language in Somalia split into Mijikenda, Pokomo and Swahili during the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In recent years the idea of the legends as historical narratives has been challenged by those who see them as an Arab-Swahili political construct to reinforce the unity of the Mijikenda and at the same time their separateness from the Arabs and Swahili along the coast. Recent archaeological survey and excavation of some of the kayas has further stimulated a review of the legends. What is now emerging is the idea that the legends are a view of how societies see themselves, emphasising the separateness and isolation of the individual kayas and simplifying and condensing into a short time frame complex movements of people over many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is now becoming clear that the kayas were well established by the early 17th century and were not centralised monolithic settlements but related to the agricultural hinterland and centres for widely dispersed villages. The Mijikenda were mainly subsistence farmers who worked iron and copper and imported cloth, fish and pottery from the coastal towns. Their system of worship recognised a creator Mulungu who was omnipresent and lesser spirits in closer proximity to daily life. Their system of governance involved age-sets that cut across clan groupings. The most senior age-set formed the tribal council which governed by consensus and organised annual ceremonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Throughout the 19th century the use of the fortified villages begun to decline as people started to move away to the surrounding farms or to the coastal towns. The exodus culminated in the early years of the 20th century. By the 1940s, almost all the kayas were uninhabited. The trigger for the exodus is still debated, but the potential for involvement in the developing trade between the coastal towns, Zanzibar island, Arabia and India seems to be been a primary stimulus. Other factors were probably famine and disease.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The immediate impact of the dispersal of people from the kayas to their hinterland was the start of gradual deforestation of the landscape around the kayas. This combined with the deliberate preservation of the forest immediately around the kayas, heightened the distinction between kayas and their setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In recent times, an increasing disregard for traditional values and a rising demand for land, fuel wood, iron ore, and construction and carving wood materials have put severe pressure on many of the kaya forests. Over the last 50 years, many of the kayas have been drastically reduced in size, and land that was communal property has been registered under individual title and sold to nationals or foreign speculators. The nominated kayas, part from Kaya Kinondo, appear to be the ones that have been least affected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the last ten years efforts to protect the kayas have stemmed largely from initiatives to protect the biodiversity of the forest remains through the use of traditional practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1231</http_url><id_number>1231</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1231.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-3.9319444444</latitude><location>Coast Province</location><longitude>39.5961111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mijikenda Kaya Forests consist of 11 separate forest sites spread over some 200 km along the coast containing the remains of numerous fortified villages, known as kayas, of the Mijikenda people. The kayas, created as of the 16th century but abandoned by the 1940s, are now regarded as the abodes of ancestors and are revered as sacred sites and, as such, are maintained as by councils of elders. The site is inscribed as bearing unique testimony to a cultural tradition and for its direct link to a living tradition.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1589</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1060</http_url><id_number>1060</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1060.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-0.4425000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>36.2400000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley , a natural property of outstanding beauty, comprises three inter-linked relatively shallow lakes (Lake Bogoria, Lake Nakuru and Lake Elementaita) in the Rift Valley Province of Kenya and covers a total area of 32,034 hectares. The property is home to 13 globally threatened bird species and some of the highest bird diversities in the world. It is the single most important foraging site for the lesser flamingo anywhere, and a major nesting and breeding ground for great white pelicans. The property features sizeable mammal populations, including black rhino, Rothschild's giraffe, greater kudu, lion, cheetah and wild dogs and is valuable for the study of ecological processes of major importance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1749</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1295</http_url><id_number>1295</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1295.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-4.0627777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>39.6794444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Fort, built by the Portuguese in 1593-1596 to the designs of Giovanni Battista Cairati to protect the port of Mombasa, is one of the most outstanding and well preserved examples of 16th Portuguese military fortification and a landmark in the history of this type of construction. The Fort's layout and form reflected the Renaissance ideal that perfect proportions and geometric harmony are to be found in the human body. The property covers an area of 2.36 hectares and includes the fort's moat and immediate surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fort Jesus, Mombasa</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1847</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/800</http_url><id_number>800</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_800.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-0.1550000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>37.3155555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2013</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;At 5,199 m, Mount Kenya is the second highest peak in Africa. It is an ancient extinct volcano, which during its period of activity (3.1-2.6 million years ago) is thought to have risen to 6,500 m. There are 12 remnant glaciers on the mountain, all receding rapidly, and four secondary peaks that sit at the head of the U-shaped glacial valleys. With its rugged glacier-clad summits and forested middle slopes, Mount Kenya is one of the most impressive landscapes in East Africa. The evolution and ecology of its afro-alpine flora provide an outstanding example of ecological and biological processes. Through the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy and Ngare Ndare Forest Reserve, the property also incorporates lower lying scenic foothills and arid habitats of high biodiversity, situated in the ecological transition zone between the mountain ecosystem and the semi-arid savanna grasslands. The area also lies within the traditional migrating route of the African elephant population.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1902</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1450</http_url><id_number>1450</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1450.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ke</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-0.8913380556</latitude><location></location><longitude>34.3261070000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated north-west of the town of Migori, in the Lake Victoria region, this dry-stone walled settlement was probably built in the 16th century CE. The &lt;em&gt;Ohinga&lt;/em&gt; (i.e. settlement) seems to have served as a fort for communities and livestock, but also defined social entities and relationships linked to lineage. Thimlich Ohinga is the largest and best preserved of these traditional enclosures. It is an exceptional example of the tradition of massive dry-stone walled enclosures, typical of the first pastoral communities in the Lake Victoria Basin, which persisted from the 16th to the mid-20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site</site><states>Kenya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2312</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1325</http_url><id_number>1325</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1325.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ki</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-3.6497222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>-172.8575000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Phoenix Island Protected Area (PIPA) is a 408,250 sq.km expanse of marine and terrestrial habitats in the Southern Pacific Ocean. The property encompasses the Phoenix Island Group, one of three island groups in Kiribati, and is the largest designated Marine Protected Area in the world. PIPA conserves one of the world's largest intact oceanic coral archipelago ecosystems, together with 14 known underwater sea mounts (presumed to be extinct volcanoes) and other deep-sea habitats. The area contains approximately 800 known species of fauna, including about 200 coral species, 500 fish species, 18 marine mammals and 44 bird species. The structure and functioning of PIPA's ecosystems illustrates its pristine nature and importance as a migration route and reservoir. This is the first site in Kiribati to be inscribed on the World Heritage List.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Phoenix Islands Protected Area</site><states>Kiribati</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1683</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1230</http_url><id_number>1230</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1230.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.5311111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>72.7827777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain Kyrgyzstan dominates the Fergana Valley and forms the backdrop to the city of Osh, at the crossroads of important routes on the Central Asian Silk Roads. For more than one and a half millennia, Sulaiman was a beacon for travellers revered as a sacred mountain. Its five peaks and slopes contain numerous ancient places of worship and caves with petroglyphs as well as two largely reconstructed 16th century mosques. One hundred and one sites with petroglyphs representing humans and animals as well as geometrical forms have been indexed in the property so far. The site numbers 17 places of worship, which are still in use, and many that are not. Dispersed around the mountain peaks they are connected by footpaths. The cult sites are believed to provide cures for barrenness, headaches, and back pain and give the blessing of longevity. Veneration for the mountain blends pre-Islamic and Islamic beliefs. The site is believed to represent the most complete example of a sacred mountain anywhere in Central Asia, worshipped over several millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain</site><states>Kyrgyzstan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1699</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Temple Complex of Vat Phou bears exceptional testimony to the cultures of South-East Asia, and in particular to the Khmer Empire, which dominated the region in the 10th-14th centuries. It is an outstanding example of the integration of symbolic landscape of great spiritual significance to its natural surroundings, expressing the Hindu version of the relationship between nature and humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of the site lie before AD 600, at least at the city of Shrestrapura, where archaeological research has produced evidence of pre-Angkorian times (until &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . AD 900). The development of the site as a whole, however, was intimately bound up with the origin, development and zenith of the Khmer Empire between the 7th and 12th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A new line of kings probably centred in the Champasak region expanded its authority from its capital at Isanapura from the 10th century onwards, until it encompassed not only most of modern Cambodia but also much of what is now eastern Thailand. The floruit of the elaborate landscape at Vat Phou occurred during these centuries. Its historical significance lies in its role as an imperial centre and its demonstration of Indian rather than Chinese influence in the clear evidence of Hindu religious belief. The last major developments to the Champasak cultural landscape were in the 13th century, just before the collapse of the Khmer Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is no evidence of any maintenance of the monumental buildings since then, although various other occupations and events have occurred on the site. Vat Phou itself, in contrast to what it represented in the first millennium, was converted to Theravada Buddhism and remains a local centre of worship today. Essentially, however, the area reverted to secondary forest, which covered most of it when the first Europeans arrived in the 19th century. An annual Vat Phou Festival demonstrates the continuing place of the site in the lives of the local community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Champasak District lies 500&amp;nbsp;km south-east of the capital, Vientiane, on the west bank of the Mekong River. It contains the Vat Phou temple complex, a major example of both early and classic Khmer architecture of the 7th-12th centuries. Recent research has shown that this complex is the focal point of a sophisticated cultural landscape centred on the Champasak Plain, taking in the Phou Kao (mountain) to the west and the banks of the Mekong River to the east. Between them are temples, shrines, water tanks, water channels, quarries, historic field systems, settlement sites and an ancient road to Angkor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A planned pre-Angkorian ancient city (4&amp;nbsp;ha) on the banks of the Mekong appears to have been replaced as the urban centre by another planned city immediately south of Vat Phou itself in the Angkor period. A probably contemporary road leads southwards from it, past quarries and other industrial works. Many of these features exist in a carefully planned landscape laid out to reflect its sacred character as perceived by the builders of Vat Phou. The terraced Temple Complex lies at the foot of Phou Kao, stretching west-east to a freshwater spring on a rock terrace where the shrine was built. An axial line from the natural linga (phallic-like point) on the mountain summit through the shrine was used as the basis for the layout of the temple complex: it is 1,400&amp;nbsp;m long, with lakes as well as buildings to either side, bisected by an axial processional way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The use of a natural mountain-top eye-catcher (elevation 1,416&amp;nbsp;m) and the relatively high degree of survival of landscape and its structural components, assist present-day appreciation of the grand concept of the original design of what was always intended to be a 'cultural landscape'. Much of it continues in use now as shallow paddy-fields for rice.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/481</http_url><id_number>481</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_481.jpg</image_url><iso_code>la</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii The Temple Complex of Vat Phou bears exceptional testimony to the cultures of south-east Asia, and in particular to the Khmer Empire which dominated the region in the 10th&amp;ndash;14th centuries. Criterion iv The Vat Phou complex is an outstanding example of the integration of symbolic landscape of great spiritual significance to its natural surroundings. Criterion vi Contrived to express the Hindu version of the relationship between nature and humanity, Vat Phou exhibits a remarkable complex of monuments and other structures over an extensive area between river and mountain, some of outstanding architecture, many containing great works of art, and all expressing intense religious conviction and commitment.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>14.8483333333</latitude><location>Champasak Province</location><longitude>105.8222222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Champasak cultural landscape, including the Vat Phou Temple complex, is a remarkably well-preserved planned landscape more than 1,000 years old. It was shaped to express the Hindu vision of the relationship between nature and humanity, using an axis from mountain top to river bank to lay out a geometric pattern of temples, shrines and waterworks extending over some 10 km. Two planned cities on the banks of the Mekong River are also part of the site, as well as Phou Kao mountain. The whole represents a development ranging from the 5th to 15th centuries, mainly associated with the Khmer Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vat Phou and Associated Ancient Settlements within the Champasak Cultural Landscape</site><states>Lao People's Democratic Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>560</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Luang Prabang Province lies in the heart of the mountainous region of northern Laos. The town of Luang Praoang is situated on a peninsula formed by the Mekong River and its tributaries, the Nam Knane and the Kual Hop, in a Clay basin surrounded by the limestone hills that dominate the landscape. &lt;br /&gt;According to legend. the Buddha smiled when he rested here for a day during his travels, prophesying that it would one day be the site of a rich and powerful capital city. Another legend attributes the choice of the site to two hermits, attracted by its natural beauty, who gave it the name of Xieng Dong (or perhaps Xieng Thong, commemorating the name of the flamboyant tree that was the centre of their implantation). It was inhabited first by hybrid beings who became the protectors of the city when they died, and then by human beings, the first of them the Khas, a group coming together from various regions. They were driven out by the Lao, who came down from the north, following their legendary leader Khun Lo, who renamed the city Muang Java, in tribute to the Kha leader whom he had defeated, Khun Java. This legendary account of the city's foundation is borne out by archaeological and toponymic evidence for the settlement of the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A stele from Sukhothai attests to its being known under this name at the end of the 13th century AD. A few decades later it became the capital of the powerful kingdom of Lan Xang ("One Million Elephants"), whose wealth and influence can e attributed to the location of its capital at a crossroads on the Silk Route, as well as the centre of Buddhism in the region. It remained the capital of the kingdom until 1560? When this title passed to Vientiane, which was located further from the threatening Burmese armies. It was at this time that it received a new name, Luang Prabang, the name of the famous Buddha image brought earlier from Cambodia. It should be stressed that neither of the "towns" in Laos, Luang Prabang or Vientiane, conformed with the European urban concept: they were essentially defended royal administrative complexes with adjacent temples and monasteries. Around these clustered a number of distinct village communities, supplying their needs but not integrated into a single administrative entity. It was the village that acted as commercial centres, not the town as such, which did not have the large mercantile communities to be found at that time in Thailand or Cambodia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the death of King Sourigna Vongsa at the end of the 17th century a serious political crisis ensued. The Lan Xang kingdom was divided first into two independent realms, those of Vientiane and Luang Prabang, and then into three, with the creation of the kingdom of Champassak. The Luang Prabang rulers became puppets of the Thai power, especially after 1828, when the Vientiane kingdom disappeared with the complete destruction of the town by the Thai army and the deportation of its Inhabitants. Luang Prabang itself suffered gravely from the attacks of the famous Pavilions Noirs (Black Flags), who subjected it to sack and pillage from 1887 until the arrival of the French in 1893. Its reconstruction and restoration as a religious and royal capital was the work of King Sisavang Vong, aided in this heavy task by his successive viceroys Chao Mana Oupahat Boun Khong and Prince Pnetsarath. Luang Prabang retained its role as the royal capital until 1946, when Vientiane took over as administrative centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the French protectorate, which was created on 3 October 1893 following the signing of the FrancoSiamese Treaty, Laos was not a homogeneous political entity: the Lan Xang Kingdom was no more than a memory. However, although the country was divided into many small kingdoms and principalities, a nation was forged which transcended the feudal structure that persisted. Towns in the western sense developed, alongside the timeless rural organization of the villages, which was opposed to this Intrusion. Luang Prabang provided the nucleus: round its royal residence were grouped the houses of the nobility and the cult centres (temples and monasteries). It did not attract public buildings like Vientiane, which was chosen by the French for their capital, but on the other hand its commercial potential attracted many French businessmen.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/479</http_url><id_number>479</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_479.jpg</image_url><iso_code>la</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.8888900000</latitude><location>Province of Luang Prabang</location><longitude>102.1333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Luang Prabang is an outstanding example of the fusion of traditional architecture and Lao urban structures with those built by the European colonial authorities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its unique, remarkably well-preserved townscape illustrates a key stage in the blending of these two distinct cultural traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is situated on a peninsula formed by the Mekong River and its tributaries in a clay basin surrounded by limestone hills that dominate the landscape. According to legend, the Buddha smiled when he rested here for a day during his travels, prophesying that it would one day be the site of a rich and powerful capital city. Another legend attributes the choice of the site to two hermits, attracted by its natural beauty, who gave it the name of Xieng Dong (or perhaps Xieng Thong).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was known under this name at the end of the 13th century AD. A few decades later it became the capital of the powerful kingdom of Lan Xang, whose wealth and influence can be attributed to the location of its capital at a crossroads on the Silk Route, as well as the centre of Buddhism in the region. It remained the capital until 1560, when this title passed to Vientiane. It was at this time that it received a new name, Luang Prabang, the name of the famous Buddha image brought earlier from Cambodia. The towns in Laos conformed with the European urban of defended royal administrative complexes with adjacent temples and monasteries. Around them clustered a number of distinct village communities, supplying their needs but not integrated into a single administrative entity. The villages acted as commercial centres, not the town as such, which did not have the large mercantile communities to be found at the time in Thailand or Cambodia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the death of King Sourigna Vongsa at the end of the 17th century a serious political crisis ensued. The Lan Xang kingdom was divided first into two independent realms, those of Vientiane and Luang Prabang, and then into three, with the creation of the kingdom of Champasak. Luang Prabang retained its role as the royal capital until 1946, when Vientiane took over as administrative centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The political and religious centre of the town is the peninsula, with its royal and noble residences and religious foundations. This is defined by a defensive wall built from one river bank to the other, sealing off the peninsula at its base. The majority of the buildings are, following traditions, built from wood (part of the temples are in stone). The colonial element of the town is characterized by one- or two-storey terraced houses built from brick: they often have balconies and other decorative features in wood.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The commercial buildings are grouped along the Mekong, interspersed with private houses. The temples and royal residences line one side of Avenue Pavie, which runs the length of the peninsula, the other side being occupied by traditional and colonial houses. The administrative buildings are for the most part at the crossroads with Rue Gernier. The monasteries generally consist of: the cult buildings (shrine, chapel, library, stupa, stone post), ancillary buildings and buildings for inhabitants or visitors (monastic communal buildings, cells, refectory, etc.). Most are simple shrines with three aisles and a single porch. Their interior furnishings comprise a pedestal or throne for the main Buddha image, a pulpit, a terrace and a lamp. Most are elaborately decorated with carved motifs but the wall paintings are relatively simple. The Luang Prabang chapels are simple structures for housing images; they may be open or walled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional Lao wooden houses are basically divided into spaces: the private rooms and the public terraces. They are usually raised on wooden piles, giving a space beneath for working and for shelter for both men and animals. Walling may be of planks or plaited bamboo on a wooden frame. A developed form of this house makes use of brick, following the French introduction of this material, but conserving the general layout and appearance of the traditional house. Finally there are the administrative buildings, which more or less successfully blend traditional elements with European materials, techniques and uses.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Luang Prabang is an outstanding example of the fusion of traditional architecture and Lao urban structures with those built by the European colonial authorities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its unique, remarkably well-preserved townscape illustrates a key stage in the blending of these two distinct cultural traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Town of Luang Prabang</site><states>Lao People's Democratic Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1954</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations in the Old Town have shown that there were settlements of the local tribes, the Livs and the Cours, along with some foreign trading posts, on the peninsula formed by the confluence of the Ridzene and Daugava rivers by the late 11th century, and the place became a cross-roads for trade between east and west. Livonia was christianized in 1184 by the German monk Meinhard, but early chronicles attribute the establishment of the city to Bishop Albert in 1201. However, almost nothing is known about the layout of this first city. Its simple wooden buildings were concentrated on the tip of the peninsula around the harbour and the streets were made of logs. There appears to have been no defensive enclosure wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;German settlers brought stone building techniques with them, and two castles were built, one for the Bishop and the other for the knights of the Teutonic Order, who accompanied Albert on his mission to Livonia. A stone defensive wall was constructed in 1210, to enclose all the existing settlements, including the foreign trading posts. Vigorous opposition from the merchants forced the Bishop to accept the Visby Law, which assigned important rights to citizens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, strife between the Bishop and the Order on the one hand and the merchants on the other persisted, and in 1221 the inhabitants successfully rebelled against German domination. A town council was elected by the body of the citizenry to become its legislative and executive body. The independent city prospered, becoming the third largest mercantile centre on the Baltic (after Liibeck and Gdansk), and in 1282 it formed an alliance with Liibeck and Visby to become a member of the Hanseatic League. Its wealth increased as Riga assumed the role of the principal port handling Russian furs, wax, timber, tar, potash, tallow, and leather going westwards and cloth. salt, herrings, wine, beer, and spices moving into the Russian heartland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 13th and the early 14th centuries saw Riga prow in size to some 28ha. Work began on the three main churches that survive to the present day and on a number of imposing public and commercial buildings. Regulations promulgated fist in 1293 prohibited the use of wood for construction and north German stone techniques were brought in. By the 15th century Riga was a typical large Hanseatic town, with winding streets and densely packed dwelling houses, a large market square in the centre on which the town hall was situated, and strong fortifications (which were to be radically reconstructed from 1537 onwards to counter the new weapon, artillery). By the end of the 16th century the population had risen to over ten thousand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mid-16th century saw two strong forces acting on Riga. It embraced the Reformation and the teachings of Martin Luther and successfully resisted the Counter Reformation in the 1530s and 1540s. However, it was unable to stand up to the forces of Ivan the Terrible in 1559. Russian occupation was followed by Polish domination, and Riga stood between Poland and the ambitions of Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden. In 1621 Riga became part of the enlarged Swedish kingdom, and experienced many years of war during the struggles between Sweden and Russia. In 1710, following the defeat of Charles XII of Sweden at the battle of Poltava, Riga fell to the Russian army after a siege of nine months, to remain part of the Tsarist Russian Empire until the creation of the first Republic of Latvia in 1918.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Both Sweden and Russia made Riga the administrative capital of the Baltic countries. During the Russian period, the administrative centre moved from the Old City to the former castle of the Teutonic Knights outside the walls. There was also considerable suburban expansion, in 1769 and again in 1815, on a checkerboard layout. Throughout this period Riga experienced changes in its building styles. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the emphasis was on Classicism, expressed in the form of single-storey wooden buildings, especially in the new suburbs but also replacing earlier buildings in the Old City.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The advent of Russian rule in the mid-18th century resulted in a short period of economic stagnation, but by the end of the century booming foreign trade led to considerable industrial development. The population rose from over 60,000 in 1857 to over 300,000 forty years later. Riga was the fifth largest city in the Russian Empire (after Moscow, St Petersburg, Kiev, and Warsaw) and its largest port, whilst its factories were responsible for 5.7% of the gross industrial production of the Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This new prosperity led to a radical new approach to the city's urban structure. The fortifications were levelled in 1857 and a new plan for the reconstruction of the city was implemented in 1857-63. As a result, the whole spatial and structural design of the city changed. The space occupied by the walls was replaced by a green belt of gardens, and outside these a new semi-circular sweep of broad boulevards was laid out. The new city that developed beyond these boulevards was endowed with many public buildings - theatres, schools, the university, the central post office, and the central railway station.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bourgeoisie of Riga used their wealth to build imposing private residences and apartment blocks in the expanding suburbs, where an earlier ordinance forbidding the use of stone for building was rescinded. Latvian and Russian architects adopted the European movements enthusiastically, and in particular Art Nouveau, which came from Finland. This developed its own characteristics in Riga, where a national style was created by graduates of the Riga Polytechnic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the two decades of the first Latvian Republic it was Functionalism that dominated the architecture of Riga, adding to its stylistic diversity. The project for modernizing the medieval Old City, as part of which a number of blocks were completely rebuilt and several streets widened, came to an abrupt halt with the outbreak of World War Il. During that conflict the Old City suffered grievously from bombardment, and only the most outstanding monuments, such as St Peter's Church and some medieval houses, were restored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/852</http_url><id_number>852</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_852.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lv</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (i) and (ii)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that the historic centre of Riga, while retaining its medieval and later urban fabric relatively intact, is of outstanding universal value by virtue of the quality and the quantity of its Art Nouveau/Jugendstil architecture, which is unparalleled anywhere in the world, and its 19th century architecture in wood.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>56.9541700000</latitude><location>City of Riga</location><longitude>24.1166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Centre of Riga, while retaining its medieval and later urban fabric relatively intact, is of outstanding universal value by virtue of the quality and the quantity of its Art Nouveau/Jugendstil architecture, unparalleled anywhere in the world, and its 19th-century architecture in wood. It has exerted a considerable influence within the Baltic cultural area on subsequent developments in architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations in the Old Town have shown that there were settlements of the local tribes, the Livs and the Cours, along with some foreign trading posts, on the peninsula formed by the confluence of the Ridzene and Daugava rivers by the late 11th century, and the place became a crossroads for trade between east and west. Livonia was Christianized in 1184 by the German monk Meinhard, but early chronicles attribute the establishment of the city to Bishop Albert in 1201. In 1221 the inhabitants successfully rebelled against German domination. A town council was elected by the body of the citizenry to become its legislative and executive body. The independent city prospered, becoming the third-largest mercantile centre on the Baltic (after L&amp;uuml;beck and Gdansk), and in 1282 it formed an alliance with L&amp;uuml;beck and Visby to become a member of the Hanseatic League.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 15th century Riga was a typical large Hanseatic town, with winding streets and densely packed dwelling houses, a large market square in the centre on which the town hall was situated and strong fortifications. The mid-16th century saw two strong forces acting on Riga. It embraced the Reformation and the teachings of Martin Luther and successfully resisted the Counter-Reformation in the 1530s and 1540s. However, it was unable to stand up to the forces of Ivan the Terrible in 1559. Russian occupation was followed by Polish domination, and Riga stood between Poland and the ambitions of Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden. In 1621 Riga became part of the enlarged Swedish Kingdom, and experienced many years of war during the struggles between Sweden and Russia. In 1710, following the defeat of Charles XII of Sweden at the battle of Poltava, Riga fell to the Russian army after a siege of nine months, to remain part of the Tsarist Russian Empire until the creation of the first Republic of Latvia in 1918.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area of the Historic Centre of Riga consists of three elements: the medieval Old City, the 19th century semi-circle of boulevards, and the 18th and 19th century former suburban quarters lying outside the boulevards, with a chequerboard layout.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Few medieval houses are still intact; of these one of the most interesting is the House of the Three Brothers, an impeccably restored group from the 15th century. The late 17th-century Reutem's House and Dammnstem's House are more monumental buildings, notable for their interior decorations and fittings as well as their impressive facades. The town walls were demolished in the mid-19th century, but one section has been reconstructed, complete with bastion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The boulevards have many important 19th- and early 20th-century public buildings fronting on to them, including the National Theatre and the Museum of Latvian Art. The creation of the boulevards coincided with the reign of eclecticism in Europe, and this movement is abundantly represented. The suburbs that expanded and developed so rapidly from the mid-19th century onwards are notable for both the surviving wooden buildings in the classical Russian style and the extraordinary wealth of buildings that arose after the removal of the fortifications and the implementation of the new city plan, and in particular in the closing decade of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th century. Eclecticism allowed architects to produce many fights of fancy, well illustrated by the 'House of the Cat' on Meistaru Street.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, it was Art Nouveau (Jugendstil), which reached Riga via Finland at the very end of the 19th century, that provided the suburban area with its most noteworthy feature. There are countless examples, perhaps the most outstanding of which are the works of Mikhail Eisenstein in Alberta Street and Elizabeth Street. National Romanticism evolved into Jugendstil in Latvia, again on the Finnish model. This movement is represented by the work of architects such as E. Laube and A. Vanags, with some striking examples of their work in Alberta Street and Brivibas Street.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Riga was a major centre of the Hanseatic League, deriving its prosperity in the 13th–15th centuries from the trade with central and eastern Europe. The urban fabric of its medieval centre reflects this prosperity, though most of the earliest buildings were destroyed by fire or war. Riga became an important economic centre in the 19th century, when the suburbs surrounding the medieval town were laid out, first with imposing wooden buildings in neoclassical style and then in &lt;em&gt;Jugendstil&lt;/em&gt; . It is generally recognized that Riga has the finest collection of art nouveau buildings in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Riga</site><states>Latvia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1003</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/293</http_url><id_number>293</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_293.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>33.7258300000</latitude><location>District of Zahle, Beqaa Governorate</location><longitude>35.9297200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Anjar is an outstanding and closely dated example of Umayyad urbanism and it also stands unique as the only historic example of an inland commercial centre. The ruins in the Beqaa, not far from the roads that link Homs and Baalbek to Tiberias and Mount Lebanon to Damascus, were discovered when archaeological explorations began in 1949.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located on a site that was occupied over a long period (re-employed elements of Greek, Roman and early Christian buildings are frequently found in the masonry of its walls), the city of Anjar was founded at the beginning of the 8th century by Caliph Walid I (705-15). It takes its name from the Arabic term &lt;em&gt;ayn al-jaar&lt;/em&gt; (water from the rock), referring to the streams that flow from the nearby mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This surprising urban creation, which was never completed, had only a brief existence in 744. The partisans of Caliph Ibrahim, son of Walid, were defeated outside the walls of Anjar by Marwan ben Mohammed, who became the last Omayyad caliph. After this, Anjar, which was partially destroyed, was abandoned. Like Abu al Fida after him, William of Tyre saw only ruins, the results of numerous battles of the 12th century. It is the only non-coastal trading city in the country, and it flourished for only 20-30 years before the Abbasids overran the city and it fell into disuse. At its peak, it housed more than 600 shops, Roman-style baths, two palaces and a mosque.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have revealed a fortified city, enclosed by walls flanked by 40 towers where an inscription from 741 may still be seen &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt;. The rectangular fortified wall (385&amp;nbsp;m by 350&amp;nbsp;m) is precisely oriented. The walls are 2&amp;nbsp;m thick and built from a core of mud and rubble with an exterior facing of sizable blocks and an interior facing of smaller layers of blocks. Against the interior of the enclosures are three stairways built on each side. They gave access to the top of the walls where guards circulated and protected the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dominated by gates flanked by porticos, an important north-south axis (&lt;em&gt;cardo maximus&lt;/em&gt;) and a lesser east-west axis (&lt;em&gt;decumanus maximus&lt;/em&gt;) are superimposed above the main sewers and divide the city into four equal quadrants. Public and private buildings are laid out according to a strict plan: the principal palace and mosque in the south-east quadrant; the secondary palace and baths in the north-east and north-west quadrants; the densely inhabited south-west quadrant criss-crossed by a network of streets built on an orthogonal plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban spatial organization, which is remarkably devised, is more reminiscent of that of a royal residence (of which the city-palace of Diocletian at Split remains the best example) than that of the Roman military camps and colonial cities. The ruins are dominated by the spectacular vestiges of a monumental tetrapyle, at the crossing of the two principal axes, as well as by the walls and colonnades of the Omayyad palace, three levels of which have been preserved. These structures incorporate sculptures from the Roman period, but are notable as well for the exceptional plasticity of the elements of the contemporary decor within the construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More evidence of the Umayyad dependence on the architectural traditions of other cultures appears in the Umayyad baths, which contain the three classical sections of the Roman bath: the vestiary where patrons changed clothing before their bath and rested afterwards, and three rooms for cold, warm and hot water. The size of the vestiary indicates the bath was more than a source of physical well-being but also a centre of social interaction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A city with 600 shops and an overwhelming concern for security must have required a fair number of people. Keeping this in mind, archaeologists looked for remains of an extensive residential area and found it just beyond the tetrastyle to the south-west.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Anjar was founded by Caliph Walid I at the beginning of the 8th century. The ruins reveal a very regular layout, reminiscent of the palace-cities of ancient times, and are a unique testimony to city planning under the Umayyads.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Anjar</site><states>Lebanon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>329</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/294</http_url><id_number>294</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_294.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.0070700000</latitude><location>City and District of Baalbek, Beqaa Governorate</location><longitude>36.2049400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Baalbek, with its colossal structures, is a unique artistic creation and an eminent example of a sanctuary of the imperial Roman period. It is located on two historic trade routes, between the Mediterranean coast and the Syrian interior and between northern Syria and northern Palestine. Today the city, 85&amp;nbsp;km from Beirut, is an important administrative and economic centre in the northern Beqaa valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origin of the name Baalbek is not precisely known. The Phoenician term &lt;em&gt;Baal&lt;/em&gt; means 'lord' or 'god' and was the title given to the Semitic sky-deity. The word Baalbek may therefore mean 'God of the Beqaa valley' (the local area) or 'God of the Town', depending on different interpretations of the word.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lying on fertile plains, Baalbek was, during the Phoenician period, no more than an agricultural village where a triad of fertility gods were worshipped; given the name Heliopolis during the Hellenistic period, the modest city saw its apogee after the arrival of the Romans in Phoenicia in 64 BC, when it became one of the most celebrated sanctuaries of the ancient world, progressively overlaid with colossal constructions which were built during more than two centuries. The monumental ensemble of Heliopolis is one of the most impressive testimonies - and doubtless the most celebrated - to imperial Roman architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Historians attribute to Augustus the design of the imperial sanctuary where a significant religious transfer came about to the benefit of Rome. Whatever the case, the Romanized triad of Heliopolis (Jupiter, Venus and Mercury) came to replace the Phoenician triad (Baal-Shamash, Anta and Alyn). The first building work, that of the Temple of Jupiter, began during the reign of Emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC and completed soon after AD 60 under Nero. The immense sanctuary of Jupiter Heliopolitanus was lined by 104 massive granite columns imported from Aswan and held a temple surrounded by 50 additional columns. From that time, work did not abate until the construction of the Great Altar (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 100) and the so-called Temple of Bacchus (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 120-25), named for the many sculptured reliefs interpreted by archaeologists as scenes from the childhood of this god.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Grand Court, construction of which began during the reign of Trajan (98-117), contained various religious buildings and altars, and was surrounded by a splendid colonnade of 128 rose granite columns. These columns are known to have been quarried in Aswan (Egypt). Today, only six columns remain standing, the rest having been destroyed by earthquakes or taken to other sites. The Temple of Venus was added at the beginning of the 3rd century. It is assumed to be a Venus temple because of its ornamentation of seashells, doves and other artistic motifs associated with the cult of this goddess. During Byzantine Christian times the temple was used as a church and dedicated to the Christian martyr St Barbara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At Baalbek-Heliopolis, the phenomenon of religious syncretism, which amalgamated the old Phoenician beliefs with the myths of the Graeco-Roman pantheon, was prolonged by an amazing stylistic metamorphosis. The Syro-Phoenician formulae of the Seleucid period were fused with the classic decorative grammar of the Ara Pacis Augustae. There resulted an architecture of a considerable expressive force which was combined, without redundancy, in the ornamental motives of the colonnades, niches and exedras and was also freely expressed in the ceilings with sculpted coffered panels and the framework of the doorways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 634, Muslim armies entered Syria and besieged Baalbek. A large mosque was built within the walls of the temple compound, which was converted into a citadel. Over the next few centuries, the city and region of Baalbek were controlled by various Islamic dynasties. Its monuments suffered from theft, war and earthquakes, as well as from numerous medieval additions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This Phoenician city, where a triad of deities was worshipped, retained its religious function during Roman times, when the sanctuary of the Heliopolitan Jupiter attracted thousands of pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This Phoenician city, where a triad of deities was worshipped, was known as Heliopolis during the Hellenistic period. It retained its religious function during Roman times, when the sanctuary of the Heliopolitan Jupiter attracted thousands of pilgrims. Baalbek, with its colossal structures, is one of the finest examples of Imperial Roman architecture at its apogee.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Baalbek</site><states>Lebanon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>330</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/295</http_url><id_number>295</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_295.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.1191700000</latitude><location>City and district of Jbeil, Governorate of Mount Lebanon</location><longitude>35.6475000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Byblos bears exceptional testimony to the beginnings of Phoenician civilization. From the Bronze Age, it provides one of the primary examples of urban organization in the Mediterranean world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Phoenicians, who considered Gublu (the Gebal of the Bible) to be one of their oldest cities, were in no way wrong: the site of Byblos has been continuously inhabited since the Neolithic period. The oldest human settlement, some 7,000 years old, appears to have been a fishing village whose numerous monocellular huts have been rediscovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Towards 3200 BC, a new spatial organization took form: the mound was covered with houses with stone walls, while the inhumation urns, until that time placed within the living area, were shifted to the periphery of the agglomeration where various types of funerary rituals may be observed in the large necropolis. Towards 2800, Gebal appeared as a highly structured city: enclosed by a massive fortified wall (whose construction, legend attributes to the god El), it comprised a main street and a network of smaller streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prosperity of the harbour - from which cedar wood, an indispensable material for building construction and for naval yards, as well as cedar oil, used for the mummification of bodies, were exported to Egypt - entailed large constructions, such as that of the temple of Baalat-Gebal, the goddess of the city, which several pharaohs enriched with their offerings. This city, of which numerous traces still exist, was burned around 2150 by the invading Amorites: a thick layer of ash (in some places 50&amp;nbsp;cm) seals off the original levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Approximately two centuries later, the city was rebuilt with new temples (the Temple of the Obelisks, dedicated &lt;em&gt;c.&lt;/em&gt; 1900-1600 BC to the god Reshef, is the best known of this period) and commercial relations with Egypt were re-established in all their intensity. Towards the middle of the Bronze Age, the treasure of the nine Royal Tombs of Byblos attests to the degree of perfection of a civilization which competed with that of King Ahiram (National Museum, Beirut), an inscription in Phoenician characters is addressed to eventual grave robbers; and one may see in this curse the proof that writing, widely disseminated, was no longer the monopoly of the scribes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A commercial city, Byblos was able to accommodate successive dominations, whether Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid or Greek. During the Roman period, its commercial role declined, but the city assumed an eminent religious function: hordes of pilgrims, as noted in the 2nd century AD by Lucian of Samosate, crowded its temples, which were constantly reconstructed and embellished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its decline began during the Byzantine period and continued during the Arab occupation after AD 636. The only time when the city recaptured some of its former importance was during the Crusades. Under the impulse of the Genoans, commerce made Giblet a prosperous transit harbour. The renewal, which is attested by its walls, the massive structure of the castle of the Crusaders, the church of St John the Baptist and its baptistry, was without a future: Byblos declined slowly until the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of many successive civilizations are found at Byblos, one of the oldest Phoenician cities. Inhabited since Neolithic times, it has been closely linked to the legends and history of the Mediterranean region for thousands of years. Byblos is also directly associated with the history and diffusion of the Phoenician alphabet.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Byblos</site><states>Lebanon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>331</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/299</http_url><id_number>299</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_299.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>33.2719400000</latitude><location>City and District of Tyre, Governorate of South Lebanon</location><longitude>35.1944400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tyre ruled the seas and founded prosperous colonies such as Cadiz and Carthage, but its historical role declined at the end of the Crusades. There are important archaeological remains, mainly from Roman times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 5th century BC, when Herodotus of Halicarnassus visited it, Tyre was considered one of the oldest metropolises in the world. To demonstrate the renown of this city, it is sufficient to recall the events that associated it directly with the important stages in human history: the discovery of the alphabet (the Greeks who copied and adapted it honoured Cadmos); that of purple pigment (which legend attributes to Melkart, the Phoenician Heracles); as well as the construction in Jerusalem of the Temple of Solomon, thanks to the competition held by the King of Tyre, Hiram; and the exploration of the seas by the hardy navigators who sailed as far as the Western Mediterranean and founded trading centres, such as Utica, Cadiz and especially Carthage, which ultimately assured a quasi-monopoly of the important maritime commerce.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sited at the entrance to the sea, according to the prophet Ezekiel, Tyre, which was constructed on an impregnable island, succumbed in 332 to the attack of Alexander of Macedonia who had blockaded the straits by a dyke before his final assault. The original Greek city was followed in 64&amp;nbsp;BC by a Roman city constructed on this historically charged site. Tyre was to win back on several occasions some of its former splendour. In the early period of Christianity, it was the seat of a province that incorporated 14 bishoprics. Having fallen under Arabic domination in 636, it was retaken by the Crusaders in 1124 with the help of a Venetian fleet. From 1124 to 1294, the date of its evacuation, the city became a stronghold of the Christians who built 18 churches, not including the chapel of the castle, and reconstructed the cathedral reusing elements of the original basilica. Following the Crusades, the historic role of the city declined. Almost totally destroyed by the Mamelukes at the end of the 13th century, it was only modestly reconstructed in the 18th century. Despite a recent increase of population, Tyre has today only 60,000 inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the present souk, archaeological remains essentially include the Roman city and the medieval constructions of the Crusades. These are divided into two distinct zones:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;On the promontory, the site of the archipelago which, as legend has it, was created by Hiram who grouped several smaller islands into one single island, is the city, which became a colony under Septimius Severus. The imposing ruins of the &lt;em&gt;palaestra&lt;/em&gt;, the &lt;em&gt;thermae&lt;/em&gt;, and the arena still exist, as do the remains of the cathedral built in 1127 by the Venetians, along with some of the walls of the castle constructed during the Crusades.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;On the mainland, the necropolis of El Bass is to be found on either side of a wide monumental way dominated by a triumphal arch of the 2nd century. Other important monumental vestiges of this archaeological area are the aqueduct and, especially, the 2nd-century hippodrome, one of the largest of the Roman world.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;According to legend, purple dye was invented in Tyre. This great Phoenician city ruled the seas and founded prosperous colonies such as Cadiz and Carthage, but its historical role declined at the end of the Crusades. There are important archaeological remains, mainly from Roman times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tyre</site><states>Lebanon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>335</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Many of the caves in the Qadisha occupied by the Christian anchorites had been used in earlier as shelters and for burials, back as far as the Palaeolithic period. Since the early centuries of Christianity the Holy Valley served as a refuge for those in search of solitude. Syrian Maronites fled there from religious persecution from the late 7th century onwards, and this movement intensified in the 10th century following the destruction of the Monastery of St Marun. The Maronite monks established their new centre at Qannubin, in the heart of the Qadisha, and monasteries that combined eremitism with community life quickly spread over the surrounding hills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the Crusades the Qadisha caves witnessed dramatic actions against their supporters, the Maronites. The Mameluk Sultans Baibars and Qalaoun led campaigns in 1268 and 1283 respectively against these fortress-caves and the surrounding villages. Despite these attacks, the Deir Qannubin monastery was to be become the seat of the Maronite Patriarch in the 15th century and to remain so for five hundred years. In the 17th century the Maronite monks' reputation for piety was such that many European poets, historians, geographers, politicians, and clergy visited and even settled in the Qadisha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Holy Valley was, however, not merely the centre of the Maronites. Its rocky cliffs gave shelter to other Christian communities over the centuries - Jacobites (Syrian Orthodox), Melchites (Greek Orthodox), Nestorians, Armenians, even Ethiopians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cedar (Cedrus lebani) is described in ancient works on botany as the oldest tree in the world. It was admired by the Israelites, who brought it to their land to build the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. Historical sources report that the famous cedar forests were beginning to disappear at the time of Justinian in the 6th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/850</http_url><id_number>850</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_850.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: The Qadisha Valley has been the site of monastic communities continuously since the earliest years of Christianity. The trees in the Cedar Forest are survivors of a sacred forest and of one of the most highly prized building materials of the ancient world. Criterion iv: The monasteries of the Qadisha Valley are the most significant surviving examples of this fundamental demonstration of Christian faith.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.2433300000</latitude><location>Qadisha Valley, Becharre District, Governorate of North Lebanon</location><longitude>36.0488900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Qadisha (Holy) Valley has been the site of monastic communities continuously since the earliest years of Christianity. The trees in the Cedar Forest are survivors of a sacred forest and of one of the most highly prized building materials of the ancient world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many of the caves in the Qadisha occupied by the Christian anchorites had been used earlier as shelters and for burials, as far back as the Palaeolithic period. Since the early centuries of Christianity, the Holy Valley served as a refuge for those in search of solitude. Syrian Maronites fled there from religious persecution from the late 7th century onwards, and this movement intensified in the 10th century following the destruction of the Monastery of St Marun. The Maronite monks established their new centre at Qannubin, in the heart of the Qadisha, and monasteries that combined eremitism with community life quickly spread over the surrounding hills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the Crusades the Qadisha caves witnessed dramatic actions against their supporters, the Maronites. The Mameluke sultans Baibars and Qalaoun led campaigns in 1268 and 1283 respectively against these fortress-caves and the surrounding villages. Despite these attacks, the Deir Qannubin monastery was to become the seat of the Maronite Patriarch in the 15th century and to remain so for 500 years. In the 17th century the Maronite monks' reputation for piety was such that many European poets, historians, geographers, politicians and clergy visited and even settled in the Qadisha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Holy Valley was, however, not merely the centre of the Maronites. Its rocky cliffs gave shelter to other Christian communities over the centuries - Jacobites (Syrian Orthodox), Melchites (Greek Orthodox), Nestorians, Armenians, even Ethiopians. The cedar (&lt;em&gt;Cedrus lebani&lt;/em&gt; ) is described in ancient works on botany as the oldest tree in the world. It was admired by the Israelites, who brought it to their land to build the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. Historical sources report that the famous cedar forests were beginning to disappear at the time of Justinian in the 6th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The long, deep Qadisha Valley is located at the foot of Mount al-Makmal in northern Lebanon. Through it the Holy River, Nahr Qadisha, runs for 35&amp;nbsp;km, from its source in a cave a little way below the sacred cedars. The slopes of the valley form natural ramparts, and their steep cliffs contain many caves, often at more than 1,000&amp;nbsp;m and all difficult of access. Around them are the terraces made by the hermits for growing grain, grapes and olives. The hermitages, consisting of small cells no more than the height of a man and sometimes with walls closing them off, take advantage of irregularities in the rock, which explains their uneven distribution. Some have wall paintings still surviving.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are four main monastic complexes: the Qannubin Monastery is on the north-east side of the Qadisha. It is the oldest of the Maronite monasteries; the Monastery of St Anthony of Quzhayya is on the opposite flank of the Qadisha. Tradition has its foundation in the 4th century by St Hilarion, in honour of the Egyptian anchorite, St Anthony the Great, although the earliest documentary records date back only to around 1000; the Monastery of Our Lady of Hauqqa (Saydet Hauqqa) is situated at an altitude of 1,150&amp;nbsp;m between Qannubin and Quzhayya, at the base of an enormous cave; the Monastery of Mar Lichaa (Mar Lisa or St Elisha), mentioned first in the 14th century, is shared by two communities, a Maronite solitary order and the Barefoot Carmelite order. It consists of three or four small cells, a refectory and some offices; the communal church includes four chapels cut into the rock face.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Qadisha valley is one of the most important early Christian monastic settlements in the world. Its monasteries, many of which are of a great age, stand in dramatic positions in a rugged landscape. Nearby are the remains of the great forest of cedars of Lebanon, highly prized in antiquity for the construction of great religious buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ouadi Qadisha (the Holy Valley) and the Forest of the Cedars of God (Horsh Arz el-Rab)</site><states>Lebanon</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1001</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/183</http_url><id_number>183</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_183.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ly</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.6383300000</latitude><location>District of Khoms</location><longitude>14.2930600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Leptis Magna is a unique artistic realization in the domain of urban planning. It played a major role, along with Cyrene, in the movement back to antiquity and in the elaboration of the neoclassical aesthetic&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Phoenician port of Lpgy was founded at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC and first populated by the Garamantes. The city, which was part of the domain of Carthage, passed under the ephemeral control of Massinissa, King of Numidia. The Romans, who had quartered a garrison there during the war against Jugurtha, integrated it, in 46 BC, into the province of Africa while at the same time allowing it a certain measure of autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although Leptis (the latinization of its Phoenician name) was comparable to the other Phoenician trading centres of the Syrtian coast, like Sabratha, after Septimius Severus became emperor in 193, its fortunes improved remarkably. Thanks to him, the renewed Leptis was one of the most beautiful cities of the Roman world. It is still one of the best examples of Severan urban planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thereafter, Leptis felt prey to the same vicissitudes of fortune as the majority of the coastal cities of Africa. Pillaged from the 4th century and reconquered by the Byzantines who transformed it into a stronghold, it definitively succumbed to the second wave of Arab invasion, that of the Hilians in the 11th century. Buried under drifting sands, the city has only been disengaged, piece by piece, over the course of a long archaeological exploration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, which was constructed during the reign of Augustus and Tiberius but which was entirely remodelled along very ambitious lines under the Severan emperors, incorporates major monumental elements of that period. The forum, basilica and Severan arch rank among the foremost examples of a new Roman art, strongly influenced by African and Eastern traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sculptures of the Severan basilica, which remain &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt;, and that of the Severan arch, in the museum at Tripoli, are innovative in their linear definition of forms, the crispness of their contours and the angular delineation of their volumes: a comprehensive aesthetic, conceived as a function of the blinding African sun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient port, with its artificial basin of some 102,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, still exists with its quays, jetties, fortifications, storage areas and temples. Dug under Nero and organized under Septimius Severus, it is one of the chefs d'oeuvre of Roman technology with its barrage dam and its canal designed to regulate the course of Wadi Lebda, the dangerous torrent that empties into the Mediterranean to the west. The market, an essential element in the everyday life of a large commercial trading centre, with its votive arch, colonnades and shops, has been for the most part preserved. The building, which dates from the Augustan period, was transformed and embellished under Septimius Severus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Warehouses and workshops also attest to the commercial and industrial activity of a city whose large prestigious monuments, arches and gates, original forum and Severan forum, temples, baths, theatre, circus and amphitheatre, only occupy a very small part of the total area.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Leptis Magna was enlarged and embellished by Septimius Severus, who was born there and later became emperor. It was one of the most beautiful cities of the Roman Empire, with its imposing public monuments, harbour, market-place, storehouses, shops and residential districts.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Leptis Magna</site><states>Libya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>203</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/184</http_url><id_number>184</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_184.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ly</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.8052800000</latitude><location>District of Zawia</location><longitude>12.4850000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;A Phoenician trading-post of the Tripolitanian coast, Sabratha funnelled the products of Africa to the Gulf of the Lesser Syrtis, thanks to the route linking it to the continent via Cydamus (now Ghadam&amp;egrave;s). It was part of the short-lived Numidian Kingdom of Massinissa, together with Leptis and Oea, before being Romanized and absorbed into the Roman province of Africa, and subsequently rebuilt in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sabratha enjoyed its greatest prosperity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. This period saw the construction of grandiose monuments, of which the most renowned is that of the theatre, probably built during the reign of the Emperor Commodus (AD 161-92), with its three orders of columns of the &lt;em&gt;frons scenae&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The best conserved part is the &lt;em&gt;scena&lt;/em&gt;, recomposed with original fragments and subdivided on three levels with overlapping marble columns. The theatre had a capacity of 5,000 seats. The &lt;em&gt;pulpitum&lt;/em&gt; has a series of decorations in bas-relief representing divinity, historical and theatrical scenes, and a series of rectangular and semicircular niches. In the central niche stands the goddess Rome with helm and shield, dressed like an Amazon. On her flank there is another divinity that represents Sabratha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Near the theatre stands the amphitheatre with the arena where once the gladiators faced the ferocious wild animals, fighting until death. The underground corridors that were used in order to make enter can still be seen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other monuments and areas of interest include the Temple of Liber Pater, Basilica of Justinian, and Mosaics of the House of Jason Magnus, Capitolium, Temple of Serapis, Temple of Hercules and Temple of Isis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decline of Sabratha began with the 4th century: commerce with Africa was less active, the city was wracked by religious quarrels, and much of the city was destroyed by earthquakes, particularly that of AD 365. A rebuilding programme followed but the city was now to occupy a much smaller area. The Vandals invaded Sabratha in 455 and tore down its walls. The Byzantine reconquest did not, however, mark the beginning of a real renaissance and the city was definitively abandoned after the Arab invasions of the 7th and 11th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two museums on the site house objects found during excavations, such as funerary objects, coins, china, mosaics from the Byzantine period, statues from the Roman era and Phoenician relics.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A Phoenician trading-post that served as an outlet for the products of the African hinterland, Sabratha was part of the short-lived Numidian Kingdom of Massinissa before being Romanized and rebuilt in the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Sabratha</site><states>Libya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>204</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/190</http_url><id_number>190</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_190.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ly</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.8250000000</latitude><location>District of Ghebel Akhdar</location><longitude>21.8583300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;A colony of the Greeks of Thera, Cyrene was one of the principal cities in the Hellenic world. It was Romanized and remained a great capital until the earthquake of AD 365. A thousand years of history is written into its ruins, which have been famous since the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cyrene was founded in the 4th century BC by Greeks of Thera (Santorini) guided by Battos, within a zone where Carthaginian influence was preponderant. From 631 BC (the traditional accepted date of its foundation) to 440 BC, this trading centre, situated in the interior, away from the sea, was dominated by the dynasty of the Battiadae. Within little less than a century (430-331), this kingdom was succeeded by a democratic regime; following which the city spontaneously submitted itself to the rule of Alexander the Great and, at his death, was annexed to the kingdom of the Lagids. One of the last of the line of descendants of Berenice and Ptolemy III Euergetes bequeathed it to the Roman people in 96 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Established as a Roman province in 74 BC, Cyrenaica shared in the fortunes of the empire and, as such, never ceased to play a preponderant role in the Mediterranean world: it was given by Mark Anthony to Cleopatra, united with Crete by Augustus, who decreed the date of the battle of Actium (34 BC) as the beginning of a new era, and then separated from Crete by Diocletian in a reform of 305, which united it with Egypt. Its capitol, which was reconstructed in the 1st century AD and damaged during the insurrection of the Jews in 116, was entirely rebuilt from the reign of Hadrian. Its decline did not begin until the earthquake and tidal wave of 365, one of the great catastrophes of history. Ammianus Marcelinus found it deserted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cyrene, which was described by geographers from Herodotus to Synesius and had its praises sung by Pindar and Callimachus, is not only one of the cities of the Mediterranean world around which myths, legends and stories have been woven over more than 1,000 years, but it is also one of the most impressive complexes of ruins in the entire world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the north, the sanctuary and sacred fountain of Apollo, the fountain celebrated by Pindar, Herodotus and Callimachus, regroups the temples of Apollo (7th-4th centuries BC) and Artemis (7th-6th centuries BC), the &lt;em&gt;sacella&lt;/em&gt; of Persephone, Hades and Hecate, votive monuments and treasuries. This cultic zone was completed, during the Roman period, by extremely large buildings of which the most important are the Baths of Trajan, restored in the 2nd century. To the west, the Greek theatre was transformed into an amphitheatre by the Romans. To the south-west, the Acropolis constitutes an immense archaeological reserve, whose exploration has been postponed for some time owing to the strategic nature of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the south-east, about 500&amp;nbsp;m from the sanctuary of Apollo, the agora and the Roman forum, which are well preserved, formed the centre of the civic life. This sector is characterized by the coexistence of both Greek and Roman forms of urban planning within a unified whole of very ample proportions: the Bouleuterion and Capitolium, Agora and Forum, Nomophylakion (public archives depository), and similar are placed side by side with Heroa, of which the best known is that of Battus. It is the urban centre of the ideal city; proud of its past, conscious of the continuity of its history and turned towards the future. The archaeological site of Cyrene is not limited to these three monumental complexes of the sanctuary of Apollo, the Acropolis and the Agora. Excavations have revealed the great interest of the north-eastern sector, where the grandiose ruins of the Augustan period were inhabited until the end of Cyrenian history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Elsewhere, Cyrene preserves a necropolis complex which is numbered among the most extensive and varied of the ancient world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A colony of the Greeks of Thera, Cyrene was one of the principal cities in the Hellenic world. It was Romanized and remained a great capital until the earthquake of 365. A thousand years of history is written into its ruins, which have been famous since the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Cyrene</site><states>Libya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>211</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/287</http_url><id_number>287</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_287.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ly</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.8333300000</latitude><location>Fezzan</location><longitude>10.3333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tadrart Acacus has thousands of cave paintings in very different styles, dating from 12,000 BC to AD 100. They reflect marked changes in the fauna and flora, and also the different ways of life of the populations that succeeded one another in this region of the Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The massif of Tadrart Acacus, a vast mountainous region (more than 250&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) which is today a desert, is situated in the Fezzan, to the east of the city of Ghat. It contains some of the most extraordinary scenery in the world and has its unique natural wonders: dunes, isolated towers emerging from the sand and eroded into the most bizarre shapes, petrified arches, and canyons carved by ancient rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cave paintings and carvings of various styles are scattered throughout almost all the valleys, representing hunting or daily life scenes, ritual dances and animals. The site also includes the Murzuch desert, which bears traces of the different phases of the Palaeolithic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Italo-Libyan archaeological missions, which have run continuously from 1955 in Tadrart Acacus under the guidance of Fabrizio Mori and Paolo Graziosi, have catalogued, besides settlements comprising important stone and ceramic material, numerous rock-art sites, including hundreds of engravings and thousands of paintings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tools have been unearthed across an area covering thousands of kilometres. In the Tadrart Acacus Mountains, cave paintings and carvings of various styles are scattered throughout almost all the valleys, representing the various cultural groups that lived there during long periods of prehistory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like Tassili n'Ajjer (Algeria), various periods, corresponding to successive climatic phases which brought about underlying modifications in the flora and fauna and, thus, in the ways of life of the local population, may be distinguished. They are characterized by very definite artistic styles:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;during the naturalistic phase, corresponding to the last phase of the Pleistocene epoch (12,000-8000 BC), one sees numerous outline engravings, representing the large mammals of the savannah: elephants, rhinoceros, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;during the round-head phase (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 8000-4000 BC) engravings and paintings coexisted. The fauna was characteristic of humid climate; magic religious scenes appeared.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the pastoral phase, from 4000 BC, is the most important in terms of numbers of paintings and engravings; numerous bovine herds are found on the decorated walls of the grottoes and shelters.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the horse phase, from 1500 BC, is that of a semi-arid climate, which caused the disappearance of certain species and the appearance of the domesticated horse.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the camel phase (first centuries BC) saw the intensification of a desert climate. The dromedary settled in the region and became the main subject of the last rock-art paintings.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the borders of Tassili N'Ajjer in Algeria, also a World Heritage site, this rocky massif has thousands of cave paintings in very different styles, dating from 12,000 B.C. to A.D. 100. They reflect marked changes in the fauna and flora, and also the different ways of life of the populations that succeeded one another in this region of the Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus</site><states>Libya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>321</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/362</http_url><id_number>362</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_362.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ly</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>30.1333333300</latitude><location></location><longitude>9.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Ghadam&amp;egrave;s, known as the 'pearl of the desert', stands in an oasis. It is one of the oldest pre-Saharan cities and an outstanding example of a traditional settlement. Its domestic architecture is characterized by a vertical division of functions: the ground floor used to store supplies; then another floor for the family, overhanging covered alleys that create what is almost an underground network of passageways; and, at the top, open-air terraces reserved for the women. It is one of the oldest cities in the pre-Saharan region; it succeeded ancient Cydamae, a fortified city made an ally of Rome by Cornelius Balbus on his victorious expedition against the Garamantes in 19 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today it is a small oasis city situated next to a palm grove. None of the surviving buildings date from the protohistoric Berber period, or the period of Roman domination, yet a remarkable domestic architectural style distinguishes Ghadam&amp;egrave;s as a unique site among a series of pre-Saharan cities and settlements stretching along the northern edge of the desert from Libya to Mauritania. Roughly circular in layout, the historic city of Ghadam&amp;egrave;s comprises a cluster of houses. The reinforced outer walls of the houses on the edge of the city form a fortified wall. However, this rudimentary urban enclosure also incorporates, here and there, doors and bastions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basic units of the city are its houses, which have a minimum of two main floors. Access to the ground floor, which may be sunken, is by a single entrance door opens onto a narrow hallway leading to a rectangular-shaped room where provisions are stored, and, at the back, to a staircase. The staircase leads to a much more spacious upper level. Ground-level living space encroaches upon the blind enclosed passageways along the walls on the ground floor which open onto the city, forming arcades rather than actual streets. The first floor generally includes a raised attic and bedrooms, and sometimes a sitting-room; there may also be a second floor with a similar layout. At the level of the terraces (there may be three or four depending on the house) only the projecting portion formed by the raised attic rises above the roof, marked off by low enclosure walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The contradicting layout of this unusual city cannot be perceived as a whole. At ground level, the narrow, dark arcades cut off the main parts of the buildings, permitting virtually underground circulation; small, isolated family units are the salient feature of the upper floors. A kind of collective dimension is provided by the terraces, which form an open cityscape. However, they do so by separating the sexes: the terrace is the domain of women, and gives them a great deal of freedom, communicating between terraces; they make friends with neighbours and can even move about the 'roof' of the city. The covered arcades at ground level are generally reserved for men.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ghadam&amp;egrave;s has conserved the original materials specific to this surprising urban structure: pis&amp;eacute; or clay brick walls, woodwork, masonry and palm-wood casings. Lime-washing of the walls inside and in large outdoor areas brightens the rooms and highlights the spartan decorations, windows and gypsum niches, paintings and objects.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ghadamès, known as 'the pearl of the desert', stands in an oasis. It is one of the oldest pre-Saharan cities and an outstanding example of a traditional settlement. Its domestic architecture is characterized by a vertical division of functions: the ground floor used to store supplies; then another floor for the family, overhanging covered alleys that create what is almost an underground network of passageways; and, at the top, open-air terraces reserved for the women.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Ghadamès</site><states>Libya</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>415</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1137</http_url><id_number>1137</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1137.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The archaeological site of Kernave presents an exceptional testimony to the evolution of human settlements in the Baltic region in Europe over the period of some 10 millennia. The site has exceptional evidence of the contact of Pagan and Christian funeral traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The settlement patterns and the impressive hill-forts represent outstanding examples of the development of such types of structures and the history of their use in the pre-Christian era.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>54.8877777800</latitude><location>Vilnius county, Širvintos district, Kernave town.</location><longitude>24.8305555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Kernavė offers exceptional testimony to the evolution of human settlements in the Baltic region in Europe over some 10 millennia, with evidence of the contact of pagan and Christian funeral traditions. The settlement patterns and the impressive hill forts are outstanding examples of the development of such types of structures and the history of their use in the pre-Christian era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest traces of inhabitants have been discovered at the River Neris in the Pajauta valley. The representatives of the Swiderian culture, late Palaeolithic hunters, came here in the 9th-8th millennia BC, followed by more settlements in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, due to the river rich in fish and the vast hunting terrain on the upper terrace of the Neris.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The early centuries of the Christian era have been called the golden age in the culture of the Baltic people. The development of iron-making from bog ore and the intensification of agriculture and stockbreeding accounted for demographic growth. From the 1st to the 4th centuries AD, large settlements were scattered over the banks of the Neris and in the Pajauta valley. Some hills were adapted to defence (Aukuro Kalnas, Mindaugo Sostas, Lizdeikos Kalnas hill forts). During the great migration of peoples at the end of the Roman period, the wooden fortifications of Aukuro Kalnas were burnt down by nomads, and the settlements in the Pajauta valley were deserted. The climate deteriorated; ground water rose, and living in the valley was no longer possible. New settlements were established on the upper terraces of the river in the vicinity of the hill forts. The ancient tribal centre became an important feudal castle at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. The residence of a duke was set up on Aukuro Kalnas, the other hill forts serving for defence. Craftsmen and merchants settled down at the hill forts. By the mid-13th century Kernavė was a feudal town. The craftsmen working for the ducal court inhabited the upper part of the town on the Pilies Kalnas hill fort. Specialized craftsmen lived in the lower town in Pajauta valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The burial ground was situated outside the town in the Kriveiki&amp;scaron;kis hill fort. Funeral customs, as well as the discovered cerecloths, reflect not only the traditions of the last pagan state in Europe, but also attest to the influence of neighbouring Christian countries. The most flourishing period of medieval Kernavė was from the end of the 13th to the first half of the 14th centuries. It was one of the major towns of Lithuania, as well as a grand ducal residence. In 1365, it was attacked and devastated by the Teutonic Order. Another assault by the same order finally destroyed the ancient capital of Lithuania in 1390. The town and the castles were never rebuilt. The inhabitants settled on the uppermost terrace on the site of the present town. The remains of the ancient town were covered with thick alluvial deposit, conserving even organic remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape in this region consists of sandy hills formed during the retreat of the last glacier. Land use is characterized by hayfields and pinewoods. The lowest parts of the valley are partly marshland. Kernavė is a complex ensemble of archaeological properties, encompassing five hill forts, some unfortified settlements, burial sites and other archeological monuments dating from the late Palaeolithic to the Middle Ages. In the centre of the cultural reserve, at the edge of the upper terrace, there are four hill forts standing beside each other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlements, a burial site and historical monuments dating back to the Iron Age occupy the remaining part of the upper terrace. At the foot of the hill forts, in Pajauta Valley (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 25&amp;nbsp;ha), there are the remains of the medieval town of Kernavė under the alluvial deposits of the River Neris. The unfortified settlements and burial sites of the Stone and Iron Ages were situated close to the river in the narrow stretch of the riverside. The largest burial site of the 13th-14th centuries is located on the upper terrace of the river Neris, northwards from the Kriveiki&amp;scaron;kis hill fort. The later periods of history are represented by the sites of Kriveiki&amp;scaron;kis (15th-19th centuries), Kernavė II (15th-20th centuries), the estate of Kriveiki&amp;scaron;kis (15th-20th centuries), the old church of Kernavė (15th-19th centuries) and related sites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kernavė Archaeological site, about 35 km north-west of Vilnius in eastern Lithuania, represents an exceptional testimony to some 10 millennia of human settlements in this region. Situated in the valley of the River Neris, the site is a complex ensemble of archaeological properties, encompassing the town of Kernavė, forts, some unfortified settlements, burial sites and other archaeological, historical and cultural monuments from the late Palaeolithic Period to the Middle Ages. The site of 194,4 ha has preserved the traces of ancient land-use, as well as remains of five impressive hill forts, part of an exceptionally large defence system. Kernavė was an important feudal town in the Middle Ages. The town was destroyed by the Teutonic Order in the late 14th century, however the site remained in use until modern times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kernavė  Archaeological Site (Cultural Reserve of Kernavė)</site><states>Lithuania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1317</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;On a site that had been intermittently occupied from the Neolithic period onwards, a wooden castle was built around AD 1000 to fortify Gedimino Hill, at the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia rivers. The settlement did not develop as a town until the 13th century during the struggles of the Baltic peoples against their German invaders. By 1323, when the first written reference to Vlnia occurs, it was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, founded by Prince Gedymin, ancestor of the Galitzinn family. At this time some brick structures had apparently been erected on a small island formed when the Vilnia changed its course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lithuania was the last great pagan state in Eastern Europe to be converted to Christianity, in 1387, when Grand Duke Jagaila was baptized. This opened Vilnius to the western world, since in the same year it adopted the Magdeburg Statutes. However, it was not until 1410 when the Teutonic Order was destroyed at the battle of Tannenberg that it became safe from marauders and invaders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rapidly expanding town was struck by a disastrous fire in 1471, when the first religious establishments (the cathedral. the parish church of St John, and the Franciscan and Cistercian monasteries) were destroyed. The only surviving remains from the earliest period are therefore the walls, some sections of which survive beneath the defences built in 1503-22 against Tatar incursions. The town was partially reconstructed after another major fire in 1530, when an attempt to rationalize the medieval street pattern was largely unsuccessful. This was a period of commercial and cultural development. Close trading links were established with both western and eastern Europe, and these trading links led to the spread of western culture into Byelorussia and the Ukraine. A printing works was set up in 1522 and a university in 1579.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yet another fire in 1610 saw the destruction of the newly built Lower Castle and the new cathedral. The subsequent reconstruction included extensive church building: the churches of St Michael, St Stephen, St Casimir, All Saints, and St Theresa all date from this period. At the beginning of the war with Russia (1654- 67) Vilnius had no fewer than forty-one religious buildings, though many were lost during the conflict. Most of the older buildings in wood were lost in a series of fires (in 1715, 1737, 1748, and 1749), but it was the successive constructions that gave the town many of the buildings which give it its special character, including the Cathedral, the Town HalI, the Arsenal, and the Tyzenhauzai. Rensai. Pacai, and Masalskiai Palaces. Many of the surviving earlier buildings were rebuilt or refurbished in Baroque style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Annexation by Russia in 1795 led to the Lithuanian capital gradually losing some of its distinctive character. The fortified enceinte and the Lower Castle were demolished in 1799; in 1837 Cathedral Square was laid out in strict academic style and St George Avenue was constructed, cutting across the old town fabric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In World War II over eighty old houses were destroyed but reconstruction was put in hand with the end of hostilities. Major rehabilitation projects for the historic town centre were drawn up in 1956-58 and 1970- 74.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/541</http_url><id_number>541</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_541.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.6866700000</latitude><location>City of Vilnius</location><longitude>25.2930600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vilnius is an outstanding example of a medieval foundation which exercised a profound influence on architectural and cultural developments in a wide area of Eastern Europe over several centuries. In the townscape and the rich diversity of buildings that it preserves, Vilnius is an exceptional illustration of a central European town that evolved organically over five centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On a site that had been intermittently occupied from the Neolithic period, a wooden castle was built around AD 1000 to fortify Gedimino Hill, at the confluence of the Neris and Vilnia rivers. The settlement did not develop as a town until the 13th century, during the struggles of the Baltic peoples against their German invaders. By 1323, when the first written reference to Vilnia occurs, it was the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania founded by Prince Gedymin, ancestor of the Galitzin family. At this time some brick structures had apparently been erected on a small island formed when the Vilnia changed its course.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lithuania was the last great pagan state in Eastern Europe to be converted to Christianity, in 1387, when Grand Duke Jagaila was baptized. This opened Vilnius to the Western world, as in the same year it adopted the Magdeburg Statutes. However, it was not until 1410 when the Teutonic Order was destroyed at the battle of Tannenberg that it became safe from marauders and invaders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rapidly expanding town was struck by a disastrous fire in 1471, when the first religious establishments (cathedral, parish church of St John and Franciscan and Cistercian monasteries) were destroyed. The only surviving remains from the earliest period are therefore the walls, some sections of which survive beneath the defences built in 1503-22 against Tatar incursions. The town was partially reconstructed after another major fire in 1530, when an attempt to rationalize the medieval street pattern was largely unsuccessful. This was a period of commercial and cultural development. Close trading links were established with both Western and Eastern Europe, and these trading links led to the spread of Western culture into Byelorussia and the Ukraine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A printing works was set up in 1522 and a university in 1579. Yet another fire in 1610 saw the destruction of the newly built Lower Castle and the new cathedral. The subsequent reconstruction included extensive church building: the churches of St Michael, St Stephen, St Casimir, All Saints, and St Theresa all date from this period. At the beginning of the war with Russia (1654-67) Vilnius had no fewer than 41 religious buildings, though many were lost during the conflict. Most of the older buildings in wood were lost in a series of fires (in 1715, 1737, 1748 and 1749), but it was the successive reconstructions that gave the town many of the buildings of special character, including the cathedral, town hall, arsenal, and the Tyzenhauzai, Rensai, Pacai and Masalskiai palaces. Many of the surviving earlier buildings were rebuilt or refurbished in Baroque style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Annexation by Russia in 1795 led to the Lithuanian capital gradually losing some of its distinctive character. The fortified enceinte and Lower Castle were demolished in 1799; in 1837 Cathedral Square was laid out in strict academic style and St George Avenue was constructed cutting across the old town fabric. In the Second World War, over 80 old houses were destroyed, but reconstruction was put in hand with the end of hostilities. Major rehabilitation projects for the historic town centre were drawn up in 1956-58 and 1970-74.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre comprises the areas of the three castles (Upper, Lower and Curved) and the area that was encircled by a wall in the Middle Ages. The plan is basically circular, radiating out from the original castle site. The street pattern is typically medieval, with small streets dividing it into irregular blocks, but with large squares inserted in later periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic buildings are in Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and classical styles (with some later additions). Some 40% of them are adjudged to be of the highest category of architectural and historical importance. They constitute a townscape of great diversity and yet at the same time one in which there is an overarching harmony.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Political centre of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 13th to the end of the 18th century, Vilnius has had a profound influence on the cultural and architectural development of much of eastern Europe. Despite invasions and partial destruction, it has preserved an impressive complex of Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and classical buildings as well as its medieval layout and natural setting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vilnius Historic Centre</site><states>Lithuania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1929</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The City of Luxembourg is located at the crossing point of two major Roman roads. In 963 Sigefroid, a count from the Moselle valley, built a castle on the Rocher du Bock, which he obtained by means of an exchange with the Abbey of St Maxirnin of Trier. His servants and soldiers settled around the castle and the modern town sprang from the market-place of this settlement, the Vieux Marche. Settlers were recorded as early as 926 in the Alzette valley, near the castle, and their houses formed the nuclei of the later lower towns of Grund and Pfaffenthal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town had grown to such an extent that a second defensive waU was built aronnd the end of the 12th century, but this, too, was superseded in the 15th century when a third line of defences was built, enclosing the lower town of Grund as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 16th century, Luxembourg with its fortifications had become a strategic and military prize. The House of Burgundy, the Habsburgs, the French and Spanish kings, or the Holy Roman Emperors - all wanted Luxembourg. It was this reason that the city remained within the confines of its fortifications until 1867. Life there was harsh and the inhabitants resented having soldiers billeted upon them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Throughout this period the defences of Luxembourg were continually extended and improved, making it into a fortress that earned the title of the &amp;quot;Gibraltar of the North&amp;quot;. This was a dubious distinction, since it brought the city into most of Europe's wars from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Four main stages can be identified:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;1.	 17th century (especially 1671-84): enlargement of the defences by the Spanish, who built several new redoubts (Peter, Marie, Berlaimont), and construction of the first barracks inside the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;2.	 1684-97: large-scale rebuilding of the fortifications under the direction of Vauban following the successful siege of 1684 by the French. Pfaffenthal was included within the defences and large barracks were built on the Rham and Saint-Esprit plateaux. The Saint-Esprit monastery was transferred to Pfaffenthal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;3.	 18th century: continued development of the fortress by the Austrians (from 1715). The engineer de Beam% prepared an ambitious plan designed to make Luxembourg a key element in the defence of the Austrian Netherlands. This work, which lasted over forty years, involved the construction of new forts around the city (eg those of Thtigen and Olisy) and systems of casematesli nked by underground tunnels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;4.	 19th century: the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg joined the German Confederation after the Congress of Vienna and the federal fortress of Luxembourg was garrisoned by the Prussian Army from 1815 to 1867. The Prussians carried out major renovation work from 1826 onwards (eg at Fort Thtingen, where the surviving remains, known as Les Trois Glands, date from this period) and also added new elements, such as Fort Wedell, built to protect the railway station, which was built at around this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the signature of the Treaty of London in 1867 the European powers confirmed the perpetual neutrality of the Grand Duchy and, in consequence, the evacuation of the fortress within three months and the demolition of the fortifications. This brought to an end a long evolution over nine centuries and turned a grim fortress of some 180 ha into an open city. Dismantlement of more than 24 km of underground defences and some 40,000 m2 of casemates, batteries, barracks, and the like lasted sixteen years and cost over 1.5 million gold francs. Some elements survive, such as twelve of the 28 gates and a number of redoubts and forts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/699</http_url><id_number>699</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_699.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.6100000000</latitude><location>Luxemburg</location><longitude>6.1333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Because of its strategic position, Luxembourg was, from the 16th century until 1867 when its walls were dismantled, one of Europe's greatest fortified sites. It was repeatedly reinforced as it passed from one great European power to another: the Holy Roman Emperors, House of Burgundy, Habsburgs, French and Spanish kings, and finally the Prussians. Until their partial demolition, the fortifications were a fine example of military architecture spanning several centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The City of Luxembourg is located at the crossing point of two major Roman roads. In 963 Sigefroid, a count from the Moselle valley, built a castle on the Rocher du Bock, which he obtained by means of an exchange with the Abbey of St Maximin of Trier. His servants and soldiers settled around the castle and the modern town sprang from the market-place of this settlement, the Vieux March&amp;eacute;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town had grown to such an extent that a second defensive wall was built around the end of the 12th century, to be superseded in the 15th century when a third line of defences was built. By the 16th century, Luxembourg had become a strategic and military prize. The House of Burgundy, the Habsburgs, the French and Spanish kings or the Holy Roman Emperors all wanted Luxembourg. Throughout this period the defences were continuously extended and improved, making it into a fortress that earned the title 'Gibraltar of the North'. With the signature of the Treaty of London in 1867, the European powers confirmed the perpetual neutrality of the Grand Duchy and, in consequence, the evacuation of the fortress within three months and the demolition of the fortifications. This turned a grim fortress of some 180&amp;nbsp;ha into an open city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old quarter of the City of Luxembourg extends westwards from the Bock promontory, where the first ducal family established itself. The Rocher du Bock is a honeycomb of 17th- and 18th-century casemates, the largest surviving ensemble of underground fortifications. Also of importance is the bridge joining the Bock to the upper town, the Church of Saint-Michel, originating from the 10th century. The latter-day March&amp;eacute;-aux-Poissons was the main market in the Middle Ages and the first open space in the town. The present Grand Ducal Palace stands on the site of the first maison communale built in 1244 and of the H&amp;ocirc;tel de Ville. The Rue Wiltheim, which leads down to Pfaffenthal, follows the route of the Roman road to Trier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The governmental quarter and Notre-Dame Cathedral: the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Luxembourg is the former church of the Jesuit College upon which work began in 1613; it was consecrated in 1621. It is an outstanding example of Netherlands late Gothic architecture, with a Renaissance portal and rood-screen. Alongside the cathedral is the Pr&amp;eacute;sidence du Gouvernement, known today as the Maison de Bourgogne. It belonged until 1676 to the Berbourg family, traditional cup-bearers to the ducal house. Its brick staircase towers illustrate the transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Rue Notre-Dame was built in 1751 in characteristic Louis XV style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lower town of Grund and the Plateau du Rham: archaeological excavations have shown that the Grund and Rham areas were settled for some six centuries before Count Sigefroid took possession of the Bock promontory in 963. The Wenceslas Wall formed part of the third defensive circuit built in the late 14th century. It underwent a number of modifications and strengthenings as artillery improved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Grund sluice was built by the Austrians in 1731; it consists of a massive masonry dam with vaulted openings that could be closed to prevent water passing through them. Much of the lock was dismantled in 1878, but its remains are still impressive, and also provide a magnificent panorama of the city. The Hospital Saint-Jean was founded in 1308; in 1543 a Benedictine community was established there, to become known as the Neuminster.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Because of its strategic position, Luxembourg was, from the 16th century until 1867, when its walls were dismantled, one of Europe's greatest fortified sites. It was repeatedly reinforced as it passed from one great European power to another: the Holy Roman Emperors, the House of Burgundy, the Habsburgs, the French and Spanish kings, and finally the Prussians. Until their partial demolition, the fortifications were a fine example of military architecture spanning several centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Luxembourg: its Old Quarters and Fortifications</site><states>Luxembourg</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>827</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;December 1927, and is now protected under Decree No. 66-242 of 1 June 1966. The ancient cemeteries within the Manambolo Gorge, the gorge itself, and the "foreet rochers" (which includes the reserve), are all designated "natural monuments and sites" under a decree of 25 August 1937, all three being listed by an 'arrete' 11 February 1939. However, this latte r designation does not imply any degree of management or protection.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/494</http_url><id_number>494</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_494.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-18.6666700000</latitude><location>Centre Ouest, dans le Fivondronana d’Antsalova et le Faritany de Mahajanga</location><longitude>44.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The integral nature reserve of Tsingy of Bemaraha lies 60-80&amp;nbsp;km inland from the west coast in the northern sector of the Antsingy region of the Bemaraha Plateau, north of the Manambolo River Gorge. The additional forests and lakes nominated include all the remaining native forest, mangrove and lakes between the west coast and the Bemaraha Reserve, lying between the Sohanina and Manambolo rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much of the reserve integral to Tsingy de Bemaraha comprises limestone karst, delimited to the east by abrupt cliffs which rise some 300-400&amp;nbsp;m above the Hanambolo River valley and extend several tens of kilometres from north to south. The western slopes rise more gently, and the whole western region of the reserve forms a plateau with rounded hillocks which slope away to the west. To the north undulating hills alternate with limestone extrusions, whereas in the south extensive pinnacle formations make access extremely restricted. The Hanambolo River Gorge is on the southern edge of the reserve. Both seasonal and permanent rivers flow on the plateau (draining to the west), and numerous permanent springs arise at the base of the Tsingy on both sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation is characteristic of the calcareous karst regions of western Madagascar, with dense, dry, deciduous forest, and extensive anthropogenic savannahs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna of the region has not been studied in any detail. The Tsingy is the only known location for chameleon, and the only western dry forest site known for Madagascar grey-throated rail (only previously known from north-western and eastern Madagascar). The reserve is also the only protected area where the endemic nesomyine rodent is known to occur and there is also an unconfirmed report of aye-aye just outside the reserve. Other notable species include goshawk, which may be threatened, and lemur, all of which are (or may be) threatened.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve comprises karstic landscapes and limestone uplands cut into impressive 'tsingy' peaks and a 'forest' of limestone needles, the spectacular canyon of the Manambolo river, rolling hills and high peaks. The undisturbed forests, lakes and mangrove swamps are the habitat for rare and endangered lemurs and birds.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve</site><states>Madagascar</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>576</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The growth in Madagascar of a fragmented political structure based on local lords meant that, from the 15th century onwards, defensible hills were in demand for the construction of rova or fortified royal enclosures (analogous to hillforts in western Europe during the 1st millennium BC). On the summits, woodland was kept for practical and spiritual reasons but the forest on lower ground was cleared to provide the economic base for such places to exist. Agricultural terraces were also constructed on the lower hill-slopes. In effect, the cultural landscape was in place by the 16th century. The only major change since then has been the removal of upland forest on the neighbouring heights to Ambohimanga during the French colonial period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ambohimanga itself originated in at least the 15th century and by the 18th century, particularly under Andriantsimitoviaminandriana (1740-45), had developed into a capital with defences and seven gates. Outer defences and seven more gates were added, probably before 1794 when the royal palace was moved to Antananarivo, leaving Ambohimanga as the royal burial place and religious capital. The existing defensive wall was built by Queen Ranavalona I (1828-61), with new gateways to north and south-west (c 1830). The palace Fandriampahalemana and the glass pavilion Tranofitaratra were added in 1871.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In March 1897 the mortal remains of royalty were transferred to Antananarivo by the French colonial authorities in a failed attempt to erase the holiness of the site and the nationalistic legitimacy attached to it. The royal tombs were demolished and military buildings erected in their stead for the garrison on the site. By 1904, all trace of them, in their turn, had been removed. The site continued to be used for religious purposes, particularly as a pilgrimage destination, throughout the 20th century, and remains an active holy place today.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/950</http_url><id_number>950</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_950.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mg</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga is the most significant symbol of the cultural identity of the people of Madagascar. Criterion iv The traditional design, materials, and layout of the Royal Hill of Ambohimanga are representative of the social and political structure of Malagasy society from at least the 16th century. Criterion vi The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga an exceptional example of a place where, over centuries, common human experience has been focused in memory, ritual, and prayer.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-18.7591700000</latitude><location>Municipality of Ambohimanga&#xd;
&#xd;
Rova, Province of Antananarivo&#xd;
&#xd;
Avaradrano</location><longitude>47.5627800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga is the most significant symbol of the cultural identity of the people of Madagascar. Its traditional design, materials and layout are representative of the social and political structure of Malagasy society from at least the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growth in Madagascar of a fragmented political structure based on local lords meant that, from the 15th century onwards, defensible hills were in demand for the construction of &lt;em&gt;rova&lt;/em&gt; (fortified royal enclosures). On the summits, woodland was kept for practical and spiritual reasons but the forest on lower ground was cleared to provide the economic base for such places to exist. Agricultural terraces were also constructed on the lower hill-slopes. In effect, the cultural landscape was in place by the 16th century. The only major change since then has been the removal of upland forest on the neighbouring heights to Ambohimanga during the French colonial period. In March 1897 the remains of royalty were transferred to Antananarivo by the French authorities in a failed attempt to erase the holiness of the site and the nationalistic legitimacy attached to it. The tombs were demolished and military buildings erected for the garrison on the site. It continued to be used for religious purposes, particularly as a pilgrimage destination.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site consists of a royal city, a burial site (royal tombs), and a collection of sacred places (wood, spring, lake, public meeting place). It is associated with strong feelings of identity, emphasizing its sacred character. It is a pilgrimage destination within Madagascar and internationally. In addition, it possesses an architectural quality in its groups of buildings and an ecological value in its natural ecosystems which conserve numerous species of indigenous plants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hill carries residual forest cover which masks archaeological remains and shelters the royal city. The fortifications protected the royal city in an arrangement of banks, ditches, and fourteen stone gateways. The outer seven were built in 1787; the inner seven date to the early 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortified royal city consists of a coherent suite of buildings and provides a place for public functions. The space was ritually divided: the eastern sector was the sacred area, for ancestor worship and royal burial. Two holy rock-cut basins, filled with water by young virgins, played a significant role. Royal corpses rested in a wooden mortuary house, en route to the royal tombs whence royalty, as ancestors, continued to exercise powers of protection and punishment over the living from inside a holy place enclosed by a wooden fence painted in white and red, the holy colours of royalty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The royal trees are species of &lt;em&gt;Ficus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Draceana&lt;/em&gt; , specifically reserved for royal cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The seat of justice, on a huge spherical, granite rock in the northern sector, is surrounded by a brick balustrade and shaded by a royal fig tree with stone steps surrounding its trunk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other holy places, natural and constructed, exist both inside and outside the royal enclosure. The holy spring is natural and always flowing, exiting through two orifices beneath a drystone cover. Its water is regarded as purifying. The holy lake of Amparihy is artificial, its use being confined to royalty and ritual, such as the annual royal bath, princely circumcision, and the receipt of royal entrails. The bath is particularly symbolic, for then the king takes upon himself all the sins of the kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sacred woods consist of indigenous plants and, in a manner now absolutely rare on the Hautes Terres, represents in residual form the natural forest which once covered this and other hills. It has survived because it was always in the royal domain, managed under strict regulations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The agricultural terraces developed during the 17th-18th centuries on the north and south of the hill, extending the royal power into economic matters and representing on the lower slopes of a holy hill agricultural production of rice, the staple food of the local population.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga consists of a royal city and burial site, and an ensemble of sacred places. It is associated with strong feelings of national identity, and has maintained its spiritual and sacred character both in ritual practice and the popular imagination for the past 500 years. It remains a place of worship to which pilgrims come from Madagascar and elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Hill of Ambohimanga</site><states>Madagascar</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1111</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1257</http_url><id_number>1257</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1257.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-14.4597222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>49.7025000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rainforests of the Atsinanana comprise six national parks distributed along the eastern part of the island. These relict forests are critically important for maintaining ongoing ecological processes necessary for the survival of Madagascar&amp;rsquo;s unique biodiversity, which reflects the island&amp;rsquo;s geological history. Having completed its separation from all other land masses more than 60 million years ago, Madagascar&amp;rsquo;s plant and animal life evolved in isolation. The rainforests are inscribed for their importance to both ecological and biological processes as well as their biodiversity and the threatened species they support. Many species are rare and threatened especially primates and lemurs.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rainforests of the Atsinanana</site><states>Madagascar</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1434</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;24 November 1980, under the National Parks Act NP (Est) Order 1980, Govt. Notice No. 205 of 1980. Most of the area was previously classified in forest reserves; some of the islands have been protected since 1934. It protects several disjunct terrestrial areas and all lake waters within 100m of these areas. Inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1984.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/289</http_url><id_number>289</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_289.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-14.0333300000</latitude><location>Central and Southern Regions</location><longitude>34.8833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park, which covers some 94&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , is composed of the Cape Maclear peninsula, three other disjunct mainland areas, 12 islands and lake waters that lie within 100&amp;nbsp;m of the park's terrestrial components. Total water area is estimated as 7&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . Habitat types vary from rocky shorelines to sandy beaches and from wooded hillsides to swamps and lagoons. Granitic hills rise steeply from the lakeshore and there are a number of sandy bays including a fine beach in the Chembe-Otter Point area. Lake surface elevation is near 475&amp;nbsp;m, while the highest point on the peninsula is 1,140&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lake water is remarkably clear. The level fluctuates according to season with a long-term cycle of fluctuation. Recent years have seen increases to the highest levels since recording began (probably due to increased rainfall and clearing of forests on the high plateau). Lake Malawi itself is the third deepest in the world and occupies an elongated crack of the Rift Valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The land areas excluding the smallest islands are (or were once) heavily wooded. Originally this was a characteristic community containing baobab and several species of &lt;em&gt;Ticus&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Sterculia&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Khaya&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Albizzia&lt;/em&gt; with a groundcover of grasses and wild flowers. Due to clearing of the forest, some woodland areas have been altered to &lt;em&gt;Brachystegia&lt;/em&gt; and shrubby vegetation. Soils are stony and of poor nutrient status.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lake Malawi contains the largest number of fish species of any lake in the world. There are between 500 and 1,000 fish species, with perhaps half occurring in the park area. Endemism is high (thought to exceed 90%) and particularly noteworthy are the &lt;em&gt;Cichlidae&lt;/em&gt; , of which all but five of an estimated 350 species are endemic to Malawi. The lake contains 30% of all known cichlid species. Of particular interest are the &lt;em&gt;mbuna&lt;/em&gt; rock fish. Other fish species include 28 endemic to the lake. The flora of the lake have not been studied in detail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mammals include hippo (particularly in the Monkey Bay area) duiker, baboon, vervet monkey, bush pig, warthog and occasional elephant (reported as coming down to the lake between Mwenya and Nkhudzi hills). Leopard, kudu, bushbuck and impala have been reduced or extirpated from the area. The park is rich in birdlife including fish eagle along the shoreline. The islands, especially Mumbo and Boadzulu, are important nesting areas for white-throated cormorant which number several thousand. Reptiles include crocodiles and abundant monitor lizards on Boadzulu Island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological evidence points to a long period of human occupation with sites dating back to the Iron Age in the 4th century. The Cape Maclear area was one focal point in the ivory and slave trade era. In more recent times a Livingstone Mission was established there and the area was a stopover on the Cape to London flying boat service.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located at the southern end of the great expanse of Lake Malawi, with its deep, clear waters and mountain backdrop, the national park is home to many hundreds of fish species, nearly all endemic. Its importance for the study of evolution is comparable to that of the finches of the Galapagos Islands.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lake Malawi National Park</site><states>Malawi</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>323</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;A few early Stone Age artefacts suggest that the area was first settled in the Upper Pleistocene time, although substantive evidence for earlier than the Late Stone Age occupation is lacking. The oldest archaeological evidence is from materials dated to 2,500 BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Late Stone Age people were hunters and gatherers who seem to have been responsible for the earliest rock art - although there is no datable evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 1st millennium AD, Iron Age farmers moved into the area from the north and introduced white rock art of naturalistic figures made in white clay. The farmers did not entirely displace the hunter-gathers and the two communities appear to have lived in a symbiotic relation ship until some time around the 19th century when the hunter-gathers seem to have been assimilated into the farming community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 15th century new groups of farmers, the Maravi Chewa, arrived in central Malawi (The present name of the country derives from Maravi). They are believed to have migrated from the north-west of Lubaland (the home of the Luba peoples) in what is now the south-east of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Maravi quickly integrated several groups of peoples into a centralised Maravi Empire ruled from eastern Dedza. Its influence extended throughout central and eastern Malawi and into parts of what is now Mozambique. Within the Maravi state there existed a sharp division between central and local government, the former being dominated by the Maravi immigrants and the latter by the original inhabitants. The nyau society flourished at local level and initially seems to have been a way of checking political centralisation. In time, however, the distinctions became blurred and representatives of the non-Maravi clans became chiefs and the Maravi rulers gained rights over the nyau organisation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 19th century Ngoni peoples, fleeing Chaka in Zululand, South Africa, moved north and some settled south of the Chongoni area. The Ngoni appear to have despised the nyau, who as a result were forced into hiding. The nyau became used as a focus for Chewa resistance to the invading Ngoni. Thus the nyau came to be the guardian of Chewa culture in the face of opposition - a role it performed again as a refuge for those who refused to be drafted for porterage in World War I. The nyau was discouraged by missionaries and to a certain extent by the Colonial government. In spite of this it has survived and is now recognised as a valued and vigorous expression of traditional culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1924 the Chongoni and surrounding hills were declared a Forest Reserve. The boundaries were revised in 1928 and 1930 to exclude the villages. Further areas were excluded in 1961 and 1965 in the face of encroachment. The boundary has remained unchanged since 1965. In the late 1960s a programme of planting softwoods was introduced and roads created throughout the reserve to service the plantations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first recording of the rock art was in the 1930s. In the 1950s several sites were published.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The five Chentcherere shelters were declared a protected national monument in 1969 and opened to the public (five out of 127 shelters).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/476</http_url><id_number>476</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_476.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-14.2933333333</latitude><location>Dedza District, Central Region</location><longitude>34.2791666666</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated within a cluster of forested granite hills and covering an area of 126.4 km2, high up the plateau of central Malawi, the 127 sites of this area feature the richest concentration of rock art in Central Africa. They reflect the comparatively scarce tradition of farmer rock art, as well as paintings by BaTwa hunter-gatherers who inhabited the area from the late Stone Age. The Chewa agriculturalists, whose ancestors lived there from the late Iron Age, practised rock painting until well into the 20th century. The symbols in the rock art, which are strongly associated with women, still have cultural relevance amongst the Chewa, and the sites are actively associated with ceremonies and rituals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chongoni Rock-Art Area</site><states>Malawi</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1450</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1012</http_url><id_number>1012</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1012.jpg</image_url><iso_code>my</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criteria (ix) and (x): The site has a diverse biota and high endemism. The altitudinal and climatic gradient from tropical forest to alpine conditions combine with precipitous topography, diverse geology and frequent climate oscillations to provide conditions ideal for the development of new species. The Park contains high biodiversity with representatives from more than half the families of all flowering plants. The majority of Borneo&amp;rsquo;s mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates (many threatened and vulnerable) occur in the Park.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>6.2500000000</latitude><location>State of Sabah</location><longitude>116.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;As the highest mountain between the Himalayas and New Guinea, Mount Kinabalu (4,095&amp;nbsp;m) holds a distinctive position for the biota of South-East Asia. Kinabalu is a granite intrusion formed 15&amp;nbsp;million years ago by the hardening of a mass of molten rock that rose beneath the sedimentary rocks of Borneo's Crocker Range. 1&amp;nbsp;million years ago this pluton was thrust upward by tectonic movements which continue to this day. The sandstone and shale that once covered the granite have been eroded to reveal the underlying rock. During the Pleistocene, glaciers covered Kinabalu's summit, scouring the granite plateau and sharpening the jagged peaks above the ice. The ice sheet disappeared 10,000 years ago. Since then, wind and water have sculpted the summit peaks further to create pinnacles and deep valleys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Natural vegetation covers 93% of the park with rich tropical lowland and hill rainforest (dominated by diptocarps) amounting to 35%. Tropical montane forest covers another 37% of the park with subalpine forest and evergreen scrub found at the higher elevations. Of particular conservation significance are vegetation types developed on ultramafic (serpentine) rocks. Ultramafic vegetation covers about 16% of the park and contains many species restricted to this substrate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kinabalu has been identified as a Centre of Plant Diversity. Despite its geological youth, it is exceptionally rich in species with elements from the Himalayas, China, Australia, Malesia and Pantropical floras. The park has between 5,000-6,000 vascular plant species, 1,000 of which are orchids. It is particularly rich in &lt;em&gt;Ficus&lt;/em&gt; (78 taxa), ferns (610&amp;nbsp;species) and &lt;em&gt;Nepenthes&lt;/em&gt; (9 species of pitcher plant). &lt;em&gt;Rafflesia&lt;/em&gt;, a rare parasitic plant, is also found. The mountain flora has diverse 'living fossils' such as the celery pine and the trig-oak, the evolutionary link between oaks and beeches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The variety of Kinabalu's habitats includes 6 vegetation zones from lowland rainforest through to alpine scrub at 4,095&amp;nbsp;m. Faunal diversity is also high with the majority of Borneo's mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates (many threatened and vulnerable) known to occur in the park. It is clear that Kinabalu Park contains the important and significant habitats for the in-situ conservation of biological diversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The high species diversity of Kinabalu results from a number of factors: the great altitudinal and climatic gradient from tropical forest to alpine conditions; precipitous topography causing effective geographical isolation over short distances; the diverse geology with many localized edaphic conditions, particularly the ultramafic substrates; the frequent climate oscillations influenced by El Ni&amp;ntilde;o events; and geological history of the Malay archipelago and proximity to the much older Crocker Range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The above processes provide ideal conditions for a diverse biota, high endemism and rapid evolutionary rates. Wildlife is also diverse with 90 species of lowland mammal and 22 others found in the montane zone. Four species of primate occur and 326 bird species have been recorded. Mount Kinabalu is thus both species-rich and an important centre for endemism. Half of all Borneo's birds, mammals and amphibian species including many rare and endangered species occur in the park. Two-thirds of all Bornean reptiles and at least half of its plant species are represented in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kinabalu Park, in the State of Sabah on the northern end of the island of Borneo, is dominated by Mount Kinabalu (4,095 m), the highest mountain between the Himalayas and New Guinea. It has a very wide range of habitats, from rich tropical lowland and hill rainforest to tropical mountain forest, sub-alpine forest and scrub on the higher elevations. It has been designated as a Centre of Plant Diversity for Southeast Asia and is exceptionally rich in species with examples of flora from the Himalayas, China, Australia, Malaysia, as well as pan-tropical flora.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kinabalu Park</site><states>Malaysia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1182</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1013</http_url><id_number>1013</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1013.jpg</image_url><iso_code>my</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criteria (vii), (viii), (ix) and (x): The concentration of caves in Mulu's Melinau Formation with its geomorphic and structural characteristics is an outstanding feature which allows a greater understanding of Earth's history. The caves of Mulu are important for their classic features of underground geomorphology, demonstrating an evolutionary history of more than 1.5 million years. One of the world's finest examples of the collapse process in Karstic terrain can be also found. GMNP provides outstanding scientific opportunities to study theories on the origins of cave faunas. With its deeply-incised canyons, wild rivers, rainforest-covered mountains, spectacular limestone pinnacles, cave passages and decorations, Mulu has outstanding scenic values. GMNP also provides significant natural habitat for a wide range of plant and animal diversity both above and below ground. It is botanically-rich in species and high in endemism, including one of the richest sites in the world for palm species.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>4.1333300000</latitude><location>northern Sarawak, island of Borneo</location><longitude>114.9166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Gunung Mulu National Park on the island of Borneo protects a wide range of natural phenomena. With an altitudinal range from 28m above sea level to the 2,377 m summit of Gunung Mulu, the park has 17 vegetation zones, primarily lowland rainforest (40% of the area) and montane rainforest (20% of the area). Some 3,500 species of vascular plants have been recorded including a high number of endemics found on limestone substrates. The park is considered to be one of the richest sites in the world for palms with 109 species of 20 genera identified. 80 species of mammal and 270 species of bird (including 24 Borneon endemics) have been recorded. The cave fauna, including many trogloditic species, number over 200. The area also has many species of reptile (55), amphibian (76), fish (48) and invertebrate (more than 20,000). The park also supports huge bat colonies (3 million wrinkled-lipped freetail bats inhabit Deer Cave alone) and cave swiflets (several million in one cave).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is not only important for this high biodiversity but also for its karst features. There are at least 295 km of explored caves including some of the largest in the world. A range of cave types at different levels exist due to uplift during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. The caves, concentrated in the Melinau limestone formation and on Gunung Api, are estimated to be at least 2-3 million years old. Sarawak Chamber, which is 600 m by 415 m and 80 m high, is the largest known cave chamber in the world. There are some exceptional decorated speleothems with spectacular examples of argonite and calcite needles. Another outstanding karst feature in Gunung Mulu National Park is the 'pinnacles', 50 m high sharp blades of rock that project through the rainforest canopy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In sum, the park protects a substantial area of Borneo's primary tropical forest containing a high diversity of biota including many Borneon endemics and threatened species. The site also has a high concentration of large cave passages and chambers which in turn provide a major wildlife spectacle in terms of millions of cave swiftlets and bats. The area is roadless and has no permanent residents. Local Penans retain traditional hunting rights within the park.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Important both for its high biodiversity and for its karst features, Gunung Mulu National Park, on the island of Borneo in the State of Sarawak, is the most studied tropical karst area in the world. The 52,864-ha park contains seventeen vegetation zones, exhibiting some 3,500 species of vascular plants. Its palm species are exceptionally rich, with 109 species in twenty genera noted. The park is dominated by Gunung Mulu, a 2,377 m-high sandstone pinnacle. At least 295 km of explored caves provide a spectacular sight and are home to millions of cave swiftlets and bats. The Sarawak Chamber, 600 m by 415 m and 80 m high, is the largest known cave chamber in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gunung Mulu National Park</site><states>Malaysia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1183</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1396</http_url><id_number>1396</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1396.jpg</image_url><iso_code>my</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.0679083333</latitude><location></location><longitude>100.9723277778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the lush Lenggong Valley, the property includes four archaeological sites in two clusters which span close to 2&amp;nbsp;million years, one of the longest records of early man in a single locality, and the oldest outside the African continent. It features open-air and cave sites with Palaeolithic tool workshops, evidence of early technology. The number of sites found in the relatively contained area suggests the presence of a fairly large, semi-sedentary population with cultural remains from the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Metal ages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Heritage of the Lenggong Valley</site><states>Malaysia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1820</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Through history, the Straits of Malacca have been a highway for maritime traders and contacts between East and West. Powerful kingdoms and cities have arisen and a typical trait has been immigration and strong influences from far and near, contributing to a multicultural identity. In the late 14th century or early 15th century the city and the kingdom of Melaka was founded. The small fishing village rapidly grew to a large port and emporium, overshadowing the older ports in the area. With the support from the Chinese emperor the king managed to stay independent of Siam. Many ethnic groups were present and it is reported that some 80 different languages were spoken. The custom that people from different ethnic communities lived in their own sections of the city started in this period. Islam was introduced; the king assumed the title of Sultan and Melaka became a centre of learning for Islam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1511 the Portuguese conquered the city of Melaka. A stone fortress surrounding the present St. Paul's Hill was built and within this, palaces for the governor and the bishop, five churches, two hospitals, a college and other public buildings were built. The destruction of mosques and tombs shows a wish to weaken Islam. However, the tradition of separate ethnic quarters and multiculturalism continued. Melaka was frequently attacked by its Malay neighbours; other Europeans were sailing through the Straits of Malacca and had an interest in the area, and in 1641 the Dutch captured the city. They had conquered Java in 1619 and made Batavia (Jakarta) their capital in the East. Melaka was not to compete but became their main base in the peninsula and again rose to a Southeast Asian entrepot par excellence at the end of the 18th century. The Dutch merely took over the existing infrastructure. Later they built a new fortress on St. John's Hill and in 1650 the former Governor's residence was converted into the Stadthuis. The catholic St. Peter's Church was built in 1710 and the protestant Christ Church in 1753, the oldest protestant church in Malaysia and still in use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1795-1818, during the Napoleonic wars in Europe, Melaka came into British hands. By then Penang/George Town had been in existence for some time and as its rival, it was initially ordered to level Melaka. The fort was demolished, only the gate is left, but then the destruction was stopped. A few years later, in 1824, Melaka was finally brought under British administration. George Town was founded in 1786 by the British. Unlike the Portuguese and the Dutch they exercised a policy of free trade. People from all over the world were encouraged to settle in the new town and to produce export crops. To administer the island, a Presidency was set up under the jurisdiction of the East India Company in Bengal and in 1826 it became part of the Straits Settlements together with Singapore and Melaka.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The development of both cities over the centuries was based on the merging of diverse ethnic and cultural traditions, including Malay, European, Muslim, Indian and Chinese influences. All this resulted in a human and cultural tapestry that is expressed in a rich intangible heritage that includes languages, religious practices, gastronomy, ceremonies and festivals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Melaka, a conservation area was first identified in 1979 and upgraded in 1985. In 1988 an international seminar was organized and the area of St Paul's Hill designated as a heritage zone. The same year, the State of Melaka established the Preservation and Conservation of Cultural Heritage Act, and in 1993 this was placed under the newly established Melaka Museums Corporation. From this the Conservation Trust Fund was formed, and from 2001 this has been used to finance selected building conservation projects in Melaka.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In George Town, a policy on conservation areas was introduced in the early 1970s. This was the first time a conservation plan became part of the town plan. The island's rapid urban change in the mid-1980s fostered a public conservation movement and an International Conference on Urban Conservation and Planning helped to raise awareness. In the early 1990s some demolitions and conservation projects attracted attention. The first major building restoration work undertaken by the State Government was the Syed Al-Attas Mansion in 1993.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1223</http_url><id_number>1223</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1223.jpg</image_url><iso_code>my</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.4213888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>100.3458333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Melaka and George Town, historic cities of the Straits of Malacca have developed over 500 years of trading and cultural exchanges between East and West in the Straits of Malacca. The influences of Asia and Europe have endowed the towns with a specific multicultural heritage that is both tangible and intangible. With its government buildings, churches, squares and fortifications, Melaka demonstrates the early stages of this history originating in the 15th-century Malay sultanate and the Portuguese and Dutch periods beginning in the early 16th century. Featuring residential and commercial buildings, George Town represents the British era from the end of the 18th century. The two towns constitute a unique architectural and cultural townscape without parallel anywhere in East and Southeast Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Melaka and George Town, Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca</site><states>Malaysia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1871</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/116</http_url><id_number>116</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_116.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ml</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.9063900000</latitude><location>Djenné Circle, Region of Mopti</location><longitude>-4.5550000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Djenn&amp;eacute;-Djeno, along with Hambarketolo, Tonomba and Kaniana, bears exceptional witness to the pre-Islamic civilizations on the inland delta of the Niger. Djenn&amp;eacute; is an outstanding example of an architectural group of buildings illustrating a significant historic period. It has been defined both as 'the most beautiful city of Africa' and 'the typical African city'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The annual flooding by the Niger and its tributaries is an essential natural phenomenon in both the region of Djenn&amp;eacute; and the whole inland delta area. The floods cover all but a few hillocks; these are called &lt;em&gt;togu&amp;egrave;re&lt;/em&gt;. Excavations carried out in 1977-81 on the &lt;em&gt;togu&amp;egrave;re&lt;/em&gt; of Djenn&amp;eacute;-Djeno, in the flood basin of the Bani, 3&amp;nbsp;km south-east of Djenn&amp;eacute;, produced evidence of continuous human occupation from 250 BC to the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several phases of occupation were brought to light. There was a pre-urban phase, when the Bozo people made their living from fishing and growing rice. An urbanization phase was probably due to the Nono people. Under Nono merchants the city quickly became a market centre and a hub in the trans-Saharan gold trade, which began in the 9th or 10th centuries in western Africa in answer to Muslim demand. The discovery of many domestic structures (walls, houses, the remains of ovens) and a wealth of metal and terracotta artefacts make Djenn&amp;eacute;-Djeno a major archaeological site for the study of the evolution of dwellings, industrial and craft techniques, and the spread of Islam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The discovery of organic remains, among which were a large number of African rice grains, shed much light on how the cultivation of rice developed. Other &lt;em&gt;togu&amp;egrave;res&lt;/em&gt;, such as at Hambarketolo, Tonomba and Kaniana, revealed important discoveries. All these tels, which were a natural refuge from the flood waters, are potential archaeological sites and on that basis deserve to be protected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 14th century Djenn&amp;eacute;-Djeno was abandoned in favour of Djenn&amp;eacute;, which had been inhabited since the 11th century. The story of the sacrifice of atonement of a young girl, Tepama, who was walled up alive in order to ensure the town's prosperity, must be placed in the religious context of a time when animistic beliefs and fetishism had not yet given way to Islam. Introduced by Marka merchants, Islam did not take hold until the end of the 13th century when the sultan Koumboro was converted. He abandoned his palace and turned it into Djenn&amp;eacute;'s first mosque; it was destroyed in 1830.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like Timbuktu, Djenn&amp;eacute; enjoyed its golden age during the 15th and 16th centuries. At that time it was a major centre for the spread of Islam. Taken first by the Moroccans in 1591, and subsequently by the Peulhs in 1810, the Toucouleurs in 1862, and finally by the French colonial troops in 1893, Djenn&amp;eacute; did not undergo any other period of major development until Mali won its independence. The colonial period left deep traces on the city, notably through the reconstruction in 1906-7 of the Great Mosque. However, this monument, which was built for 3,000 worshippers, is a fairly successful pastiche of local religious architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Djenn&amp;eacute;, which spreads over several &lt;em&gt;togu&amp;egrave;re&lt;/em&gt;, is bisected by a wide avenue. On the south is the Market Place dominated by the Great Mosque. Extending out from both sides of this thoroughfare, over an ancient land parcel of about 20&amp;nbsp;ha, are about 1,850 traditional houses (1982 figure). The main feature of the domestic architecture, influenced by that of Morocco, is its verticality. Buttresses punctuate the facades of the two-storey houses whose entrances are always given special attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beyond this historic nucleus are contemporary buildings, dating from successive extensions of the city limits. Special mention should be made of the ports of Djenn&amp;eacute; (of which there are 17), particularly the one at Bambana, where pirogues from Timbuktu would tie up.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inhabited since 250 B.C., Djenné became a market centre and an important link in the trans-Saharan gold trade. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it was one of the centres for the propagation of Islam. Its traditional houses, of which nearly 2,000 have survived, are built on hillocks (&lt;em&gt;toguere&lt;/em&gt;) as protection from the seasonal floods.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Towns of Djenné</site><states>Mali</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>127</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2012 P 1990-2005</danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/119</http_url><id_number>119</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_119.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ml</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.7733333300</latitude><location>Circle and Region of Tombouctou</location><longitude>-2.9994444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The three great mosques of Timbuktu, restored by the Qadi Al Aqib in the 16th century, bear witness to the golden age of the intellectual and spiritual capital at the end of the Askia dynasty. They played an essential part in the spread of Islam in Africa at an early period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Timbuktu is thought to have been founded towards the end of the 5th century of the Hegira by a group of Imakcharen Tuaregs who, having wandered 250&amp;nbsp;km south of their base, established a temporary camp guarded by an old woman, Buktu. Gradually, Tim-Buktu (the place of Buktu) became a small sedentary village at the crossroads of several trade routes. Quickly converted to Islam (the two great mosques of Djingareyber and Sankore appeared during the Mandingue period), the market city of Timbuktu reached its apex under the reign of the Askia (1493-1591). It then became an important centre of Koranic culture with the University of Sankore and numerous schools attended, it is said, by some 25,000 students. Scholars, engineers and architects from various regions in Africa rubbed shoulders with wise men and marabouts in this intellectual and religious centre. Early on, Timbuktu attracted travellers from far-away countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the mosques of El-Hena, Kalidi and Algoudour Djingareye have been destroyed, three essential monuments - the mosques of Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahia - fortunately still stand as testimony to the grandeur of Timbuktu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mosque of Djingareyber was built by the sultan Kankan Moussa after his return in 1325 from a pilgrimage to Mecca. Between 1570 and 1583 the Qadi of Timbuktu, Imam Al Aqib, had it reconstructed and enlarged, adding the whole southern part and the wall enclosing the graveyard situated to the west. The central minaret dominates the town and is the most visible landmark of the urban landscape. A smaller minaret on the eastern facade completes the profile of the Great Mosque which has three inner courtyards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like Djingareyber, the Mosque of Sankore, built during the Mandingue period, was restored by the Imam Al Aqib between 1578 and 1582. He had the sanctuary demolished and rebuilt according to the measurements of the Kaaba at Mecca, which he had taken with a rope during his pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mosque of Sidi Yahia, south of Sankore, was probably built around 1400 by the marabout Sheikh El Moktar Hamalla in anticipation of a holy man who appeared 40 years later in the person of Cherif Sidi Yahia, who was then chosen as Imam. It was restored in 1577-78 by the Imam Al Aqib. Apart from the mosques, the World Heritage site comprises 16 cemeteries and mausolea, essential elements in a religious system as, according to popular belief; they constitute a rampart that shields the city from all misfortune. The most ancient mausoleum is that of Sheikh Abul Kassim Attouaty, who died in year 936 of the Hegira (1529) and was buried 150 m west of the city with 50 &lt;em&gt;ulemas&lt;/em&gt; and holy persons from Touat. Equally noteworthy and from the same general period are the graves of the scholar Sidi Mahmoudou, who died in year 955 of the Hegira (1547) and of Qadi Al Aqfb, the restorer of mosques, who died in year 991 of the Hegira (1583).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Home of the prestigious Koranic Sankore University and other &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt;, Timbuktu was an intellectual and spiritual capital and a centre for the propagation of Islam throughout Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its three great mosques, Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahia, recall Timbuktu's golden age. Although continuously restored, these monuments are today under threat from desertification.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Timbuktu</site><states>Mali</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>131</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/516</http_url><id_number>516</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_516.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ml</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.3333300000</latitude><location>Bandiagara Circle, Mopti Region</location><longitude>-3.4166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cliff of Bandiagara is an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, representative of the Dogon culture, which has become vulnerable under the impact of tourism. The complex ritual relationships of the Dogon people with the environment include the use of curative and medicinal wild plants and the sacred associations with pale fox, jackal and crocodile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The zone stretches from Gani-do in the south-south-west to Koudianga in the north-north-east, along the road linking Bankas, Koporo, Madougou and Diankabou. The sanctuary lies at the southern limit of the Sahara in an arid Sahelian region with averages of 580&amp;nbsp;mm of rainfall per year. It exhibits three distinctive geomorphological features: Bandiagara plateau, Bandiagara escarpment, and the Plaine du S&amp;igrave;no. The landscape consists of an ancient eroded terrain of flat tablelands, mesa and sandstone buttes. The rock substrate is predominantly upper sandstone of the Cambrian and Ordovician periods, formed into horizontal strata and characterized by a great variety of facies. Exposed horizontal strata periodically result in rock polygonation. In some areas the plateau is crowned by laterite, ironstone shield or impervious conglomerates. The escarpment has formed into numerous irregularities, indentations, promontories and is pierced by thalweg ravines, gorges or rocky passages connecting the plain and plateau. Thalwegs maintain a humid and shaded microclimate able to support dense vegetation. Water is also retained in rock fissures, resulting in seasonal boggy areas on horizontal or gently sloping rock strata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The predominant vegetation type is Sudano-Sahelian open wood savannah with mosaics of steppe and chasmophytic flora. The plateau of Bandiagara is covered in a typically Sudanian savannah vegetation. A wide range of animal species is found in the region. The cliff and rock habitats support a diversity of species including fox-kestrel, Gabar goshawk, yellow-billed shrike, scarlet-cheated sunbird, abundant cliff chats and rock doves. Mammal species occur in the region and probably also in the Bandiagara escarpment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region is one of the main centres for the Dogon culture, rich in ancient traditions and rituals, art culture and folklore. The village of Sangha or Songo is celebrated for its triennial circumcision ceremonies and its rock carvings. The Dogon subsistence farmers did not arrive until the 15th and 16th centuries, yet the region is rich in unique architecture, from flat-roofed huts to tapering granaries capped with thatch, and cliff cemeteries. Symbolic relationships occur with the environment such as with semi-domesticated crocodiles, pale fox and jackal, and the development of elaborate masks, headdresses and ritual dances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The large family dwelling was generally built on two levels. The facade was windowless but had a series of niches and two doors, often decorated with sculptured rows of male and female characters which symbolized the family's successive generations. The size of the house was almost exactly half that of the &lt;em&gt;ginna&lt;/em&gt; and generally was on one floor. Women were temporarily excluded from the domestic group during their menstrual period, one or two circular-shaped women's houses being built at one end of the village for their use at this time. A distinction between the sexes was also made in the size of the granaries. Special areas were reserved for traditional shrines of which a great variety can be found. Some, in the caves, probably perpetuated the ritual sites of the Tellem cult. Others, built from banco, conform to several types of architecture. The most venerated are the responsibility of the Hogon, the priest who works for several villages. Living alone, his source of inspiration is the snake, whose totem is often sculpted near the door to his dwelling. The oldest mosques (Islam developed strongly in Dogon country during the 19th century) were built by local masons alongside the &lt;em&gt;togu-na&lt;/em&gt; on the village common.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The integration of new elements in the traditional architecture is clear proof of the strength of Dogon civilization in the face of external contributions. However, it must stress the precarious preservation of these traditional habitats and handicraft techniques, lifestyles and way of thinking which helped the Dogon people to survive.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Bandiagara site is an outstanding landscape of cliffs and sandy plateaux with some beautiful architecture (houses, granaries, altars, sanctuaries and &lt;em&gt;Togu Na&lt;/em&gt;, or communal meeting-places). Several age-old social traditions live on in the region (masks, feasts, rituals, and ceremonies involving ancestor worship). The geological, archaeological and ethnological interest, together with the landscape, make the Bandiagara plateau one of West Africa's most impressive sites.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cliff of Bandiagara (Land of the Dogons)</site><states>Mali</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>602</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2012</danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Gao is one of the ancient towns of Africa south of the Sahara. Probably founded at the end of the 7th century, by the 11th century it appears in Arab chronicles as Kaw Kaw. In 1137 it became the capital of the Songhai Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the tomb is attributed to Mohamed Aboubacar Sylla, nephew of Sonni Ali Ber who reigned from 1464 to 1492 and extended the limits of the Songhai Empire through numerous battles against nomadic Tuaregs, Peuls and Mossi who were harassing the edges of the Empire. On the death of Sonni Ali Ber, his nephew Mohamed Aboubacar Sylla, known as Askia Mohamed, inaugurated the Askia dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Askia Mohamed continued the expansionist policies of his uncle and extended the Empire to the Atlantic coast in the west, to Air in the north (now in Niger) and south to the limits of the forest. The prosperity of the Empire was based on control of the trans-Saharan routes to the north, of routes from the forest in the south, and of the gold and salt trade that plied them. The Empire was a successor to the earlier empires of Ghana and Mali, which similarly prospered through control of the valuable trade routes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is said that Askia Mohamed on passing through Egypt on his pilgrimage to Mecca was much impressed by the Pyramids and decided on his return to construct a pyramidal tomb. However the tomb could also be said to be part of a very long Saharan tradition of prominent ancestral tumuli or tomb mounds erected over graves from as early as the first millennium BC. This style could also have been influenced by square, three-stepped stairway minarets of the Ibadite zawiyas, or holy shrines, of the Mzab region of southern Algeria, a link perhaps strengthened by numerous Ibadi scholars hosted by Askia Mohamed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of Askia Mohamed, the Songhai Empire became, with Tombouctou, the intellectual and religious centre of West Africa, developing strong cultural and commercial links with North Africa, Europe and the Middle East.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Internal strife and the growing importance of sea routes to West Africa in the 16th century led to the gradual decline of the Empire. By the mid 19th century it had become a village of three to four hundred houses with only one remaining monument: the Tomb of Askia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is debate over whether Askia Mohamed was interred in the tomb when he died in 1529. The general belief in Gao is that his body is not there and he was buried away from the site altogether.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb seems always to have been used as part of the mosque - it is said that its name Askia Djira, literally the Mosque of Askia, was one by which it was known until the colonial era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1960s the men's prayer hall was judged to be too small and was enlarged. Two new rows of columns were constructed alongside the four original rows. In 1975 the building was further enlarged to absorb the mihrab, originally isolated in the courtyard. All this work was done using traditional techniques and materials and blends well with the original.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The largest change to the site is the construction in 1999 of a large cement boundary wall. This was apparently necessary to keep control of uses within the site.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1139</http_url><id_number>1139</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1139.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ml</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.2898000000</latitude><location>City, Circle and Region of Gao</location><longitude>-0.0445600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tomb of Askia reflects the way that local building traditions, in response to Islamic needs, absorbed influences from North Africa to create a unique architectural style across the West African Sahel. The site reflects the distinctive architectural tradition of the region and in particular exemplifies the way that buildings evolve over centuries through regular, traditional maintenance practices. It is the central commanding feature of the Great Mosque of Gao, which dominates the northern end of the town of Gao, next to the River Niger.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of the tomb and mosque surrounded by a wall, which covers the area to the west between the tomb and the river and part of the area to the north. The town surrounding the site still consists largely of traditional mud-walled, flat-roofed houses within courtyards laid out in a regular, rectilinear plan. The mosque and the surrounding old town of Gao are together one of the great sites in central Mali, and appear as a seemingly tiny oasis at the southern end of the Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The pyramidal tomb is constructed of mud bricks faced with mud plaster. Gnarled scaffolding timbers project out from the face of the tomb and allow easy access for replastering. On the east side is a winding external stair leading to the summit. The forest of scaffolding timbers and the sculpted lines of the building, which have developed over centuries of replastering, combine to create a unique architectural piece.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two flat-roofed mosque buildings. On the east side of the tomb is a large flat-roofed prayer hall for men. The roof, of timber poles covered with mud, is supported by 69 stout, square, closely spaced, plastered mud-brick pillars arranged in four rows. The middle of the easternmost wall of the sanctuary is punctured by a double-niched &lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; . The mosque cemetery, outside the inner wall, surrounds the tomb and mosque and dates from the time of Askia, with many inscribed stone stelae. It continued in use until the end of the 1980s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The open-air assembly ground. The east side of the larger enclosure, about 1&amp;nbsp;ha, is an open space used for collective prayers at the festival of Tabaski. It has been regularly used since the 15th century for other cultural purposes, such as local marriages where Islamic ceremonies were intertwined with 'animist' traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gao, probably founded at the end of the 7th century, appears in Arab chronicles as Kaw Kaw. The construction of the tomb is attributed, in the 11th century, to Mohamed Aboubacar Sylla (Askia Mohamed), who inaugurated the Askia dynasty. The prosperity of the empire was based on control of the trans-Saharan routes to the north, of routes from the forest in the south, and of the gold and salt trade that used them. It is said that Askia Mohamed, on passing through Egypt on his way to Mecca, was impressed by the pyramids and decided to construct a pyramidal tomb. However, it could also be said to be part of a long Saharan tradition of prominent ancestral tumuli or tomb mounds from as early as the 1st millennium BC. This style could also have been influenced by square, three-stepped stairway minarets of the Ibadite &lt;em&gt;zawiyas&lt;/em&gt; (holy shrines), of the Mzab region of southern Algeria&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of Askia Mohamed, the Songhai Empire became, with Timbuktu, the intellectual and religious centre of West Africa, developing strong cultural and commercial links with North Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Internal strife and the growing importance of sea routes to West Africa in the 16th century led to the gradual decline of the empire. By the mid-19th century it had become a village of 300-400 houses with only one remaining monument, the Tomb of Askia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tomb seems always to have been used as part of the mosque: it is said that its name Askia Djira, literally the Mosque of Askia, was one by which it was known until the colonial era. In the 1960s the men's prayer hall was judged to be too small and was enlarged using traditional techniques and materials.The largest change to the site is the construction in 1999 of a large concrete boundary wall.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The dramatic 17-m pyramidal structure of the Tomb of Askia was built by Askia Mohamed, the Emperor of Songhai, in 1495 in his capital Gao. It bears testimony to the power and riches of the empire that flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries through its control of the trans-Saharan trade, notably in salt and gold. It is also a fine example of the monumental mud-building traditions of the West African Sahel. The complex, including the pyramidal tomb, two flat-roofed mosque buildings, the mosque cemetery and the open-air assembly ground, was built when Gao became the capital of the Songhai Empire and after Askia Mohamed had returned from Mecca and made Islam the official religion of the empire.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tomb of Askia</site><states>Mali</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1320</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/130</http_url><id_number>130</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_130.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.8713400000</latitude><location>Commune of Paola, Island of Malta</location><longitude>14.5073900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hal Saflieni Hypogeum is a cultural property of exceptional prehistoric value. This unique monument dates back to early antiquity (about 2500 BC) and it is the only known example of a subterranean structure of the Bronze Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hypogeum was discovered accidentally in 1902 by a stonemason who was laying the foundations of some houses on the island of Malta. Temi Zammit, the first Director of Malta's Museums Department, assumed responsibility for the excavation. His excavation yielded a wealth of archaeological material including much pottery and human bones, personal ornaments such as beads and amulets, little carved animals and larger figurines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This 'labyrinth', as it is often called, consists of a series of elliptical chambers and alveoli of varying importance, to which access is gained by different corridors. The megalithic walls are constructed of cyclopean masonry - large irregular blocks of chalky coralline stone without mortar - which was summarily dressed with rudimentary tools of flint and obsidian. The principal rooms distinguish themselves by their domed vaulting and by the elaborate structure of false bays inspired by the doorways and windows of contemporary terrestrial constructions. The hypogeum, which was originally conceived as a sanctuary, perhaps an oracle, from the prehistoric period was transformed into an ossuary, as borne out by the remains of more than 7,000 individuals discovered during the course of the excavation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The upper level consists of a large hollow with a central passage and burial chambers cut on each side. One of the chambers still contains original burial deposits. The middle level consists of various chambers very smoothly finished, which give the impression of built masonry. The workmanship is all the more impressive when it is considered that the chambers were meticulously carved using only flint and stone tools. Curvilinear and spiral paintings in red ochre are still visible in some areas. One of the niches in the 'Oracle Chamber' has the characteristic of echoing deep sounds. The carved facade is magnificent and the quality of its architecture is in a remarkable state of preservation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Hypogeum is an enormous subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 B.C., using cyclopean rigging to lift huge blocks of coralline limestone. Perhaps originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis in prehistoric times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum</site><states>Malta</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>142</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/131</http_url><id_number>131</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_131.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.9005600000</latitude><location>Island of Malta</location><longitude>14.5144400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Valletta is pre-eminently an ideal creation of the late Renaissance with its uniform urban plan, inspired by neo-Platonic principles, its fortified and bastioned walls modelled around the natural site, and the voluntary implantation of great monuments in well-chosen locations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The capital of Malta is one of the rare urban inhabited sites that has preserved in near entirety its original features. It is inextricably linked to the history of the military and charitable Order of St John of Jerusalem. It was ruled successively by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs and the Order of the Knights of St John. The city has undergone no important modifications since 1798, the date when it was abandoned by the Knights of St John.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the confines of the fortified peninsula of Valletta, which constitutes one of the most attractive natural sites of the Mediterranean, dominating the two ports of Grand Harbour and Marsamxett Harbour, the density of the buildings dating from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries is impressive. After the great siege of Malta in 1565, the new city, based on an orthogonal urban plan, was founded by the Italian engineer Francesco Laparelli of Cortona (1521-70), the planning being carried out by Girolamo Cassar. The fortification and the uniform urban plan of Valletta were inspired by architectural principles of the Italian Renaissance in combination with techniques of contemporary city-planning and aesthetic considerations of urban theorists. The buildings of the order are harmoniously integrated within the uniform grille of the streets: the Cathedral of St John (former Conventual Church of the Order, 1573), Palace of the Grand Master (end of 16th century), Auberge de Castille et Leon (1574), Auberge de Provence (1571-75), Auberge d'Italie (1574), Auberge d'Aragon (end of 16th century) and Infirmary of the Order (end of 16th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The same is true of the great religious buildings as Our Lady of Victory (1566), St Catherine (1576), and Il Ges&amp;ugrave; (1595). The improvements attributed to the military engineers and architects of the 18th century have not disturbed this harmony (Auberge de Bavi&amp;egrave;re, Church of the Shipwreck of St Paul, Library and Mantel Theatre, etc.). The total of 320 historic monuments within a confined area of 55&amp;nbsp;ha is among the most strongly concentrated of this nature in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interweave of the urban fabric is of excellent quality and even the minor architecture has undergone no substantial alteration. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the influence of English architecture has combined in a surprising manner with that of the older existing local structures, creating new and original forms (for example narrow houses with bow windows, which fit well into the urban milieu. Moreover, the state of preservation of its well-constructed patrimony serves to make Valletta an example of historic conservation on a universal scale.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The capital of Malta is inextricably linked to the history of the military and charitable Order of St John of Jerusalem. It was ruled successively by the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs and the Order of the Knights of St John. Valletta’s 320 monuments, all within an area of 55 ha, make it one of the most concentrated historic areas in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Valletta</site><states>Malta</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>143</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/132</http_url><id_number>132</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_132.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.0490800000</latitude><location>Islands of Gozo and Malta</location><longitude>14.2694700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The monuments that make up this World Heritage site constitute the most characteristic examples of structures representing a major development in the cultural as well as the artistic and technological domains. Professor Lord Renfrew (Cambridge University), one of the leading prehistorians of the present day, has described the group of megalithic temples on the islands of Malta and Gozo as 'the oldest free-standing monuments in the world'. They are, moreover, remarkable for their diversity of form and decoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Being among the remarkable megalithic temples of the Maltese archipelago, the prehistoric ensemble of Ġgantija on the island of Gozo may be favourably compared with the three great temples of the island of Malta: Mnajdra, Ħagar Qim and Tarxien. Within a completely preserved enclosure wall, Ġgantija consists of two temples of multi-foil plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The southern temple, with its two elliptical cells, is the oldest; the northern temple, which is small in size, is more recent, although no later than 2200 BC. The ensemble of Ġgantija which serves as a point of archaeological reference - the 'Ġgantija Phase' (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 3000-2200 BC) is one of the most important periods of the Maltese Bronze Age. The complex structure of the cultural group of Ġgantija, the excellent state of preservation of its materials - hard chalky coralline and the softer globigerina limestone - make it an excellent testament of megalithic prehistoric art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ħagar Qim and Mnajdra, although in the same tradition as the Ġgantija temples, are in no way duplicates of them. Each of these complexes is the result of a separate individual development, differing greatly in plan and articulation, as well as in constructional techniques, from Ġgantija and from each other. Both illustrate full mastery of the use of globigerina limestone for orthostats and for the regular courses of corbelling above in the interiors, in contrast to the rough boulders used in Ġgantija South. Each complex has to be ranked as a unique architectural masterpiece which would be immensely impressive at any date, given the very limited resources of the builders, but is quite staggering when taken with the extraordinarily early dates now attributed to them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The same considerations hold for the Tarxien complex, except that it is considerably less well preserved than the others. It too is the product of individual development and displays some architectural features not found elsewhere. It is also unique in the wealth of elaborate carved ornament found there (although all this has unfortunately had to be removed from the site for protection), and the lower half of an extraordinary colossal stone figure. Another point is that because it is the only one of the monuments of this scale that has been regularly excavated and reported on, much more is known about what kind of use was made of it than of the others. The elaborate rituals to which the temples are testimony are a very remarkable manifestation of the human spirit, especially on a remote island at such an early date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ta' Ħaġrat offers the best preserved example of a temple with the early trefoil plan, plus the poorly preserved remains of what is assumed to be the earliest type of all. The former, although on a much smaller scale than the above monuments, would be considered remarkable for its date if they were not available for comparison. Its chief importance is as evidence of the development of the tradition, rather than in its own right, and this applies even more so, of course, to the smaller and earlier unit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Both Ta' Ħaġrat and Skorba are significant mainly in terms of the information they provide about the development of the temple tradition in Malta. They are both essential to the proper understanding of the great masterpieces.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1992</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Seven megalithic temples are found on the islands of Malta and Gozo, each the result of an individual development. The two temples of Ggantija on the island of Gozo are notable for their gigantic Bronze Age structures. On the island of Malta, the temples of Hagar Qin, Mnajdra and Tarxien are unique architectural masterpieces, given the limited resources available to their builders. The Ta'Hagrat and Skorba complexes show how the tradition of temple-building was handed down in Malta.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Megalithic Temples of Malta</site><states>Malta</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2121</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The emergence of the atolls forming the Marshall archipelago is relatively recent. The arrival and settlement of the Micronesian populations in the islands goes back to the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE. Their lifestyle, which remained largely traditional over a long period, was based on fishing, and the gathering of fruit, coconut in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional Micronesian way of life was little affected by the visits in the 16th-18th centuries of the first European explorers such as Captain Marshall, after whom the islands were named. The same was true of the first colonial episode, as a German protectorate at the end of the 19th century. Coconut plantations were developed. After World War I the islands were made a Japanese mandate by the League of Nations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the inter-war period the Japanese considered the Marshall Islands to have strategic importance and turned them into a strong military site. During the Pacific War a substantial American naval force of 40,000 men captured the outpost at Kwajalein and the archipelago in February 1944, following a hard-fought battle which resulted in the deaths of the entire 8,000-strong Japanese garrison. The Americans then counted the Marshall Islands as territory conquered in battle against the enemy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The use of atomic bombs by the US Army on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (6 August 1945) and Nagasaki (9 August 1945) led to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II. However, these military actions took place just after a number of major agreements between the Allies: the territorial divisions made at Yalta (February 1945), the end of the war in Europe (May 1945) and the Potsdam Conference, and finally the San Francisco Conference that created the United Nations (June 1945). The use of nuclear weapons had suddenly changed the balance of power between the Allies. Nuclear disarmament and/or nuclear non-proliferation under the control of the United Nations immediately became an issue and a major source of disagreement: the USSR pressed for disarmament as a priority whilst the USA, the only nation to possess atomic weapons, wanted non-proliferation at any cost. The issue was increasingly keenly debated at several international meetings during the winter of 1945- 46, particularly at the 1st General Assembly of the United Nations (January 1946). The principle of the United Nations having a controlling power over nuclear weapons was recognized, but the Americans and the Soviets were unable to reach an agreement on how to implement the decision.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Suspicion became the keynote of relations between the former allies over a long period. The Cold War had just begun between the West and the Soviet Union. The Soviets, excluded from the occupation of Japan (February 1946), shortly afterwards announced the formation of a Communist government in North Korea. In the spring, military tensions between the two blocs that were beginning to emerge developed in various regions of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was the context in which President Truman gave his approval to a plan proposed by the US Army to resume nuclear tests on an isolated Pacific island. The Bikini Atoll at the north-eastern tip of the Marshall archipelago, which shortly before had been the core of the Battle of the Pacific and was still occupied by American troops, was chosen. The inhabitants of Bikini Atoll, who numbered just over one thousand, were evacuated in March 1946 to the neighbouring atoll of Rongelap. Extensive preparations then took place on the main islands of the atoll to create the necessary military base, including command and firing control bunkers and logistical installations. Tens of thousands of military personnel were involved in the operations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first two tests at Bikini took place on 1 and 25 July 1946, under the codename Crossroads. They consisted of an air strike (Able) followed by a underwater strike (Baker), on the same position in the east of the lagoon. There were two objectives: on the one hand to stage an impressive display of American nuclear power, and on the other to carry out a military study of the direct impact of a nuclear explosion on a naval fleet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Russians' development of a nuclear weapon capability (1949), followed by the Korean War (1950), led to the intensification of the Cold War. The Americans then developed thermonuclear weapons, in the form of the massively powerful hydrogen bomb. In October 1952 the H-bomb was tested for the first time at Bikini, in a 10,400kt explosion (Ivy Mike), 800 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Hiroshima. This was the first man-made nuclear fusion, and was carried out using cores of deuterium, a heavy isotope of hydrogen (resulting in the name &amp;lsquo;hydrogen bomb&amp;lsquo;). An operational version, the most powerful ever made by the Americans, was tested in March 1954 (Castle Bravo, 15,000kt), and this was followed by three other firings of similar power in 1954, all of them at Bikini.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Twenty-three tests were carried out at Bikini between July 1946 and August 1958, including the most powerful explosions ever conducted by the US Army. The neighbouring site of Enewetak Atoll, a little over 300km to the west, was also used from 1948 to 1958 (44 explosions). The Bikini inhabitants were relocated several times from one atoll to another. Those on Rongelap were authorized to return to their island in 1957, but the return proved a failure as the high degree of cesium-137 pollution made food grown on the islet hazardous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the dropping of the two bombs on Japan and the spectacular Operation Crossroads tests at Bikini, a series of symbols and images began to impinge upon international public opinion, and this awareness was bolstered by the many nuclear tests carried out in the 1950s by the Americans, the Russians, and the British (from 1952). They acquired a considerable value and have played a major role in post-World War II history right up to the present day. The huge nuclear mushroom cloud emerging in a few seconds above the ocean is an image universally associated with such explosions. Initially created in Japan, the monster Godzilla emerging from the sea has become a popular icon of nuclear terror and its infinite power of devastation. Reflecting the international diffusion of American culture in the post-war period, the fashion of the two-piece bathing suit was launched in Paris under the name &amp;lsquo;bikini.' The theme of nuclear explosions in the Pacific was taken up by various artists, including the painter Salvador Dal&amp;iacute; and the film director John Huston.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From a political viewpoint, the balance of terror born out of the Cold War was perfectly illustrated by the parallel development of nuclear weapon testing by the two blocs. Soviet efforts to catch up with and overtake the Americans culminated in the 50 megaton Big Ivan thermonuclear bomb (tested in 1961).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These events marked the course of a new nuclear age which was suddenly opening up for mankind. After beginning at Hiroshima in 1945, it was followed up less than one year later at Bikini, at a time when the warring nations of World War II were officially at peace. It was thus inevitable that a powerful anti-nuclear feeling should develop. The Japanese fishing boat irradiated in 1954 by the Castle Bravo test was to become a symbol; the irradiation of the populations of the Marshall Islands also raised concerns in international opinion. Several conferences then took place. Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein published a celebrated manifesto protesting against the Bikini tests. The years 1954-55 marked a turning point as the fears inspired by military nuclear capabilities, which until then had been shared only by limited circles of specialists, spread to international public opinion. A powerful popular movement calling for an end to tests and for nuclear disarmament was launched, a movement which had failed to take hold at the time of the creation of the United Nations Organization at the end of World War II.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pressure of public opinion, together with the advances made in the digital simulation of nuclear tests, a new field of technological and military progress, led the US Government to take a unilateral decision to end nuclear tests (1958). This gave the USA the opportunity to revive its diplomatic efforts to ratify a non-proliferation treaty, at a time when new players were preparing to join the nuclear club, including France (whose first test was conducted in 1960).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1967 onwards the US authorities considered the possibility of the Bikini people returning to their atoll, and this led to work to clean up radioisotope contamination This was carried out from 1970 onwards, backed up by an agricultural production programme. Medical follow-up of inhabitants showed, however, high levels of human contamination as a result of consuming food produced on the atoll and water from its wells. The atoll had therefore to be evacuated once again in 1978.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Long after the ending of nuclear tests, the Marshall Islands remained subject to an exceptional legal status from the viewpoint of international law. They were still the site of a large-scale American conventional military presence in the Western Pacific. The legal situation was only gradually normalized during the 1980s, leading ultimately to the independence of the archipelago in 1990.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1339</http_url><id_number>1339</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1339.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mh</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>11.6000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>165.3805555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the wake of World War II, in a move closely related to the beginnings of the Cold War, the United States of America decided to resume nuclear testing in the Pacific Ocean, on Bikini Atoll in the Marshall archipelago. After the displacement of the local inhabitants, 67 nuclear tests were carried out from 1946 to 1958, including the explosion of the first H-bomb (1952). Bikini Atoll has conserved direct tangible evidence that is highly significant in conveying the power of the nuclear tests, i.e. the sunken ships sent to the bottom of the lagoon by the tests in 1946 and the gigantic Bravo crater. Equivalent to 7,000 times the force of the Hiroshima bomb, the tests had major consequences on the geology and natural environment of Bikini Atoll and on the health of those who were exposed to radiation. Through its history, the atoll symbolises the dawn of the nuclear age, despite its paradoxical image of peace and of earthly paradise. This is the first site from the Marshall Islands to be inscribed on the World Heritage List.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site</site><states>Marshall Islands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1684</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/506</http_url><id_number>506</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_506.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.2347200000</latitude><location>Nouadhibou and Azefal</location><longitude>-16.1088900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Banc d'Arguin is located on the Atlantic desert-coast of Mauritania, midway between Nouakchott in the south and Nouadhibou in the north. The park extends from Cap Timiris in the south, includes the Ile de Tidra, Ile d'Arguin and Cap d'Arguin to Pointe Minou in the north. The boundary extends a maximum of 60&amp;nbsp;km into the shallow sea and 35&amp;nbsp;km inland into the Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park provides a unique example of a transition zone between the Sahara and the Atlantic. It is a vast area of islands and coastline, largely composed of windblown sand of Saharan origin, together with a large expanse of mudflats, with particularly well developed tidal flats in the vicinity of Tidra Island. Of the 15 named islands there are several up to 1&amp;nbsp;km wide and 5&amp;nbsp;km long, the largest; Isle of Tidra is 8&amp;nbsp;km by 35&amp;nbsp;km. The coastal waters between Cap Blanc and Cap Timiris are very shallow, and only reach a depth of 5&amp;nbsp;m at low tide even up to 60&amp;nbsp;km offshore. The arid inland component mainly comprises areas of sand hills and cliffs rising to 15&amp;nbsp;m. The mangrove swamp in the park is a relict of a previous humid geological period when Banc d'Arguin was a vast estuary mouth for rivers flowing from the Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park lies at the junction between the Afrotropical and Palaearctic biogeographic realms. The vegetation of the sandy coastline, mudflats and islands is represented by halophytic species. The terrestrial component of the park is represented by Saharan vegetation with a limited Mediterranean influence. Shallow water vegetation comprises extensive seagrass beds and various seaweeds, and favourable habitat for the reproduction and development of fish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the estimated 7&amp;nbsp;million wading birds that use the Atlantic flyway, approximately 30% spends the winter at Banc d'Arguin, which hosts the largest concentration of wintering waders in the world and one of the most diversified communities of nesting piscivorous birds in the world. At least 108 bird species have been recorded, representing both Palaearctic and Afrotropical realms. Wintering shorebirds number over 3&amp;nbsp;million and include hundreds of thousands of black tern and flamingo, ringed plover, grey plover, knot, redshank and bar-tailed godwit. The area is one of the most important wintering grounds for European spoonbill. Breeding birds include white pelican, reed cormorant, gull-billed tern, Caspian tern, royal tern and common tern, together with several species or subspecies with an African distribution, such as endemic heron and spoonbill and western reef heron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mammals include Dorcas gazelle, jackal, fennec fox, sand fox, sand cat, ratel and striped hyena. Marine mammals regularly recorded include killer whale, Atlantic humpbacked dolphin, common dolphin, rough-toothed dolphin, bottlenose dolphin and Risso's dolphin. Fin whale or common rorqual and common porpoise have also been sighted. A small population of about 150 monk seal is found at Cap Blanc, near Nouadhibou. Four species of turtle frequent the area: green, loggerhead, hawksbill and leatherback. Fish are one of the most important components of the fauna. The shallow tidal flats act as important breeding and nursery areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Neolithic archaeological sites and vestiges of the Almoravide civilization are found on a number of the islands. The local people, the Imraguen or Amrig, relate many of their customs to the natural environment. Even their name literally means 'the ones who gather life'. Imraguen tribesmen still maintain their age-old lifestyles, based almost exclusively on harvesting the migratory fish populations using traditional sailing boats. Fishing techniques, unchanged since first recorded by 15th-century Portuguese explorers; include the unique symbiotic collaboration with wild dolphins to catch schools of grey mullet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 500 or so Imraguen people live in seven villages within the park, but are dependent on water supplies collected outside the boundary. They base their economy on subsistence fishing using traditional methods. Use of the area by nomads is decreasing due to the area becoming more desertified. The Baie du Levrier and the harbour of Nouadhibou have become important bases for international fishing fleets.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Fringing the Atlantic coast, the park comprises sand-dunes, coastal swamps, small islands and shallow coastal waters. The contrast between the harsh desert environment and the biodiversity of the marine zone has resulted in a land- and seascape of outstanding natural significance. A wide variety of migrating birds spend the winter there. Several species of sea turtle and dolphin, used by the fishermen to attract shoals of fish, can also be found.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Banc d'Arguin National Park</site><states>Mauritania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>590</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;These four ancient towns are the only surviving places in Mauritania to have been inhabited since the Middle Ages. They were built originally to serve the caravan routes that began in the 11th century CE to cross the Sahara form north to south and from east to west. Sited on the outskirts of a fertile valley or oasis, their Original function was to provide religious instruction, and so they developed around mosques, accompanied by houses for the teachers and students. warehouses were built to safeguard their goods by traders, who needed accommodation for themselves, whilst inns were provided for those passing through on business. From these elements grew the characteristic form of settlement known as the ksar (plural ksoun, with a stone architecture and an urban form suited to extreme climatic conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to tradition, Ouadane was founded by three holy men in 1141-42 (536) on the ruins of earlier settlements dating back to the 8th century CE, which had been destroyed or abandoned in savage local wars. It was to become the most important commercial centre of the west Saharan region. A bitter struggle between two clans in 1450 led to the destruction of the first mosque. The town centre moved a short way to the east and flourished again within its fortifications. It was very prosperous between the 14th and 18th centuries owing to its commercially strategic location. An attempt by Portuguese to set up a trading post failed in the 16th century, but Moroccan incursions in the same century had more effect, and Ouadane declined as Chinguetti prospered. Following the arrival of French troops in 1909 the town developed an extra-mural settlement towards the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chinguetti (lit. &amp;quot;the spring of the horses'') was founded in the 12th century close to a small 7th century oasis settlement now submerged in sand. It grew up round its mosque, with two powerful clans occupying the sectors on either side. It became celebrated as the gathering point for pilgrims en route for Mecca. Chinguetti also benefited from the production and export of salt from Idjil, some kilometres to the north. Its zenith was attained in the 17th-19th centuries, principally because of its religious and scholarly eminence, which in turn help to augment its trading role. Like Ouadane, Chinguetti suffered from Moroccan raids, but not to the same extent. French troops built a fort on the northern edge of the town, and this led to its expansion in that direction. However, the attraction of mining developments at Zouerat&amp;eacute;-Nouadhibou, followed by the Sahara war (1975-79) led to the depopulation of both Chinguetti and Ouadane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tradition has it that seven towns lie superimposed at Tiehitt, which is borne out by the tell (artificial mound) on which the present settlement is sited. In the 11th century it was one of the main towns of the vast Berber empire on the edges of the Sahara, and in the following century it became an Almoravid town, founded by members Of the Chorfa clan. It lay on the outskirts of the Sudanese empires of the Niger region and profited from lying on the important trade route between Ouadane and Oualata, and it became of greater importance under Almohad rule in the 13th century because of its crucial situation on the salt route. It was fortified when it came under the control of the Oulad Bella tribe in the 16th century, but the 18th and 19th centuries saw savage clan wars during which part of Tichitt was destroyed by fire. Despite these setbacks it was one of the largest towns in the western Sahara at the end of the 19th century, with some six thousand inhabitants. With the decline in the importance Of salt production at Idjil, however, it has declined during the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some sources claim that oualata (whose Berber name means &amp;quot;Shady place&amp;quot;) was founded in the 5th century CE; others date it to the Arab conquest. Five main tribes live there, each in their own quarter of the town. Two important trade routes, one from Marrakech, Idjil, Chinguetti, and lichitt and the other from Sijilmassa, Teghasa, and Taoudeni, converge there and provide the economic stimulus for the town's existence. It became celebrated when elite refugees from Tombouctou, 40 km to the east, settled there in 1446 to escape the Touareg invaders, and gave it a high intellectual renown. However, as the trans-Saharan routes moved towards the east and the intellectual families moved baCk to Tombouctou, the importance of Oualata diminished. It lost much of its autonomy with the arrival of Arab tribes in the 17th century, and drought and raids from the north put an end to its role as a provincial capital at the end of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/750</http_url><id_number>750</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_750.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the World Heritage List on the basis of cultural criteria (iii), (iv) and (v) considering that these four ancient cities constitute exceptional examples of settlements built to serve the important trade routes of the Sahara Desert, and which were witness to cultural, social and economic contacts for many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>20.9288900000</latitude><location>Oudane, Chinguetti: region de l’Adrar; Tichitt:  region du Tagant; Oualata:  region du Hodh Echchargut</location><longitude>-11.6236100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;These four ancient cities constitute exceptional examples of settlements built to serve the important trade routes of the Sahara, which were witness to cultural, social and economic contacts for many centuries. They are the only surviving places in Mauritania to have been inhabited since the Middle Ages. They were built originally to serve the caravan routes that began in the 11th century AD to cross the Sahara from north to south and from east to west. Sited on the outskirts of a fertile valley or oasis, their original function was to provide religious instruction, and so they developed around mosques, accompanied by houses for teachers and students. Warehouses were built to safeguard their goods by traders, who needed accommodation for themselves, while inns were provided for those passing through on business. From these elements grew the characteristic form of settlement known as the &lt;em&gt;ksar&lt;/em&gt; (plural &lt;em&gt;ksour&lt;/em&gt; ), with stone architecture and an urban form suited to extreme climatic conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;According to tradition, Ouadane was founded by three holy men in 1141-42 on the ruins of earlier settlements dating back to the 8th century CE, which had been destroyed or abandoned in savage local wars. It was to become the most important commercial centre of the west Saharan region. A bitter struggle between two clans in 1450 led to the destruction of the first mosque. The town centre moved a short way to the east and flourished again within its fortifications, becoming very prosperous between the 14th and 18th centuries owing to its commercially strategic location. An attempt by the Portuguese to set up a trading post failed in the 16th century but Moroccan incursion in the same century had more effect, and Ouadane declined as Chinguetti prospered. Following the arrival of French troops in 1909 the town developed an extra-mural settlement towards the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chinguetti was founded in the 12th century close to a small 7th-century oasis settlement now submerged in sand. It grew up round its mosque, with two powerful clans occupying the sectors on either side, and became celebrated as the gathering point for pilgrims en route for Mecca. Chinguetti also benefited from the production and export of salt from Idjil, a short distance to the north. Its zenith was attained in the 17th-19th centuries, principally because of its religious and scholarly eminence, which in turn helped to augment its trading role. Like Ouadane, Chinguetti suffered from Moroccan raids, but not to the same extent. The attraction of mining developments at Zouerate-Nouadhibou, followed by the Sahara war (1975-79) led to the depopulation of both Chinguetti and Ouadane.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tradition has it that seven towns lie superimposed at Tichitt, which is borne out by the tel (artificial mound) on which the present settlement is sited. In the 11th century it was one of the main towns of the Berber Empire, and in the following century it became an Almoravid town. It lay on the outskirts of the Sudanese empires of the Niger region and profited from lying on the trade route between Ouadane and Oualata. It became of greater importance under the Oualad Bella tribe in the 16th century, but the 18th and 19th centuries saw savage clan wars during which part of Tichitt was destroyed. Despite these setbacks, it was one of the largest towns in the western Sahara at the end of the 19th century, with some 6,000 inhabitants. With the decline in the importance of salt production at Idjil, however, it declined in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some sources claim that Oualata was founded in the 5th century CE; others date it to the Arab conquest. Five main tribes live there, each in their own quarter of the town. Two important trade routes, one from Marrakesh, Idjil, Chinguetti and Tichitt, and the other from Sijilmassa, Teghasa and Taoudeni, converge there and provide the economic stimulus for the town's existence. It became celebrated when elite refugees from Tumbuktu, 40&amp;nbsp;km to the east, settled there in 1446 to escape the Touareg invaders, and gave it a high intellectual renown. However, as the trans-Saharan routes moved towards the east and the intellectual families moved back to Timbuktu, the importance of Oualata diminished. It lost much of its autonomy with the arrival of Arab tribes in the 17th century, and drought and raids from the north put an end to its role as a provincial capital at the end of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 11th and 12th centuries to serve the caravans crossing the Sahara, these trading and religious centres became focal points of Islamic culture. They have managed to preserve an urban fabric that evolved between the 12th and 16th centuries. Typically, houses with patios crowd along narrow streets around a mosque with a square minaret. They illustrate a traditional way of life centred on the nomadic culture of the people of the western Sahara.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient &lt;I&gt;Ksour&lt;/I&gt; of Ouadane, Chinguetti, Tichitt and Oualata</site><states>Mauritania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>884</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1721 the French took formal possession of Mauritius. Because of its sheltered position, Trou Fanfaron, became the landing point for the first French settlers who begun the construction of Port Louis in 1732, using labour from India, Africa and the Malagasy. Large defensive walls and a hospital with foursquare walls around a court were some of the earliest constructions. The hospital still exists in the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hinterland of Trou Fanfaron became the cosmopolitan commercial centre of Port Louis: in the 18th century Malagasy, African and India freemen settled there and they were joined by merchants from India and China in the 19th century. A &amp;quot;Mauritian&amp;quot; style of architecture soon begun to emerge, based on walls of stone with lime mortar or latanier wood, and roofs of argamasse mortar over shingles (a technique imported from India) or latanier leaves. The lime mortar included yoghurt, egg whites, butter and &amp;quot;gingely&amp;quot; oil - a recipe that is still in use today, and being used for restoration work on Aapravasi Ghat.From the mid 18th century sugar plantations were developed on the island, worked by slaves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 19 century, the British were expanding their influence in the Indian Ocean. At the end of 1810, the British marched into Port Louis and the French surrendered. Under the British, sugar production increased, Port Louis was transformed into a free port, roads were built and trade flourished. With the abolition of slavery in 1834, the system of indentured labout was introduced by the British government to maintain a supply of labour, particularly for the sugar plantations. Thousands of people begun to arrive each year from India and were housed initially in a depot in Port Louis until they could be dispersed to the plantations. th  The nominated site is the remains of this depot. Aapravasi Ghat is located on the east side of the bay of Trou Fanfaron. There were three main phases for the history of reception arrangements for immigrant labourers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the first phase from 1834 to 1849, when immigration began and the system of indentured labour was first established, it appears that there was initially no fixed immigration depot and several buildings in different locations around the bay were used for disembarkation by arriving labourers. Around 1840 a building later converted into a smallpox hospital served as the immigration depot. Its location is not known. In 1843 there is a written reference to &amp;lsquo;old stone buildings' being used and these have been identified with part of the Military hospital complex built in the 1740s. At least three other buildings are also known to have been used.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Aapravasi Ghat was chosen in 1849. An old French building built before 1775 then existed on the site and this seems to have formed the core for other structures subsequently added. A plan of the site drawn up in 1849 shows the additions made. As with most plans it is not clear if all of what is shown was constructed. The plan shows six buildings around a yard the whole complex adjacent to stone steps leading down to the harbour. Almost immediately it became clear that the new structures were inadequate to cope with the numbers of immigrants arriving: there were at time as many as 1,000 men, women and children in the depot at any one time. The space was enlarged in the 1850s and a new landing space created. Further enlargements were approved in 1856.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 1857 all available land had been built upon. Further land was then acquired and the site improve by installing privies, roofing the buildings in French tiles rather than tin to give better insulation and ventilation and constructing a wharf wall along the waterfront. All this was completed by 1859. The Protector of Immigrants describes the complex in detail in his report for 1859. He mentions large buildings some with bitumen floors, tile roofs, and planked walls, and says that 600 people can be accommodated &amp;quot;without the slightest inconvenience&amp;quot;. The newly improved depot was photographed in 1859.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1860s further changes were made to separate new and old immigrants and to provide separate toilets and bathing places. All the changes between 1864-5 are documented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1864 the construction of a railway cut the immigration depot into two and walls were constructed along the edges of the tracks. Further minor modifications were made up to 1923.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Indentured immigration declined during the 1870s and finally ceased in 1923. The buildings were put to other uses. Many survived until a bus station was constructed in the 1970s and a motorway (the M2 national road) was put through the site in the 1980s. Others were demolished to &amp;lsquo;tidy up' the area. In the 1990s part of the site was landscaped as a commemorative space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1865 the depot consisted of: Gatekeeper's office, Surgery, Kitchens, Immigration office, Sirdars' sheds, offices of the depot Keeper and Store Keeper, Immigrants' Sheds, privies and steps leading to the wharf. Of these only the gatekeeper's office, surgery and wharf steps survive. There are archaeological remains of the kitchens, sirdars' quarters, part of the immigration sheds and privies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 1980s awareness was fostered by determined local residents of the importance of the site. A practice was inaugurated of holding a religious ceremony at the site every November to honour the jehaji bhai spirit. The remains were proclaimed a national monument in 1987 and in 1988 the site was vested in the Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1999 a project was started to renovate the remaining buildings on the site together with a study of the extensive archival evidence that is extant. In 2001 archaeological excavations were begun by the Mahatma Gandhi Institute. This project led to some controversy and it was agreed that a legal framework for the development should be put in place. In 2001 the Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund was established. This has led to more intensive archaeological work being carried out and a project to reverse inappropriate work carried out in the 1990s. In 2001 the name of the site was changed from Immigration Depot to Aapravasi Ghat. To some sections of the population in Mauritius this change has signalled the association of the site with Hindu indentured labourers rather than all indentured labourers, as some were not Hindu but Muslims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1227</http_url><id_number>1227</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1227.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.1586388889</latitude><location>Port Louis District</location><longitude>57.5031666666</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the district of Port Louis, lies the 1,640 m2 site where the modern indentured labour diaspora began. In 1834, the British Government selected the island of Mauritius to be the first site for what it called &amp;lsquo;the great experiment&amp;rsquo; in the use of &amp;lsquo;free&amp;rsquo; labour to replace slaves. Between 1834 and 1920, almost half a million indentured labourers arrived from India at Aapravasi Ghat to work in the sugar plantations of Mauritius, or to be transferred to Reunion Island, Australia, southern and eastern Africa or the Caribbean. The buildings of Aapravasi Ghat are among the earliest explicit manifestations of what was to become a global economic system and one of the greatest migrations in history.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aapravasi Ghat</site><states>Mauritius</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1404</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1259</http_url><id_number>1259</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1259.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.4519444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>57.3283333333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;An understanding of the role Mauritius played in the India Ocean slave trade has developed in response to research in recent years. Slaves first reached Mauritius in 1639 only a year after the Dutch East India Company established its first settlement on the island. During the 1640s more than 300 slaves were imported form Madagascar to exploit the natural resources of the island and slaves remained part of the population until 1710 when the Dutch abandoned the island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Eleven years later slaves accompanied the first French colonists. By 1740 slaves outnumbered the white population by almost seven to one. A royal decree opening the island to free trade by all French nationals in 1769 led to an increase in trade and population with slaves being bought not just in Madagascar but also the slave markets of Kilwa and Zanzibar (now in Tanzania). The increase in the slave population was dramatic rising from around 15,000 in 1767 to around 49,000 in 1797. During the later 18th century they accounted for around 80-85% of the population. By the early 19th century there were around 60,000 slaves; thereafter the numbers declined but still accounted for two-thirds of the population at the time of emancipation in 1835.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Slaves in Mauritius came from throughout the Indian Ocean and beyond. Colonial censuses record people from Madagascar, Mozambique, Guinea Coast of West Africa, Canary Islands, Abyssinia, and from the Indian subcontinent - there is mention of Bengalis, Malabars and Timorians for instance. The slaves were usually recorded as belonging to one of four groups: Creole or locally born, Malagasy, Mozambiquan and Indian. Overall about 40% seemed to have come from east Africa, 50% from Madagascar, 6.8% from India and the remainder from elsewhere such as West Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A village called Trou Chenilles was established for freed slaves on the southern foot of Le Morne Mountain. The village was hit by a cyclone in 1945 and moved to a location further east along the coast. It was moved again in 1964 to the present location of Le Morne Village, to the southeast of Le Morne Mountain along the coast. It is largely inhabited by Creoles, descendants of maroon Slaves who lived on and around Le Morne Mountain. The village residents have maintained a spiritual connection with Le Morne Mountain which they regard as sacred. The community is custodian to traditions including music, dance, story-telling and cuisines handed down from their slave ancestors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the past decade, parts of the core and buffer zones have been developed including five resort hotels along the coast, an upmarket residential settlement, the Morcellement Cambier on the north-western foot of Le Morne Mountain, and six houses on the southern foot of the mountain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Le Morne Cultural Landscape, a rugged mountain that juts into the Indian Ocean in the southwest of Mauritius was used as a shelter by runaway slaves, maroons, through the 18th and early years of the 19th centuries. Protected by the mountain’s isolated, wooded and almost inaccessible cliffs, the escaped slaves formed small settlements in the caves and on the summit of Le Morne. The oral traditions associated with the maroons, have made Le Morne a symbol of the slaves’ fight for freedom, their suffering, and their sacrifice, all of which have relevance to the countries from which the slaves came - the African mainland, Madagascar, India, and South-east Asia. Indeed, Mauritius, an important stopover in the eastern slave trade, also came to be known as the “Maroon republic” because of the large number of escaped slaves who lived on Le Morne Mountain.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Le Morne Cultural Landscape</site><states>Mauritius</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1860</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/410</http_url><id_number>410</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_410.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.3833300000</latitude><location>Quintana Roo, Cozumel et Felipe Carrillo Puerto</location><longitude>-87.7916700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sian Ka'an is situated on the eastern side of the Yucat&amp;aacute;n Peninsula in the state of Quintana Roo. Where possible, boundaries were defined to coincide with natural features: the site is bounded by the Caribbean Sea and the barrier reef to a depth of 50&amp;nbsp;m in the east; by the junction between the marshes and semi-evergreen forests in the south-east; and by the junction of Chetumal and Espiritu Santo bays catchment basin in the south. The northern and north-eastern boundaries are defined by the limits of farming cooperatives. The northern sites can be reached by a dirt track from Tulum, whereas Punta Pajaros is only accessible by boat or aircraft.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sian Ka'an lies on a partially emerged coastal limestone plain which forms part of the extensive barrier reef system along the eastern coast of Central America. Much of the reserve lies in a zone of recent Pleistocene origin which still appears to be in a transitional stage. A large series of sinkholes (cenotes) exist in the area and are characteristic features of the Yucat&amp;aacute;n and Florida peninsulas. The hydrological cycle is complex and the water table is permanently close to the surface. There is little surface running water within the reserve as it usually filters fairly rapidly through the shallow rendzina and saskab (granular whitish and brittle limestone) soils, and the limestone rock to subterranean channels. Owing to their hardness the waters in the reserve are generally very clear. A geological fault crosses the reserve from south-west to north-east, influencing its topography and hydrology. In general, soils are unsuitable for agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Medium altitude semi-evergreen forest represents the climax vegetation in non-flooded areas, although it is scarce in accessible parts due to disturbance. Some 120 trees and shrubs have been recorded, including larger trees. Some 100 tree and shrub species have been identified in medium and low semi-deciduous forest. The abundance of palm is a characteristic feature of this forest type. Flood forest is subdivided into low forest with closed and open canopy tree communities, the latter being found in lower, wetter areas. It can form monospecific 'islands' on patches of dark soil. Grass communities cover large areas to the south and north and occur among mangroves and inland forests (although not in areas of high salinity). This vegetation type occurs as a mosaic with three intermingled associations. Low islands known as hammocks or petenes emerge from the flooded marshes. Larger petenes may have a central waterbody. There are extensive areas covered by scattered dwarf mangroves to the east of the freshwater marshes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Coastal dunes stretch along 64&amp;nbsp;km of the coast, from the northern limit of the reserve to Punta Allen and from Punta Hualastoc to Punta Tupac. As Sian Ka'an lies so close to the Caribbean islands, there is a strong affinity between their flora. The introduction and cultivation of coconut has replaced about 60% of the natural vegetation on the coastal dunes. Selective felling has affected mahogany, red cedar and white cedar. There are an estimated 1,200 plant species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As regards the Sian Ka'an fauna, a total of 103 species of mammal has been recorded including five species of cat - jaguar, puma, ocelot, margay and jaguarondi. Other mammals include Central American tapir, Caribbean manatee, spider monkey, howler monkey, kinkajou, white-tailed deer, red brocket, white-lipped peccary, paca, tayra and collared anteater. Some 339 bird species have also been recorded, with about two-thirds breeding inside the reserve. Due to the great diversity of aquatic habitats, marine and wading birds are well represented. There are 16 raptor species, as well as frigate bird, cormorant, roseate spoonbill, greater flamingo and jabirus; and 42 species of amphibian and reptile have been recorded. These include four of the six turtle species found along the Mexican coast; green, hawksbill, loggerhead and leatherback. Morelet's crocodile and American crocodile also occur. Fish are abundant, and over 52 species have been recorded. A total of 550 terrestrial and 843 aquatic invertebrate species have been observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 23 Mayan sites in the reserve, while the Chunyaxch&amp;eacute; ruins, Vigia Del Lago and Xamach, are just to the north. Recently, a 24&amp;nbsp;km Mayan artificial canal was discovered. The reserve is located in the least-developed part of Quintana Roo, and the population is predominantly of Mayan origin, in whose language Sian Ka'an means 'Origin of the Sky'.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the language of the Mayan peoples who once inhabited this region, Sian Ka'an means 'Origin of the Sky'. Located on the east coast of the Yucat&amp;aacute;n peninsula, this biosphere reserve contains tropical forests, mangroves and marshes, as well as a large marine section intersected by a barrier reef. It provides a habitat for a remarkably rich flora and a fauna comprising more than 300 species of birds, as well as a large number of the region's characteristic terrestrial vertebrates, which cohabit in the diverse environment formed by its complex hydrological system.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sian Ka'an</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>473</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/411</http_url><id_number>411</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_411.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.4833300000</latitude><location>State of Chiapas, Municipality of Palenque</location><longitude>-92.0500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Palenque is an incomparable achievement of Mayan art. The structures are characterized by fineness and a lightness which resulted from the new construction techniques and drainage methods that were developed in order to reduce the thickness of the walls. The expanded interior space, multiple openings, and the use of galleries give the architecture a rare elegance, richly decorated with sculptures and stucco of a type never previously seen. Its influence was considerable throughout the basin of the Usumacinta, extending even as far away as Comalcalco, on the western border of the Mayan cultural zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The outstanding features of the Mayan civilization include its long duration (it first appeared in the 4th century AD and went into decline around the 9th century, although it survived in various forms until the Spanish conquest), the magnitude of its territorial domination (the area involved includes parts of five countries: Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico), and the dispersion of its political structures (a myriad of religious centres in an 'empire' which, unlike that of Teotihuacan, had no centralized power). This resulted in and is illustrated by the prodigious diversity of a fascinating monumental art style. The very original forms were both powerful and refined, and caused great admiration among the conquistadores.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located at the heart of a tropical jungle, the ruins of Palenque represent only the central area of a vast city whose total area was approximately 8&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The layout of the site is incredible. Artificial terracing changed the natural topography of the site, which is between the rugged foothills of the Chiapas to the south-south-east and the lowlands to the north, by creating a whole hierarchy of volumes and spaces where platforms and structures are organized in harmonious balance. The Otulum, a tributary of the Usumacinta, was channelled into an ingenious 50&amp;nbsp;m long corbelled vaulted-roof canal, and crosses the city. In the Maya dialect, Otulum means 'fortified houses', perhaps an allusion to the city whose ancient name was not retained and whose history has only been partially revealed by archaeological work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palenque, as the Spanish called it, was established between the 3rd and the 5th centuries. The principal monuments were built between 500 and 700, when the city was at its peak. Towards the end of the 10th century, coastal peoples from the Gulf of Mexico region invaded and caused its downfall and abandonment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dominant element in the central cleared area is the Palacio. Erected at different periods on an immense artificial knoll shaped like a truncated pyramid, the various buildings are set around four at the southwest corner; this is a sort of watchtower or astronomical observatory and is a unique example in Mayan architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palacio ensemble is balanced by the even larger Temple of Inscriptions. Set atop a stepped pyramid located below the Palacio, it was built over a funerary crypt that was explored in 1952.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the distance can be seen other magnificent temple-pyramids, which are half hidden by vegetation. To the south-east are the Temples of the Sun, the Cross and the Foliated Cross, and to the north rises the Temple of the Count (the absurd name refers to an archaeologist, Baron Jean-Fr&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;ric Waldeck, who lived there in the 19th century). Numerous buildings are scattered between these two zones. They have been identified and sometimes explored; more rarely, they have been enhanced after having been excavated. The first such maintenance work on the monuments at Palenque was in fact not undertaken until around 1940.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A prime example of a Mayan sanctuary of the classical period, Palenque was at its height between AD 500 and 700, when its influence extended throughout the basin of the Usumacinta River. The elegance and craftsmanship of the buildings, as well as the lightness of the sculpted reliefs with their Mayan mythological themes, attest to the creative genius of this civilization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pre-Hispanic City and National Park of Palenque</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>474</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/412</http_url><id_number>412</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_412.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.4183300000</latitude><location>District Federal.  Delegations: Cuauhtemoc, Venustiano Carranza et Xochimilco</location><longitude>-99.1327800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 14th to the 19th century, Tenochtitlan, and subsequently, Mexico City, exerted a decisive influence on the development of architecture, the monumental arts and the use of space first in the Aztec Kingdom and later in New Spain. The monumental complex of the Templo Mayor bears exceptional witness to the cults of an extinct civilization, whereas the lacustrine landscape of Xochimilco constitutes the only reminder of traditional ground occupation in the lagoons of the Mexico City basin before the Spanish conquest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The capital of New Spain, characterized by its chequerboard layout, the regular spacing of its plazas and streets, and the splendour of its religious architecture is a prime example of Spanish settlements in the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monuments, groups of buildings or sites located at the heart of the major contemporary city amply illustrate the origins and growth of this city that has dominated the region for many centuries. However, evidence is fragmentary and dispersed. The conquistador Hern&amp;aacute;n Cort&amp;eacute;s had the ancient city of Tenochtitlan razed in 1521-22 in order to abolish any trace of the pre-Hispanic culture. In the past half-century the Spanish settlement, which was slow to prosper (100,000 inhabitants in 1537 compared with about 500,000 at the time of the conquest), has been totally swallowed up by today's giant metropolis. The sole reminders of the Aztec capital and the capital of New Spain, and of the outlying village, are a few ruins that have survived the flood of concrete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site covers two distinct zones: the historic centre of Mexico City and the lakeside area of Xochimilco. The value of these two properties is unequalled.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre includes the archaeological site of the Templo Mayor, which was excavated between 1978 and 1982. It presents a remarkable array of colonial monuments, of which the cathedral is the most famous, and an impressive series of large public edifices from the 19th and 20th centuries, such as the Palacio de las Bellas Artes. Historical continuity from the founding of Tenochtitlan in the 14th century to the present day is therefore perfectly represented.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The zone of Xochimilco, 28&amp;nbsp;km to the south, is the only remaining reminder of the lacustrine landscape of the Aztec capital, where the conquistadores destroyed the monuments and drained the canals. On the edge of the residual lake of Xochimilco (the southern arm of the great dried-up lake of Texcoco where the Aztecs had settled on a group of islets linked to solid ground by footbridges), and in the midst of a network of small canals, are still some &lt;em&gt;chinampas&lt;/em&gt;, the floating gardens that the Spanish so admired. This half-natural, half-artificial landscape is now an 'ecological reserve'.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the 16th century by the Spanish on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, the old Aztec capital, Mexico City is now one of the world's largest and most densely populated cities. It has five Aztec temples, the ruins of which have been identified, a cathedral (the largest on the continent) and some fine 19th- and 20th-century public buildings such as the Palacio de las Bellas Artes. Xochimilco lies 28 km south of Mexico City. With its network of canals and artificial islands, it testifies to the efforts of the Aztec people to build a habitat in the midst of an unfavourable environment. Its characteristic urban and rural structures, built since the 16th century and during the colonial period; have been preserved in an exceptional manner.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>475</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/414</http_url><id_number>414</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_414.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.6916700000</latitude><location>Municipalities of Teotihuacan De Arista and San Martin De Las Piramides</location><longitude>-98.8416700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tthe archaeological site of Teotihuacan corresponds to a city of at least 25,000 inhabitants. Teotihuacan and its valley bear unique testimony to the pre-urban structures of ancient Mexico. The influence of the first of the great Mesoamerican Classic civilizations was exerted over the whole of the central region of Mexico, in Yucatan and as far away as Guatemala (the site of Kaminaljuvu) between AD 300 and 600.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lining the immense Avenue of the Dead, the unique group of sacred monuments and places of worship at Teotihuacan (Pyramids of the Sun, the Moon and Quetzalcoatl and Palaces of Quetzalmariposa, Jaguars, Yayahuala and others) constitutes an outstanding example of a pre-Columbian ceremonial centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This ensemble represents a unique artistic achievement as much for the enormous size as for the strictness of a layout based on cosmic harmony. The art of the Teotihuacanos was the most developed among the Classic civilizations of Mexico. Here it is expressed in its successive and complementary aspects: the dry and obsessive geometry of the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon contrasts with the sculpted and painted decor of exceptional richness of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located 48&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Mexico City, Teotihuacan is one of the oldest known archaeological sites in Mexico. The first surveys date from 1864, and the first excavations from 1884. Certain monuments were restored in 1905-10, such as the Pyramid of the Sun, for which its discoverer Leopoldo Batres arbitrarily reconstituted a fifth tier. Since 1962, archaeological research has been coordinated by the Instituto Nacional de Antropolog&amp;iacute;a e Historia which, while encouraging spectacular discoveries (Palacio de Quetzalmariposa, the cave under the Pyramid of the Sun), has instigated a more rigorous policy concerning identification and supervision of excavations in the immediate environs of the ceremonial zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although human occupation of the valley of Teotihuacan began before the Christian era, it was only between the 1st and the 7th centuries AD that the Teotihuacanos settled in concentrated numbers on the present site and gradually built up a holy city of impressive dimensions. The city was razed by fire and subsequently abandoned during the 7th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The location of the first sanctuary, the Pyramid of the Sun (built on a cave discovered in 1971), was calculated on the position of the Sun at its zenith, and applied astronomical logic determined the organization of the space: the Avenue of the Dead was drawn out perpendicularly to the principal axis of the solar temple. The Pyramid of the Moon, to the north the 'Citadel' and the Temple of Quetzalcoatl to the south-east became one by one the borders of a processional avenue 40&amp;nbsp;m wide and 2&amp;nbsp;km long.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the peak of its development (the archaeologists' period of Teotihuacan III, from &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. AD 300-600), the city stretched out over 36&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Outside the ceremonial centre, which, despite its imposing size, represents only 10% of the total surface, excavations have revealed palaces and residential quarters that are of great interest at Tetitla, Atetelco, Yayahuala and Zacuala to the west, and Xolalpan, Tepantitla and others to the east.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The holy city of Teotihuacan ('the place where the gods were created') is situated some 50 km north-east of Mexico City. Built between the 1st and 7th centuries A.D., it is characterized by the vast size of its monuments – in particular, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, laid out on geometric and symbolic principles. As one of the most powerful cultural centres in Mesoamerica, Teotihuacan extended its cultural and artistic influence throughout the region, and even beyond.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>477</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/415</http_url><id_number>415</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_415.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.0619400000</latitude><location>Etat de Oaxaca de Juarez, municipalites de Oaxaca, Xoxocotlan et Cuilapan</location><longitude>-96.7216700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Three distinct cultural properties are located in the valley of Oaxaca -the historic centre of the city founded in 1529 by the Spanish, the pre-Hispanic archaeological site of Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n, 4&amp;nbsp;km south-west of the town, and the village of Cuilapan, 12&amp;nbsp;km away, where the Dominicans undertook, in the mid-16th century, to build a vast monastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n is an outstanding example of a pre-Columbian ceremonial centre in the middle zone of present-day Mexico, which was subjected to influences from the north - first from Teotihuacan, later the Aztecs - and from the south, the Maya. With its pelota court, magnificent temples, tombs and bas-reliefs with hieroglyphic inscriptions, Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n bears unique testimony to the successive civilizations occupying the region during the pre-Classic and Classic periods. For more than a millennium, it exerted considerable influence on the whole cultural area. Latter-day Oaxaca is a perfect example of a 16th-century colonial town. Its monumental heritage is one of the richest and most coherent in the area that was known as New Spain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among some 200 pre-Hispanic archaeological sites inventoried in the valley of Oaxaca, the Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n complex best represents the singular evolution of a region inhabited by a succession of peoples: the Olmecs, Zapotecs and Mixtecs. The zone to the west of Oaxaca includes three principal ensembles: Atzompa, El Gallo and Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n. The latter, built on a 500&amp;nbsp;m elevation overlooking the valley, gave its name to a remarkable civilization which was probably the first urban civilization in the Americas. Olmec cultural influences from Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n I phase can be found in the 140 engraved stone slabs of the monument Los Danzantes, and reused in several later edifices built on the side of the central esplanade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main part of this impressive ceremonial centre which forms a 300&amp;nbsp;m esplanade running north-south with a platform at either end was constructed during the Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n II (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 300 BC-AD 100) and the Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n III phases. Phase II corresponds to the urbanization of the site and the domination of the environment by the construction of terraces on the sides of the hills, and the development of a system of dams and conduits. In 800 the town had more than 50,000 inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The influences of the Teotihuacan culture can be felt in the superhuman, abstract aspect of a massive architectural style which used great volumes combined in a grandiose fashion with immense open spaces. However, unlike Teotihuacan, whose valley location facilitated its layout, Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n was literally carved out from a solid mountain, in various stages spanning 1,500 years. Man-made terraces and esplanades thus replaced the natural unevenness of the site with a whole new sacred topography of pyramids, and artificial knolls and mounds. The ensemble began to decline around 800, when the Mixtecs, descending from the mountains, threatened the Zapotecs living in the valley. The ultimate phases of Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n IV and V were marked by the transformation of the sacred Olmec city into a fortified town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Towards 1400, the Mixtec chiefs ordained that they be buried in the ancient tombs of the ceremonial centre. Tomb No. 7 at Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n, explored in 1932, is the most famous example of this practice of reuse. It was there that the 'Treasure of Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n' - a fabulous collection of 500 objects - was found. The collection is now housed in the State Museum of Oaxaca. A short time before the arrival of the conquistadores, the Aztecs took control of the valley and founded the stronghold of Huaxyacac. This place name survived, in 1521, when the Spanish erected the fort of Antequera de Oaxaca on the same site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The modern city has fortunately retained its historic centre. A total of 1,200 historic monuments, spared by the evolution of the city, has been inventoried and listed. The major religious monuments (cathedral, Santo Domingo, San Francisco, San Agust&amp;iacute;n, San Filipo Neri, Soledad, etc.), the superb patrician town houses (home of Cort&amp;eacute;s), and whole streets lined with other dwellings combine to create a harmonious cityscape, and reconstitute the image of a former colonial city whose monumental aspect has been kept intact. Fine architectural quality also characterizes the 19th-century buildings in this city that was the birthplace of Benito Juarez and which, in 1872, adopted the name of Oaxaca de Juarez.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inhabited over a period of 1,500 years by a succession of peoples &amp;ndash; Olmecs, Zapotecs and Mixtecs &amp;ndash; the terraces, dams, canals, pyramids and artificial mounds of Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n were literally carved out of the mountain and are the symbols of a sacred topography. The nearby city of Oaxaca, which is built on a grid pattern, is a good example of Spanish colonial town planning. The solidity and volume of the city's buildings show that they were adapted to the earthquake-prone region in which these architectural gems were constructed.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Oaxaca and Archaeological Site of Monte Albán</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>478</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/416</http_url><id_number>416</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_416.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.0472200000</latitude><location>Etat de Puebla, municipalites de Puebla, San Pedro Cholula et San Andres Cholula</location><longitude>-98.2083300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In an untouched urban network, the Historic Centre of Puebla comprises major religious buildings such as the Cathedral Santo Domingo and the Jesuit Church, as well as superb palaces such as the host of old houses whose walls are covered in gaily coloured tiles (&lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt;). Although 19th-century transformations resulting from the Reform Laws (1857) modified the urban landscape through the closing of many convents, they made it possible for Puebla to be endowed with high-quality public and private architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Puebla and Cholula lie some 100&amp;nbsp;km east of Mexico City, at the foot of Popocatepetl, one of the highest volcanoes in Mexico. The two cities constitute the same type of colonial city/pre-Hispanic city combination as Oaxaca and Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n further to the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two cities, which are about 12&amp;nbsp;km apart, are very closely associated with the history of New Spain and Mexico. Cort&amp;eacute;s reached Cholula during the summer of 1519 and it was there that he ordered one of the bloodiest massacres of the entire conquest, with the number of victims among the population reaching between 3,000 and 6,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was in Puebla on 5 May 1862, that General Zaragoza won the first significant victory over the French expeditionary corps. The city was subsequently renamed Puebla de Zaragoza in memory of this event of national importance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural heritage of Cholula and Puebla, which is of considerable interest, cannot be reduced to such simple definitions as an archaeological site or a historic centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Cholula the Spanish city was built on the ruins of the temples which were burnt during the massacre of 1519. Legend has it that the Spaniards, by building a church on the site of each temple, founded a total of 365 churches, one for each day of the year. This is clearly an exaggeration, but the church of San Gabri&amp;eacute;l, which the Franciscan began building in 1549, lies in fact on the site of the Quetzalcoatl Sanctuary, and Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de los Remedios, which was built in the 18th century at the very top of the enormous acropolis-pyramid clearly illustrates an unbroken historical continuity stretching from pre-Hispanic times to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Puebla, the urban layout of the 'Ciudad de los Angelos', founded ex nihilo in 1531, has been greatly extended into the Cuetlaxcoapan valley. It is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish the original historic city from the highly industrialized (steelworks, mechanical constructions, canning factories) conurbation of over 1&amp;nbsp;million inhabitants, and the balance between the new city and the old Indian city has been lost for good. Cholula now appears to be just a western suburb of Puebla and it is bound to merge with the state capital in the medium term, even if the two communities remain district.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Puebla, which was founded &lt;em&gt;ex nihilo&lt;/em&gt; in 1531, is situated about 100 km east of Mexico City, at the foot of the Popocatepetl volcano. It has preserved its great religious structures such as the 16th&amp;ndash;17th-century cathedral and fine buildings like the old archbishop's palace, as well as a host of houses with walls covered in tiles (&lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt;). The new aesthetic concepts resulting from the fusion of European and American styles were adopted locally and are peculiar to the Baroque district of Puebla.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Puebla</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>479</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/482</http_url><id_number>482</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_482.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>21.0169400000</latitude><location>Etat de: Guanajuato.   Municipalite:  Guanajuato</location><longitude>-101.2555600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Guanajuato is an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble of a mining operation. Just as the major 18th-century hydraulic works are inextricably linked to an urban topography determined by the confines of the river path and mineral outcrops, so the splendour of the Baroque buildings is directly linked to the wealth of the mines. The churches of La Compa&amp;ntilde;&amp;iacute;a (1745-65) and above all La Valenciana (1765-88) are masterpieces of the Mexican Churrigueresque style. In the field of the history of technology, Guanajuato may also pride itself on unique artistic achievements such as the 'Boca del Infierno', a mineshaft that plunges a breathtaking 600&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1548 the Spaniards, who had settled in the region in 1529, discovered rich outcrops of silver at Guanaxhuata, which means 'Frog Hill' in the Tarasco language. To protect prospectors, miners and the new settlers, four fortified structures were erected at Marfil, Tepetapa, Santa Ana and Cerro del Cuarto, and formed the nuclei of the later town of Guanajuato. Sprawling through a winding valley at an altitude of 2,084&amp;nbsp;m, Guanajuato differs from the other colonial towns in New Spain because it was not laid out on the standard grid plan. Instead, the scattered areas grew together through the spontaneous urbanization of suitable sites on the rough, natural terrain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded when the silver mines were opened, Guanajuato had a symbiotic relationship with them until the 19th century. Its growth, the layout of its streets, including the picturesque 'subterranean' streets, its plazas, and the construction of hospitals, churches, convents and palaces are all inextricably linked with the industrial history of the region which, with the decline of the Potos&amp;iacute; mines in the 18th century, became the world's leading silver extraction centre.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded by the Spanish in the early 16th century, Guanajuato became the world's leading silver-extraction centre in the 18th century. This past can be seen in its 'subterranean streets' and the 'Boca del Inferno', a mineshaft that plunges a breathtaking 600 m. The town's fine Baroque and neoclassical buildings, resulting from the prosperity of the mines, have influenced buildings throughout central Mexico. The churches of La Compañía and La Valenciana are considered to be among the most beautiful examples of Baroque architecture in Central and South America. Guanajuato was also witness to events which changed the history of the country.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of Guanajuato and Adjacent Mines</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>561</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/483</http_url><id_number>483</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_483.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.6666700000</latitude><location>Etat de Yucatan, Municipalité de Tinum</location><longitude>-88.6000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Chichen Itza is the most important archaeological vestige of the Maya-Toltec civilization in Yucat&amp;aacute;n (10th-15th centuries). Its monuments, particularly in the northern group which includes the Great Ball Court, Temple of Kukulkan and Temple of the Warriors, are among the undisputed masterpieces of Mesoamerican architecture because of the beauty of their proportions, the refinement of their construction and the splendour of their sculpted decorations. These monuments exerted an influence throughout the entire Yucat&amp;aacute;n cultural zone from the 10th to the 15th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located midway between M&amp;eacute;rida and Canc&amp;uacute;n, Chichen Itza is the northernmost of the major archaeological sites in Yucat&amp;aacute;n. Covering more than 300&amp;nbsp;ha, it is also one of the largest and richest in monuments. Above all, it is one of the most significant in historical terms because it illustrates two major periods in pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Mesoamerican zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was established close to two natural cavities (cenotes or chenes), which facilitated tapping the underground water area of the cenote of Xtoloc during the Classic period. The dates for this settlement vary according to subsequent local accounts: one manuscript gives 415-35, while others say 455. The town that grew up around the sector known as Chichen Viejo already boasted important monuments of great interest: the Building of the Nuns, church, Akab Dzib, Chichan Chob, Temple of the Panels and Temple of the Stag. They were constructed between the 6th and 10th centuries in the characteristic Mayan style then popular both in the northern and southern areas of the Puuc hills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second settlement of Chichen Itza, and the most important for historians, corresponded to the migration of Toltec warriors from the Mexican plateau towards the south during the 10th century. According to the most common version, the King of Tula, Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, or Kukulkan as the Mayans translated the name, reportedly took the city between 967 and 987 after wandering for many years. What is known for certain is that the Toltec invaders subjugated the local population with a ferocity which even five centuries later the chronicles of the 'sacred books' of the Mayans spoke of. The Toltecs imposed the ritual of human sacrifice which until then was rarely, if at all, practised in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the conquest of Yucat&amp;aacute;n a new style blending the Mayan and Toltec traditions developed, symbolizing the phenomenon of acculturation. Chichen Itza is a clear illustration of this fusion. Specific examples are, in the group of buildings to the south, the Caracol, a circular stellar observatory whose spiral staircase accounts for its name, and, to the north, the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, El Castillo. Surrounding El Castillo are terraces where the major monumental complexes were built: on the north-west are the Great Ball Court, Tzompantli or the Skull Wall, the temple known as the Jaguar Temple, and the House of Eagles; on the north-east are the Temple of the Warriors, Group of the Thousand Columns, market and ball courts; on the south-west is the Tomb of the High Priest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This new architecture, known today as Maya-Yucatec, took from the old local structures the art of stereotomy used on walls and vaults while incorporating certain Toltec elements in the decorations. Besides all the battle scenes, which are depicted in luxurious detail, the most obvious of the influences from central Mexico are the likenesses of the plumed serpent Quetzalcoatl, present on columns and substructures where enormous heads of reptiles create a vigorous decorative motif. Other examples of the Mexican influence are the famous statues of the rain god Chac-Mool, executed in a typical half-reclining pose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Chichen Itza from the end of the 10th to the 15th centuries is complex. The monopolistic authority of military leaders seems to have been mitigated after the city joined the Mayap&amp;aacute;n League, which included Uxmal. After the 13th century no major monuments seem to have been constructed at Chichen Itza and the city rapidly declined after the fall of Mayap&amp;aacute;n. In 1556 Bishop Diego de Landa visited the practically abandoned ruins and recorded the legends pertaining to the various monuments. The ruins were not excavated until 1841.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This sacred site was one of the greatest Mayan centres of the Yucat&amp;aacute;n peninsula. Throughout its nearly 1,000-year history, different peoples have left their mark on the city. The Maya and Toltec vision of the world and the universe is revealed in their stone monuments and artistic works. The fusion of Mayan construction techniques with new elements from central Mexico make Chichen-Itza one of the most important examples of the Mayan-Toltec civilization in Yucat&amp;aacute;n. Several buildings have survived, such as the Warriors&amp;rsquo; Temple, El Castillo and the circular observatory known as El Caracol.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen-Itza</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>562</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;On 30 November 1988 the federal government declared El Vizcaino a national biosphere reserve under legal text. Under the 1932 convention between Mexico and the USA for the protection of migratory birds and game animals, the area benefitted from some protection. Since 1949 Mexico has adhered to the decrees of the International Commission for the Surveillance and Rational Protection of Cetaceans in relationship to this area. The presidential decree of 6 December 1971 established a marine refuge zone for whales in Laguna Ojo de Liebre. The text was modified in 1980 to include the lagoons of Manuela and Guerrero Negro. In 1972 another decree established a series of reserves and migratory bird refuges around Laguna de San Ignacio and Ojo de Liebre. In 1979 a new decree established a refuge zone for cetaceans in Laguna de San Ignacio (Prez-Gil, 1988). General legislation includes the Federal laws of Agrarian Reform concerning land ownership and land use, and the Forestry Law of 1960 concerning use of woodland and woodland products. The federal Hunting Law regulations took effect in 1988. Federal legislation also exists for the protection of the historic and archaeological monuments. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/554</http_url><id_number>554</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_554.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.7922200000</latitude><location>Basse Californie Sud, Municipality of Mulege</location><longitude>-114.2277800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino comprises two lagoons - Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio - which lie in the central part of the Baja California peninsula, between the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lagoons are an exceptional reproduction and wintering site for gray whales as well as other mammals such as harbour seal, California sea lion, northern elephant seal and blue whale. Both lagoons are situated on the west side of the peninsula, Laguna Ojo de Liebre is connected to the Bahia Sebastian Vizcaino, and Laguna San Ignacio lies east of the town of Punta Abrejos, into which Rio San Ignacio flows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sedimentary rock forms the landscape in the north-west and the central zone of plains and the desert, Desierto de Vizcaino, with intrusions of riolithic lavas, andesites and piroclasts. Important fossil beds are found in the eastern zones. The eastern topography is dominated by the main mountain chain of Baja California, with heights ranging from 1,300 m to 1,996 m. A series of shallow, sandy bays, and saltwater inlets is found in both lagoons. The vegetation is representative of arid or hyperarid environments, a biogeographic subdivision of the Sonora desert vegetation community. There are 10 plant communities. Mangrove is typical of the lagoons, and dune communities, bushes and halophytic vegetation surround them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the coastal zone are found approximately 20 threatened animal species, including four species of marine turtle. The bay is frequented by gray whale, which breeds in both lagoons. The common seal is the other notable marine mammal. Bottlenose dolphin and California sea lion can also be found within Laguna San Ignacio. Three marine turtle species occur within the coastal area: green, hawksbill and olive ridley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Notable endemic birds include peninsular yellowthroat and black-fronted hummingbird. The lagoons are important as a refuge for wintering wildfowl. Birds such as osprey and peregrine falcon also occur within the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area has been occupied for many centuries. There are a number of prehistoric sites of importance on the peninsula, as well as petroglyphs, wall paintings and ancient ruined structures, together with evidence of the early colonization from Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Approximately 38,000 people live within the buffer zone of the biosphere reserve, and are mainly concentrated in the towns of Guerro Negro, Santa Rosalia and San Ignacio and along the transpeninsula highway. Inhabitants are dependent on intensive agriculture, fishing, extensive livestock grazing, mining and tourism.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the central part of the peninsula of Baja California, the sanctuary contains some exceptionally interesting ecosystems. The coastal lagoons of Ojo de Liebre and San Ignacio are important reproduction and wintering sites for the grey whale, harbour seal, California sea lion, northern elephant-seal and blue whale. The lagoons are also home to four species of the endangered marine turtle.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>652</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The so-called Pueblo Culture of the south-west of the United States of America, based on agriculture, spread slowly southwards during the 1st millennium AD. A village of pit houses was founded at the site of Casas Grandes, in north-western Chihuahua, during the 8th century by Mogollon people from New Mexico. It developed slowly until the mid 12th century, when it underwent a dramatic expansion and cultural shift.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The pit dwellings were replaced by more elaborate above-ground adobe structures on a complex layout. The presence of features such as platform mounds, ball-courts, a sophisticated water-distribution system, and specialized storage buildings for exotic products such as macaws and turkeys, shell and copper artefacts, and agave indicates influence from the more advanced civilizations of Mesoamerica. There is still uncertainty among archaeologists as to whether this represents an invasion from the south or an indigenous expansion to handle a greatly increased volume of trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Paquim&amp;eacute; became a major mercantile centre, linked with a large number of smaller settlements around it. It has been estimated that the population during its peak period of prosperity, in the 14th and early 15th centuries, was of the order of 10,000, making it one of the largest proto-urban agglomerations in northern America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the Spanish conquest of Mexico a new social and economic structure on the European model was imposed upon the region, in which Paquim&amp;eacute; played no part. It rapidly declined, and early Spanish explorers reported only small farming communities living in north-western Chihuahua. The final breakup came in the later 17th century, when intensive Spanish colonization of the area resulted in the displacement of the surviving inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/560</http_url><id_number>560</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_560.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii: Paquim&amp;eacute; Casas Grandes bears eloquent and abundant testimony to an important element in the cultural evolution of North America, and in particular to prehispanic commercial and cultural links. Criterion iv: The extensive remains of the archaeological site of Paquim&amp;eacute; Casas Grandes provide exceptional evidence of the development of adobe architecture in North America, and in particular of the blending of this with the more advanced techniques of Mesoamerica.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>30.3758300000</latitude><location>Municipality of Casas Grandes, State of Chihuahua</location><longitude>-107.9555600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Paquim&amp;eacute; Casas Grandes bears eloquent and abundant witness to an important element in the cultural evolution of North America, and in particular to pre-Hispanic commercial and cultural links. The extensive remains illustrate the development of adobe architecture in North America, and in particular the blending of this with the more advanced techniques of Mesoamerica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The so-called Pueblo Culture of the south-west United States, based on agriculture, spread slowly southwards during the 1st millennium AD. A village of pit houses was founded at the site of Casas Grandes, in north-western Chihuahua, during the 8th century by Mogollon people from New Mexico. It developed slowly until the mid-12th century, when it underwent a dramatic expansion and cultural shift. The pit dwellings were replaced by more elaborate above-ground adobe structures on a complex layout. The presence of features such as platform mounds, ball courts, a sophisticated water-distribution system, and specialized storage buildings for exotic products such as macaws and turkeys, shell and copper artefacts, and agave indicates influence from the more advanced civilizations of Mesoamerica. It is uncertain whether this represents an invasion from the south or an indigenous expansion to handle a greatly increased volume of trade. Paquim&amp;eacute; became a major mercantile centre, linked with a large number of smaller settlements around it. It has been estimated that the population during its peak period of prosperity, in the 14th and early 15th centuries, was of the order of 10,000, making it one of the largest proto-urban agglomerations in northern America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the Spanish conquest of Mexico, a new social and economic structure on the European model was imposed upon the region, in which Paquim&amp;eacute; played no part. It rapidly declined, and early Spanish explorers reported only small farming communities living in north-western Chihuahua. The final break-up came in the later 17th century, when intensive Spanish colonization of the area resulted in the displacement of the surviving inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site is located at the foot of the Sierra Madre Occidental range near the headwaters of the Casas Grandes River. It is estimated to contain the remains of some 2,000 rooms in clusters of living rooms, workshops and stores, with patios. The predominant building material is unfired clay (adobe); stone is used for specific purposes, such as the lining of pits, a technique from central Mexico. Typical of these is the House of the Ovens, a block made up of a single-storey room and four stone-lined pits, with a mound of burnt rocks alongside. It forms part of a larger complex consisting of nine rooms and two small plazas. The pits were used for baking agave or sotal, using heated stones. The House of the Serpent consisted originally of 26 rooms and three plazas. It was later extended and adapted to provide enlarged facilities for raising macaws and turkeys, which seems to have been its primary function. A similar sequence can be observed in the House of the Macaws, so named because 122 birds were buried beneath its floors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mound of the Cross, close to the House of the Ovens, consists of five low stone-lined and earth-filled mounds. The central mound is in the shape of an uneven cross, the arms of which roughly correspond with the cardinal points, which suggests that it played a role in celebrations to mark the equinoxes and solstices. The function of the Mound of the Offerings is less clear. It consists of a multilevel structure of rammed rubble, a puddle adobe precinct, and a ramp leading to one of the water-storage cisterns. The central portion contains seven rooms containing altar stones, statues and secondary burials. The Mound of the Bird takes its name from its outline, which resembles a headless bird facing east. No structures were found within it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The water system consists of reservoirs linked by channels which distributed water to each of the room-blocks. The House of the Wells takes its name from the large storage cistern in one of its plazas that was fed from the common network. The sophistication of the system is shown by the presence of silting ponds at the entrance to each reservoir.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Paquim&amp;eacute;, Casas Grandes, which reached its apogee in the 14th and 15th centuries, played a key role in trade and cultural contacts between the Pueblo culture of the south-western United States and northern Mexico and the more advanced civilizations of Mesoamerica. The extensive remains, only part of which have been excavated, are clear evidence of the vitality of a culture which was perfectly adapted to its physical and economic environment, but which suddenly vanished at the time of the Spanish Conquest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Zone of Paquimé, Casas Grandes</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>662</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/585</http_url><id_number>585</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_585.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.7044400000</latitude><location>Michoacan. Mairie de Morelia</location><longitude>-101.1916700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Despite all the vicissitudes of history and climate and its inevitable, incessant urban development, Morelia has preserved intact its original structures built from pink stone on a grid layout and it is an outstanding example of urban planning combining the ideas of the Spanish Renaissance with the Mesoamerican experience. Well adapted to the slopes of the hill site, its streets still follow the original layout.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Morelia was the birthplace of several important personalities of independent Mexico and has played a major role in the country's history. In 1537 a Franciscan monastery was established near the Indian village of Guayangareo in Michoac&amp;aacute;n Province. In 1541, it became the new provincial capital under Antonio de Mendoza, who had been made the first viceroy of New Spain in 1535, and was renamed Valladolid. Although 50 noble families settled there, as did many Europeans over the next few centuries, the population remained, even as today, predominantly of Indian origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Valladolid was long a rival of the town of Patzcuaro, the first Episcopal See in Michoac&amp;aacute;n. As King Philip II (1556-98) favoured, Valladolid has been the Bishop's See since 1580. At the same time the College of St Nicholas Obispo (founded in 1540 at Patzcuaro); the oldest institution of higher learning in Mexico, was transferred here. The town's economic and cultural life continued to flourish throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was, in fact, because of its importance as an intellectual centre that Valladolid was among the principal towns in Mexico's fight for independence in the early 19th century. Two of the leading figures in the struggle were both priests: Miguel Hidalgo and Jos&amp;eacute; Maria Morelos. In honour of the latter, a native of Valladolid, the town's name was changed to Morelia in 1828.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Capital of the State of Michoac&amp;aacute;n, Morelia was one of the theatres of the violent conflicts that marked Mexican history in the first half of the 19th century. Once the republic was re-established in 1869, the town returned to its economic and cultural pursuits. In recent times a surge in population growth came close to endangering the town's cultural patrimony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the town's 249 historical monuments, the most noteworthy include 20 public buildings and 21 churches. All monuments are in the region's characteristic pink stone, reflect the town's architectural history, revealing a masterly and eclectic blend of the medieval spirit with Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical elements.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the 16th century, Morelia is an outstanding example of urban planning which combines the ideas of the Spanish Renaissance with the Mesoamerican experience. Well-adapted to the slopes of the hill site, its streets still follow the original layout. More than 200 historic buildings, all in the region's characteristic pink stone, reflect the town's architectural history, revealing a masterly and eclectic blend of the medieval spirit with Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassical elements. Morelia was the birthplace of several important personalities of independent Mexico and has played a major role in the country's history.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Morelia</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>692</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;It was previously thought that occupation of the El Taj&amp;iacute;n pre-Columbian settlement was in three phases, between 100 BC and AD 1200, but recent research has shown that there was only one phase of occupation lasting from 800 to 1200. It dates from the abandonment of the great centre at Teotihuacan and is contemporary with other settlements such as Tula and Xochicalco on the central plateau and Uxmal and Chichen ltza in the Mayan region. The site was abandoned and partly destroyed after 1200 when the region came under the rule of the powerful MexicoTenochtitlan kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement is divided into three areas, each constructed around a number of open spaces (plazas). In Tajt&amp;iacute;n the plazas are rectangular and in Taj&amp;iacute;n Chico they are either trapezoidal or in the form of a Greek fret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Taj&amp;iacute;n complex, defined by two streams and an east-west wall, is the lowest-lying of the three. Its three plazas are surrounded on all sides by monumental structures in the form of pyramids, the most impressive of which is the Pyramid of the Niches. First recorded in 1785, it is 36 m square at the base and rises in six steps to a temple at the top. Each storey has rows of square niches, with an overhanging cornice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taj&amp;iacute;n communicates directly with Taj&amp;iacute;n Chico, which is constructed on an artificial mound 7 m high and measuring 300 m by 1500 m. Like Taj&amp;iacute;n it has not been excavated completely; however, the Plaza del Taj&amp;iacute;n Chico and the buildings round it have been fully excavated and have revealed some interesting details of this part of the complex. Especially noteworthy is Building A, which has smaller buildings at each of its four corners, an unusual feature in pre-Hispanic architecture. It is the most richly decorated building in El Taj&amp;iacute;n, with vertical bands of relief and key-pattern friezes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third area, which is linked with and lies above Tajn Chico, is known as the Group of Columns because of the larger of the two pyramidal structures so far investigated. which has a portico supported on columns, themselves richly decorated with relief sculptures.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/631</http_url><id_number>631</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_631.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.4763900000</latitude><location>Etat de Veracruz, municipalité de Papantla</location><longitude>-97.3775000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;El Tajin is of great significance in that it is the best preserved and most thoroughly excavated example of a pre-Hispanic town from the period between the Teotihuacan and Mexico-Tenochtitlan empires. It is crucial to an understanding of artistic and socio-economic development in these intervening centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was previously thought that occupation of the El Tajin pre-Columbian settlement was in three phases, between 100&amp;nbsp;BC and AD&amp;nbsp;1200, but recent research has shown that there was only one phase of occupation lasting from 800 to 1200. It dates from the abandonment of the great centre at Teotihuacan and is contemporary with other settlements such as Tula and Xochicalco on the central plateau and Uxmal and Chichen Itza in the Mayan region. The site was abandoned and partly destroyed after 1200 when the region came under the rule of the powerful Mexico-Tenochtitlan kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement is divided into three areas, each constructed around a number of open spaces (plazas). In Tajin the plazas are rectangular and in Taji Chico they are either trapezoidal or in the form of a Greek fret.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tajin complex, defined by two streams and an east wall, is the lowest-lying of three. Its three plazas are surrounded on all sides by monumental structures in the form of pyramids, the most impressive of which is the Pyramid of the Niches. First recorded in 1785, it rises in six steps to a temple at the top. Each storey has rows of square niches, with an overhanging cornice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tajin communicates directly with Tajin Chico, which is constructed on an artificial mound 7&amp;nbsp;m high. Like Tajin it has not been excavated completely; however, the Plaza del Tajin Chico and the buildings round it have been fully excavated and have revealed some interesting details of this part of the complex. Especially noteworthy is Building A, which has smaller buildings at each of its four corners, an unusual feature in pre-Hispanic architecture. It is the most richly decorated building in El Tajin, with vertical bands of relief and key-pattern friezes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third area, which is linked with and lies above Tajin Chico, is known as the Group of Columns because of the larger of the two pyramidal structures so far investigated, which has a portico supported on columns, themselves richly decorated with relief sculptures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The artistic, architectural, and historical importance of El Tajin combines to make this a highly significant site. It has been extensively excavated in recent years and as a result it is probably better understood than many of the more famous pre-Hispanic sites in Mexico.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the state of Veracruz, El Tajin was at its height from the early 9th to the early 13th century. It became the most important centre in north-east Mesoamerica after the fall of the Teotihuacan Empire. Its cultural influence extended all along the Gulf and penetrated into the Maya region and the high plateaux of central Mexico. Its architecture, which is unique in Mesoamerica, is characterized by elaborate carved reliefs on the columns and frieze. The 'Pyramid of the Niches', a masterpiece of ancient Mexican and American architecture, reveals the astronomical and symbolic significance of the buildings. El Tajin has survived as an outstanding example of the grandeur and importance of the pre-Hispanic cultures of Mexico.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>El Tajin, Pre-Hispanic City</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>749</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;zacatecas was founded in 1546, following the discovery of the very rich San Bernabe silver lode. This was to be followed later by working of the Veta Grande, Panuco, and Albarrada lodes in the same massif. The town developed to the south of the mining area, on the road from the capital of New Spain. It centred on the present-day San Agustin quarter, where the first church was built, with houses along the Calle Real, now Arroyo del Plata, the present main street. Unlike other Spanish colonial towns, the street layout of Zacatecas was irregular, because of the need for communication between the mines and the ore-working sites, which determined the siting in a steep valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The silver mining activities were so extensive that by 1550 there were 34 mines in operation. In 1588 the Spanish Crown granted Zacatecas the title of city and a coat-of-arms. The discovery of the Guanajuato lode shortly afterwards led to the construction of the Silver Road to link the two centres to the capital of the colony, Mexico City. By 1630 more than 60% of the silver exported from the Spanish colony was moved along this road. The consequent wealth resulted in the embellishment of both cities with fine public and private buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zacatecas became the economic centre for the region, with a system of forts (presidios), villages, and agricultural estates (haciendas) for defence and supply. It was also the base for colonization and the spread of Christianity further to the north; first the Convent of San Francisco and later the College of Guadalupe were responsible for establishing over 70 missions, as far north as Texas and California.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The apogee of silver production in Zacatecas was in the 16th and 17th centuries, but then it was overtaken by Guanajuato, although it retained an important role as the site of a mint. Silver production continued after Independence, despite the interruption of the 1910 Revolution, during which it was the site of a major battle in 1914, but it fell off as the century progressed, to the extent that Zacatecas was not included in the new communications network being developed. As a result of this economic decline, the city has retained many of its original urban features.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/676</http_url><id_number>676</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_676.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.7666700000</latitude><location>Zacatecas State, Zacatecas Municipality</location><longitude>-102.5555600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;With Guanajuato, Zacatecas is among the most important mining towns of New Spain. It was a major centre of silver production, and also of colonization, evangelization and cultural expansion. The townscape of the ancient centre is moulded to the topography of the steep valley in which it is situated and is of outstanding beauty. Zacatecas is situated in the narrow valley of the Rio de la Plata, at an altitude of 2,400&amp;nbsp;m. The main north-south street, with two parallel streets, branches into two to the south, and these are linked by narrow lanes, often opening out into small plazas. Many are steep or at different levels, and there is considerable reverting and terracing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zacatecas was founded in 1546, following the discovery of the very rich San Bernab&amp;eacute; silver lode. This was to be followed later by working of the Veta Grande, Panuco and Albarrada lodes in the same massif. The town developed to the south of the mining area, on the road from the capital of New Spain. It centred on the present day San Agust&amp;iacute;n quarter, where the first church was built, with houses along the Calle Real, now Arroyo del Plata, the present main street. Unlike other Spanish colonial towns, the street layout of Zacatecas was irregular because of the need for communication between the mines and the ore-working sites, which determined the sitting in a steep valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The silver mining activities were so extensive that by 1550 there were 34 mines in operation. In 1588 the Spanish Crown granted Zacatecas the title of city and a coat-of-arms. The discovery of the Guanajuato lode shortly afterwards led to the construction of the Silver Road to link the two centres to the capital of the colony, Mexico City. By 1630 more than 60% of the silver exported from the Spanish colony moved along this road. The resulting wealth led to the embellishment of both cities with fine public and private buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zacatecas became the economic centre for the region, with a system of forte (&lt;em&gt;presidios&lt;/em&gt; ), villages and agricultural estates (&lt;em&gt;haciendas&lt;/em&gt; ) for defence and supply. It was also the base for colonization and the spread of Christianity further to the north; first the Convent of San Francisco and later the College of Guadalupe were responsible for establishing over 70 missions, as far north as Texas and California.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The apogee of silver production in Zacatecas was in the 16th and 17th centuries, but then it was overtaken by Guanajuato, although it retained an important role as the site of a mint. Silver production continued after independence, despite the interruption of the 1910 Revolution, during which it was the site of a major battle in 1914, but it fell off as the century progressed, to the extent that Zacatecas was not included in the new communications network being developed. As a result of this economic decline, the city has retained many of its original urban features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic area comprises 15 religious complexes, mainly of the 17th and 18th centuries, among them the convents of San Juan de Dios, San Francisco, San August&amp;iacute;n and Santo Domingo. The cathedral (1730-60) is a highly decorated Baroque structure with exceptional facades and other features that reflect the absorption of indigenous ideas and techniques into Roman Catholic iconography. The Jesuit church of Santo Domingo has a quiet beauty which contrasts with the Baroque flamboyance of the college alongside it. Its massive dome and towers provide a counterpoint to the nearby cathedral. It now houses a new Fine Art Museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Important secular buildings include the 18th-century Mala Noche Palace, the Calder&amp;oacute;n Theatre of 1834, the iron-framed Gonzalez Market of 1886, and the pink stone Governor's Residence. Quarters named after trades or local topography contain fine examples of humbler urban architecture from the 17th century onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Outside the town are the Sanctuary of Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora del Patrocinio, with its observatory and loggia (1882) on the summit of La Bufa, and the Apostolic College of Propaganda Fide of Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de Guadalupe (1707) on its eastern slope.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1546 after the discovery of a rich silver lode, Zacatecas reached the height of its prosperity in the 16th and 17th centuries. Built on the steep slopes of a narrow valley, the town has breathtaking views and there are many old buildings, both religious and civil. The cathedral, built between 1730 and 1760, dominates the centre of the town. It is notable for its harmonious design and the Baroque profusion of its fa&amp;ccedil;ades, where European and indigenous decorative elements are found side by side.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Zacatecas</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>800</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;This region was intensively occupied from early times. At the time of the Spanish conquest it was divided into two provinces of the Aztec Empire. It was the scene of several bloody battles during the siege of Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Cartes in 1521.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first twelve Franciscans arrive in Mexico in 1523, followed by the Dominicans in 1526 and by five Augustinians in 1533. From Veracruz they moved inland to Mexico City, where they set up their first communities, but they quickly moved outside the capital to spread the gospel to the Indians, establishing their first monasteries on the southern slopes of the mountain range dominated by Popocatepetl - the Franciscans at Cuernavaca in 1525, the Dominicans at Oaxtepec in 1528, and the Augustinians at Ocuituco in 1534.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The three Orders established their own spheres of influence in the region. Their relationships were generally harmonious and several common routes were created, such as that between Hueyapan and Tochimilco (which is now no longer in use and where substantial remains of the original surfaces have survived). The monasteries were founded in areas of dense indigenous settlement, with the object of providing focal points for urban settlements, a role which has survived to the present day. At Cuernavaca, which was an important prehispanic centre and which became a colonial provincial capital, the monastery exceptionally became a cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Franciscans&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From their Cuernavaca house, designed and built by Francisco Becerra, the Franciscans moved towards the "hot lands" to the south, and to the west, away from the mountains. A new route was opened to the southeast, encircling the volcanic massif towards Puebla, to replace the difficult Paso de Cortes. Their first foundation on the eastern slopes of the volcano was at Huejotzingo (1529), followed quickly by Calpan (both built by Juan de la Alameda) and then Tochimilco on the southern slopes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dominicans&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three years after the arrival of the Franciscans the Dominicans built their monastery and hospital at Oaxtepec, but their efforts to establish themselves in the Tepozteco valley at Tepoztlan were frustrated by the local tribes until 1560. In the meantime they opened up a westerly route to Oaxaca, founding monasteries at Tetela del Volcan and Hueyapan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Augustinians&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Augustinian houses occupied the area lying between the eastern route of the Franciscans and the western route of the Dominicans. The mother house was at Ocuituco, from which other establishments were created at Totolapan and Y ecapixtla to the west and Atlatlauhcan, Zacualpan, and Tlayacapan on the route towards the "hot lands" further south. The Augustinians built the largest number of monasteries in this region. Between 1525 and 1570 more than a hundred monasteries were built in this region, a fact that is difficult to reconcile with the records of the number of monks who arrived in New Spain in this period. By the end of the century over three hundred had been established. Following the Council of Trent, which ended in 1567, the role of the missionary Orders was greatly diminished and many of the monasteries were taken over by the regular clergy, being converted into parish churches.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/702</http_url><id_number>702</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_702.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.9347200000</latitude><location>Morelos and Puebla States&#xd;
&#xd;
Municipalities: Atlatlauhcan, Cuernavaca, Tetela del Volcan, Yautepec, Ocuituco,&#xd;
&#xd;
Tepoztlan, Tlayacapan, Totolapan, Yecapixtla and Zacualpan de Amilpas in Morelos.&#xd;
&#xd;
Calpan, Huetotzingo and Tochimilco in Puebla.</location><longitude>-98.8977800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The distinctive characteristic of these monasteries of New Spain lies in the relationship between built and open spaces and, above all, in the emphasis placed on the wide forecourt or atrium with its individual &lt;em&gt;posas&lt;/em&gt; and open chapels that offered a variety of solutions. The considerable influence exercised by the architectural model of these early monasteries is incontestable, because it operated not only in the second half of the 16th century in the centre and south-east of Mexico, but also continued with the expansion of colonization and evangelization of the lands to the north in the 18th century, reaching what is now the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts, in the form of a large number of smaller establishments knows as 'missions' rather than monasteries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This region was intensively occupied from early times. At the time of the Spanish conquest it was divided into two provinces of the Aztec Empire and was the scene of several bloody battles during the siege of Mexico-Tenochtitlan by Cortes in 1521.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first twelve Franciscans arrived in Mexico in 1523, followed by the Dominicans in 1526 and by five Augustinians in 1533. From Veracruz they moved inland to Mexico City, where they set up their first communities, but they quickly moved outside the capital to spread the Gospel to the Indians, establishing their first monasteries on the southern slopes of the mountain range dominated by Popocatepetl - the Franciscans at Cuernavaca in 1525, the Dominicans at Oaxtepec in 1528 and the Augustinians at Ocuituco in 1534. The three orders established their own spheres of influence in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monasteries were founded in areas of dense indigenous settlement, with the object of providing focal points for urban settlements, a role which has survived to the present day. At Cuernavaca, which was an important pre-Hispanic centre and which became a colonial provincial capital, the monastery exceptionally became a cathedral. From their Cuernavaca house, designed and built by Francisco Becerra, the Franciscans moved towards the 'hot lands' to the south, and to the west, away from the mountains. A new route was opened to the south-east, encircling the volcanic massif towards Puebla, to replace the difficult Paso de Cortes. Their first foundation on the eastern slopes of the volcano was at Huejotzingo (1529), followed quickly by Calpan and then Tochimilco on the southern slopes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three years after the arrival of the Franciscans, the Dominicans built their monastery and hospital at Oaxtepec, but their efforts to establish themselves in the Tepozteco valley at Tepoztlan were frustrated by the local tribes until 1560. In the meantime they opened up a westerly route to Oaxaca, founding monasteries at Teltela del Volcan and Hueyapan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Augustinian houses occupied the area lying between the eastern route of the Franciscans and the western route of the Dominicans. The mother house was at Ocuituco, from which other establishments were created at Totolapan and Yecapixtla to the west and Atratlauhcan, Zacualpan, and Tlayacapan on the route towards the 'hot lands' further south. The Augustinians built the largest number of monasteries in this region. Between 1525 and 1570 more than 100 monasteries were built in this region, By the end of the century over 300 had been established. Following the Council of Trent (1567), the role of the missionary orders was greatly diminished and many of the monasteries were taken over by the regular clergy, being converted into parish churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 14 monasteries all conform with an architectural model which spread rapidly over the region and contains certain basic elements common to this new type of monastic house: atrium (usually rectangular), church (usually simple in plan but of imposing size, with a single nave), and monastic buildings, usually located to the south of the church and disposed around a small courtyard or patio, designated as the cloister.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These 14 monasteries stand on the slopes of Popocatepetl, to the south-east of Mexico City. They are in an excellent state of conservation and are good examples of the architectural style adopted by the first missionaries – Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians – who converted the indigenous populations to Christianity in the early 16th century. They also represent an example of a new architectural concept in which open spaces are of renewed importance. The influence of this style is felt throughout the Mexican territory and even beyond its borders.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Earliest 16th-Century Monasteries on the Slopes of Popocatepetl</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>830</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The prehistoric rock art of the Sierra de San Francisco region was first reported by the Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in a publication in Rome in 1789. Further studies were carried out by the Dutch scholar ten Kate in 1874 and the French scholar Diguet (1889-1905). In the present century investigations have been carried out by Georges Enguerrand, Barbro Dahlgren, Stanley Gardner, Harry Crosby, and Javier Romero. Some 400 sites have so far been registered by the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH) , the most important of them within the Reserve, near San Francisco and Mulege, over 250 in all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most highly developed prehispanic group in the region was that of the Guachimis, whose territory extended from San Javier and La Purisima in the south of the Reserve to the extreme northern end of the Baja California peninsula. Little is known about this group, apart from the fact that they came from further north.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/714</http_url><id_number>714</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_714.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.6555600000</latitude><location>State: Lower California Sud Municipality</location><longitude>-112.9161100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sierra de San Francisco region contains the most important concentration of pre-Hispanic rock art in the Baja California peninsula. It is of exceptional quality at both the national and the international scale, for its high quality, its extent, the variety and originality of human and animal representations, its remarkable colours, and its excellent state of preservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prehistoric rock art of the region was first reported by the Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero in a publication in Rome in 1789. Further studies were carried out by the Dutch scholar ten Kate in 1874 and the French scholar Diguet (1889-1905). In the present century investigations have been carried out by Georges Enguerrand, Barbro Dahlgren, Stanley Gardner, Harry Crosby and Javier Romero. Some 400 sites have so far been registered, the most important of them within the reserve, near San Francisco and Mulege, over 250 in all.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most highly developed pre-Hispanic group in the region was that of the Guachimis, whose territory extended from San Javier and La Purisima in the south of the reserve to the extreme northern end of the Baja California peninsula. Little is known about this group, apart from the fact that they came from further north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The paintings are found on both the walls and roofs of rock shelters in the sides of ravines that are difficult of access. Those in the San Francisco area are divided into four main groups - Guadalupe, Santa Teresa, San Gregorio and Cerritos. The most important sites are Cueva del Batequ&amp;igrave;, Cueva de la Navidad, Cerro de Santa Marta, Cueva de la Soledad, Cueva de las Flechas and Grutas del Brinco.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The motifs are very varied, and include people (men, women and children) and many animal species, including rabbit, puma, lynx, deer, wild goat/sheep, whale, turtle, tuna, sardine, octopus, eagle and pelican; there are also abstract elements of various forms. The frequent depiction of weapons, in association with both human and animal figures, testifies to hunting and warfare. The range of colours covers the entire spectrum, as do the representational techniques used (flat colour, silhouette, shading, etc.). This rock art has been the subject of detailed analysis in recent years, resulting in important insights being gained into the social and religious organization of the prehistoric peoples of the area as well as their dietary habits. Obsidian dating of associated objects from excavated deposits shows them to vary in age from 1100 BC to AD 1300, and close analogies have been observed between this corpus of rock art and that from the south-west of the modern United States.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From c. 100 B.C. to A.D. 1300, the Sierra de San Francisco (in the El Vizcaino reserve, in Baja California) was home to a people who have now disappeared but who left one of the most outstanding collections of rock paintings in the world. They are remarkably well-preserved because of the dry climate and the inaccessibility of the site. Showing human figures and many animal species and illustrating the relationship between humans and their environment, the paintings reveal a highly sophisticated culture. Their composition and size, as well as the precision of the outlines and the variety of colours, but especially the number of sites, make this an impressive testimony to a unique artistic tradition.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>845</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The 16th century Mayan history known as The Books of Chilam-Balam dates the foundation of Uxmal to the later 10th century, but archaeological investigations and radiocarbon dating suggest that the main structures in the complex were built between AD 700 and 1000. The earliest settlement In the area was around 800 BC (Pre-Classic Maya Period), but its main development and eventual disappearance was in the Late Classic Period (AD 65D-1000), notable for the communications and movements between different regions of Mesoamerica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are many small valleys in the Puuc region which permitted substantial farming activities; in the Spanish colonial period it was considered to be the "granary of Yucatan," producing two crops a year. In the Mayan period this was the basis for trade and the exchange of ideas, and probably also people, with other parts of Mexico. This is well illustrated by the Puuc artistic tradition, the evolution of which also demonstrates the economic, political, and religious development of Uxmal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the first phase, Uxmal was able to transform itself from a peasant town into a political and administrative centre. A series of hydraulic works, such as reservoirs for storing water, date from this phase. The second phase was that of the great urban capitals of the theocratic states that dominated the south-west of Yucatan, of which Uxmal was among the most important. lt was a period when great public buildings were constructed, and when the population of the town reached some 25,000 people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period between 1000 and the arrival of the Spaniards was that of commercial states and kingdoms. In fact, this lasted only two hundred years at Uxmal, since it was abandoned around 1200. The Yiu then settled there and formed the alliance known as the Mayapan League with the neighbouring towns of Chichen ltza and Mayapan. It was a period of great prosperity, when other urban centres grew up and contested control of the region with Uxmal; the town wall reflects this situation. The Mayapan League broke up during the long war between Chichen ltza and Mayapan in 1441-1541. Uxmal was abandoned by its inhabitants and became no more than a place of Pilgrimage until the conquest by the Spanish, who gave the surviving buildings their existing names, Which have little to do with their true functions.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/791</http_url><id_number>791</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_791.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i), (ii) and (iii) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value. The ruins of the ceremonial structures at Uxmal represent the pinnacle of late Mayan art and architecture in their design, layout and ornamentation, and the complex of Uxmal and its three related towns of Kabáh, Labná and Sayil admirably demonstrate the social and economic structure of late Mayan society.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>20.3616666700</latitude><location>Etat de Yucatan, municipalites Muna et Santa Elena</location><longitude>-89.7702777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of the ceremonial structures at Uxmal represent the pinnacle of late Mayan art and architecture in their design, layout and ornamentation, and the complex of Uxmal and its three related towns of Kab&amp;aacute;h, Labn&amp;aacute; and Sayil admirably demonstrate the social and economic structure of late Mayan society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Uxmal forms the centre of the Puuc region in the south-western part of the State of Yucat&amp;aacute;n. The archaeological investigations and radiocarbon dating suggest that the main structures in the complex were built between AD 700 and 1000. The earliest settlement in the area was around 800 BC (pre-Classic Maya period), but its main development and eventual disappearance was in the Late Classic period (AD 650-1000), notable for the communications and movements between different regions of Mesoamerica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are many small valleys in the Puuc region that permitted substantial farming activities; in the Spanish colonial period it was considered to be the 'granary of Yucat&amp;aacute;n', producing two crops a year, in the Mayan period this was the basis for trade and the exchange of ideas, and probably also people, with other parts of Mexico. This is well illustrated by the Puuc artistic tradition, the evolution of which also demonstrates the economic, political and religious development of Uxmal. A series of hydraulic works, such as reservoirs for storing water, dates from the first phase. The second phase was that of the great urban capitals of the theocratic states that dominated the south-west of Yucat&amp;aacute;n, of which Uxmal was among the most important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period between then and the arrival of the Spaniards was one of commercial states and kingdoms. It was a time of great prosperity, when other urban centres grew up and contested control of the region with Uxmal; the town wall reflects this situation. The Mayap&amp;aacute;n League broke up during the long war between Chichen Itza and Mayap&amp;aacute;n in 1441-1541. Uxmal was abandoned by its inhabitants and became no more than a place of pilgrimage until the Spanish conquest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main characteristic of Puuc architecture is the division of the facades of buildings into two horizontal elements. The lower of these is plain and composed of carefully dressed blocks broken only by doorways. The upper level, by contrast, is richly decorated with symbolic motifs in a strongly plastic style; the individual blocks make up a form of mosaic. There are sculptures over the doorways and at the corners of the upper level, almost invariably composed of representations of the head of Chaac, the rain god.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By virtue of its height and bulk, the Pir&amp;aacute;mide del Adivino dominates the ensemble, despite its location in a lower-lying part of the site. It is made up of five superimposed elements, two of them reached by monumental stairways on either side of the structure. It is from the Late Classic period and brings together several artistic traditions, including the Toltec of Central Mexico.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cadr&amp;aacute;ngulo de las Monjas is situated on an artificial platform and reached by a stairway on the southern side leading to a monumental gateway. The principal building, on the north side of the complex, is the only one that is two-storeyed; it is also the highest of the four. The decoration is especially rich, and is recognized to be an outstanding example of Mayan abstract and geometric art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palacio del Gobernador (Governor's Palace) is constructed on a levelled natural feature and consists of three elements joined by covered vaults, the highest in the Mayan region. The Casa de las Tortugas is located on the same terrace as the Governor's Palace. It is simple in design but the overall effect is harmonious. The upper storey is decorated only with a series of slender columns supporting a robust cornice decorated with sculptures of tortoises, each different. The ball court, despite its smaller dimension, is an Uxmal example of importance. In style and construction it can be dated to the same period as the Quadrangle of the Nuns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Southern Complex: Grande Pir&amp;aacute;mide and Southern Group This part of the site has not been extensively investigated. The nine-component structure known as the Great Pyramid is less striking than the Pyramid of the Soothsayer. Its upper temple, known as the Temple of the Parrots, has a richly decorated lower storey, unlike other buildings at Uxmal, and probably dates to the earliest phase of the town.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mayan town of Uxmal, in Yucatán, was founded c. A.D. 700 and had some 25,000 inhabitants. The layout of the buildings, which date from between 700 and 1000, reveals a knowledge of astronomy. The Pyramid of the Soothsayer, as the Spaniards called it, dominates the ceremonial centre, which has well-designed buildings decorated with a profusion of symbolic motifs and sculptures depicting Chaac, the god of rain. The ceremonial sites of Uxmal, Kabah, Labna and Sayil are considered the high points of Mayan art and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pre-Hispanic Town of Uxmal</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>935</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The extensive archaeological site known as El Pueblito or El Cerrito, which is dominated by a 30 m high pyramid, is situated 7 km from the centre of Queretaro. The limited investigations carried out there indicate that it experienced two phases of growth: AD 400-600 in the Teotihuacan period and AD 65Q-1050 in the Toltec period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the time of the Spanish invasion the lands around this abandoned site were the territory of the nomadic Chichimecas; they were occupied by Otomi people from nearer the Aztec capital; around 1520 they settled on the site of the present town. The Otomi leader Kho-ni, who took the name Fernando de Tapia when he adopted the Christian faith, was granted permission in 1532 by the second Royal Audience to establish an indigenous village on the site, along with the Spaniard Juan Sanchez Alanis. Two years later Spanish settlers coming up the Lerma river, accompanied by a large number of Tarasco Indians, arrived at the site, which was given the name "Ouerentaro", a Tarasco word meaning "at the ball-court"; a reference to the form of the narrow valley in which the settlement was situated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the outset the town had a unique character. The indigenous settlement founded in the name of the Spanish crown was based on the presence of three indigenous groups- Otomis, Tarascos, and Chichimecas; they snared the area with the Spaniards, who entrusted the laying out of the town to Sanchez Alanis. Thanks to its favourable environmental and geographical conditions it quickly assumed a double pivotal role in the structure and organization of the new lands of the colony. on the one hand it was the link between the mountains of the south-east that had to be crossed in order to reach the capital of New Spain, passing through the rich lowlands (El Baj&amp;iacute;o) of the north-west, stretching some 700 km almost to the Pacific coast. At the same time it was the boundary between the southern lands, gradually settled by the Spaniards, and the northern region, which was under the control of hostile nomad peoples such as the Chichimecas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;lt was also to nave an important supply function for the mining towns of Guanajuato and Zacatecas. By 1680 it had become the third city of New Spain, after Mexico and Puebla, with a population of over thirty thousand. The wealth of Queretaro in the mid-18th century is reflected by the important buildings that were built or reconstructed at that time, giving the town its special Baroque appearance. In the early 19th century its prosperity was based on textile manufacture and tobacco production, which provided employment for one-third of its forty thousand inhabitants. Its considerable degree of autonomy, as witnessed by the appointment of a Corregidor in 1770, encouraged exceptional commercial activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, Mexican independence in 1810 spelt the beginning of aueretaro's economic decline. The region saw many military engagements, continuing to the end of the century. lt was also the site of important historic events: the peace treaty with the USA was concluded there in 1848, and in 1867 the Emperor Maximilian was imprisoned and later executed there after the defeat of his army nearby. With the beginning of the revolutionary movement in 1910 Queretaro once again assumed a central place in the nation, since it was here that the new National constitution (which is still in force today) was signed on 5 February 1917 by all the revolutionary groups after two months of debate in the Teatro de la Republica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After remaining static at around 35,000 inhabitants between 1910 and 1940, the population began to rise rapidly. From 50,000 in 1950 it reached 130,000 in 1970, and now stands at around 450,000.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/792</http_url><id_number>792</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_792.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (ii) and (iv) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value and an exceptional example of a colonial town whose layout symbolizes its multi- ethnic population. It is also endowed with a wealth of outstanding buildings, notably from the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>20.5833333300</latitude><location>Etat Querétaro, municipalité de Querétaro</location><longitude>-100.3666667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Quer&amp;eacute;taro is an exceptional example of a colonial town whose layout symbolizes its multi-ethnic population. It is also endowed with a wealth of outstanding buildings, notably from the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the time of the Spanish invasion, the lands around the abandoned site of El Pueblito or El Cerrito were the territory of Otomi people from nearer the Aztec capital, who settled on the site of the present town around 1520. The Otomi leader Kho-ni adopted the Christian faith and was granted permission in 1532 to establish an indigenous village on the site, along with the Spaniard Juan Sanchez Alanis. Spanish settlers adopted the name Queretaro ('at the ball court'), a reference to the form of the narrow valley in which the settlement was situated. From the outset the town had a unique character: the indigenous settlement of Otomis, Tarascos and Chichimecas shared the area with the Spaniards. Thanks to its favourable environmental and geographical conditions, it quickly assumed a double pivotal role in the structure to the south-east that had to be crossed in order to reach the capital of New Spain, passing through the rich lowlands of the north-west, stretching some 700&amp;nbsp;km almost to the Pacific coast. At the same time it was the boundary between the southern lands, gradually settled by the Spaniards, and the northern region, which was under the control of hostile nomad peoples such as the Chichimecas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was also to have an important supply function for the mining towns of Guanajuato and Zacatacas. By 1680 it had become the third city of New Spain, after Mexico and Puebla, with a population of over 30,000. The wealth of Quer&amp;eacute;taro in the mid-18th century is reflected by the important buildings that were built or reconstructed at that time, giving the town its special Baroque appearance. In the early 19th century its prosperity was based on textile manufacture and tobacco production, which provided employment for one-third of its 40,000 inhabitants. Its considerable degree of autonomy, as witnessed by the appointment of a Corregidor in 1770, encouraged exceptional commercial activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, Mexican independence in 1810 spelt the beginning of Quer&amp;eacute;taro's economic decline. The region saw many military engagements, continuing to the end of the century. It was also the site of important historic events: the peace treaty with the United States was concluded there in 1848, and in 1867 Emperor Maximilian was imprisoned and later executed there after the defeat of his army nearby. With the beginning of the revolutionary movement in 1909 Quer&amp;eacute;taro once again assumed a central place in the nation, as it was here that the new National Constitution was signed on 5 February 1917 by all the revolutionary groups after two months of debate in the Teatro de la Rep&amp;uacute;blica.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In this area, defined by two lines of hills with a level area some 1,500&amp;nbsp;m wide between them through which the river runs, there are 1,400 monuments, of which 20 are religious and 15 are used for public services. The first chapel (La Cruz) was built on a small hillock art the eastern end of the valley. The Plaza de Armas, the seat of government, was arcaded on two sides and surrounded by government buildings and the residences of the leading citizens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not intended that Quer&amp;eacute;taro should become an Episcopal See and so no place was allocated in the plan for a cathedral. However, all the monastic orders established themselves there. First came the Franciscans, Augustinians and Dominicans, who founded large houses, followed by the Jesuits and Filipenses, as well as female orders. All have left imposing Baroque ensembles, of which the convents of Santa Teresa, El Carmen and, in particular, the convents of Santa Clara and Santa Rosa, are outstanding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The many non-religious buildings in Quer&amp;eacute;taro, again mostly Baroque, are not innovative or exceptional in plan. Their special significance lies in the design and construction of a wide range of multilobate arches, to be found only in the interiors of the houses and palaces, which give the Baroque architecture of Quer&amp;eacute;taro an exceptional and original character, which is enhanced by the 'pink stone of Quer&amp;eacute;taro', eagerly sought and used in other parts of the region.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The old colonial town of Quer&amp;eacute;taro is unusual in having retained the geometric street plan of the Spanish conquerors side by side with the twisting alleys of the Indian quarters. The Otomi, the Tarasco, the Chichimeca and the Spanish lived together peacefully in the town, which is notable for the many ornate civil and religious Baroque monuments from its golden age in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments Zone of Querétaro</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>936</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Guadalajara was founded in 1542, on the left bank of a river flowing through a wide valley. Two native settlements nearby were eventually integrated into what became the capital of the Province of Nueva Galicia and the seat of a bishopric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A sequence of droughts, floods, and severe frosts created much poverty and misery in the town. Around 1791 the Bishop of Guadalajara, Fray Antonio Alcalde, ordered the building of a hospital for the most destitute people, together with a groups of lodgings for the workers and an orphanage. This project was taken up by his successor, Juan Ruiz de Cabaiias, when he arrived in Guadalajara in December 1796. He requested the authorization of the Spanish Crown to create a Casa de la Misericordia to house the homeless, the old people, and the orphans of the town. [Translator's note There is no single English equivalent for this term, since the establishment combined the functions of a workhouse, hospital, orphanage, and almshouse, all of which were separate establishments in Britain.] In his letter to the King he identified the site that had been selected, at a high and healthy location outside the town with an excellent water supply.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Royal approval was given on 5 September 1803 for the building of a Casa de Expositos (orphanage), which would also accept aged men and women, handicapped people, and chronic invalids, along with their families, male and female orphans or children of parents incapable of feeding them (under ten years of age), and poor pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Mexico City on his way to take up his appointment in Guadalajara, Bishop Cabaiias had made the acquaintance of Manuel Tolsa, an architect and sculptor from Valencia who had made some notable contributions to the architecture of Mexico, including the remodelling of the dome and completion of the towers and facades of the cathedral in Mexico City. Tolsa accepted a commission to design the proposed Hospicio, but entrusted supervision of its execution to his pupil, Jose Gutierrez, who carried out most of the work between 1805 and 1810 (with the exception of the chapel).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The War of Independence interrupted the work, and the uncompleted buildings were used as a barracks and stables, first by the insurgents and then by the Royalist forces, until Mexico secured its independence from Spain in 1821. The death of Cabaiias in 1823 was deeply felt by the local people, and the Governor of the State brought pressure to bear on the Church to complete the entire establishment. Work began again in 1828 and the Hospicio was inaugurated the following year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the troubled times that followed, the Hospicio was once again taken over for military pwposes in the 1830s. However, it quickly regained its original function. Work had to be carried out later to rebuild the dome of the chapel, damaged in a violent storm in 1842.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the law expropriating Church property was enacted in 1853, the Bishop of the time divided up the enormous kitchen garden into forty plots crossed by two roads. However, the institution did not suffer financially during this period, thanks to the mlmificence of private benefactors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was to become a barracks once again in 1858. When the military departed, the Bishop passed the management of the Hospicio to the Sisters of Charity. This was the occasion for a further inaugural ceremony, during which it was agreed that all the orphans would in future bear the name Cabaii.as. This saw the start of the most important period in its history. In 1872 it housed more than five hundred people. However, with the expulsion of the Sisters in 1872 economic aid was cut off and the number of orphans was halved by 1880. This unhappy situation was rectified by the action of the Governor in 1883, and the number of inhabitants rose steadily - 442 in 1887, 672 in 1910.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growth of the Mexican Muralist movement was a demonstration of national cohesion and identity following the 1910-20 revolution. In the 1930s the Government of Jalisco invited one of its most distinguished exponents, Jose Clemente Orozco, to execute a number of works in public buildings in Guadalajara, where he worked between 1936 and 1939. His murals in the chapel of the Hospicio Cabaii.as, representing the multi-ethnic character of Mexican society and the allegory ofthe Man of fire, are among his finest works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1980 the Government of Jalisco located its newly created Cabaii.as Cultural Institute in the Hospicio, to house schools of arts and crafts, exhibition rooms, and areas for theatre, music, and dance. More recent additions have been a documentation centre and the office of the State Cultural secretariat. The State Government and the National Institute of Anthropology and History are also proposing to install a school of restoration in the Hospicio.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/815</http_url><id_number>815</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_815.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the Hospicio Caba&amp;ntilde;as is a unique architectural complex, designed to respond to social and economic requirements for housing the sick, the aged, the young, and the needy, which provides an outstanding solution of great subtlety and humanity. It also houses one of the acknowledged masterpieces of mural art.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>20.6738888900</latitude><location>Jalisco, Guadalajara</location><longitude>-103.3397222000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hospicio Caba&amp;ntilde;as is a unique architectural complex, designed to respond to social and economic requirements for housing the sick, aged, young and needy, which provides an outstanding solution of great subtlety and humanity. Orozco's murals in the chapel represent in part the most symbolic and characteristic elements of the indigenous culture of Mexico (gods, sacrifices, temples) and for the rest those of Spanish culture (kings, monks, churches). The central feature represents the submission of humans to machines, culminating in the masterpiece &lt;em&gt;Man of Fire&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A sequence of droughts, floods and severe frosts created much poverty and misery in the town, which was founded in 1542. Around 1791 the Bishop of Guadalajara ordered the building of a hospital for the most destitute people, together with a group of lodgings for the workers and an orphanage. This project was taken up by his successor, Juan Ruiz de Caba&amp;ntilde;as, when he arrived in Guadalajara in December 1796. He requested the authorization of the Spanish Crown to create a Casa de la Misericordia to house the homeless, old people and orphans of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Royal approval was given on 5 September 1803 to build a Casa de Exp&amp;oacute;sitos (orphanage), which would also accept aged men and women, handicapped people and chronic invalids, along with their families, orphans or children of parents incapable of feeding them, as well as poor pilgrims. In Mexico City Bishop Caba&amp;ntilde;as had met Manuel Tols&amp;aacute;, an architect and sculptor from Valencia who had made some notable contributions to the architecture of Mexico. Tols&amp;aacute; accepted a commission to design the proposed Hospicio, but entrusted supervision of its execution to his pupil, Jos&amp;eacute; Gutierrez, who carried out most of the work between 1805 and 1810 (with the exception of the chapel).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The War of Independence interrupted the work, and the uncompleted buildings were used as a barracks and stables, first by the insurgents and then by the Royalist forces, until Mexico secured its independence from Spain in 1821. The Hospicio was not inaugurated until 1829. It was to become a barracks once again in 1858. When the military departed, the management of the Hospicio passed to the Sisters of Charity, and it was agreed that all the orphans would in future bear the name Caba&amp;ntilde;as. In 1872 it housed more than 500 people. However, with the expulsion of the sisters in 1872 economic aid was cut off and the number of orphans was halved by 1880. This unhappy situation was rectified by the action of the governor in 1883.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The growth of the Mexican Muralist movement was a demonstration of national cohesion and identity following the 1910-20 revolution. In the 1930s the Government of Jalisco invited Jos&amp;eacute; Clemente Orozco to execute a number of works in public buildings in Guadalajara, where he worked between 1936 and 1939. His murals in the chapel of the Hospicio Caba&amp;ntilde;as, representing the multi-ethnic character of Mexican society and the allegory of the &lt;em&gt;Man of Fire&lt;/em&gt; , are among his finest works. In the 1980s the Government of Jalisco located its newly created Caba&amp;ntilde;as Cultural Institute in the Hospicio, to house schools of art and crafts, exhibition rooms, and areas for theatre, music and dance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entire complex is laid out on a rectangular plan: all the buildings, which are, except the chapel and the kitchen, single-storey, are ranged round 23 courtyards. The great majority of these are arcaded on at least two sides. The architectural solution adopted by Tols&amp;aacute; for the Hospicio is unique: its roots are to be found in ensembles such as the Monastery of El Escorial in Spain or the H&amp;ocirc;tel des Invalides in Paris.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Hospicio Caba&amp;ntilde;as was built at the beginning of the 19th century to provide care and shelter for the disadvantaged &amp;ndash; orphans, old people, the handicapped and chronic invalids. This remarkable complex, which incorporates several unusual features designed specifically to meet the needs of its occupants, was unique for its time. It is also notable for the harmonious relationship between the open and built spaces, the simplicity of its design, and its size. In the early 20th century, the chapel was decorated with a superb series of murals, now considered some of the masterpieces of Mexican art. They are the work of Jos&amp;eacute; Clemente Orozco, one of the greatest Mexican muralists of the period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hospicio Cabañas, Guadalajara</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>963</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The ethnic origins of the prehispanic people inhabiting the region to the north and north-east of Tlacotalpan are not fully understood. However, the names of the river Papaloapan (Butterfly River) and other settlements nearby are Nahuatl, which suggests that it was under Aztec domination. The present name of the town is a Spanish version of Tlaxcotaliapan ("Land between the Waters), the name of the island where the initial settlement was established; following modification of the north bank of the river, it was joined to the mainland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mouth of the Papaloapan river was discovered by Juan de Grijalba in 1518. Pedro de Alvarado sailed up it and in 1521 Cort&amp;eacute;s sent Gonzalo de Sandoval to find gold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Tlacotalpan formed part of an enormous grant of land made around 1550 by the Spanish King to Gaspar Rivadeneyra, on which he kept livestock. He was unable to prevent the establishment of a village of fishermen on the site of the present-day town, but he obliged them to build a chapel dedicated to La Virgen de la Candelaria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was a region that was slow to be colonized by the Spanish. Census returns show that there were only twelve Spamiards there in 1544 and the figure had not risen above 320 by 1777. There is less precise information on the growth of the non-Spanish population, but in 1808 there were 1156 Indians and 1616 pardos (mixed-race descendants of Indians and blacks).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was largely destroyed by fire in 1698, 1788, and 1790, and the last of these fires led to local government to impose controls that were to change its character radically. The roofs of the houses had to be tiled and they had to be separated by open spaces planted with trees. For those who did not possess the means for costly reconstruction in conformity with these regulations, plots were made available for purchase "at reasonable prices" in the eastern part of the village on which they could build cottages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was around this time at the turn of the 18th century that French, German, and Italian immigrants settled in the area to plant and weave cotton, which was despised by the Spanish but prized by the English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until 1821 that Tlacotalpan experienced any economic expansion. It became the port for the products of Oaxaca and Puebla destined for Veracruz and beyond to New Orleans, Havana, and Bordeaux. By 1855 its fleet had grown to eighteen steam-ships and one large sailing ship, used to transport timber, tobacco, cotton, grain, sugar, brandy, leather, salt meat, crocodiles, heron feathers, furniture, and soap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The year 1849 saw the building of the Nezahuacoyotl Theatre and the Municipal Palace, the latter one of only ten two-storeyed buildings at that time. Tlacotalpan was granted the status of a town by the central government in 1865, and other public buildings, such as the Hospital and the New Market were completed as the century continued. By the opening years of the 20th century it was a thriving town with eight schools, three hotels, nine factories, 100 houses with a single storey, 25 with two, and one with three storey, as well as 54 cottages. However, economic activities declined during the first half of the century and the town has been relatively stagnant in this respect ever since. Its population, which was 5613 in 1859, was only little larger in 1950. It now stands at 8850, a level that it has maintained since 1980.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although its economic role has diminished, Tlacotalpan is an important cultural centre. It is especially renowned for the way in which it celebrates the feast of its patron, the Virgen de la Candelaria: whilst the official feast day is 2 February, the celebrations begin at the end of January and continue with dancing and other spectacles in the plazas and streets for a whole week.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/862</http_url><id_number>862</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_862.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion ii: The urban layout and architecture of Tlacotalpan represent a fusion of Spanish and Caribbean traditions of exceptional importance and quality. Criterion iv: Tlacotalpan is a Spanish colonial river port on the Gulf coast of Mexico which has preserved its original urban fabric to an exceptional degree. Its outstanding character lies in its townscape of wide streets, modest houses in an exuberant variety of styles and colours, and many mature trees in public and private open spaces.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>18.6083333300</latitude><location>State of Veracruz, Tlacotalpan Municipality</location><longitude>-95.6583333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The urban layout and architecture of Tlacotalpan represent a fusion of Spanish and Caribbean traditions of exceptional importance and quality. It is a Spanish colonial river port on the Gulf Coast of Mexico which has preserved its original urban fabric to an exceptional degree. Its outstanding character lies in its townscape of wide streets, modest houses in an exuberant variety of styles and colours, and many mature trees in public and private open spaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As an interior riverine port, Tlacotalpan is a rare form of urban settlement in Latin America. It is laid out on a chequerboard pattern, covering some 1,550&amp;nbsp;m by 520&amp;nbsp;m, and is divided into two distinct sectors. The larger of these, to the west, is the 'Spanish' quarter and the smaller, to the east, is the 'native' quarter. At their junction there is an irregularly shaped 'public' sector, where public open spaces and official and commercial buildings are located. The plan of the western part is orientated on seven main streets running east-west parallel to the river, and are intersected by narrow lanes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ethnic origins of the pre-Hispanic people inhabiting the region to the north and north-east of Tlacotalpan are not fully understood. However, the names of the river Papaloapan (Butterfly River) and other settlements nearby are Nahuatl, which suggests that it was under Aztec domination. The present name of the town is a Spanish version of Tlaxcotaliapan ('Land between the Waters'), the name of the island where the initial settlement was established; following modification of the north bank of the river, it was joined to the mainland. The mouth of the Papaloapan River was discovered by Juan de Grijalba in 1518. Pedro de Alvarado sailed up it and in 1521 Cort&amp;eacute;s sent Gonzalo de Sandoval to find gold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Tlacotalpan formed part of an enormous grant of land made around 1550 by the Spanish King to Gaspar Rivadeneyra, on which he kept livestock. He was unable to prevent the establishment of a village of fishermen on the site of the present-day town, but he obliged them to build a chapel dedicated to La Virgen de la Candelaria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was a region that was slow to be colonized by the Spanish. Census returns show that there were only 12 Spaniards there in 1544 and the figure had not risen above 320 by 1777. There is less precise information on the growth of the non-Spanish population, but in 1808 there were 1,156 Indians and 1,616 &lt;em&gt;pardos&lt;/em&gt; (mixed-race descendants of Indians and blacks). The town was largely destroyed by fire in 1698, 1788 and 1790. The roofs of the houses had to be tiled and they had to be separated by open spaces planted with trees. For those who did not possess the means for costly reconstruction in conformity with these regulations, plots were made available for purchase 'at reasonable prices' in the eastern part of the village on which they could build cottages. It was around this time, at the turn of the 18th century, that French, German and Italian immigrants settled in the area to plant and weave cotton, which was despised by the Spanish but prized by the English.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until 1821 that Tlacotalpan experienced any economic expansion. It became the port for the products of Oaxaca and Puebla destined for Veracruz and beyond to New Orleans, Havana and Bordeaux. By 1855 its fleet had grown to 18 steamers and one large sailing ship, used to transport timber, tobacco, cotton, grain, sugar, brandy, leather, salt meat, crocodiles, heron feathers, furniture and soap.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The year 1849 saw the building of the Nezahuacoyotl Theatre and the Municipal Palace, the latter one of only 10 two-storeyed buildings at that time. By the opening years of the 20th century it was a thriving town with eight schools, three hotels, nine factories and 100 houses with a single storey. However, economic activities declined during the first half of the century. Its population was only a little larger from 1950 to 1980.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tlacotalpan, a Spanish colonial river port on the Gulf coast of Mexico, was founded in the mid-16th century. It has preserved its original urban fabric to a remarkable degree, with wide streets, colonnaded houses in a profusion of styles and colours, and many mature trees in the public open spaces and private gardens.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1013</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Campeche was founded in 1540 by Francisco Montejo El Mozo in the south-west of the Maya region of Ah Kin Pech, which had been explored and occupied by Spanish conquerors from 1517 onwards. From the start, the port played a major role as a starting point for expeditions to the Yucatan peninsula and the Pet&amp;eacute;n region in Guatemala. Its commercial and military importance made it the second biggest town in the Gulf of Mexico, after M&amp;eacute;rida.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the second half of the 16th century, Campeche, like other Caribbean towns, was systematically attacked by pirates and corsairs in the pay of enemies of Spain; this is why a large-scale defensive system was installed. At the beginning of the 18th century, the town was surrounded by an impressive hexagonal wall with a perimeter of 2536m, 6-8m high, and 2.50m thick. An urban checkerboard plan was chosen, with a Plaza Mayor facing the sea and surrounded by government and religious edifices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, the town endowed itself with a fine theatre, harmonized with the urban fabric. A section of the wall was pulled down in 1893 to open up a space with a view of the sea, and the main square was turned into a public garden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 20th century, the traditional areas of the town centre were little affected by the modernization movement owing to a relative slackening of the economy.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/895</http_url><id_number>895</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_895.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The harbour town of Campeche is an urbanization model of a Baroque colonial town, with its checkerboard street plan; the defensive walls surrounding its historic centre reflect the influence of the military architecture in the Caribbean. Criterion (iv): The fortifications system of Campeche, an eminent example of the military architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries, is part of an overall defensive system set up by the Spanish to protect the ports on the Caribbean Sea from pirate attacks.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>19.8463900000</latitude><location>State of Campeche</location><longitude>-90.5372200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The harbour town of Campeche is an urbanization model of a Baroque colonial town, with its chequerboard street plan; the defensive walls surrounding its historic centre reflect the influence of the military architecture of the Caribbean. the fortification system of Campeche, an eminent example of the military architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries. It forms part of an overall defensive system set up by the Spanish to protect the ports on the Caribbean Sea from pirate attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Campeche was founded in 1540 by Francisco Montejo El Mozo in the south-west of the Maya region of Ah Kin Pech, which had been explored and occupied by Spanish conquerors from 1517 onwards. From the start, the port played a major role as a starting point for expeditions to the Yucat&amp;aacute;n peninsula and the Pet&amp;eacute;n region of Guatemala. Its commercial and military importance made it the second biggest town in the Gulf of Mexico, after M&amp;eacute;rida.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the second half of the 16th century, Campeche, like other Caribbean towns, was systematically attacked by pirates and corsairs in the pay of enemies of Spain; this is why a large-scale defensive system was installed. At the beginning of the 18th century, the town was surrounded by an impressive hexagonal wall with a perimeter of 2,536&amp;nbsp;m, 6-8&amp;nbsp;m high and 2.50&amp;nbsp;m thick. An urban chequerboard plan was chosen, with a Plaza Mayor facing the sea and surrounded by government and religious edifices. The walls enclose an irregular hexagon corresponding to the defensive belt encircling the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, the town endowed itself with a fine theatre, harmonized with the urban fabric. A section of the wall was pulled down in 1893 to open up a space with a view of the sea, and the main square was turned into a public garden. In the 20th century, the traditional areas of the town centre were little affected by the modernization movement owing to a relative slackening of the economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area of historic monuments is in the shape of an uneven polygon spread over 181&amp;nbsp;ha, including 45&amp;nbsp;ha surrounded by walls, with the town stretching out on each side, following the configuration of the coast and the relief. The protected group consists of two subgroups: area A with a high density of buildings of great heritage value, and area B, which is not so dense or valuable but which forms a transitional and protective zone. Among the almost 1,000 buildings of historic value are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, several churches, the Toro theatre and the municipal archives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The system of fortifications, with the redoubts of San Jos&amp;eacute; and San Miguel, and the batteries of San Lucas, San Mati&amp;aacute;s and San Lu&amp;iacute;s, is mainly in the area of historic monuments, at both ends and facing the sea.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Campeche is a typical example of a harbour town from the Spanish colonial period in the New World. The historic centre has kept its outer walls and system of fortifications, designed to defend this Caribbean port against attacks from the sea.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Fortified Town of Campeche</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1046</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The decline of the political and economic primacy of the Teotihuacan cities in the 7th and 8th centuries AD marked the end of the Mesoamerican Classic period and the beginning of an age of some two centuries that saw the fall of other large Classic capitals, such as Monte Alban, Palenque, La Quemada, and Tikal, which had dominated large territories. The result was reduction of urban populations or even complete abandonment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was considerable movement of peoples and new relationships were established between different regions such as the Central Highlands, the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, Yucatan, Chiapas, and Guatemala. This period, from c 650 to 900, is known as the Epiclassic Period. New expansionist societies developed, though none achieved the dominance and magnitude of Teotihuacan, Monte Alban, or Tikal. There was a low level of integration between them, confederations being formed and dissolved. Their survival depended upon their success in controlling scarce resources, development of specialized productions, and dominance of commercial routes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a period of political instability and commercial competition such as this, the military infrastructure became crucial, and new settlements grew up at easily defensible sites, equipped with ramparts, moats, palisades, bastions, and citadels. Xochicalco is the supreme example of this type of Epiclassic fortified city. It appears to have been the creation of a confederation of settlements in the large region which is now constituted of the States of Guerrero, M&amp;eacute;xico, and western Morelos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A large number of impressive public and religious structures were erected in a very short time, and these show cultural influences from both the Central Highlands, the Gulf coast, and the Mayan region. It was founded in the second half of the 7th century and was abruptly abandoned after having been sacked in the late 9th century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/939</http_url><id_number>939</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_939.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): Xochicalco is an exceptionally well preserved and complete example of a fortified settlement from the Epiclassic Period of Mesoamerica. Criterion (iv): The architecture and art of Xochicalco represent the fusion of cultural elements from different parts of Mesoamerica, at a period when the breakdown of earlier political structures resulted in intensive cultural regroup-ing.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>18.8102800000</latitude><location>Municipalities of Temixco and &#xd;
&#xd;
Miacatlan, Morelos State</location><longitude>-99.2750000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Xochicalco is an exceptionally well-preserved and complete example of a fortified settlement from the Epiclassic period of Mesoamerica. Its architecture and art represent the fusion of cultural elements from different parts of Mesoamerica, at a time when the breakdown of earlier political structures resulted in intensive cultural regrouping. The city was built on a series of natural hills. The highest of these was the core of the settlement, with many public buildings, but evidence of occupation has been found on six of the lower hills surrounding it. Substantial engineering work in the form of terracing and the construction of massive retaining walls in order to create a series of open spaces are defined by platforms and pyramidal structures. They are linked by a complex system of staircases, terraces and ramps to create a main north-south communication axis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are three distinct levels of organization to be recognized in material terms at Xochicalco - social, political and religious. The lower part is encircled by walls, pierced by defended entrances; it contains largely residential buildings. Next comes the intermediate level, the so-called 'Market Ensemble', which is the Plaza of the Stele of the Two Glyphs, a ball court, with more residential structures. The highest level consists of a group of temples and other monumental buildings for the use of the ruling class around the main plaza. The crest of the hill is the 'Acropolis'. In the lower level there is an access way beginning at the base of the southern hill and entering the city through the main gateway, flanked by two bastions. The causeway is paved with irregular flagstones and flanked with low walls fronting to residential areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the intermediate level there is the Market Ensemble. Beyond it is another plaza on a platform from which a broad staircase ascends to the Plaza of the Stele of the Two Glyphs. This square is closed on its east and west sides by two buildings that are similar in form and size, and to the north by the Great Pyramid, the largest structure on the site. It consists of seven steps, with the remains of a temple at the apex. The stele from which the plaza takes its name is located on a square podium in its centre: this was the focus of civic and ceremonial life for the community, not least because it is easily accessible. The southern ball court, the largest at Xochicalco, is reached by a wide causeway. Beyond it is a group of structures known as the Palace; residential rooms, kitchens, workshops, and storerooms, along with a &lt;em&gt;temazcal&lt;/em&gt; (steam-bath) are ranged around a series of patios. A series of 21 calendar altars line the causeway, recording the months (and in one case days) of the ceremonial year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the upper level a large platform is built around the northern, southern and west sides. To the east is a complex of three structures. The first of these is rectangular in plan and opens onto a patio sunk below the external level; it is accessible only from the roofs of the rooms. The second unit is a large patio closed on three sides by narrow galleries and delimited on the fourth side by three pyramidal platforms. Alongside it is the third element, the east ball court, separated by a monumental ramp paved with stone slabs engraved with images of birds, reptiles, insects and mammals, known as the Ramp of the Animals. The northern sector includes a large rainwater cistern that formed part of a complex water system covering the whole settlement. Beneath this platform is to be found the entrance to the caves that were used in the early phases of occupation for quarrying building materials. Later it was modified as an observatory for studying the heavens and for ceremonies. The Main Plaza is on an enormous artificial mound, accessible only through the two defended porticoes. It is dominated by two architectural complexes. That to the north consists of four very large rooms round a patio. The eastern one is more complex in plan, round four patios. In the south-eastern corner of the Main Plaza is the Pyramid of the Stele of the Two Glyphs, a stepped pyramidal base with a structure at its apex consisting of a patio defined by two lateral rooms and a temple at the far end. Two pyramidal structures are located in the middle of the plaza. One is the remarkable Pyramid of the Plumed Serpents and the other is the so-called Twin Pyramid. The Acropolis, built on a platform to the west of the Main Plaza, is formed of a series of buildings laid out on variations of a central patio with lateral rooms.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Xochicalco is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a fortified political, religious and commercial centre from the troubled period of 650&amp;ndash;900 that followed the break-up of the great Mesoamerican states such as Teotihuacan, Monte Alb&amp;aacute;n, Palenque and Tikal.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Monuments Zone of Xochicalco</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1094</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The northern region of Sierra Gorda, where the missions are placed, is part of the mountainous central Mexico. In ancient times, the native inhabitants used to be involved in mining and trade, living in small settlements scattered over the lower parts of the mountains. Sierra Gorda was a natural barrier between the agricultural, sedentary people and the nomadic, hunter-gatherer tribes of the north. At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, the people were mainly living on agriculture. The Huastec lived in large feudal estates and were skilled in cotton spinning. The Jonace lived in caves and attacked estates. The Pame was a large group who grew corn and lived in grass or palm-leaf houses; they were docile and collaborative with the friars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 17th century, due to political interests and silver mining, armed conflicts were often provoked, involving the Spaniards and groups of native people. This resulted in the destruction of many of the early missions. In the 17th century, the Franciscans made attempts to penetrate further into the country, but were not able to establish permanent presence. In the 18th century, they obtained a new authorisation, resulting in the decision, in 1744, to establish five missions (Jalpan, Conc&amp;aacute;, Tancoyol, Landa and Tilaco). Due to continuing conflicts in the region, the first years were difficult, delaying the construction of the actual mission complexes until 1750-51, under the leadership of Friar Jun&amp;iacute;pero Sierra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction phase took some two decades combined with the active evangelisation work by the Franciscan friars. By the end of the period, in 1770, the mission was accomplished. The political situation had changed, and the missions were secularised. Due to rebellions and armed conflicts in the 19th century, the missions suffered and eg the gilded altarpieces were destroyed. Towards the end of the century, the churches faced further problems and some images that were replaced, eg in the central part of the front of Jalpan. In the 20th century, the population decreased, and some missions were abandoned at times; others had alterations, such as the atriums of Landa (1966) and Jalpan (1964). Nevertheless, they have continued as religious entities, dominating the settlements which grew around them as well as being a reference for the region. From the publication on the Baroque in the Sierra Gorda region, by Monique Gustin in 1969, a new interest was revived to safeguard these baroque masterpieces, leading to restoration during the 1990s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The driving force in this phase of evangelisation was Jun&amp;iacute;pero Serra (1713-1784), a Spanish Franciscan priest whose missionary work in North America earned him the title of Apostle of California (he was beatified by the Pope in 1988). He was instrumental in the establishment of the Sierra Gorda missions, where he served from 1750 to 1758, moving then to south-central Mexico (1758-1767). When Spain began its occupation of Alta California (present-day California), Serra joined the expedition, and in 1769 he founded Mission San Diego, the first in California. Altogether 21 missions were founded by him and his successors in California, where they became the strongest factors in the development of the region.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1079</http_url><id_number>1079</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1079.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion ii: The Sierra Gorda Missions exhibit an important interchange of values in the process of evangelisation of central and northern Mexico, and the western United States. Criterion iii: The five Sierra Gorda missions bear witness to the cultural encounter of the European missions with the nomadic populations of central Mexico, remaining a significant testimony to this second phase of evangelisation in North America.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>21.2043888900</latitude><location>State of Querétaro de Arteaga (Sierra Gorda region)</location><longitude>-99.4641111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The five Sierra Gorda missions bear witness to the cultural encounter of the European missions with the nomadic populations of central Mexico, remaining a significant testimony to this second phase of evangelization in North America. The most thorough evangelizing work carried out by the Franciscan Order in America is reflected in the architectural and artistic achievement in these missions. They exhibit an important interchange of values in the process of evangelization of central and northern Mexico and the western United States, and demonstrate the cultural coexistence between two different groups with their environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property consists of five Franciscan missions dating from the 1750s and 1760s. They are located in the mountainous Sierra Gorda region in central Mexico, where evangelization took place much later than elsewhere. Of the five missions, Santiago de Jalpan (the earliest, built 1751-58) and Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de la Luz de Tancoyol are located in the municipality of Jalpan de Sierra, Santa Maria del Agua de Landa and San Francisco del Valle de Tilaco are in the municipality of Landa de Matamoros, and the mission of San Miguel Conc&amp;aacute; is in the municipality of Arroyo Seco.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Franciscan missions were complex organizational units run by friars aiming at evangelizing, congregating and teaching indigenous people. Each mission had to erect the church, find the natives, subdue them, and then group them in huts around the church. The missionaries had to learn the native language, supply the population with food, teach them how to behave, and only then evangelize them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All five missions share similar elements in relation to their environment, the town and the religious buildings. The environment offers splendid mountain views; the strategic locations of the missions determined the layout and development of the native settlement around. Today, these are traditional rural settlements. The architecture of the missions is designed following a general pattern, although there are individual differences. Their features are reminiscent of 16th-century convents, and generally include an atrium, a sacramental doorway, an open chapel, processional chapels and a cloister. Some features are also taken from Mexican Baroque art of the 17th and 18th centuries, evidenced in the cross-shaped ground plan of the church, the carved and stuccoed facade, and the use of lime plaster in the interior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These features are most characteristic of Jalpan, Landa and Tancoyol, while Tilaco and Conc&amp;aacute; have more individual designs - for example there are no chapels. The buildings are made from local stone, and have plaster rendering. The orientation of the complex differs in each case; the main facade is oriented to the west only in Tilaco, while Jalpan faces east, Tancoyol south, and Conc&amp;aacute; and Landa south-east. Considering that the congregation generally gathered outside, the main elevation of the church is opulently decorated with winding plants and flowers, fantastic architectural elements, angels, figures of Virg\in and saints, including St Francis. While the general layout of the complex reflects the Franciscan model, the spirit and forms of decoration refer to local traditions and local products as gifts to God. Artistically the whole has a particular air of innocence and naivety.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Strategically, the images were 'ideographic', enforcing the didactic scope of the mission. The facade has usually three horizontal and three vertical sections, forming framed fields; in Tancoyol, there are five horizontal sections. The dominating colour is ochre. In contrast, the interior is now much less pretentious; it has simple plaster rendering, and the altarpiece has straightforward architectural forms. A cupola crowns the transept crossing. Seen from the front, a tall bell tower is attached on the left side of the church. The lower part of the tower is plain on a square plan; the upper part is richly ornate with architectural elements. The residential part, on the right side of the church, has an arched entrance and in some cases there is a cloister passage around the court. Otherwise it is relatively simple without decoration.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The five Franciscan missions of Sierra Gorda were built during the last phase of the conversion to Christianity of the interior of Mexico in the mid-18th century and became an important reference for the continuation of the evangelization of California, Arizona and Texas. The richly decorated church fa&amp;ccedil;ades are of special interest as they represent an example of the joint creative efforts of the missionaries and the Indios. The rural settlements that grew around the missions have retained their vernacular character.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1256</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n (1902-1988) was trained as an engineer, but he then became a self-taught architect. Having travelled in Spain and France, he settled first in Guadalajara (1927) and then in Mexico City (1936). In his early career he was involved in real estate management.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property on which the house and studio were built was probably purchased in 1939 together with a larger area. This moment coincides with his shift of interest from real estate activities towards architecture. He built the so-called Ortega House, making use of a pre-existing building. He took up his residence in this house in 1943. The house in number 14 was built in 1948. The first drawings for the project were realized for Mrs Luz Escand&amp;oacute;n de R. Valenzuela. However, in summer 1948, Barrag&amp;aacute;n decided to take the house for himself. The rest of the property was sold to the Ortega family. The plans of the house were gradually developed over the construction period. In fact, the house became a sort of laboratory for the architect, who lived here the rest of his life, until 1988.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1136</http_url><id_number>1136</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1136.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The House and Studio of Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n represents a masterpiece of the new developments in the Modern Movement, integrating traditional, philosophical and artistic currents into a new synthesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The work of Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n exhibits the integration of modern and traditional influences, which in turn have had an important impact especially on the design of garden and urban landscape design.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>19.4183333300</latitude><location>Mexico City</location><longitude>-99.1983333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n House and Studio exhibit the integration of modern and traditional influences, which in turn have had an important impact especially on garden design and urban landscaping. The artistic manifesto of Casa Estudio Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n is the result of the criticism and renovation of the Modern Movement in architecture, achieved by synthesizing other cultural traditions and artistic styles, fundamentally Mexican heritage, but surpassing its cultural horizon with many other approaches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n (1902-88) was trained as an engineer, but became a self-taught architect. In his early career he was involved in real estate management. The property on which the house and studio were built was probably purchased in 1939 together with a larger area. This moment coincides with his shift of interest from real estate activities towards architecture. He built the so-called Ortega House, making use of a pre-existing building. He took up his residence in this house in 1943. The house in No. 14 was built in 1948. The first drawings for the project were realized for Mrs Luz Escand&amp;oacute;n de R. Valenzuela. However, in summer 1948, Barrag&amp;aacute;n decided to take the house for himself. The rest of the property was sold to the Ortega family. The plans of the house were gradually developed over the construction period. In fact, it became a sort of laboratory for the architect, who lived there for the rest of his life, until 1988.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property is a single construction located on two adjacent lots on a small street (12 and 14 General Francisco Ramirez Street) in the Daniel Garza suburb of Mexico City. The total surface area is around 1,161&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . Adjacent is Barrag&amp;aacute;n's Ortega House. The house is built from concrete with plaster rendering. It has a ground floor and two upper storeys, as well as a small private garden. The entrance is directly from the street on the east side. The garden opens towards the west. The studio takes the northern part of the building, with an entrance directly from the street; the rest is Barrag&amp;aacute;n's private residential quarters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entrance facade aligns with the street and preserves the appearance of the neighbouring facades. It is a massive boundary with precise openings. Because of its austere, almost unfinished appearance, the house would almost be unnoticed, except for its scale, which contrasts with the rest of the buildings in the neighbourhood. The house announces the dwelling of an upper-class gentleman, but at the same time its materials speak of an introspective and intimate nature, paradoxically humble. All the windows of the eastern facade represent the possibility of hiding the direct communication between domestic space and the city. The entire exterior conserves the colour and natural roughness of the plastered concrete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the subdivisions or screens were introduced later. The separate dining room is reached from the hall and the living room, next to which there is a small breakfast room and the kitchen. All these spaces open towards the garden. On the first floor are the master bedroom and a guest room, as well as an 'afternoon room'. On the second floor, there are service spaces and a roof terrace. The upper storeys are accessed via narrow stairs without railings. The levels of the different floors are not regularly placed, but are designed so as to allow spaces of different heights. Thus, the living room is double height.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The north side of the property is reserved for the studio with direct access from the street. There is also internal access from the living room. The main studio space is linked with the garden through a patio. On the street side, there are two small offices, and on the first floor there is a small private office.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the garden side, the building has a very different aspect compared with the street side. The qualities of Barrag&amp;aacute;n's architecture are expressed in the treatment of the spaces inside the house, where he plays with strong non-harmonic colour schemes (e.g. the sequence from the entrance); the raw volcanic stone on the vestibule floor extends through a second door to the hall. The garden was initially conceived as a large expanse of grass, but Barrag&amp;aacute;n later allowed it to grow more freely.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in 1948, the House and Studio of architect Luis Barrag&amp;aacute;n in the suburbs of Mexico City represents an outstanding example of the architect&amp;rsquo;s creative work in the post-Second World War period. The concrete building, totalling 1,161 m2, consists of a ground floor and two upper storeys, as well as a small private garden. Barrag&amp;aacute;n&amp;rsquo;s work integrated modern and traditional artistic and vernacular currents and elements into a new synthesis, which has been greatly influential, especially in the contemporary design of gardens, plazas and landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Luis Barragán House and Studio</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1316</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The domestication of wild agave seems to have begun around 3,500 years ago. The wild plant may have originated in the Rio Grande canyon. The agave plant is ideally suited to the poor soil and rough terrain of the Tequila area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Agave was extensively cultivated by the Teuchitlans and served to provide many basis necessities: its fibres were used for fabric, rope and paper, the flower stem provided wood for construction, the fleshy leaves were used as roof tiles and fuel, the spines for needles and arrow heads, the sap produced a type of honey and its juices were used for medicinal balm and fermented to produce an alcoholic drink. The leaders of the complex, stratified, Teuchitlan society created wealth from their apparent monopoly of the agave resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To transform the starches in the plant to sugar, for eating and fermenting into alcohol, the pineapples need cooking. There is archaeological evidence from nearby Lake Sayula (outside the nominated area) that the practice of cooking agave pineapples in open, conical ovens, made of volcanic stone, existed around 400 BC. These ovens were preheated with wood and the pineapples covered with branches and clay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Spanish priest, Friar Francisco Ximenez, wrote in 1615 how juice from the cooked plant was fermented to make wine flavoured with orange and melon rinds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the area was conquered by the Spanish who established the town of Santiago de Tequila. The Caxcanes who were living in the areas gradually assimilated with the Spanish. In order to mitigate shortages of spirits from Europe, the Spanish experimented with local beverages and begun to distil the agave fermented juice to make vino de mezcal. At the same time rum was being developed in the Antilles and so the necessary equipment for the new agave spirit was introduced from the rum making areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The taxes levied on the new spirit produced a significant income for the Spanish government of Guadalajara. It funded a water supply and the government palace of Jalisco in Guadalajara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 17th century the first formal distilleries were established and the first intensive agave plantations created. During the course of the 18th century industrial facilities begun to be established within haciendas, and gradually agave cultivation spread out across the plain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the liquor became better known in the 18th century, so demand increased. Its growth was greatly helped by the creation in 1758 of the commercial route known as the Camino Real connecting Tequila to the port of San Blas on the Pacific Ocean, to Guadalajara and to Mexico City. The wine was transported by mule teams and donkeys along the new road and became the first export product from the region. The significant increase in production and consumption of this drink contributed to the development of a clear regional identity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Overuse of the spirit became at times a cause for concern amongst the civil and religious authorities, and there were periodic, but ultimately unsuccessful, attempts to ban the drink, in spite of the loss of revenue, but these merely resulted in clandestine activity developing in remote areas. In 1795, after almost three centuries of Spanish colonial rule, a regional producer, Jos&amp;eacute; Maria Guadalupe Cuervo received the first licence permitting the legal establishment of a mescal distillery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 19th century, with the growth of the export trade, large distilleries were established in the towns, separating the production of liquor from the growth of the raw materials. This led to the decline of some rural distilleries and their haciendas begun to concentrate instead on producing raw materials for the urban distilleries, resulting in a rapid increase in land under agave cultivation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second half of the 19th century saw consolidation amongst the urban distilleries and the introduction of more efficient machinery, such as enclosed steam heated ovens and mechanical mills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mexican Revolution in the third decade of the 20th century led to a temporary decline of the tequila production process as land attached to haciendas was reallocated to workers on a communal basis or became private property.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today measures have been put in place, such as the renting of land, and the advance purchasing of the agave plants, to try and ensure continuity in production to meet the continuing high demands.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1209</http_url><id_number>1209</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1209.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.8630555555</latitude><location>Valles Region, Jalisco State</location><longitude>-103.7786111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 34,658 ha site, between the foothills of the Tequila Volcano and the deep valley of the Rio Grande River, is part of an expansive landscape of blue agave, shaped by the culture of the plant used since the 16th century to produce tequila spirit and for at least 2,000 years to make fermented drinks and cloth. Within the landscape are working distilleries reflecting the growth in the international consumption of tequila in the 19th and 20th centuries. Today, the agave culture is seen as part of national identity. The area encloses a living, working landscape of blue agave fields and the urban settlements of Tequila, Arenal, and Amatitan with large distilleries where the agave &amp;lsquo;pineapple' is fermented and distilled. The property is also a testimony to the Teuchitlan cultures which shaped the Tequila area from AD 200-900, notably through the creation of terraces for agriculture, housing, temples, ceremonial mounds and ball courts.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1386</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;King Philip II of Spain established the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in 1551, which makes it, together with San Marcos University in Lima, Peru, the first universities in the New World. In 1865, Emperor Maximilian closed the University, which was re-opened in 1910 as the Mexico National University. After the Mexican Revolution, the University reached autonomy in 1929, in order to assure cultural development and scientific education. It was then renamed with the current denomination of the Universidad Nacional Aut&amp;oacute;noma de M&amp;eacute;xico (UNAM).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since its creation, the University has occupied several locations in the historic centre of Mexico City. The creation of a University City was in mind since the 1920s. In 1943, it was decided that the University would be located in the area known as Pedregal de San &amp;Aacute;ngel, next to the village of Coyoac&amp;aacute;n, located south of Mexico City. The property was then apart from the urban settlement; the name Pedregal (stony ground) refers to the type of soil and resulting landscape, product of the eruption of a volcano.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The master plan for the campus was the result of an architectural competition, in which architects Mario Pani and Enrique del Moral were awarded. Their idea was based on the urban and architectural principles of the Modern Movement, with the incorporation of components stemming from national tradition, like local materials or references to pre-Hispanic urbanism and architecture. The then developing local architectural trend of "Plastic Integration" took the incorporation of works of fine arts, especially murals, to the buildings and open spaces. For the project of the buildings, sports facilities and open spaces, the most prominent Mexican architects were invited, together with advanced students. As a result, the project for the campus involved the work, in the framework of the master plan, of some sixty architects and artists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The works of construction started in 1949 and the official opening of the new campus took place in 1952, with courses starting in 1954. The physical conditions of the campus have not changed essentially since then; new buildings were constructed in neighbouring areas without disturbing the harmony of the original composition. At the same time, the University area includes part of the natural landscape of the Pedregal, which is protected as an ecological reserve.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1250</http_url><id_number>1250</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1250.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.3322222222</latitude><location>Mexico City</location><longitude>-99.1880555555</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of buildings, sports facilities and open spaces of the Central University City Campus of the Universidad Nacional Aut&amp;oacute;noma de M&amp;eacute;xico (UNAM), was built from 1949 to 1952 by more than 60 architects, engineers and artists who were involved in the project. As a result, the campus constitutes a unique example of 20th-century modernism integrating urbanism, architecture, engineering, landscape design and fine arts with references to local traditions, especially to Mexico&amp;rsquo;s pre-Hispanic past. The ensemble embodies social and cultural values of universal significance and is one of the most significant icons of modernity in Latin America.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central University City Campus of the &lt;i&gt;Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México&lt;/i&gt; (UNAM)</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1427</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The nomination dossier includes an extensive and extremely detailed narration on the geographical, economic, social and cultural history of the region known as El Baj&amp;iacute;o, the Royal Inland Road and San Miguel de Allende.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1521 and the mid-16th century, the Spaniards established a network of roads linking different regions of New Spain; among them was the Royal Inland Road, which led from Mexico City to the present southern United States of America, linking important towns and mining centres. The settlement of new villages along the route aimed at establishing potential nuclei for defence, colonizing the territory and providing resources and services for the new mining centres. In 1542, the Franciscan Juan de San Miguel founded the Indian village of San Miguel. In 1555, the existence of this settlement was one of the main references for the Spanish foundation of San Miguel el Grande, founded with the specific purpose of protecting the "Road of the Zacatecas". The foundation site of San Miguel el Grande was determined by the possibilities of visibility of the territory and the water supply, which was a fundamental element to develop a colony.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Miguel is located in the area known as the Baj&amp;iacute;o. These vast plains form one of the richest regions of the country owing to their natural resources and soils, and the benign climate. All these fostered, since the early colonisation periods, the development of mining, agriculture, cattle breeding, commerce and industry. The Baj&amp;iacute;o became an attraction for settlement, favouring the mixing of races and cultures and constituting the first and largest capitalist entity in New Spain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the 17th century, the population and economic resources had increased, and this is reflected in the construction of public works, civil and religious buildings, and the mansions of the main Spanish families, located close to the main plaza and along the commercial routes at the entrance of the village. The repair of public buildings and government headquarters was considered a priority related to the political and administrative role played by the village in the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 18th century, New Spain experienced an economic recovery caused not only by the renaissance of the mining industry but also by the continuous population increases. The commercial system depended on a network of effective communications; the Baj&amp;iacute;o region had numerous small villages, medium size towns and larger cities with specific functions, such as Guanajuato or Quer&amp;eacute;taro. The urbanization of the Baj&amp;iacute;o was a phenomenon of the 18th century not repeated in other regions of New Spain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban environment of San Miguel el Grande was not only organized according to the legislation for the foundation of Spanish towns and villages, but also taking into account the topographical conditions, the access to natural resources (particularly lands and water), the geographical distribution of religious and civil power, and the range of economic activities and hierarchical structures of the population. Between 1730 and 1760 the power and control spaces of the village were moved from the ancient Soledad plaza to the plaza that had harboured the parish temple since the 16th century; at the same time, landowners and merchants started the construction of new residences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 19th century, San Miguel played a prominent role in the process of Mexican independence. One of the main leaders of the struggle for independence, Ignacio Allende, was born in the town, currently named after this national hero. The social and economic development over the century is reflected in the construction of new public buildings that show the changing architectural tastes. The most remarkable example is the fa&amp;ccedil;ade of the parish church, next to the Plaza de Armas, where Neo-Gothic was added to an 18th century building. Other urban and architectural components that bear testimony of the modernisation of the town by the end of 19th and the beginning of the 20th century are the Angela Peralta Theatre and the Benito Ju&amp;aacute;rez Park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the mid-20th century, San Miguel attracted Mexicans and foreigners because of the atmosphere of the town, which preserved its colonial character, the mild climate and the optimal size to offer a good quality of life. Many Americans settled or spent long seasons in the town. This social phenomenon did not alter the character of the town; on the contrary, foreigners contributed to the appreciation of urban and architectural values of the town, and to the preservation of its heritage, through restoration and renovation of ancient buildings. At the same time, the incorporation of cultural activities, such as music and theatre, contributed to preserve San Miguel as a lively historic centre. In the framework of the Federal Law of 1972 on Archaeological, Artistic and Historic Zones and Monuments, the historic centre of San Miguel was registered as Historic Monument Zone in 1982.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The father Luis Felipe Neri de Alfaro founded the Sanctuary of Jes&amp;uacute;s Nazareno de Atotonilco on 20th July 1748. Aiming to avoid the frequent robberies and murders committed in the area, the priest intended to offer Christian education. The complex included six churches or chapels and the immense house for spiritual exercises based on Saint Ignacio of Loyola doctrine. The main reasons for the foundation of this Sanctuary were the academic and theoretical work of Father Alfaro, as well as the catholic spirit that stirred everyone from the Council of Trento, two centuries before. The construction of the monumental ensemble began on 3 May 1740 and lasted until 1763. Since its erection, the Sanctuary has been a point of pilgrimage from other regions of the country and the continent. Because of the role of San Miguel in the process of independence and the fact that the popular image of the Guadalupe Virgin stems from Atotonilco, it is considered a national historic landmark.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1274</http_url><id_number>1274</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1274.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.9144444444</latitude><location>Guanajuato Region</location><longitude>-100.7463888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified town, first established in the 16th century to protect the Royal Route inland, reached its apogee in the 18th century when many of its outstanding religious and civic buildings were built in the style of the Mexican Baroque. Some of these buildings are masterpieces of the style that evolved in the transition from Baroque to neoclassical. Situated 14 km from the town, the Jesuit sanctuary, also dating from the 18th century, is one of the finest examples of Baroque art and architecture in the New Spain. It consists of a large church, and several smaller chapels, all decorated with oil paintings by Rodriguez Ju&amp;aacute;rez and mural paintings by Miguel Antonio Mart&amp;iacute;nez de Pocasangre. Because of its location, San Miguel de Allende acted as a melting pot where Spaniards, Creoles and Amerindians exchanged cultural influences while the Sanctuary of Jes&amp;uacute;s Nazareno de Atotonilco constitutes an exceptional example of the exchange between European and Latin American cultures. Its architecture and interior decoration testify to the influence of Saint Ignacio de Loyola&amp;rsquo;s doctrine.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Protective town of San Miguel and the Sanctuary of Jesús Nazareno de Atotonilco</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1493</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1290</http_url><id_number>1290</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1290.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.6063888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>-100.2416666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 56,259 ha biosphere lies within rugged forested mountains about 100 km northwest of Mexico City. Every autumn, millions, perhaps a billion, butterflies from wide areas of North America return to the site and cluster on small areas of the forest reserve, colouring its trees orange and literally bending their branches under their collective weight. In the spring, these butterflies begin an 8 month migration that takes them all the way to Eastern Canada and back, during which time four successive generations are born and die. How they find their way back to their overwintering site remains a mystery.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1521</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Camino Real de Tierra Adentro developed to serve the great mining initiatives in northern Mexico during the Spanish colonial period, with attendant farming, grazing and military support for mining activities. Concurrently, evangelists devoted themselves to the spiritual life of indigenous people and settlers who accompanied the mining process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early stages the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro was not fixed in all its points and tracts. Even in later years it was not one fixed route, but can be seen as a gradual development of routes that linked what is now Mexico City to the remoter areas of the north where the mines and new towns were created. And along these routes, since the 16th century were planned development of forts, towns and haciendas to protect the routes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The discovery of the mines of Zacatecas in 1546 was the fundamental starting point for this process, since it was indispensable to protect people and to guarantee the safe delivery of silver, mercury and the goods that were essential to supply the needs of the mining towns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wealth of the American North was exploited by conquerors, clerics and traders from Spain between 16th and 19th centuries. The first stages of the route linked the mines of Zacatecas, Guanajuato and San Luis Potos&amp;iacute; to the city of M&amp;eacute;xico, capital of the viceroyalty of Nueva Espa&amp;ntilde;a.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Camino Real de Tierra Adentro was itself connected, through Mexico City, to stretches of the Intercontinental Camino Real reaching Spanish dominions in the Philippines, Florida, the Antilles and the American South. Mexico City was linked overland to the port of Veracruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, to service the European trade and overland to the port of Acapulco on the Mexican Pacific coast, to link to the Asian trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The expansion of the route later continued north to the villa of Santa Fe of the viceroyalty of Nuevo Mexico founded in 1598, today the State of Nuevo Mexico, USA.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1552 the mines of Guanajuato were discovered and they quickly led to great wealth. That discovery was followed by the development of mines at San Mart&amp;iacute;n, Fresnillo, Sombrerete, Chalchihuites, Nieves, Mazapil, Ind&amp;eacute;, Santa B&amp;aacute;rbara, Parral and Pinos, all between 1556 and 1604.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Increasing quantities of silver were exported to Spain and large amounts of currency were coined at the Casa de Moneda of M&amp;eacute;xico, the first Mint of America, founded in 1535. All this led to a huge growth of international trade, to the monetarisation of the world economy and, in 18th century, one of the first global economic revolutions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The operation of the Camino Real led to a wide range of architectural, urban, industrial, highway and cultural development. The intensive silver production, exploration and growth of trade laid the foundations for the reales de minas (royal mining camps) and their protective frontier institutions, the presidios and misiones. New cities exerted administrative, economic, political, religious and regional control to ensure continuity for early Spanish villas, with Indian settlements as essential sources of farm-workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Along the route, as it extended through the north of the viceroyalty of Nueva Espa&amp;ntilde;a, landmarks were introduced to signpost the route, especially when far from population nuclei. An understanding of the natural environment and its topography was essential to build safe, controllable roads for all forms of transport, as well as infrastructure for the mercantile traffic - bridges, paving and fords. This reality configured the character of each section of the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro and the propagation of Catholic dogma and the Hispanic language followed the trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The route had several periods of prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries. This prosperity waxed and waned as new mines were discovered, epidemics took hold or there were hostilities. Taking a broad overview, the 16th century was the foundation of al that followed and the settlements and churches built then are of great importance as setting out the way ideas from Spain were modified for the needs of the territory. The late 16th century and early 17th century were periods of great expansion and prosperity in some places when wealthy mines were discovered, and towns were founded, such as Zacatecas which grew rapidly in an unplanned way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other towns were set up as staging posts along the road as were forts and land allocated for Spaniards to develop haciendas - in many cases in conjunction with mining activities. The road itself remained mostly unpaved and hazardous and difficult to navigate in wet weather although a few early bridges were created. Planned mining towns followed in the late 17th century such as San Luis Potos&amp;iacute;, and these were sited some way from the mines they supported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second general period of prosperity, also based on the silver mines, was the second half of the 18th century. During this period money was spent on rebuilding churches - many from adobe to stone, in providing stone bridges over rivers and streams and in enlarging haciendas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third general period of prosperity was after the Wars of Independence in the mid 19th century when the opening up of the route into New Mexico led to increased trade with the north, and in a variety of goods, not just silver. Again many churches were rebuilt, as were houses and civil buildings in the towns and cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The road began its decline as a conduit for silver with the advent of the railways.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1351</http_url><id_number>1351</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1351.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.6080555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>-102.3791666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Camino Real de Tierra Adentro was the Royal Inland Road, also known as the Silver Route. The inscribed property consists of 55 sites and five existing World Heritage sites lying along a 1400 km section of this 2600 km route, that extends north from Mexico City to Texas and New Mexico, United States of America. The route was actively used as a trade route for 300 years, from the mid-16th to the 19th centuries, mainly for transporting silver extracted from the mines of Zacatecas, Guanajuato and San Luis Potosí, and mercury imported from Europe. Although it is a route that was motivated and consolidated by the mining industry, it also fostered the creation of social, cultural and religious links in particular between Spanish and Amerindian cultures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1691</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Hunter-gatherers followed nomadic lives in the area up to the end of the Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago, and, with the improvement in climate gradually moved towards a more settled way of life. Evidence of this gradual evolution, with the progressive domestication and improvement of plant species leading to an eventual agriculture-based society, and evidence of this gradual change has been preserved in two of the perpetually dry caves and one open site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sixty caves and rock shelters were surveyed in the 1960s by Kevin V Flannery. He excavated four sites: Guil&amp;aacute; Naquitz and Cueva Blanca caves, the Martinez rock shelter, and also the open site of Gheo Shih (outside the nominated area). This work was seen to have produced evidence of the shift from nomadic to semi-sedentary lifestyles. Only three sites out of all the 147 caves and sites have provided botanical evidence. These are, Guil&amp;aacute; Naquitz, Cueva Blanca and Gheo Shih. Some of the finds from Flannery's excavation are deposited in the Museum of the Cultures of Oaxaca, in Oaxaca City. Others were subjected to destructive testing and no longer exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1996 further exploration produced an inventory of plants on the property and in 2001 surveys identified caves not recorded in the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work was undertaken by the University of Michigan between 1970-80 on the cultural ecology of the Valley. The caves and rock shelters were further studied in 1995 by Victoria Arriola. From 1996 intensive research has continued, in particular, through the efforts of the National Institute of Anthropology and History. Finds from the Naquitz cave have been also been re-assessed by the Smithsonian Institution through accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating, along with finds of early domesticated plant assemblages that were recovered in the 1950s and 1960s from four other caves in Mexico: Tamaulipas (Romero's and Valenzuela's Caves), and Tehuac&amp;aacute;n (Coxcatlan and San Marcos Caves).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Oaxaca, evidence for the beginnings of plant domestication and settled agriculture during the period between 8,900 and 2,000 BC has been divided into four phases: Naquitz, Jicaras, Blanca and Martinez, after three of the four sites that provided evidence. In the Naquitz phase (8,900-6,700 BC) within the Paleo- Indian period, evidence from Guil&amp;aacute; Naquitz cave has been found for domestication of local plants including gourds, squash, beans and corn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jicaras phase (5,000-4,000 BC) is related to evidence from Gheo Shih site, an open encampment, which seems to have seen seasonal and temporary use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Blanca phases (3,300-2,800 BC) relates to finds of projectiles from the Cueva Blanca cave linked to more permanent settlements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gradual shift from social groups based primarily on hunting to ones that were primarily based on settled agriculture took place in multiple areas at the same time across the Mesoamerican region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated property at the time it was excavated produced some of the earliest examples of domesticated plants. Although the evidence is acknowledged as being fragmentary, it is seen to outline this complex process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 40 years since some of the caves on the property were investigated, further research at the Rio Balsas lowlands in south-west Mexico has revealed extensive evidence for the sequence from hunter-gathers gathering a variety of teosinte, the wild ancestor of maize, (7,000 BC), to its domestication and dispersal into the highlands of Oaxaca and other areas. One material difference between the two areas is that the evidence in Rio Balsas for the domestication of corn was based on seed evidence, whereas what was found in Oaxaca was a corn cob. However the seed evidence is much earlier than the corn cob.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Yagul reflects one of a series of small citystates that emerged following the decline of the urban State of Monte Alban (remains inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1987) with its smaller satellite societies across the Valley, such as at the settlement at Caballito Blanco, a network of sites spaced at approximately 5km intervals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Yagul site was explored from 1954-61.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the 16th century Spanish conquest in Oaxaca, land use moved away from the indigenous systems. The village governors were able to retain their lands and did not resist the invasion. Hern&amp;aacute;n Cort&amp;eacute;s, who was named the first marquis of the Valley, protected it from the huge changes endured in the Mexico Valley. Few Spaniards were at that stage interested in land acquisition however, by 17th century, large haciendas and labors (small farms with employed labour) had appeared, providing local markets with animal products and grains. Close to Yagul stand the remains of the Soriano hacienda including a decorated chapel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 20th century, major land and agrarian reforms occurred in Mexico. The community of the Union Zapata in the Valley is an example. It emerged in the 1930s as an ejido, with the former ranch, after considerable struggle, divided among 20 families of landless peons. There was not enough land for the community, it was minimally productive and issues arose over the common land 'the Fortress' with the Mitla community. Resentments continue between the landowners.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1352</http_url><id_number>1352</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1352.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.9508333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>-96.4211111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property lies on the northern slopes of the Tlacolula valley in subtropical central Oaxaca and consists of two pre-Hispanic archaeological complexes and a series of pre-historic caves and rock shelters. Some of these shelters provide archaeological and rock-art evidence for the progress of nomadic hunter-gathers to incipient farmers. Ten thousand-year-old Cucurbitaceae seeds in one cave, Guil&amp;aacute; Naquitz, are considered to be the earliest known evidence of domesticated plants in the continent, while corn cob fragments from the same cave are said to be the earliest documented evidence for the domestication of maize. The cultural landscape of the Prehistoric Caves of Yagul and Mitla demonstrates the link between man and nature that gave origin to the domestication of plants in North America, thus allowing the rise of Mesoamerican civilizations.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Prehistoric Caves of Yagul and Mitla in the Central Valley of Oaxaca</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1693</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1410</http_url><id_number>1410</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1410.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.0000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-113.9166666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 714,566 hectare site comprises two distinct parts: the dormant volcanic Pinacate Shield of black and red lava flows and desert pavements to the east, and, in the west, the Gran Altar Desert with its ever changing and varied sand dunes that can reach a height of 200 metres. This landscape of dramatic contrast notably features linear, star and dome dunes as well as several arid granite massifs, some as high as 650 metres. The dunes emerge like islands from the sea of sand and harbour distinct and highly diverse plant and wildlife communities, including endemic freshwater fish species and the endemic Sonoran Pronghorn, which is only to be found in northwestern Sonora and in southwestern Arizona (USA). Ten enormous, deep and almost perfectly circular craters, believed to have been formed by a combination of eruptions and collapses, also contribute to the dramatic beauty of the site whose exceptional combination of features are of great scientific interest. The site is also a &lt;a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/man-and-biosphere-programme/"&gt;UNESCO Biosphere Reserve&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>El Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1858</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1182</http_url><id_number>1182</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1182.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix): &lt;/em&gt;The property ranks higher than other marine and insular World Heritage properties as it represents a unique example in which, in a very short distance, there are simultaneously “bridge islands” (populated by land in ocean level decline during glaciations) and oceanic islands (populated by sea and air). Moreover, almost all major oceanographic processes occurring in the planet’s oceans are present in the property, giving it extraordinary importance for the study of marine and coastal processes. These processes are indeed supporting the high marine productivity and biodiversity richness that characterize the Gulf of California.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii): &lt;/em&gt;The serial property is of striking natural beauty and provides a dramatic setting due to the rugged forms of the islands, with high cliffs and sandy beaches contrasting with the brilliant reflection from the desert and the surrounding turquoise waters. The diversity of forms and colours is complemented by a wealth of birds and marine life. The diversity and abundance of marine life associated to spectacular submarine forms and high water transparency makes the property a diver’s paradise.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x): &lt;/em&gt;The diversity of terrestrial and marine life is extraordinary and constitutes a unique ecoregion of high priority for biodiversity conservation. The number of species of vascular plants (695) present in this serial property is higher than that reported in other marine and insular properties included in the WH List. The number of species of fish (891) is also highest when compared to a number of marine and insular properties. In addition the marine endemism is important, with 90 endemic fishes. The serial property contains 39% of the world’s total number of marine mammal’s species and a third of the world’s total number of marine cetacean’s species. In addition the serial property includes a good sample of the Sonora desert ecosystems, considered one of the richest deserts in the world from the desert biodiversity point of view.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>27.6266700000</latitude><location>States of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, and Nayarit</location><longitude>-112.5458300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site comprises 244 islands, islets and coastal areas located in the Gulf of California in north-eastern Mexico. The Sea of Cortez and its islands have been called a natural laboratory for the investigation of speciation. Moreover, almost all major oceanographic processes occurring in the planet's oceans are present in the property, giving it extraordinary importance for study. The site is one of striking natural beauty in a dramatic setting formed by rugged islands with high cliffs and sandy beaches, which contrast with the brilliant reflection from the desert and the surrounding turquoise waters. The site is home to 695 vascular plant species, more than in any marine and insular property on the World Heritage List. Equally exceptional is the number of fish species: 891, 90 of them endemic. The site, moreover, contains 39% of the world's total number of species of marine mammals and a third of the world's marine cetacean species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property ranks higher than other marine and insular World Heritage sites as it represents a unique example in which, in a very short distance, there are simultaneously 'bridge islands' (populated by land in ocean level decline during glaciations) and oceanic islands (populated by sea and air). Moreover, almost all major oceanographic processes are present, of extraordinary importance for the study of marine and coastal processes. These processes are indeed supporting the high marine productivity and biodiversity richness that characterize the Gulf of California. The diversity and abundance of marine life associated with spectacular submarine forms and high water transparency makes this a diver's paradise.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site comprises 244 islands, islets and coastal areas that are located in the Gulf of California in north-eastern Mexico. The Sea of Cortez and its islands have been called a natural laboratory for the investigation of speciation. Moreover, almost all major oceanographic processes occurring in the planet’s oceans are present in the property, giving it extraordinary importance for study. The site is one of striking natural beauty in a dramatic setting formed by rugged islands with high cliffs and sandy beaches, which contrast with the brilliant reflection from the desert and the surrounding turquoise waters. It is home to 695 vascular plant species, more than in any marine and insular property on the World Heritage List. Equally exceptional is the number of fish species: 891, 90 of them endemic. The site, moreover, contains 39% of the world’s total number of species of marine mammals and a third of the world’s marine cetacean species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1873</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1061</http_url><id_number>1061</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1061.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.0530277778</latitude><location></location><longitude>-89.7372833333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2014</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is located in the central/southern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula, in southern Mexico and includes the remains of the important Maya city Calakmul, set deep in the tropical forest of the Tierras Bajas. The city played a key role in the history of this region for more than twelve centuries and is characterized by well-preserved structures providing a vivid picture of life in an ancient Maya capital. The property also falls within the Mesoamerica biodiversity hotspot, the third largest in the world, encompassing all subtropical and tropical ecosystems from central Mexico to the Panama Canal.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient Maya City and Protected Tropical Forests of Calakmul, Campeche</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1963</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1463</http_url><id_number>1463</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1463.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.8352777778</latitude><location>N19 50 07 W98 39 45.24</location><longitude>-98.6625666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century aqueduct is located between the states of Mexico and Hidalgo, on the Central Mexican Plateau. This heritage canal system encompasses a water catchment area, springs, canals, distribution tanks and arcaded aqueduct bridges. The site incorporates the highest single-level arcade ever built in an aqueduct. Initiated by the Franciscan friar, Padre Tembleque, and built with support from the local indigenous communities, this hydraulic system is an example of the exchange of influences between the European tradition of Roman hydraulics and traditional Mesoamerican construction techniques, including the use of adobe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aqueduct of Padre Tembleque Hydraulic System</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2024</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1510</http_url><id_number>1510</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1510.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.7880555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>-110.9752777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the eastern Pacific Ocean, this archipelago is made up of four remote islands and their surrounding waters: San Benedicto, Socorro, Roca Partida and Clarión. This archipelago is part of a submerged mountain range, with the four islands representing the peaks of volcanoes emerging above sea level. The islands provide critical habitat for a range of wildlife and are of particular importance for seabirds. The surrounding waters have a remarkable abundance of large pelagic species, such as manta rays, whales, dolphins and sharks. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archipiélago de Revillagigedo</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2102</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1534</http_url><id_number>1534</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1534.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mx</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.9899611111</latitude><location></location><longitude>-97.1871527778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, part of the Mesoamerican region, is the arid or semi-arid zone with the richest biodiversity in all of North America. Consisting of three components, Zapotitlán-Cuicatlán, San Juan Raya and Purrón, it is one of the main centres of diversification for the cacti family, which is critically endangered worldwide. The valley harbours the densest forests of columnar cacti in the world, shaping a unique landscape that also includes agaves, yuccas and oaks. Archaeological remains demonstrate technological developments and the early domestication of crops. The valley presents an exceptional water management system of canals, wells, aqueducts and dams, the oldest in the continent, which has allowed for the emergence of agricultural settlements.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley: originary habitat of Mesoamerica</site><states>Mexico</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2287</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1503</http_url><id_number>1503</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1503.jpg</image_url><iso_code>fm</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>6.8397222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>158.3308333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Nan Madol is a series of more than 100 islets off the south-east coast of Pohnpei that were constructed with walls of basalt and coral boulders. These islets harbour the remains of stone palaces, temples, tombs and residential domains built between 1200 and 1500 CE. These ruins represent the ceremonial centre of the Saudeleur dynasty, a vibrant period in Pacific Island culture. The huge scale of the edifices, their technical sophistication and the concentration of megalithic structures bear testimony to complex social and religious practices of the island societies of the period. The site was also inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to threats, notably the siltation of waterways that is contributing to the unchecked growth of mangroves and undermining existing edifices.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Nan Madol: Ceremonial Centre of Eastern Micronesia</site><states>Micronesia (Federated States of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2093</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Modern Mongolia comprises only about half of the vast Inner Asian region known throughout history as Mongolia. It is also only a fraction of the great Chinggis Khan's Mongul Empire, which in the 13th and 14th centuries stretched from Korea to Hungary, covering nearly all of Asia except the Indian sub-continent and parts of southeast Asia. It was the largest contiguous land empire the world has known. Many people from societies conquered by the Mongols have written about them - much unfavourable. On the other hand Mongol sources emphasise the almost god-like military genius of Chinggis Khan whose success rested not just on military skill but also on increasingly sophisticated administrative systems. The empire's success - over nearly two centuries - also depended on the absorption and employment of Chinese, Iranian, Russians and others. Mongolia and its people have thus had a significant and lasting impact on the historical development of major nations such as China and Russia, and periodically influenced the entire Eurasian continent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until the mid 20th century most of the people who inhabited Mongolia were nomads. The Mongols were one of several distinct nomadic peoples living in Mongolia who over the past two millennia have engaged in constantly shifting alliances, with centralised states such as the Huns, Syanbi, Jujuan, Turkic and Uighur Empires emerging from time to time between the 3rd century BC and the 9th century AD. Over the centuries, some nomadic peoples moved west to establish the Hun Empire in Europe while others moved into Iran, India and China.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For two centuries, the establishment of Chinggis Khan's Empire, with its centralised control, interrupted this pattern and put in place sophisticated military and political systems, which exceeded in skill and efficiency most others of the time. Under Chinggis and his successors, the Moguls conquered most of Eurasia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 16th century with the waning of the empire, Mongolia once again became a land of warring factions. From the late 17th to the early 20th centuries, Mongolia was a major focus of Russian and Manchu-Chinese rivalry, leading eventually to the fragmentation of Mongolia, with Inner Mongolia (the south part of Mongolia) being absorbed by the Chinese and with increasing Russian interest in Outer Mongolia. Russia's predominance in Outer Mongolia was unquestioned by 1921 and in 1924 the Mongolian People's Republic was established - under the control of Moscow. Mongolia became an independent State in 1946.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today more Mongolians - around 3.5 million - live in Inner Mongolia, China, than in the Mongolian People's Republic, which has a population of 2.7 million.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1081</http_url><id_number>1081</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1081.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Orkhon valley clearly demonstrates how a strong and persistent nomadic culture, led to the development of extensive trade networks and the creation of large administrative, commercial, military and religious centres. The empires that these urban centres supported undoubtedly influenced societies across Asia and into Europe and in turn absorbed influence from both east and west in a true interchange of human values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; Underpinning all the development within the Orkhon valley for the past two millennia has been a strong culture of nomadic pastoralism. This culture is still a revered and indeed central part of Mongolian society and is highly respected as a &amp;lsquo;noble&amp;rsquo; way to live in harmony with the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Orkhon valley is an outstanding example of a valley that illustrates several significant stages in human history. First and foremost it was the centre of the Mongolian Empire; secondly it reflects a particular Mongolian variation of Turkish power; thirdly, the Tuvkhun hermitage monastery was the setting for the development of a Mongolian form of Buddhism; and fourthly, Khar Balgas, reflects the Uighur urban culture in the capital of the Uighur Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.5566666700</latitude><location>Orkhon-Kharkorin Region</location><longitude>102.8313889000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Orkhon Valley clearly demonstrates how a strong and persistent nomadic culture led to the development of extensive trade networks and the creation of large administrative, commercial, military and religious centres. The empires undoubtedly influenced societies across Asia and into Europe and in turn absorbed influence from both east and west in a true interchange of human values. This culture is still a revered and indeed central part of Mongolian society and is highly respected as a 'noble' way to live in harmony with the landscape. The valley itself is an exceptional illustration of several significant stages in human history, reflecting its role as the centre of the Mongolian Empire, a special Mongolian variation of Turkish power, the Tuvkhun hermitage monastery as the setting for the development of a Mongolian form of Buddhism, and Khar Balgas as the capital of the Uighur Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This cultural landscape is in central Mongolia, some 360&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Ulan Bator, the capital, along the Orkhon River, which flows north, draining into Lake Baikal across the border in Russia. Over 90% of Mongolia's huge land area is high-level pasture or desert wasteland, at an average altitude of around 1,500&amp;nbsp;m. Water is at a premium and the river valleys have therefore assumed great importance, becoming the focus for settlements of various kinds. In Mongolia, nomadic pastoralism, the grazing of horses, sheep, goats, cows and camels, is perceived as much more than the objective technical demands of pastoral life: it is revered and glorified as the heart of Mongolian culture. In turn Mongolian nomadic culture is part of a much wider distinctive nomadic pastoral culture, embracing many other people besides the Mongols and extending across central Asia. Over at least the past two millennia these nomadic cultures, through economic, political and cultural links, have made an immense impact on the sedentary cultures with which they interacted across Asia and into Europe. Nomadic pastoralists spent their lives moving their herds from one pasture to another, sometimes covering vast distances each year. They operated and moved across their territory within strictly regulated and controlled ways, linked to the specific designation and use of grazing grounds and to territorial rights and social units. Underpinning this movement were fixed points, which could be cities, providing centres of government, crafts, trade and commerce, or religious sites, such as temples and funerary areas. The density of such fixed points varied enormously across the vast Eurasian steppes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape is one of the key areas in Mongolia where the links between nomadic pastoralism and the associated settlements can be see most clearly, where there is a high density of remains, and where above all these remains are of national and international importance. Orkhon Valley was at the centre of traffic across the Asian steppes and became the capital of first the Uighur Empire and then the Mongol Empire, which described itself as 'the greatest empire the world has ever known'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The broad, shallow river valley provides water and shelter, key requisites for its role as a staging post on the ancient trade routes across the steppes, such as those now known as the Silk Road, and for its development as the centre of two of the vast Central Asian empires.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main monuments are open to the public. They include the Turkish Memorials of Khosho Tsaidam; the ruins of Khar Balgas City and Kharkhorum City; Erdene Zuu Monastery; Tuvkhun Hermitage Monastery; Shankh Western Monastery; the Palace at Doit Hill; the ancient towns of Talyn Dorvoljin, Har Bondgor and Bayangol Am; many deer stones and ancient graves; the sacred mountains of Hangai Ovoo and Undor Sant; and the long tradition of nomadic pastoralism.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 121,967-ha Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape encompasses an extensive area of pastureland on both banks of the Orkhon River and includes numerous archaeological remains dating back to the 6th century. The site also includes Kharkhorum, the 13th- and 14th-century capital of Chingis (Genghis) Khan&amp;rsquo;s vast Empire. Collectively the remains in the site reflect the symbiotic links between nomadic, pastoral societies and their administrative and religious centres, and the importance of the Orkhon valley in the history of central Asia. The grassland is still grazed by Mongolian nomadic pastoralists.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape</site><states>Mongolia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1259</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1382</http_url><id_number>1382</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1382.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.3338888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>88.3952777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The numerous rock carvings and funerary monuments found in these three sites illustrate the development of culture in Mongolia over a period of 12,000 years. The earliest images reflect a time (11,000 - 6,000 BC) when the area was partly forested and the valley provided a habitat for hunters of large game. Later images show the transition to herding as the dominant way of life. The most recent images show the transition to a horse-dependent nomadic lifestyle during the early 1st millennium BC, the Scythian period and the later Turkic period (7th and 8th centuries AD). The carvings contribute valuably to our understanding of pre-historic communities in northern Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Petroglyphic Complexes of the Mongolian Altai</site><states>Mongolia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1773</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1440</http_url><id_number>1440</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1440.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.7619777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>109.0093277778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is situated in the north-east of the country in the central part of the Khentii mountain chain where the vast Central Asian steppe meets the coniferous forests of the Siberian taiga. Burkhan Khaldun is associated with the worship of sacred mountains, rivers and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;ovoo-s&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt; (shamanic rock cairns), in which ceremonies have been shaped by a fusion of ancient shamanic and Buddhist practices. The site is also believed to be the place of Genghis Khan’s birth and burial. It testifies to his efforts to establish mountain worship as an important part of the unification of the Mongol people.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and its surrounding sacred landscape</site><states>Mongolia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2018</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;192 as a national park (Sluzbeni list Nar. Rep. Crne Gore &amp;quot;No. 14/1952). Accepted as a World Heritage site in 1980.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/100</http_url><id_number>100</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_100.jpg</image_url><iso_code>me</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.1330000000</latitude><location>Republic of Montenegro</location><longitude>19.0166000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Durmitor National Park comprises Mount Durmitor plateau and the valley formed by the canyon of the River Tara, incorporating three major geomorphologic features: canyons, mountains and plateaux. Because of its geographical location and range in altitude, the park is under the influence of both Mediterranean and alpine microclimates, which has resulted in an exceptional range of species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Geologically, Durmitor and Tara canyons are made up of rocky massifs of the Mesozoic era (from the Lower Triassic to the Upper Cretaceous), Tertiary and Quaternary periods. The dominant features are the limestone formations of the Middle and Upper Triassic, the Upper Jurassic and the Upper Cretaceous, especially the so-called Durmitorean flysch. The River Tara, one of the last wild rivers in Europe, has pure, clear waters, a gorge 1,300&amp;nbsp;m deep and notable floristic and faunistic diversity. The 16 glacial lakes of the Durmitor and the canyons of the Tara, Susica and Draga rivers were formed during the Quaternary period, following the sudden thaw of the snow and the formation of glaciers on the Durmitor and neighbouring mountains. The waters of the largest lake, Black Lake, feed two separate river basins: the River Tara, and underground through the Durmitor Massif, the River Komarnica or Piva. There are numerous examples of weathering processes, rock shapes and land features characteristic of karstic erosion, fluvial erosion and glacial erosion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation zones include deciduous forest, coniferous forest and subalpine zones. The dominant species include Scots pine, Norway pine, silver fir, beech, occasional birch, mugo pine and juniper. The park supports a rich karstic flora with many rare and endemic species. There are 37 taxa endemic to the area and six specific to Durmitor. The park contains one of the last virgin black pine forests in Europe, on soils that would usually develop beech woodland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tara and its tributaries, as well as the lakes, contain a large number of salmonidae. Forest fauna includes brown bear, wolf, wild boar, wild cat, chamois, various species of eagle, capercaillie, black grouse and rock partridge.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This breathtaking national park was formed by glaciers and is traversed by rivers and underground streams. Along the Tara river canyon, which has the deepest gorges in Europe, the dense pine forests are interspersed with clear lakes and harbour a wide range of endemic flora.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Durmitor National Park</site><states>Montenegro</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>109</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1979-2003</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/125</http_url><id_number>125</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_125.jpg</image_url><iso_code>me</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.4833300000</latitude><location>Boka Kotorska (Bay of Kotor), City of Kotor and surrounding territory, Republic of Montenegro</location><longitude>18.7000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The culturo-historical region of Kotor has exerted considerable influence, over a span of time and within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture and human settlement. Kotor and its neighbours were main bridgeheads of Venice on the southern Adriatic coast. Its art, goldsmithing and architecture schools had a profound and durable influence on the arts of the coast. It is among the most characteristic examples of a type of structure representing important cultural, social and artistic values. It is considered to possess outstanding universal value by the quality of its architecture, the successful integration of its cities to the Gulf of Kotor and by its unique testimony to the exceptionally important role that it played in the diffusion of Mediterranean culture in the Balkan lands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded by the Romans on the Adriatic coast in Montenegro, Kotor developed in the Middle Ages into an important commercial and artistic centre with its own famous schools of masonry and iconography. Throughout the centuries, many empires battled for control of the city. In the 10th century, it was an autonomous city of the Byzantine Empire. From 1186 to 1371, it was a free city of medieval Serbia. It was under Venetian and Hungarian control for brief periods, an independent republic from 1395 to 1420, and then returned to Venetian control once again. French occupation from 1807 to 1914 was followed by Austrian rule until 1918, when Kotor finally became part of Yugoslavia. Throughout its turbulent history, a variety of buildings have been erected. The largest and most impressive of these is the St Tryphon Cathedral. The original church was constructed in the 8th century, according to the annals of the Byzantine Emperor. A new church, built in 1166, was subsequently damaged during the 1667 earthquake and then restored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The limits of the World Heritage site coincide approximately with the crests of the natural sinkhole formation. At both ends, the site is bordered by the national parks of Orten and Lovcen, making a vast protected natural area. The Gulf of Tivat (formerly part of the approaches to Kotor) is omitted because of the authenticity of its settlements, which has been downgraded by recent industrialization (shipyards, harbour equipment).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of Kotor's palaces and houses, many Romanesque churches, all of Dobrota's palaces, and Perast's main buildings have all suffered from earthquakes, and some have been partly destroyed. The city was evacuated by all its inhabitants after the most recent, on 15 April 1979. An intensive restoration and reconstruction programme has now been completed and the city is flourishing again.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the Middle Ages, this natural harbour on the Adriatic coast in Montenegro was an important artistic and commercial centre with its own famous schools of masonry and iconography. A large number of the monuments (including four Romanesque churches and the town walls) were seriously damaged by the 1979 earthquake but the town has been restored, largely with UNESCO’s help.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor</site><states>Montenegro</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2122</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170</http_url><id_number>170</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_170.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.0611100000</latitude><location>City of Fez</location><longitude>-4.9777800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Holy City of Fez, a jewel of Spanish-Arabic civilization, is an outstanding and well-preserved example of an ancient capital of the Almoravids and the Almohads in the North African context, despite the destruction of the city and the transfer of the capital to Rabat. The Medina of Fez in its old, densely packed monuments - &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;fondouks&lt;/em&gt;, palaces, residences, mosques and fountains - is the memory of the capital founded in year 192 of the Hegira (808) by Idriss II.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient city, home to the oldest university in the world, is composed of two distinct centres. One is the quarter of the Andalous, a population that fled from the Umayyad masters of Cordoba and who came to settle definitively on the right bank of the Fez. The other is the quarter of the Quarawiyyia, a people emigrated from Kairouan in the 11th century who chose the left bank of the river to develop their activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the destruction of a considerable part of the city by the Almoravids, the dynasty that took power in the 11th century, the two quarters grouped around two major monuments, the Jama el Andalous (the Mosque of the Andalusians) and the mosque of El Karaouiyne, have preserved their identities intact in the old city of Fez el Bali.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century, after the Merinid conquest, when the city found itself constrained within its walls, a new city, Fez el Jedid, was founded directly to the west, in ah 674 by the sultan Abou Youssouf. It replaced Marrakesh as the capital of the kingdom. In the 14th century a Jewish quarter, the Mellah, was joined to the newly founded city. The urban fabric and the principal monuments in the Medina date from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since then, the twin cities have led a symbiotic existence without losing their own character. Fez is at once an astonishing city-museum and one of the largest Islamic metropolises in which the various demographic strata have determined the greatest variety of architectural forms and urban landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Having been deserted since 1912 to the advantage of the modern city, the political capital of Morocco was transferred to Rabat, but Fez has retained its status as the country's cultural and spiritual centre.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 9th century and home to the oldest university in the world, Fez reached its height in the 13th&amp;ndash;14th centuries under the Marinids, when it replaced Marrakesh as the capital of the kingdom. The urban fabric and the principal monuments in the medina &amp;ndash; &lt;em&gt;madrasas, fondouks&lt;/em&gt;, palaces, residences, mosques and fountains - date from this period. Although the political capital of Morocco was transferred to Rabat in 1912, Fez has retained its status as the country's cultural and spiritual centre.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medina of Fez</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>188</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/331</http_url><id_number>331</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_331.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.6313900000</latitude><location>Province of Marrakesh</location><longitude>-7.9866700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The capital of the Almoravids and the Almohads played a decisive role in the development of medieval planning. Marrakesh (which gave its name to the Moroccan Empire) is the textbook example of a large Islamic capital in the Western world. With its maze of narrow streets, houses, souks (markets), traditional crafts and trade activities, and its medina, this ancient settlement is an outstanding example of a vibrant historic city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Marrakesh was founded in 1071-72 by Youssef ben Tachfin on the site of the camp where Abou Bekr had left him in charge. From that point forward, Marrakesh was no longer an occasional stopping place for the Almoravids. It became the true capital of these conquering nomads who succeeded in stretching their empire from the Sahara to the Ebro and from the Atlantic to Kabylia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original layout of the medina dates back to the Almoravid period from which there still remain various monumental vestiges (ruins of the so-called Abou Bekr Kasbah, Youssef ben Tachfin Mosque and Ali ben Youssef Palace, not far from the Koutoubia, the pool and the 'Koubba' of Ali ben Youssef Mosque which were discovered in 1955, Bab Aylan gate, etc.). In essence it is an adaptation of the older urban model of Marrakesh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The walls of the medina were built in 1126-27 following the order given by Ali ben Youssef. The planting of the palm groves, which at the present still cover a surface area of roughly 13,000&amp;nbsp;ha to the east of the city, has also been credited to the Almoravids. When in 1147 this dynasty bowed to the attacks of the Almohads led by Abdel Mou'men, the task of purification that was carried out did not spare the monuments which, for the most part, were destroyed by the victors. Nevertheless Marrakesh remained the capital. Under the Almohad rulers (1147-1269), Marrakesh experienced new and unprecedented prosperity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1147 and 1158, Abd el Mou'men had the Koutoubia Mosque built upon the ruins of the Almoravid foundations. Its incomparable minaret, key monument of Muslim architecture, is one of the major features of the cityscape and is the actual symbol of the city. The ruler's successors, Abou Yacoub Youssef and especially Yacoub el Mansour, were the ones who truly renovated the capital. They built new quarters, extended the city wall, fortified the Kasbah (1185-90) which was a prolongation of the city to the south with its own ramparts and gates (Bab Agnaou, Bab Robb), its mosque, palace, market, hospital, parade-ground and gardens. These leaders strengthened their control over their domains by planting crops (Menara to the west) and by civil engineering achievements, the best known of which are the Tensift Bridge and the &lt;em&gt;kettara&lt;/em&gt; network in the palm groves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decline of Marrakesh, which began during the conquest of the city by the Merinids in 1269, never went beyond the point of no return, as is illustrated by a number of non-negligible constructions (Ben Salih Mosque and minaret, not long after 1321). The rebirth of the capital under the Saadian rulers (1510-1669) led to a new blossoming of the arts, as borne out by the ruins of the El Badi Palace and the Saadian tombs, whose precious architecture is isolated from the rest of the Kasbah by a wall. Some of the elements making up these refined and sumptuous constructions came from afar, such as the marble columns from Carrara which Montaigne observed being cut in Tuscany 'for the king of Morocco in Berberia'. Also dating back to the Saadian period is the restoration of the Ben Youssef Madrasa and the building of several fountains decorated with gypsum work and woodwork (Mouassine, Chrob ou Chouf and Bab Doukkala Fountains).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the reign of the Alawite dynasty, Marrakesh, the temporary capital, was graced with a new mosque, &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt;, palaces and residences harmoniously integrated into the homogeneous unit of the old town, which was surrounded by 10&amp;nbsp;km of clay and lime and beaten-cob ramparts. Beyond the walls were the great traditional areas of greenery: the palm groves, the Menara and, to the south, the Agdal gardens that were redesigned by Moulay Abd er Rahman (1822-59).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1070–72 by the Almoravids, Marrakesh remained a political, economic and cultural centre for a long period. Its influence was felt throughout the western Muslim world, from North Africa to Andalusia. It has several impressive monuments dating from that period: the Koutoubiya Mosque, the Kasbah, the battlements, monumental doors, gardens, etc. Later architectural jewels include the Bandiâ Palace, the Ben Youssef &lt;em&gt;Madrasa&lt;/em&gt;, the Saadian Tombs, several great residences and Place Jamaâ El Fna, a veritable open-air theatre.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medina of Marrakesh</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>376</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/444</http_url><id_number>444</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_444.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.0472200000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-7.1288900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A&amp;iuml;t-Ben-Haddou is an outstanding example of a southern Moroccan&lt;em&gt; ksar&lt;/em&gt; illustrating the main types of construction to be observed in the valleys of Dra, Todgha, Dades and Sous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earthen constructions of southern Morocco are rightly celebrated, for they represent a particular family of pre-Saharan architecture, which is common to all countries of the Great Maghreb, Mauritania and Libya. It is not certain that the introduction of these striking constructions dates back to Islamization and to the foundation of Sijilmassa in 757, but it is probable (although the oldest testimonies do not appear to be from before the 17th century) that their structure and technique were propagated from a very early time in Djebel and in the valleys of the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The typology of this traditional habitat is extremely diversified. Large houses, called &lt;em&gt;tighremt&lt;/em&gt; in Berber and &lt;em&gt;dar&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;kasba&lt;/em&gt; in Arabic, bring together, around a central rectangular courtyard, four tall fortified wings, topped by angle towers. In some cases they allow entrance to lower connected houses situated around a second courtyard which has an enceinte.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;kasba&lt;/em&gt; of southern Morocco is the family unit of the wealthy classes and has varied forms and multiple functions. For the most part, they are country houses; the ground floor is used for agricultural purposes and the upper floors serve as living quarters in winter (upper portion) and summer (lower portion). Adjoining houses are reserved for agricultural workers, as in the Skura Oasis. The &lt;em&gt;kasba&lt;/em&gt; can, however, also be a veritable palace-fortress, the seat of local power, as in the ancient region of Glaua, in Taurirt and in Teluet. It then takes on the dimensions of a small village.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In contrast to the &lt;em&gt;kasba&lt;/em&gt;, the family unit is the ksar (plural &lt;em&gt;ksour&lt;/em&gt;), which is mainly a collective grouping. Inside the defensive walls, which are reinforced by angle towers each with a zigzag-shaped gate, houses crowd together. Some are modest, others resemble small urban castles with their high angle towers whose upper portion presents decorative motifs in clay brick. But there are also buildings and community areas: collective sheep pens and stables, lofts and silos, market place, meeting room for the assembly of family chiefs, mosque, &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt;, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ait-Ben-Haddou is an extraordinary ensemble of buildings offering a complete panorama of pre-Saharan construction techniques (ramming mass worked into panel brick and bull header, ordinary moulded earth, clay brick, etc.) as well as a striking miniature of the architectural typology of southern Morocco. An astonishing loft-fortress overlooks the mountain against which the &lt;em&gt;ksar&lt;/em&gt; is located. The lofts (&lt;em&gt;agadir&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;ighram&lt;/em&gt;) are not uncommon in Morocco, but their defensive character is not always as evident as in the present case by the choice of a site on high and a fortification system linking the loft with the village, conceived as the last bastion of resistance in the event of a siege.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;ksar&lt;/em&gt;, a group of earthen buildings surrounded by high walls, is a traditional pre-Saharan habitat. The houses crowd together within the defensive walls, which are reinforced by corner towers. Ait-Ben-Haddou, in Ouarzazate province, is a striking example of the architecture of southern Morocco.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ksar of Ait-Ben-Haddou</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>515</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have shown that the site of Essaouira was originally a Phoenician trading settlement; they were followed by Cretans, Greeks, and Romans. The earlier name of Mogador derives from Migdol, meaning a small fort. In 1506 it was to become the site of a Portuguese fortress, but this was abandoned soon after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present town dates from 1765, when the Alaouite Sultan Sidi Mohamed ben Abdellah decided to build a port that would open Morocco up to the outside world and assist in developing commercial relations with Europe. He sought the help of Nicholas Th&amp;eacute;odore Cornut, a surveyor specialist in military fortifications from Avignon, who was strongly influenced by Vauban's defences at Saint-Malo. He partially dismantled the Portuguese fortress to build an esplanade with a row of cannons, known as the Sqala. He laid out a checkerboard plan for the town with forts of Roussillon type, in the European tradition. The entire town was enclosed by a defensive wall on the Vauban model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of this Sultan, Mogador assumed a major commercial and fiscal role. In order to control maritime trade, he closed the southern coast to European traders, obliging the European consuls at Safi, Agadir, and Rabat to move to Mogador, where all southern mercantile activities were concentrated. The new port became one of the country's main commercial centres; it was called &amp;quot;the port of Timbuktu,&amp;quot; since it was the destination of caravans bringing a variety of products (including slaves) from black Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was made up of three separate districts. The Kasbah comprised the old administrative district. The Medina was built between the 18th century and the early 20th century. It was crossed by two main axial streets, one running from Bab Doukalla to the harbour and the other from Bab Marrakech to the sea. At their intersection, known as Souk Jdid, there were four markets, for fish, spices, grain, and general goods respectively. Each of the districts bears the name of one of the tribes that were involved in the building of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mellah is the Jewish quarter; it played a very important role in the history of the town, since the Sultan made use of this community to establish relations with Europe and to organize commercial activities with them. They were given the title of Toujjar Es-Sultan (Royal Merchants), giving them considerable economic and political privileges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/753</http_url><id_number>753</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_753.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion ii Essaouira is an outstanding and well preserved example of a late 18th century European fortified seaport town translated to a North African context. Criterion iv With the opening up of Morocco to the rest of the world in the later 17th century Essaouira was laid out by a French architect who had been profoundly influenced by the work of Vauban at Saint-Malo. It has retained its European appearance to a substantial extent.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>31.5141111111</latitude><location>Province of Essaouira, Tensift Region</location><longitude>-9.7703055556</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Essaouira is an outstanding and well-preserved example of a late 18th-century European fortified seaport town translated to a North African context. With the opening up of Morocco to the rest of the world in the later 17th century, the town was laid out by a French architect who had been profoundly influenced by the work of Vauban at Saint-Malo. It has retained its European appearance to a substantial extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since its foundation in the 18th century and until the beginning of the 20th century, Essaouira has played a fundamental role as an international trading port between Morocco and the rest of the world. A number of consulates and traders from different countries were established there. Essaouira is a leading example of building inspired by European architecture, a town unique by virtue of its design: it was created in conformity with a predetermined plan, the Cornut plan. Since the beginning, the medina of Essaouira has been a major place for the peaceable coming together of the architectural and town-planning models of Europe and of Morocco itself. In this way a symbiosis was achieved between building techniques from Morocco and elsewhere that gave birth to some unique architectural masterpieces: the Sqalas of the port and of the medina, the Bab Marrakesh bastion, the water gate, mosques, synagogues, churches, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have shown that the site of Essaouira was originally a Phoenician trading settlement, followed by Cretans, Greeks and Romans. The earlier name of Mogador derives from Migdol, meaning a small fort. In 1506 it was to become the site of a Portuguese fortress, but this was abandoned soon after.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present town dates from 1765, when the Alawite Sultan Sidi Mohamed ben Abdellah decided to build a port that would open Morocco up to the outside world and assist in developing commercial relations with Europe. He sought the help of Nicholas Th&amp;eacute;odore Cornut, a surveyor specialist in military fortifications from Avignon, who was strongly influenced by Vauban's defences at Saint-Malo. He partially dismantled the Portuguese fortress to build an esplanade with a row of cannons. The entire town was enclosed by a defensive wall on the Vauban model. In order to control maritime trade, he closed the southern coast to European traders, obliging the European consuls at Safi, Agadir and Rabat to move to Mogador, where all southern mercantile activities were concentrated. The new port became one of the country's main commercial centres; it was called the 'port of Timbuktu' as it was the destination of caravans bringing a variety of products (including slaves) from black Africa. The town was made up of three separate districts. The &lt;em&gt;kasbah&lt;/em&gt; comprised the old administrative district. The medina was crossed by two main axial streets, one running from Bab Doukalla to the harbour and the other from Bab Marrakesh to the sea. At their intersection there were four markets, for fish, spices, grain and general goods respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mellah is the Jewish quarter; it played a very important role in the history of the town, as the sultan made use of this community to establish relations with Europe and to organize commercial activities with them. The main features of the town are: the ramparts, most of the northern section of which survives; the town gates, especially the ornamental Sea Gate (1170-71); the bastions and forts (&lt;em&gt;borjs&lt;/em&gt; ), especially the Sqala of the Port and the Sqala of the Medina and the Bastion of Bab Marrakesh; the &lt;em&gt;kasbah&lt;/em&gt; , which was originally the seat of power and the military garrison, and is now integrated into the town proper; the Mellah (Jewish quarter), which retains many of its original special features; the prison, located on the offshore island (now a refuge for rare birds, such as hawks); the many mosques, in a characteristic style, and especially the mosques of the Casbah and Ben Yossef; the synagogues (in particular the 19th-century synagogue of Simon Attias), which preserve the dynamism of the Jewish inhabitants; the late 18th-century Portuguese church; the Dar-Sultan (old Royal Palace); and the very attractive private houses.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Essaouira is an exceptional example of a late-18th-century fortified town, built according to the principles of contemporary European military architecture in a North African context. Since its foundation, it has been a major international trading seaport, linking Morocco and its Saharan hinterland with Europe and the rest of the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medina of Essaouira (formerly Mogador)</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>888</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The name of Meknes goes back to the Meknassa, the great Berber tribe that dominated eastern Morocco to as far as the Tafililet and which produced Moulay ldriss I, founder of the Moroccan state and the ldrissid dynasty in the 8th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Almoravid rulers (1053-1147) made a practice of building strongholds for storing food and arms for their troops; this was introduced by Youssef Ben Tachafine, the founder of Marrakech. Meknes was established in this period, at first bearing the name Tagrart (= garrison). The earliest part to be settled was around the Nejjarine mosque, an Almoravid foundation. Markets congregated around the mosque, specializing in firearms, woodwork, metal products, etc. Like other settlements of the time, Meknes was not fortified: walls were not added until the end of the Almoravid period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town fell into the hands of the Almohad dynasty (1147-1269) at the start of their rule: it was taken by an army led by the caliph Abdelmoumen in person. During this period it was enlarged and urbanized. An inscription states that the Great Mosque was enlarged during the reign of Mohamed Annacer (1199-1213). water from the Tagma spring was brought to the town to serve the various fountains, baths, and mosques. At that time there were four sets of baths (hammam), the location of which indicates how the town had spread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the subsequent Merinid period (1269-1374) Meknes absorbed the suburbs that had grown up round it. Refugees from the Moorish centres in Andalusia that fell to Christian forces also helped to swell the population, among them a significant Jewish community. Following Merinid practice, Abou Youssof (1269-86) built a kasoan (only the mosque of which survives) outside the old town, as well as the first of the three medersa (Islamic schools) with which the Merinid rulers endowed Meknes. Other public buildings from the Merinid period included mosques, hospitals, libraries, and fountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The founder of the Alaouite dynasty, Moulay lsmaTI (1672-1727), made Meknes his capital city and carried out many reconstructions and additions, such as mosques, mausolea, and gardens, but his main contribution was the creation of a new imperial city. Built in the Hispano-Moorish style, it is impressive in both extent and construction. lt is enclosed by high walls pierced by monumental gates. Within are the palace with its enormous stables, a military academy, vast granaries, and water storage cisterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/793</http_url><id_number>793</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_793.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the Historic City of Meknes under cultural criterion (iv) because it represents in an exceptionally complete and well preserved way the urban fabric and monumental buildings of a 17th century Maghreb capital city which combines elements of Islamic and European design and planning in a harmonious fashion.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>33.8833300000</latitude><location>region centre sud, Wilaya de Meknes</location><longitude>-5.5583300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic City of Meknes represents in an exceptionally complete and well-preserved way the urban fabric and monumental buildings of a 17th century Maghreb capital city combining elements of Islamic and European design and planning in a harmonious fashion. It has exerted a considerable influence on the development of civil and military architecture (&lt;em&gt;kasbah&lt;/em&gt; ) and works of art. It also contains the remains of the royal city founded by Sultan Moulay Ismail (1672-1727). The presence of these rare remains within a historic town that is in turn located within a rapidly changing urban environment gives Meknes its universal value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The name Meknes goes back to the Meknassa, the great Berber tribe that dominated eastern Morocco as far back as the Tafilliet and which produced Moulay Idriss I, founder of the Moroccan state and the Idrissid dynasty in the 8th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Almoravid rulers (1053-1147) made a practice of building strongholds for storing food and arms for their troops; this was introduced by Youssef Ben Tachafine, the founder of Marrakesh. Meknes was established in this period. The earliest part to be settled was around the Nejjarine Mosque, an Almoravid foundation. Markets congregated around the mosque, specializing in firearms, woodwork and metal products. Like other settlements of the time, Meknes was not fortified: walls were not added until the end of the Almoravid period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town fell into the hands of the Almohad dynasty (1147-1269) at the start of their rule: it was taken by an army led by the Caliph Abdelmoumen in person. During this period it was enlarged and urbanized. An inscription states that the Great Mosque was enlarged during the reign of Mohamed Annacer. Water from the Tagma spring was brought to the town to serve the various fountains, baths and mosques. At that time there were four sets of baths (&lt;em&gt;hammam&lt;/em&gt; ), the location of which indicates how the town had spread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the subsequent Merinid period (1269-1374), Meknes absorbed the suburbs that had grown up round it. Refugees from the Moorish centres in Andalusia that fell to Christian forces also helped to swell the population, among them a significant Jewish community. Following Merinid practice, Abou Youssof built a &lt;em&gt;kasbah&lt;/em&gt; (only the mosque of which survives) outside the old town, as well as the first of the three &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; (Islamic schools) with which the Merinid rulers endowed Meknes. Other public buildings from the Merinid period included mosques, hospitals, libraries and fountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The founder of the Alawite dynasty, Moulay Ismail (1672-1727), made Meknes his capital city and carried out many reconstructions and additions, such as mosques, mausolea and gardens, but his main contribution was the creation of a new imperial city. Built in the Hispano-Moorish style, it is impressive in both extent and construction. It is enclosed by high walls pierced by monumental gates. Within are the palace with its enormous stables, a military academy, vast granaries and water storage cisterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The high defensive walls of Meknes are pierced by the monumental gates: Bab Mansour Laalej, Bab Lakhmis, Bab Berdain, Bab Jdid, etc. Within there are many religious buildings, especially the many mosques from successive periods and the &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; . Some of the &lt;em&gt;fondouks&lt;/em&gt; (inns) that cluster around the gates were devoted to specific crafts or trades: for example, the Fondouk Hanna dealt solely in henna, while the Jewish craftsmen worked at the Fondouk Lihoudi. Certain quarters were reserved for specific trades and activities&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 11th century by the Almoravids as a military settlement, Meknes became a capital under Sultan Moulay Ismaïl (1672–1727), the founder of the Alawite dynasty. The sultan turned it into a impressive city in Spanish-Moorish style, surrounded by high walls with great doors, where the harmonious blending of the Islamic and European styles of the 17th century Maghreb are still evident today.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Meknes</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>937</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of the town ofTetouan are not known, but the discovery of archaeological sites from prehistory and the classical period (Phoenician, PunicoMauritanian, and Roman) in the immediate surroundings of the town attest the antiquity of the settlement of the Oued Martil valley in general and the site ofTetouan in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Islamic period the Tetouan region became very important as the only connection between the Iberian peninsula and the interior of Morocco. As a result, a number of towns grew up, such as Ceuta, Tangier, and Qsar es-Saghir. Tetouan is mentioned by a number of Arab writers ofthe 10th-12th centuries, but it did not assume an important role until after the fall of Ceuta and other centres on the coast to Spanish and Portuguese troops towards the end of the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A fortified garrison (qasba) had been installed at the site ofTetouan by Sultan Abu YusufYaqub al-Marini in 1286 to block Ceuta. The town grew up in the early 14th century, but was sacked and completely destroyed by Spanish forces a century later. It was rebuilt at the end of the 15th century by a group of refugees from Andalusia during the reign of Sultan Mohammed ach-Cheikh al-Wattassi. The late 15th century town was small, consisting of the present-day al-Balad quarter and a fortified qasba, built to the requirements of Abu al-Hassan Ali al-Mandri, military leader ofBanu al-Ahmar of Granada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second stage in its development came in the mid 16th century when the medina was extended to the south-west, the Rabat al-Asfal quarter. Finally, the arrival of the Moriscos (Spanish Muslims forcibly converted to Christianity and later expelled from Spain) from 1609 onwards led to a further expansion of the medina towards the north-west (Rabat al-Aala). This continued until the mid 18th century, when the fortifications were rebuilt, to give the medina its existing configuration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/837</http_url><id_number>837</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_837.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the Medina of T&amp;eacute;touan (formerly known as Titawin) on the basis of criteria (ii), (iv) and (v), considering that it is an exceptionally well preserved and complete example of this type of historic town, displaying all the features of the high Andalusian culture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>35.5708300000</latitude><location>Region Nord-Ouest, Wilaya de Tétouan, Province of Tétouan, Medina of Tétouan</location><longitude>-5.3666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Medina of T&amp;eacute;touan is an exceptionally well-preserved and complete example of this type of historic town, displaying all the features of high Andalusian culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of T&amp;eacute;touan are not known, but the discovery of archaeological sites from prehistory and the classical period (Phoenician, Punico-Mauritanian and Roman) in the immediate surroundings of the town attest to the antiquity of the settlement of the Oued Martil valley in general and the site of T&amp;eacute;touan in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Islamic period the T&amp;eacute;touan region became very important as the only connection between the Iberian Peninsula and the interior of Morocco. As a result, a number of towns grew up, such as Ceuta, Tangier and Qsar es-Saghir. T&amp;eacute;touan is mentioned by a number of Arab writers of the 10th-12th centuries, but it did not assume an important role until after the fall of Ceuta and other centres on the coast to Spanish and Portuguese troops towards the end of the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A fortified garrison (&lt;em&gt;kasbah&lt;/em&gt; ) had been installed at the site of T&amp;eacute;touan by Sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Marini in 1286 to block Ceuta. The town grew up in the early 14th century, but was sacked and completely destroyed by Spanish forces a century later. It was rebuilt at the end of the 15th century by a group of refugees from Andalusia during the reign of Sultan Mohammed ach-Cheikh al-Wattassi. The late 15th-century town was small, consisting of the present-day al-Balad quarter and a &lt;em&gt;kasbah&lt;/em&gt; , built to the requirements of Abu al-Hassan Ali al-Mandri, military leader of Banu al-Ahmar of Granada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second stage in its development came in the mid-16th century when the medina was extended to the south-west, the Rabat al-Asfal quarter. Finally, the arrival of the Moriscos (Spanish Muslims forcibly converted to Christianity and later expelled from Spain) from 1609 onwards led to a further expansion of the medina towards the north-west. This continued until the mid-18th century, when the fortifications were rebuilt, to give the medina its existing configuration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;T&amp;eacute;touan developed on the stepped slopes of the Jabal Dersa. It consists of two quadrilaterals of more or less equal size alongside each other, giving an overall outline of a figure-of-eight.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The defensive walls are about 5&amp;nbsp;km long, with a number of buttresses and defensive works on the exterior of the wall, such as the bastions of Bab al-Oqla and Bab en-Nwader on the north and the star-shaped bastion at the north-east corner. Access is by means of seven historic gates. Inside, the medina is crossed by main streets linking the gates with one another. These provide means of access to open spaces, to public buildings such as the &lt;em&gt;funduqs&lt;/em&gt; (inns), mosques and &lt;em&gt;zawayas&lt;/em&gt; (religious enceintes), and to the artisan and commercial quarters. Lanes lead from the main streets to private residential quarters.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;T&amp;eacute;touan was of particular importance in the Islamic period, from the 8th century onwards, since it served as the main point of contact between Morocco and Andalusia. After the Reconquest, the town was rebuilt by Andalusian refugees who had been expelled by the Spanish. This is well illustrated by its art and architecture, which reveal clear Andalusian influence. Although one of the smallest of the Moroccan medinas, T&amp;eacute;touan is unquestionably the most complete and it has been largely untouched by subsequent outside influences.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medina of Tétouan (formerly known as Titawin)</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>986</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Portuguese first settled the site of Mazagan in 1502, after it had been a Portuguese protectorate since 1486. The name Mazagan, which occurs in Arabic and foreign documents from the 11th century, was pronounced Mazagao in Portuguese. The only construction on the site was a tower called el-Brija. After some years in temporary shelters, the Portuguese decided in 1514 to build a citadel, designed by the brothers Francisco and Diogo de Arruda, who also worked on other fortifications in Moroccan medinas. In 1541, after the loss of Agadir, the Portuguese decided to enlarge the citadel into a fortification. The design was entrusted to a team of engineer-architects, consisting of the Portuguese Joao Ribeiro, the Spaniard Juan Castillo, and the Italian Benedetto da Ravenna. From 1541 to 1548 the governor of the fortress was Louis de Loureiro, already in Ceuta in Brazil and Mogador in Timor. In this period, Mazagan underwent rapid urban development, including the construction of religious ensembles, responding to the requirements of this period of religious confrontation. By the end of the century, there were four churches and several chapels within the fortification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After more than two and half centuries of occupation the Lusitanian period of Mazagan, the last Portuguese stronghold in Morocco, ended in 1769. Following the peace treaty with Sultan Sidi Mohamed Ben &amp;lsquo;Abdallah (1757-90), the Portuguese were obliged to depart from the Seagate without taking any of their belongings. They mined the main entrance, which exploded when the Moroccans forced it, causing many victims. As a result of these explosions, the Governor's Bastion and a large part of the main rampart were destroyed. The city remained uninhabited for nearly half a century and was called al- Mahdouma (The Ruined). In the mid-19th century, Sultan Moulay &amp;lsquo;Abderrahman ordered the Pasha of the region to rebuild the lost parts of the fortification (in a style differing somewhat from the rest), to build a mosque, and to rehabilitate this former Portuguese city. The name Mazagan was now banned, and the city was called al- Jadida (The New, The Novel).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mosque of El Jadida became a sign of purification, but this did not mean destruction of all the testimonies and places of cult of the previous period. Muslims, Jews, Moroccans, and other nationalities cohabited in the ramparts; the Portuguese church remained in front of the mosque, although it was no longer used for cult purposes, and synagogues were erected elsewhere in the city. The religious and racial plurality was intensified with the arrival of new European merchants, missionaries, and ambassadors in the second half of the 19th century in this town, known then by the French as Le Deauville marocain, referring to a renowned bathing resort in France&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1058</http_url><id_number>1058</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1058.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Portuguese city of Mazagan is an outstanding example of the interchange of influences between European and Moroccan cultures, and one of the early settlements of the Portuguese explorers in West Africa, on the route to India. These influences are well reflected in architecture, technology, and town planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Portuguese fortified city of Mazagan is an outstanding and early example of the realisation of the Renaissance ideals integrated with Portuguese construction technology. Notable buildings from the Portuguese period include: the cistern, and the church of the Assumption, built in the Manueline style of the early 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>33.2566700000</latitude><location>Region: Doukkala-Abda, Province El Jadida</location><longitude>-8.5019400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Portuguese city of Mazagan, one of the early settlements of the Portuguese explorers in West Africa, on the route to India, illustrates the interchange of influences (well reflected in architecture, technology and town planning) between European and Moroccan cultures. It illustrates the realization of the Renaissance ideals integrated with Portuguese construction technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mazagan is situated on the Atlantic coast, about 90&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Casablanca, and faces a natural bay of great beauty. The modern part of the city of El Jadida has developed around the landward side of the Mazagan fortress. Today the city is of great economic and tourist interest, situated as it is in a region rich in production, and also rich in heritage related to the Portuguese period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Portuguese first settled the site of Mazagan in 1502, after it had been a Portuguese protectorate since 1486. The only construction on the site was a tower called el-Brija. They decided in 1514 to build a citadel, designed by Francisco and Diogo de Arruda, who also worked on other fortifications in Moroccan medinas. In 1541, after the loss of Agadir, the citadel was enlarged into a fortification. The design was entrusted to a team of engineer-architects - the Portuguese Jo&amp;atilde;o Ribeiro, the Spaniard Juan Castillo and the Italian Benedetto da Ravenna. Mazagan underwent rapid urban development, including the construction of religious ensembles, responding to the requirements of this period of religious confrontation. By the end of the century, there were four churches and several chapels within the fortification.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The design of the Fortress of Mazagan is a response to the development of modern artillery in the Renaissance. At the present time the fortification has four bastions: the Angel Bastion in the east, St Sebastian in the north, St Antoine in the west, and the Holy Ghost Bastion in the south. The fifth, the Governor's Bastion at the main entrance, is in ruins, having been destroyed by the Portuguese in 1769. The fort had three gates: the Sea Gate, forming a small port with the north-east rampart; the Bull Gate in the north-west rampart; and the main entrance with a double arch in the centre of the south rampart, originally connected to land via a drawbridge. During the French Protectorate the ditch was filled with earth and a new entrance gate opened leading to the main street, the Rua da Carreira and the Sea Gate. Along this street are the best-preserved historic buildings, including the Catholic Church of the Assumption and the cistern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two Portuguese religious ensembles are still preserved in the citadel. Our Lady of the Assumption is a parish church built in the 16th century; it has a rectangular plan, a single nave, a choir, a sacristy and a square bell tower. The second structure is the chapel of St Sebastian sited in the bastion of the same name.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 19th-century mosque in front of the Church of the Assumption delimits the urban square, the Pra&amp;ccedil;a Terreiro, which opens towards the entrance of the city. The minaret is an adaptation of the old Torre de Rebate, originally part of the cistern, showing historical continuity. The design of the cistern building, also part of the ensemble, is attributed to Jo&amp;atilde;o Castilho. It consists of an almost square plan, with three halls on the north, east and south sides, and four round towers: Torre da Cadea (of the prison) in the west, Torre de Rebate in the north, the Tower of the Storks in the east, and the ancient Arab tower of El-Brija in the south. There is also a partly underground central hall constructed with stone pillars and brick vaults in the Manueline manner. The waters are conducted to the cistern through a system of channels from the citadel. The terrace of the ensemble held the Residence of the Captain, a small hospital, and the small Church of the Misericordia, of which only the ruins of the bell tower remain.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Portuguese fortification of Mazagan, now part of the city of El Jadida, 90-km southwest of Casablanca, was built as a fortified colony on the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century. It was taken over by the Moroccans in 1769. The fortification with its bastions and ramparts is an early example of Renaissance military design. The surviving Portuguese buildings include the cistern and the Church of the Assumption, built in the Manueline style of late Gothic architecture. The Portuguese City of Mazagan - one of the early settlements of the Portuguese explorers in West Africa on the route to India - is an outstanding example of the interchange of influences between European and Moroccan cultures, well reflected in architecture, technology, and town planning.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Portuguese City of Mazagan (El Jadida)</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1234</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The name of Volubilis is known both from ancient texts and from the abundant epigraphic material from the site itself Its origin is unknown but may be a Latinized version of the Berber name for the oleander, oualili, which grows in profusion on the banks of the wadi Khoumane that runs round part of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman geographer Pomponius Mela, writing in the 1st century AD, described Volubilis as modestly sized, though he had never visited it. References by Pliny the Elder and in the 2nd century AD Antonine Itinerary, while describing its location, make no comments on its size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its easily defensible location at the foot of the Jbel Zerhoun and the good soils of the plain, suitable for agriculture and the cultivation of fruit trees (especially olives), attracted settlers to the site of Volubilis at least as early as the 3rd century BC, as shown by a Punic inscription found in the town. By the time of the Mauritanian kingdom, whose capital was here from the 3rd century BC until AD 40, Volubilis already had a defensive wall, enclosing about a dozen hectares. The town appears to have been laid out on a regular plan on the Punic-Hellenistic model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town developed along Roman lines during the reigns of Juba II and Ptolemy (25 BC to AD 40), when it may have been the capital. The Roman annexation of the Mauritanian kingdom in AD 40 led to the creation of two provinces, Mauretania Caesarensis in the east and Mauretania Tingitana in the west; Volubilis was given the status of a municipium in the latter. It rapidly expanded to its maximum extent, with the construction of many public and private buildings, the latter associated with craft and industrial installations, most notably for the production of olive oil, the main product of the region. Epigraphic evidence points to the fact that the inhabitants of Volubilis during the Roman period were ethnically mixed, with Jews, Syrians, and Spaniards living alongside the indigenous African population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of Marcus Aurelius a town wall, with eight monumental gates, was constructed in 168- 9, and the Severan emperors provided the to\\11 with a new monumental centre, including a capitol and basilica. This was made possible by Caracalla's remission of taxes, an event commemorated by the construction of a triumphal arch dedicated to him.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the reign of Diocletian, in 285, the Romans abruptly abandoned southern Tingitana, for reasons that remain obscure, and Volubilis entered its &amp;quot;dark age.&amp;quot; This was to last until the until the accession of ldris I. The aqueduct that brought water to the town having been broken, the inhabitants of Volubilis, who were by now probably for the most part members of the Berber Baquates tribe, moved to the west of the triumphal arch, where they built a new residential area near the wadi Khoumane. This was separated from the upper part of the town by a new defensive wall, which came down to the river bank.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area of the triumphal arch became the cemetery of this community. Four inscriptions dated to between 599 and 655 reveal that this was a Christian community with civic institutions still in place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is not certain what influence the raids of Oqba ben Nafi (681) or Moussa ben Nossair (710) had on Volubilis. However, documents and coins show that it had converted to Islam before the arrival ofldris. A descendant of the Caliph Ali, Idris was driven during the struggles between the Abbassids and the Shiites to seek refuge in Morocco, where he was well received by the chief of the Aomaba tribe living around Volubilis. He established himself in &amp;quot;Walila,&amp;quot; from where he quickly took over the reins of power, creating a new city at Fez. His son Idris II (803-29) favomed Fez over Volubilis, but the latter was not completely abandoned, although there must have been a substantial movement of its inhabitants to the new town of Moulay ldris nearby, founded after the assassination of the founder of the ldrissid dynasty in 791. It was still occupied when El Bekri wrote about it in 1068. However, it is probably that the Almoravid raids later in the 11th century spelt the end of many centuries of continuous occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/836</http_url><id_number>836</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_836.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the Archaeological Site of Volubilis on the basis of criteria (ii), (iii), (iv) and (vi), considering that this site is an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.0738900000</latitude><location>Wilaya de Meknès - Province Meknès El Menzeh Meulay-Idriss Zerhoun</location><longitude>-5.5569400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Volubilis is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the empire. The archaeological remains of several civilizations are to be found there, representing all the phases of its 10 centuries of occupation, from prehistory continuously through to the Islamic period. Volubilis has produced a substantial amount of artistic material, including mosaics, marble and bronze statuary, and hundreds of inscriptions &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The name of Volubilis is known both from ancient texts and from the abundant epigraphic material from the site itself. Its origin is unknown but may be a Latinized version of the Berber name for the oleander&lt;em&gt; oualilt&lt;/em&gt; , which grows in profusion on the banks of Wadi Khoumane that runs round part of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its easily defensible location at the foot of the Jbel Zerhoun and the good soils of the plain, suitable for agriculture and the cultivation of fruit trees (especially olives), attracted settlers to the site of Volubilis at least as early as the 3rd century BC, as shown by a Punic inscription found in the town. By the time of the Mauritanian kingdom, whose capital was here from the 3rd century BC until AD 40, Volubilis already had a defensive wall. The town appears to have been laid out on a regular plan on the Punic-Hellenistic model.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town developed along Roman lines during the reigns of Juba II and Ptolemy, when it may have been the capital. The Roman annexation of the Mauritanian kingdom in AD 40 led to the creation of two provinces; Volubilis was given the status of a &lt;em&gt;municipium&lt;/em&gt; in one of these. It rapidly expanded to its maximum extent, with the construction of many public and private buildings, the latter associated with craft and industrial installations, most notably for the production of olive oil, the main product of the region. Epigraphic evidence points to the fact that the inhabitants of Volubilis during the Roman period were ethnically mixed, with Jews, Syrians and Spaniards living alongside the indigenous African population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reigns of Roman emperors a town wall, with eight monumental gates, and a new monumental centre including a capitol and basilica, were constructed. The triumphal arch of Caracalla, which spans the &lt;em&gt;decumanus maximus&lt;/em&gt; , is the point of articulation between the Punic-Hellenistic town and the extension in the Roman period to the north-east. At the beginning of the reign of Diocletian, in 285, the Romans abruptly abandoned southern Tingitana, for reasons that remain obscure, and Volubilis entered its 'dark age'. The aqueduct that brought water to the town having been broken, the inhabitants moved to the west of the triumphal arch, where they built a new residential area near Wadi Khoumane. This was separated from the upper part of the town by a new defensive wall, which came down to the river bank. The area of the triumphal arch became the cemetery of this community. Four inscriptions dated to between 599 and 655 reveal that this was a Christian community with civic institutions still in place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Documents and coins show that Volubilis had converted to Islam before the arrival of Idris. His son favoured Fez over Volubilis, but the latter was not completely abandoned, although there must have been substantial movements of its inhabitants to the new town of Moulay Idris nearby. Almoravid raids later in the 11th century spelt the end of many centuries of continuous occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Volubilis, which consist of no more than half of the original town, are located on a commanding site at the foot of the Jbel Zerhoun, bordered by the two &lt;em&gt;wadis&lt;/em&gt; , Khoumane and Ferdassa. The ancient town is well defined by the remains of its walls. They had about 40 interval towers and were entered through eight gates. The buildings of Volubilis are for the most part constructed using the grey-blue limestone quarried nearby on the Zerhoun massif. They are notable for the large number of mosaic floors still &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; . Although they do not attain the artistic level of other North African mosaics, they are lively and varied in form and subject matter. The &lt;em&gt;capitolium&lt;/em&gt; abuts on the south end of the basilica. Its &lt;em&gt;cella&lt;/em&gt; (sanctuary) is reached by means of a wide flight of steps. Adjoining the &lt;em&gt;capitolium&lt;/em&gt; are the contemporary baths, which show evidence of having been reconstructed more than once.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mauritanian capital, founded in the 3rd century B.C., became an important outpost of the Roman Empire and was graced with many fine buildings. Extensive remains of these survive in the archaeological site, located in a fertile agricultural area. Volubilis was later briefly to become the capital of Idris I, founder of the Idrisid dynasty, who is buried at nearby Moulay Idris.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Volubilis</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1625</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1401</http_url><id_number>1401</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1401.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ma</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.0241666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>-6.8227777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of Morocco, the site is the product of a fertile exchange between the Arabo-Muslim past and Western modernism. The inscribed city encompasses the new town conceived and built under the French Protectorate from 1912 to the 1930s, including royal and administrative areas, residential and commercial developments and the &lt;em&gt;Jardins d’Essais &lt;/em&gt;botanical and pleasure gardens. It also encompasses older parts of the city dating back to the 12&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;century. The new town is one of the largest and most ambitious modern urban projects built in Africa in the 20th century and probably the most complete. The older parts include Hassan Mosque (begun in 1184) and the Almohad ramparts and gates, the only surviving parts of the project for a great capital city of the Almohad caliphate as well as remains from the Moorish, or Andalusian, principality of the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rabat, Modern Capital and Historic City: a Shared Heritage</site><states>Morocco</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1825</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/599</http_url><id_number>599</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_599.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-15.0341700000</latitude><location>Ilha de Mocambique District, Nampula Province</location><longitude>40.7358300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Island of Mozambique bears important witness to the establishment and development of the Portuguese maritime routes between western Europe and the Indian subcontinent and thence all of Asia. The town and the fortifications on the island, and on the smaller island of St Laurent, are an outstanding example of an architecture in which local traditions, Portuguese influences, and to a somewhat lesser extent Indian and Arab influences, are all interwoven.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inhabited by a Bantu tribe, the territory of Mozambique was occupied around AD 900 by Arabs who set up trading posts. In their search for a maritime route to India to avoid Muslim forces, the Portuguese decided to go around the continent of Africa. King John II (1481-95) sent Bartolomeu Dias to explore the African coast. Sailing beyond the coast of the Congolese kingdom, the great navigator rounded the extreme southern tip of Africa, unaware of the feat he had accomplished. It was not until his return that he discovered the 'Cape of Storms', which John II renamed Cape of Good Hope.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Manuel I (1495-1521) ordered Vasco da Gama to continue the search for a maritime route. Leaving Lisbon in July 1497, he reached the Island of Mozambique on 2 March 1498, where he was well received by the sultan and the people, who thought the Portuguese were Muslims. During his second voyage, he occupied the territories of present-day Mozambique and returned to Lisbon in 1503 laden with gold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some years later, Mozambique had become one of Portugal's principal ports and trading posts on the sea route to India. The first fortress, St Gabriel, was built in 1507. At the end of the 17th century, after enjoying strong economic expansion, the town with its fortifications, along with the smaller island of St Laurent, went into a period of decline. In the second half of the 18th century, the economy was revived by the slave trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1898 the capital of Mozambique (the Portuguese colony) was transferred to Lauren&amp;ccedil;o Marques (Maputo), considerably slowing down the economy of the town on the island of Mozambique. The town had developed unequally over some 400 years. Less than half of it was built from stone, a little more than a quarter in &lt;em&gt;macuti&lt;/em&gt; (straw), with the remainder being the various fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The incredible architectural unity of the island derives from the uninterrupted use of the same building techniques with the same materials and the same decorative principles. The island's patrimony also includes its oldest extant fortress (St Sebastian, 1558-1620), other defensive buildings and numerous religious buildings (including many from the 16th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island has been classed on the national level and for about 10 years has benefited from restoration work and studies by international specialists. However, while the present state of conservation is not fully satisfactory, a restoration and management programme is in progress.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified city of Mozambique is located on this island, a former Portuguese trading-post on the route to India. Its remarkable architectural unity is due to the consistent use, since the 16th century, of the same building techniques, building materials (stone or &lt;em&gt;macuti&lt;/em&gt;) and decorative principles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Island of Mozambique</site><states>Mozambique</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>709</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1444</http_url><id_number>1444</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1444.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mm</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.4700000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>95.8186111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Pyu Ancient Cities includes the remains of three brick, walled and moated cities of Halin, Beikthano and Sri Ksetra located in vast irrigated landscapes in the dry zone of the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River basin. They reflect the Pyu Kingdoms that flourished for over 1,000 years between 200 BC and AD 900. The three cities are partly excavated archaeological sites. Remains include excavated palace citadels, burial grounds and manufacture sites, as well as monumental brick Buddhist stupas, partly standing walls and water management features – some still in use – that underpinned the organized intensive agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pyu Ancient Cities</site><states>Myanmar</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1987</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 1940s the Twyfelfontein land was granted on licence to a settler. At that time a few Damara people lived close to the spring in 32 huts. The land was transferred to communal use for Damara farmers in 1964 on the recommendation of the Odendaal Commission. But no farmers came forward to make use of it and it lay abandoned for 20 years. Following Namibian independence in 1990, the land became State Land under the Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rehabilitation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Before the 1940s, there is little evidence for the use of the area by the Damara; it is likely that as nomadic pastoralists, they used the area on a seasonal basis congregating near the spring after rains. However nomadic pastoralism had been almost completely destroyed in the preceding 100 years by the Rinderpest epidemic of 1897 and by ensuing government policies which encouraged people to leave the land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Interviews with local residents in 2004 failed to collect oral evidence for living cultural association with the rock art, although the rock art sites were seen as powerful places and the rock art the work of &amp;lsquo;ancestors'. The imagery of the art suggests it is part of the belief system of hunter-gathers, the San, who lived in the area until partly displaced by Damara herders about 1,000 years ago and finally displaced by European colonists within the last 150 years. No San now live in the area, although the beliefs of present-day San who live some 800km away in the north-eastern part of Namibia, give insight into the meaning of the rock paintings and engravings at Twyfelfontein.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1255</http_url><id_number>1255</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1255.jpg</image_url><iso_code>na</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.5955833333</latitude><location>Kunene Region</location><longitude>14.3725833333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Twyfelfontein or /Ui-//aes has one of the largest concentrations of [...] petroglyphs, i.e. rock engravings in Africa. Most of these well-preserved engravings represent rhinoceros, . The site also includes six painteelephant, ostrich and giraffe, as well as drawings of human and animal footprintsd rock shelters with motifs of human figures in red ochre. The objects excavated from two sections, date from the Late Stone Age. The site forms a coherent, extensive and high-quality record of ritual practices relating to hunter-gatherer communities in this part of southern Africa over at least 2,000 years, and eloquently illustrates the links between the ritual and economic practices of hunter-gatherers.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Twyfelfontein or /Ui-//aes</site><states>Namibia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1432</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1430</http_url><id_number>1430</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1430.jpg</image_url><iso_code>na</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-24.8852777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>15.4077777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Namib Sand Sea&amp;nbsp;is the only coastal desert in the world that includes extensive dune fields influenced by fog. Covering an area of over three million hectares and a buffer zone of 899,500 hectares, the site is composed of two dune systems, an ancient semi-consolidated one overlain by a younger active one. The desert dunes are formed by the transportation of materials thousands of kilometres from the hinterland, that are carried by river, ocean current and wind. It features gravel plains, coastal flats, rocky hills, inselbergs within the sand sea, a coastal lagoon and ephemeral rivers, resulting in a landscape of exceptional beauty. Fog is the primary source of water in the site, accounting for a unique environment in which&amp;nbsp; endemic invertebrates, reptiles and mammals adapt to an ever-changing variety of microhabitats and ecological niches.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Namib Sand Sea</site><states>Namibia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1915</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Created a national park on 19 July 1976 and inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/120</http_url><id_number>120</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_120.jpg</image_url><iso_code>np</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.9652800000</latitude><location>Solu-Khumbu District of the Sagarmatha Zone</location><longitude>86.9130600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sagarmatha National Park includes the highest point of the Earth's surface, Mount Everest (Sagarmatha). The park is also of major religious and cultural significance in Nepal as it abounds in holy places such as the Thyangboche and also is the homeland of the Sherpas whose way of life is unique, compared with other high-altitude dwellers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park encompasses the upper catchments of the Dudh Kosi River system, which is fan-shaped and forms a distinct geographical unit enclosed on all sides by high mountain ranges. The northern boundary is defined by the main divide of the Great Himalayan Range, which follows the international border with the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. In the south, the boundary extends almost as far as Monjo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is a dramatic area of high, geologically young mountains and glaciers. The deeply-incised valleys cut through sedimentary rocks and underlying granites to drain southwards into the Dudh Kosi and its tributaries, which form part of the Ganges River system. The upper catchments of these rivers are fed by glaciers at the head of four main valleys, Chhukhung, Khumbu, Gokyo and Nangpa La. Lakes occur in the upper reaches, notably in the Gokyo Valley, where a number are impounded by the lateral moraine of the Ngozumpa Glacier (at 20&amp;nbsp;km the longest glacier in the park). There are seven peaks over 7,000&amp;nbsp;m. The mountains have a granite core flanked by metamorphosed sediments and owe their dominating height to two consecutive phases of upthrust. The main uplift occurred during human history, some 500,000-800,000 years ago. Evidence indicates that the uplift is still continuing at a slower rate, but natural erosion processes counteract this to an unknown degree.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the region there are six altitudinal vegetation classed, from oak forests at the lowest elevations to lichens and mosses at the highest elevations. The Himalayan zone provides the barrier between the Palaearctic realm and the Indomalayan realm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the park (69%) comprises barren land above 5,000&amp;nbsp;m, 28% is grazing land and about 3% is forested. Six of the 11 vegetation zones in the Nepal Himalaya are represented in the park: lower subalpine; upper subalpine; lower alpine; upper alpine; and subnival zone. Oak used to be the dominant species in the upper montane zone but former stands of this species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In common with the rest of the Nepal Himalaya, the park has a comparatively low number of mammalian species, apparently due to the geologically recent origin of the Himalaya and other evolutionary factors. The low density of mammal populations is almost certainly the result of human activities. Larger mammals include common langur, jackal, a small number of wolf, Himalayan black bear, red panda, yellow-throated marten, Himalayan weasel, masked palm civet, snow leopard, Himalayan musk deer, Indian muntjac, serow, Himalayan tahr and goral. Sambar has also been recorded. Smaller mammals include short-tailed mol, Tibetan water shrew, Himalayan water shrew; marmot, woolly hare, rat and house mouse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inskipp lists 152 species of bird, 36 of which are breeding species for which Nepal may hold internationally significant populations. The park is important for a number of species breeding at high altitudes. The park's small lakes, especially those at Gokyo, are used as staging points for migrants. A total of six amphibians and seven reptiles occur or probably occur in the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are approximately 2,500 Sherpa people living within the park. The people are primarily Tibetan Buddhists. Their activities are primarily agricultural or trade based. Their properties have been excluded from the park by legal definition. There is and will continue to be an influence on the people by the park and vice versa. The Sherpas are of great cultural interest, having originated from Salmo Gang in the eastern Tibetan province of Kham, some 2,000&amp;nbsp;km from their present homeland. They probably left their original home in the late 1400s or early 1500s, to escape political and military pressures, and later crossed the Nangpa La into Nepal in the early 1530s. They separated into two groups, some settling in Khumbu and others proceeding to Solu. The two clans (Minyagpa and Thimmi) remaining in Khumbu are divided into 12 subclans. Both the population and the growth of the monasteries took a dramatic upturn soon after that time. The Sherpas belong to the Nyingmapa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, which was founded by the revered Guru Rimpoche who was legendarily born of a lotus in the middle of a lake. There are several monasteries in the park, the most important being Tengpoche.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sagarmatha is an exceptional area with dramatic mountains, glaciers and deep valleys, dominated by Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world (8,848 m). Several rare species, such as the snow leopard and the lesser panda, are found in the park. The presence of the Sherpas, with their unique culture, adds further interest to this site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sagarmatha National Park</site><states>Nepal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>132</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Chitwan was declared a national park in 1973, following approval by the late King Mahendra in December 1970. The bye-laws (Royal Chitwan National Park Regulations) were introduced on 4 March 1974. Substantial additions were made to the park in 1977 and the adjacent Pars a wildlife Reserve was established in 1984. The habitat had been well protected as a royal hunting reserve from 1846 to 1951 during the Rana regime. An area south of the Rapti River was first proposed as a rhinoceros sanctuary in 1958 (Gee, 1959), demarcated in 1963 (Gee, 1963; Willan, 1965) and later incorporated into the national park. Chitwan was designated as a World Heritage site in November 1984.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284</http_url><id_number>284</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_284.jpg</image_url><iso_code>np</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.5000000000</latitude><location>Chitwan District of the Narayani Zone</location><longitude>84.3333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Royal Chitwan National Park lies in the lowlands or Inner Terai of southern central Nepal on the international border with India. The park covers 932&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of subtropical lowland, wedged between two east-west river valleys at the base of the Siwalik range of the outer Himalayas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chitwan is dominated by almost monotypic stands of sal forest which occupy 60% of the total area and is a remnant of the lowland Terai forest which once stretched across the foothills of the Himalayas through India and Nepal. Riverine forest and grasslands form a mosaic along the river banks are maintained by seasonal flooding. On the hills are pines and scattered palms, and moister slopes support bamboos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chitwan is situated in a river valley basin or dun, along the flood plains of the Rapti, Reu and Narayani rivers. The Narayani is also called the Gandaki and is the third-largest river in Nepal. It originates in the high Himalaya and, drains into the Bay of Bengal. The Siwaliks show a distinctive fault pattern that has produced steep cliffs on the south-facing slopes, where vegetation cover is poorer than the northern slopes. The flood plains comprise a series of ascending alluvial terraces laid down by the rivers and subsequently raised by Himalayan uplift. The terraces are composed of layers of boulders and gravels set in a fine silty matrix.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The climax vegetation of the Inner Terai is sal forest, which covers some 60% of the park. However, floods, fires and riverine erosion combine to make a continually changing mosaic of grasslands and riverine forests in various stages of succession. Purest stands of sal occur on better drained ground such as the lowlands around Kasra in the centre of the park. Elsewhere, sal is intermingled with chir pine along the southern face of the Churia Hills and with tree species. Creepers are common. The under-storey is scant with the exception of grasses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains the last Nepalese population (estimated at 400) of the endangered great one-horned Asian rhinoceros which is the second largest concentration of this species to occur after Kaziranga National Park in India. Royal Chitwan is also one of the last strongholds of the Royal Bengal tiger. Other threatened mammals occurring in the park include leopard, wild dog, sloth bear and gaur. Other mammals include sambar, chital, hog deer, barking deer, wild pig, monkeys, otter, porcupine, yellow-throated marten, civet, fishing cat, jungle cat, jackal, striped hyena and Indian fox. Aquatic species include the gangetic dolphin, the mugger crocodile and the endangered gharial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prior to its re-introduction to Royal Bardia National Park in 1986, the park contained the last Nepalese population of the Indian rhinoceros. Tiger is present and has been the subject of a long-term study begun in 1974. Over 350 bird species are reported. Himalayan grey-headed fishing eagle and white-back vulture. Ruddy shelduck and bar-headed goose winter on the rivers. The threatened Indian python also occurs within the park, and some 99 fish species inhabit the rivers and oxbow lakes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;At the foot of the Himalayas, Chitwan is one of the few remaining undisturbed vestiges of the 'Terai' region, which formerly extended over the foothills of India and Nepal. It has a particularly rich flora and fauna. One of the last populations of single-horned Asiatic rhinoceros lives in the park, which is also one of the last refuges of the Bengal tiger.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chitwan National Park</site><states>Nepal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>318</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Shakya Prince Siddharta Gautama, better known as the Lord Buddha, was born to Queen Mayadevi, wife of King Suddodhana, ruler of Kapilavastu, in 623 BC at the famous gardens of Lumbini, while she was on a journey from her husband's capital of Tilaurakot to her family home in Devadaha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 249 BC the devout Buddhist Emperor Ashoka, third of the Mauryan rulers of India, made a pilgrimage to this very sacred area in company with his teacher, Upagupta, and erected pillars at Lumbini, Gotihawa, and Niglihawa, as he did in many parts of India, to commemorate his visit. The inscription on the Lumbini pillar identifies this as the birthplace of the Lord Buddha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lumbini was a site of pilgrimage until the 15th century AD. Its early history is well documented in the accounts of Chinese travellers, notably Fa Hsien (4th century AD) and Hsuan Tsang (7th century AD), who described the temples, stupas, and other establishments that they visited there. In the early 14th century King Ripu Malla recorded his pilgrimage in the form of an additional inscription on the Ashoka pillar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reasons for its ceasing to attract Buddhist pilgrims after the 15th century remain obscure. The only local cult centred on worship of a 3rd-4th century image of Mayadevi as a Hindu mother goddess. The Buddhist temples fell into disrepair and eventually into ruins, not to be rediscovered until they were identified in 1896 by Dr A Fiihrer and Khadga Samsher, then Governor of Palpa, who discovered the Ashoka pillar.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/666</http_url><id_number>666</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_666.jpg</image_url><iso_code>np</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of criteria (iii) and (vi). As the birthplace of the Lord Buddha, the sacred area of Lumbini is one of the holiest places of one of the world's great religions, and its remains contain important evidence about the nature of Buddhist pilgrimage centres from a very early period.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>27.4688900000</latitude><location>Lumbini Zone, Rupandehi District, Western Terai</location><longitude>83.2761100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;As the birthplace of the Lord Buddha - the apostle of peace and the light of Asia was born in 623 BC - the sacred area of Lumbini is one of the holiest places of one of the world's great religions, and its remains contain important evidence about the nature of Buddhist pilgrimage centres from a very early period. Lumbini, in the South-Western Terai of Nepal, evokes a kind of holy sentiment to the millions of Buddhists all over the world, like Jerusalem to Christians and Mecca to Muslims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lumbini is the place where the Buddha, known as the Tathagata, was born. It is the place which should be visited and seen by a person of devotion and which should cause awareness and apprehension of the nature of impermanence. The site and its surrounding area is endowed with a rich natural setting of domesticable fauna and favourable agricultural environ. Historically, the region is an exquisite treasure-trove of ancient ruins and antiquities, dating back to the pre-Christian era. The site, described as a beautiful garden in the Buddha's time, still retains its legendary charm and beauty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The birthplace of the Gautama Buddha, Lumbini, is one of the four holy places of Buddhism. It is said in the &lt;em&gt;Parinibbana Sutta&lt;/em&gt; that Buddha himself identified four places of future pilgrimage: the sites of his birth, Enlightenment, First Discourse, and death. All these events happened outside in nature under trees. There is no particular significance in this, other than it perhaps explains why Buddhists have always respected the environment and natural law.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lumbini is situated at the foothills of the Himalayas in modern Nepal. In the Buddha's time, Lumbini was a beautiful garden full of green and shady sal trees (&lt;em&gt;Shorea robusta&lt;/em&gt; ). The garden and its tranquil environs were owned by both the Shakyas and the clans. King Suddhodana, father of Gautama Buddha, was of the Shakya dynasty and belonged to the Kshatriya (warrior caste). Maya Devi, his mother, gave birth to the child on her way to her parent's home in Devadaha while resting in Lumbini under a sal tree in the month of May, 642 BC. The beauty of Lumbini is described in Pali and Sanskrit literature. Maya Devi, it is said, was spellbound to see the natural grandeur of Lumbini. While she was standing, she felt labour pains and catching hold of a drooping branch of a sal tree, she gave birth to a baby, the future Buddha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 249 BC, when the Indian Emperor Ashoka visited Lumbini, it was a flourishing village. Ashoka constructed four stupas and a stone pillar with a figure of a horse on top. The stone pillar bears an inscription, which in translation runs as follows: 'King Piyadasi (Ashoka), beloved of devas, in the 20th year of the coronation, himself made a royal visit, Buddha Sakyamuni having been born here; a stone railing was built and a stone pillar erected to the Bhagavan having been born here, Lumbini village was taxed reduced and entitled to the eight part (only)'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lumbini remained neglected for centuries. In 1895, Feuhrer, a famous German archaeologist, discovered the great pillar while wandering about the foothills of the Churia range. Further exploration and excavation of the surrounding area revealed the existence of a brick temple and sandstone sculpture within the temple itself, which depicts the scenes of the Buddha's birth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is pointed out by scholars that the temple of Maya Devi was constructed over the foundations of more than one earlier temple or stupa, and that this temple was probably built on an Ashokan stupa itself. To the south of the Maya Devi temple there is the famous sacred bathing pool known as Puskarni. It is believed that Maya Devi took a bath in this pool before the delivery. By the side of the Ashoka pillar a river which flows south-east and is locally called the Ol. In 1996, an archaeological dig unearthed a 'flawless stone' placed there by Ashoka in 249 BC to mark the precise location of the Buddha's birth more than 2,600 years ago. if authenticated, the find will put Lumbini even more prominently on the map for millions of religious pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Siddhartha Gautama, the Lord Buddha, was born in 623 B.C. in the famous gardens of Lumbini, which soon became a place of pilgrimage. Among the pilgrims was the Indian emperor Ashoka, who erected one of his commemorative pillars there. The site is now being developed as a Buddhist pilgrimage centre, where the archaeological remains associated with the birth of the Lord Buddha form a central feature.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha</site><states>Nepal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>788</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2003-2007</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kathmandu Valley has been the politically and culturally dominating part of Nepal. Its legendary and documented histories are so interrelated that these are difficult to separate. A political establishment of the area is dated to the beginning of the Christian era, the Kirati period. This was followed by the Kichchhavi Dynasty from the 3rd to 9th centuries. Patan is believed to have expanded into a consolidated town by the end of the 7th century. The town of Kathmandu was established by a later Lichchhavi king. After the 9th century, there is a dark period until 14th century and the arrival of the Mallas, which is an important period for the flourishing of Nepalese art and architecture. These developed into a growing spiritual orientation towards Tantrism, making it difficult to separate purely Buddhist from purely Hindu art. From the middle of the 13th century, the city of Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur) prospered and became a major training centre. The valley was divided into three rival kingdoms, competing between themselves and bringing the artistic expressions to the highest point by the mid 18th century. In 1769 the valley was conquered and united by a leader coming from the outside, Prithvi Narayan Shah. He made Kathmandu his royal city, and the Hanuman Dhoka Palace his residence. In 1833 and 1934, two catastrophic earthquakes brought destruction, and some of the monuments had to be rebuilt using much of the original elements and decoration.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/121</http_url><id_number>121</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_121.jpg</image_url><iso_code>np</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.7039500000</latitude><location>Kathmandu Valley</location><longitude>85.3085800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monumental Zones represent the highly developed architectural expression of religious, political and cultural life of Kathmandu Valley, with a concentration of monuments unique and unparalleled in the world. It is the principal centre of settlement in the hill area of Nepal and one of the prime cultural foci of the Himalayas. Pashupatinath is also Nepal's most renowned Hindu creation site. Changu Narayan Temple is an impressive double-roofed temple which is said to be the most ancient Vishnu temple in Kathmandu Valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kathmandu, the capital, is the political, commercial and cultural hub of Nepal. Kathmandu is an exotic and fascinating showcase of a very rich culture, art and tradition. The valley, roughly an oval bowl, is encircled by a range of green terraced hills and dotted by compact clusters of red tiled-roofed houses. A remarkable legend says that the valley was once covered by a lake until the Bodhisattva Manjushri raised his sword of wisdom and sliced a passage through the mountain walls, draining the water and creating the first settlements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The valley embraces most of Nepal's ethnic groups, but Newars are the indigenous inhabitants and the creators of the valley's splendid civilization. Kathmandu Valley is composed of seven Monumental Zones with three historical palaces within their essential urban settings (Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur), two Hindu centres (Pashupatinath and &lt;a&gt;Changu Narayan&lt;/a&gt; ), and two Buddhist centres (&lt;a&gt;Swayambunath&lt;/a&gt; and &lt;a&gt;Boudhanath&lt;/a&gt; ).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Kathmandu is a melting pot for the nation's population, not only today but also in times past, which probably explains the rich cultural heritage of the city. Kathmandu with its unique architectural heritage, palaces, temples and courtyards has inspired many writers, artists, and poets, both foreign and Nepalese. It boasts a unique symbiosis of Hinduism, Buddhism and Tantrism in its culture, which is still as alive today as it was hundreds of years ago. The religious influence can be openly seen in the city. &lt;a name="1"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Most of the principal monuments are in Durbar Square , the social, religious and urban focal point of the city, built between the 12th and the 18th centuries by the ancient Malla kings of Nepal. Some of the most interesting are the Taleju Temple, Kal Bhairab, Nautalle Durbar, Coronation Nasal Chowk, and the Gaddi Baithak, the statue of King Pratap Malla, the Big Bell, Big Drum and the Jaganath Temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Another intriguing piece here is the 17th-century stone inscription that is set into the wall of the palace, with writings in 15 languages. It is believed that if anybody deciphers this entire inscription, milk would flow from the spout, which lies just below the unscripted stone wall. Some people say that the inscription contains coded directions to a treasure that King Pratap Malla has buried beneath Mohan Chowk of Durbar Square.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lalitpur or Patan, just across the holy Bagmati River about 14&amp;nbsp;km east of Kathmandu city, is a fabulous city of great historic and cultural interest. Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) is situated at an altitude of 1,401&amp;nbsp;m. Shaped liked a conch-shell, Bhaktapur means the 'city of devotees'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pashupatinath, 5&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Kathmandu Valley, is one of the most important Hindu temples. It is Nepal's most sacred Hindu shrines and one of the subcontinent's greatest Shiva sites, a sprawling collection of temples, ashrams, images and inscriptions raised over the centuries along the banks of the sacred Bagmati river.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural heritage of the Kathmandu Valley is illustrated by seven groups of monuments and buildings which display the full range of historic and artistic achievements for which the Kathmandu Valley is world famous. The seven include the Durbar Squares of Hanuman Dhoka (Kathmandu), Patan and Bhaktapur, the Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Bauddhanath and the Hindu temples of Pashupati and Changu Narayan.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kathmandu Valley </site><states>Nepal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1448</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest evidence of human presence in this area, as revealed by archaeological excavations, dates back to the Late Paleolithic period (c 10,000 BP), with visits by hunter-gatherer communities, which increased in the succeeding Mesolithic period. permanent occupation is witnessed by settlements, cemeteries, and agriculture during the Neolithic period and Early Bronze Age (c 4200-1800 Be); however, this occupation was not continuous, being interrupted by transgression phases when the inhabitants were forced by rising waters to leave the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is little evidence for later settlement until CAD 1000, when drainage of the peat around Schokland began, the water being drained into the freshwater basin of the Almere; pottery finds indicate that the island was completely reclaimed by c 1300. However, drainage of the peat and tilling of the land caused the peat layer to oxidize and shrink, resulting in sinking of the ground surface and increasingly wet soil conditions. TO overcome this problem small, low dykes were built to keep drainage water out Of the drained area: some of the outermost of these can be dated to the end of the 12th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 13th century strong marine influences in the Almere were beginning to have an impact. At this time Schokland was still connected to the mainland by a peat ridge stretching to the south-east, which means that this area has to be considered as a polder, until around 1450, when the ridge eroded and Schokland became an island, like neighbouring Urk, which had been one since the 12th century. The distribution of terps (man-made settlement mounds) and dykes from this period shows that land was being lost, much of it during storms such as that recorded in 1170.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A number of the terps lying to the east of the island were abandoned around 1400, work beginning on the creation of new terps at Oud Emmeloord, Middelbuurt, and Zuidert. This was accompanied by a change in the economic basis of the communities from agriculture to fishing. At the same time the Almere was transformed into the Zuyder Zee. This lOSS of land and battle against the sea continued throughout the succeeding centuries, with the main losses being incurred on the west and north of the island. Protection became too great a burden for the local population, and so financial help was provided by the provincial council of Overijssel by means of a shipping tax, largely because of the importance of the fire beacon on the Zuidpunt. In 1710 Holland and Friesland gave additional financial support because of their economic reliance on the shipping routes that this beacon served. In 1660 Amsterdam, then the world's major port, obtained possession of Urk and Emmeloord and assumed the responsibility for their maintenance. During this time the four terps on the island were heightened and extended, using Clay, manure, reeds, and sea-grass; the remainder of the island consisted of wet meadowlands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite all these measures, the dykes and revetments were unable to prevent further inroads during the 19th century. The stone dyke designed to protect the entire island, construction of which began in 1804, proved too weak to provide continuing protection, because of the subsoil on which it was built, and storms and drifting ice regularly destroyed sections of it. The income of the inhabitants who remained on Emmeloord, Middelbuurt, and Zuidert from fishing decreased steadily, and so it was decided to evacuate the island, an act which took place in 1859. Only a handful of buildings, including the church on Middelbuurt, were not demOlished, and were used as service buildings for coastal defence work throughout the following century. Schokland's role was that of a breakwater protecting the coast of Overijssel and as a refuge for shipping.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the passing of the Zuyder zee Act in 1918 and the three subsequent acts designed to regulate its reclamation the Noordostpolder in which Schokland is located was the second to be reclaimed. The last gap in the surrounding dyke was closed in December 1940 and the polder ran dry in 1942. Schokland, which had been an island for nearly five centuries, became part of one of the largest cultural landscapes of the present era, the USSelmeerpolders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/739</http_url><id_number>739</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_739.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.6386111100</latitude><location>Noordoostpolder, Province of Flevoland</location><longitude>5.7716666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Schokland and its surroundings is an outstanding example of the prehistoric and historic occupation of a typical wetland, especially in relation to the reclamation and occupation of peat areas. It is precisely because of these occupation and reclamation activities that large areas of land were lost. The formation of the Zuyder Zee itself can also be considered to be a result of these historic activities. Schokland is the last vestige of a once much larger area of occupation, excellently represented in this small area, with its settlements, cemeteries, terps (man-made settlement mounds), dykes and parcel systems. Continuing agricultural mechanization and the dehydration of deeper levels constitute a constant threat to the quality of the cultural and organic remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The soil in this area consists of coversands, an ice-pushed ridge of boulder clay, Pleistocene river dunes, and Holocene sediments, including the buried course of the Overijsselsche Vecht River and its tributaries. A post-Pleistocene rise in sea level resulted in an increase in peat formation and a corresponding decrease in the surface area of sandy soils. The earliest evidence of human presence in this area, as revealed by archaeological excavations, dates back to the late Palaeolithic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 13th century, strong marine influences in the Almere were beginning to have an impact. At this time Schokland was still connected to the mainland by a peat ridge stretching to the south-east, which means that this area has to be considered as a polder, until around 1450, when the ridge eroded and Schokland became an island, like neighbouring Urk, which had been one since the 12th century. The distribution of terps and dykes from this period shows that land was being lost, much of it during storms such as that recorded in 1170.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A number of the terps lying to the east of the island were abandoned around 1400, work beginning on the creation of new terps at Oud Emmeloord, Middelbuurt and Zuidert. This was accompanied by a change in the economic basis of the communities from agriculture to fishing. At the same time the Almere was transformed into the Zuyder Zee. This loss of land and battle against the sea continued throughout the succeeding centuries, with the main losses being incurred on the west and north of the island. Protection became too great a burden for the local population, and so financial help was provided by the provincial council of Overijssel by means of a shipping tax, largely because of the importance of the fire beacon on the Zuidpunt. In 1710 Holland and Friesland gave additional financial support because of their economic reliance on the shipping routes that this beacon served. In 1660 Amsterdam, then the world's major port, obtained possession of Urk and Emmeloord and assumed the responsibility for their maintenance. During this time the four terps on the island were heightened and extended, using clay, manure, reeds and seagrass; the remainder of the island consisted of wet meadowlands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite all these measures, the dykes and revetments were unable to prevent further inroads during the 19th century. The stone dyke designed to protect the entire island, construction of which began in 1804, proved too weak to provide continuing protection, because of the subsoil on which it was built, and storms and drifting ice regularly destroyed sections of it. The income of the inhabitants who remained on Emmeloord, Middelbuurt and Zuidert from fishing decreased steadily, and so it was decided to evacuate the island, which took place in 1859. Only a handful of buildings, including the church on Middelbuurt, were not demolished, and were used as service buildings for coastal defence work throughout the following century. Schokland's role was that of a breakwater protecting the coast of Overijssel and as a refuge for shipping. Following the passing of the Zuyder Zee Act in 1918 and the three subsequent acts designed to regulate its reclamation, the Noordostpolder in which Schokland is located was the second to be reclaimed. The last gap in the surrounding dyke was closed in December 1940 and the polder ran dry in 1942. Schokland, which had been an island for some five centuries, became part of one of the largest cultural landscapes of the present age, the IJsselmeerpolders.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Schokland was a peninsula that by the 15th century had become an island. Occupied and then abandoned as the sea encroached, it had to be evacuated in 1859. But following the draining of the Zuider Zee, it has, since the 1940s, formed part of the land reclaimed from the sea. Schokland has vestiges of human habitation going back to prehistoric times. It symbolizes the heroic, age-old struggle of the people of the Netherlands against the encroachment of the waters.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Schokland and Surroundings</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>872</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Stelling van Amsterdam is an excellent illustration of how The Netherlands defended itself against attack, ie by means of water. Water control and defence have gone hand in hand in the country since the 17th century. From time immemorial dikes, sluices, and canals have been built to drain the land; temporary flooding of the land forms the basis of the defensive system. This principle was first applied in the 16th century, during the struggle for independence from Spain, with the development of the Oude Hollandse Waterlinie.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The introduction of the new defensive system laid down in the 1874 vestingwet (law on the use of fortresses) meant that a number of old fortified towns, mostly in the east and south of The Netherlands, were relieved of their defensive role and so could expand outside their ramparts, which largely dated from the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the terms of the Vestingwet, The Netherlands would be defended by nine defensive systems, most of which were already in existence. The new element was the defensive line around the nation's capital, Amsterdam, which would become the last redoubt. it had a predecessor in the form of earth batteries and semipermanent entrenchments to defend Amsterdam. This defensive line (the Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie) was almost complete in the mid-19th century, but it was partly superseded by the stelling van Amsterdam. The new system was so extensive that the entire infrastructure of the country was affected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began on the Stelling in 1883 after lengthy discussions on its military and financial implications. Because it was based on flooding, use was made of the intricate polder system of the western part of The Netherlands. The decision was taken to build the forts along the main defence line in unreinforced concrete, a very early application of this material (first used at Newhaven in the United Kingdom in the 1860s).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1892 the northern end of the Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie was transferred to the Stelling, to form the eastern part of the defensive system. Certain modifications were carried out to the forts, in line with current military thinking. In the first phase forts were built at the mouths of the main watercourses leading into Amsterdam: a coastal fort at the mouth of the Noordzeekanaal, near Umuiden and an island fort and two coastal batteries in the u east of the city where it joined the former Zuiderzee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The standard forts on the Stelling were built in two stages. Between 1897 and 1906 eighteen forts were built, and ten more, built to a modified design, were added between 1908 and 1914. The entire Stelling was manned throughout world war I, even though The Netherlands was neutral in that conflict. During this period construction work continued, to be completed in 1920.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two years later the Netherlands Government revised its defensive plan and decided to build the Holland vesting, which included Part of the Stelling, which had become obsolete with the introduction of the aeroplane into warfare. Part of the flooding was activated when the German army invaded The Netherlands in May 1940, but no fighting took place. The early forts were not abandoned as defensive works until some time after the end of world War 11; some structures are still in use by the Ministry of Defence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/759</http_url><id_number>759</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_759.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii), (iv) and (v)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the site is of outstanding universal value as it is an exceptional example of an extensive integrated defence system of the modern period which has survived intact and well conserved since it was created in the later 19th century. It is also notable for the unique way in which the Dutch genius for hydraulic engineering has been incorporated into the defences of the nation's capital city.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>52.3744444400</latitude><location>Provinces of Noord-Holland (NH), Utrecht (UT)</location><longitude>4.8930555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Stelling van Amsterdam is of outstanding universal value as it is an exceptional example of an extensive integrated defence system of the modern period that has survived intact and well conserved since it was created in the later 19th century. It is also notable for the unique way in which the Dutch genius for hydraulic engineering has been incorporated into the defences of the nation's capital city. It is an excellent illustration of how the Netherlands defended itself against attack by water. In this country from time immemorial dykes, sluices and canals nave been built to drain the land; temporary flooding of the land forms the basis of the defensive system. This principle was first applied in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The introduction of the new defensive system laid down in the 1874 Vestingwet (law on the use of fortresses) meant that a number of old fortified towns were relieved of their defensive role and so could expand outside their ramparts, which largely dated from the 17th century. Under the terms of the Vestingwet, the Netherlands would be protected by nine defensive systems, most already in existence. This defensive line was almost complete in the mid-19th century, but it was partly superseded by the Stelling. It was based on flooding, using the intricate polder system of the western part of the Netherlands. The decision was taken to build the forts along the main defence line in non-reinforced concrete, an early application of this material. In 1892 the northern end of the Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie was transferred to the Stelling, to form the eastern part of the defensive system. Certain modifications were carried out to the forts, in line with current military thinking. In the first phase forts were built at the mouths of the main watercourses leading into Amsterdam: a coastal fort at the mouth of the Noordzeekanaal, near Ijmuiden, and an island fort and two coastal batteries in the IJ east of the city where it joined the former Zuyder Zee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The standard forts on the Stelling were built in two stages. Between 1897 and 1906, 18 forts were built, and 10 more, built to a modified design, were added between 1908 and 1914. The entire Stelling was manned throughout the First World War, even though the Netherlands was neutral in that conflict. During this period construction work continued, to be completed in 1920. Two years later the government revised its defensive plan and decided to build the Holland Vesting, which included part of the Stelling, made obsolete with the introduction of aircraft into warfare. Part of the flooding was activated when Germany invaded the Netherlands in May 1940, but no fighting took place. The early forts were not abandoned until some time after the end of the Second World War; some structures are still in use by the Ministry of Defence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The defensive line is roughly circular, on a radius of approximately 15&amp;nbsp;km from the city centre, and extends over two provinces. The main defence line is some 135&amp;nbsp;km long and comprises 45 forts, with a number of ancillary works. The soil is largely peat and clay, with sand in places. The sites of the forts are directly linked with the existing infrastructure of roads, waterways, dykes and settlements. The main defence line runs mainly along pre-existing dykes. The specific qualities of the landscape through which the line passes determined the character of the constructions; there are six main zones. The northern sector provides excellent facilities for flooding because of the large polders and reclaimed land, and so the forts here were only added in the final phase. The north-western sector runs over existing dykes, adapted for military use. The flooding capacity of the western sector was limited because of the city of Haarlem outside the Stelling and the higher ground behind the dunes; as a result there is a relatively larger number of forts, that at Spaarndam being the main one. In the south-western sector, covering the Haarlemmermeerpolder (reclaimed in 1848-52), it was necessary to build a complete new defensive line with closely linked forts. The southern and south-eastern defences run through a region of inaccessible peat bog and link with the earlier Nieuwe Hollandse Watelinie System. Finally, the eastern sector, running along the coast of the former Zuyder Zee, was primarily defended by marines operating offshore; however, two batteries and the Pampus Island fort were built to close the entrance to Amsterdam harbour.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Extending 135 km around the city of Amsterdam, this defence line (built between 1883 and 1920) is the only example of a fortification based on the principle of controlling the waters. Since the 16th century, the people of the Netherlands have used their expert knowledge of hydraulic engineering for defence purposes. The centre of the country was protected by a network of 45 armed forts, acting in concert with temporary flooding from polders and an intricate system of canals and locks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Defence Line of Amsterdam</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>894</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The formation of the peat region of the Provinces of Holland and Utrecht began around 4000 BC and continued up to the beginning of the present era. Changes in the drainage of the region consequent upon cultivation resulted in a situation where farmlands lay below the level of the streams that had drained the peat. It therefore became necessary to construct dikes to prevent flooding of the land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement in the HollandUtrecht peat region since the 11th century AD, on higher land, on the embankments, and along the rivers and watercourses. The medieval developments were mostly subdivided into long strips averaging 14m wide by 1250-l300m long, with farms at their ends.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reclamation of the Alblasserwaard ( -waard = &amp;quot;land in or along the water&amp;quot;), part of which is the subject of this nomination, began on the northern, western, and southern sides in the 11th century, and later extended to the watercourses that traverse it. A low-level ring dike enclosed all except the western part as early as the 12th century, and this had been extended to include the whole area by 1320. The Alblasserwaard was crossed by two streams, the Alblas and the Giessen, the basins of which developed into De Nederwaard and De Overwaard respectively; the Alblas was extended by a man-made watercourse, the Graafstroom, around 1264.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1277 Count Floris V of Holland set up a central body to be responsible for the maintenance of the dikes in the Alblasserwaard, known as the Hoogheemsraadschap van den Alblasserwaard (District Water Board for the Alblasserwaard). It consisted of a dike reeve and 13 board members.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prince Albrecht van Beieren (Bavaria) authorized the digging of a canal for draining De Overwaard from the Giessen to the river Lek at Elshout in 1365. Known as the Grote or Achter W aterschap (Large or Rear Internal Drainage District), it was 17km in length, with 12km of connecting watercourses. Four years later work began on another drainage canal, known as the Nieuw Waterschap, from the Alblas to the Lek. Both systems are still fimctioning today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1612 the internal drainage district of De Nederwaard was granted a permit for the compulsory purchase of 70ha of polder-land to the west of the Nieuw Waterschap in order to increase the capacity of the reservoirs by creating a new elevated reservoir. This also involved raising the water-level in the reservoirs and, as a result, the levels of the roads and low-level inner dukes in the area all had to be raised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Serious flooding in 1726 led to the decision being taken by the Nederwaard and Overwaard management boards each to build a series of eight &amp;quot;head&amp;quot; drainage mills to deal with the endless battle against water and transfer the water produced at that time by 43 polder mills from the lower to the elevated reservoirs. In 1740 a second sluice was installed at the elevated reservoir to handle the water flow, and in 1766 the elevated reservoir itself had to be enlarged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, this form of drainage using windmills proved to be inadequate, since the water-levels in the rivers were often too high, making it difficult to discharge water into them through the sluices from the lower reservoir. By 1860 the 25 mills in De Nederwaard could no longer cope, and so a steamdriven pumping station was installed in 1868, to raise water from the lower to the upper reservoir (successively replaced by modem equipment). A similar decision was taken on De Overwaard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a result of this process of modernization, the redundant wind-driven scoop mills were gradually demolished. The Kinderdijk mills came back into use during World War ll, when there was no fuel for the diesel-fuelled pumping station, but closed down again after 1945. Today eight polder mills survive in both De Overwaard and De Nederwaard&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/818</http_url><id_number>818</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_818.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of &lt;em&gt;criteria (i), (ii) and (iv)&lt;/em&gt; considering that the Kinderdijk-Elshout mill network is an outstanding man-made landscape that bears powerful testimony to human ingenuity and fortitude over nearly a millennium in draining and protecting an area by the development and application of hydraulic technology.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.8825000000</latitude><location>Municipalities of Alblasserdam and Nieuw-Lekkerland, Province of Zuid-Holland</location><longitude>4.6494444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kinderdijk-Elshout mill network is an outstanding man-made landscape that bears powerful testimony to human ingenuity and fortitude over a millennium in draining and protecting an area by the development and application of hydraulic technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is located in the north-western comer of the Alblasserwaard. It drained the internal drainage districts of De Overwaard and De Nederwaard until 1950, when the mills were closed. The 19 mills that form this group of monuments are all in operating condition. The Alblasserwaard is bounded by the rivers Lek to the north, Merwede to the south, and Noord to the south. The properties consist of discharge sluices, Water Board Assembly Houses, pumping stations, and brick and wooden mills. Owing to changed technical requirements, the discharge sluices were reduced to two and reconstructed in the mid-1980s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Water Board Assembly Houses of De Overwaard and De Nederwaard survive intact. The former was built in 1581 and purchased by the Water Board in 1595 to house the Elshout lockmaster. It was used for several other purposes until 1648, when it became the headquarters of the Water Board. It is a two-storeyed brick structure on a rectangular floor plan with a hipped roof. When it became the Water Board Assembly House the modifications included provision of a meeting room, addition of a stone door-arch decorated with coats of arms of the reeve and board members, new windows, and bedrooms in the attic for members. It underwent drastic alterations in 1918 when the dyke there was raised and widened: 3&amp;nbsp;m was removed from the front of the house and a new facade built. It was restored in 1981-83. The assembly house of De Nederwaard is a plain rectangular two-storeyed building of the 18th century with a hipped roof.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Wisbom pumping station was originally an auxiliary steam-driven pumping station for De Overwaard, built in 1868 with four scoop water-wheels on the exterior of the engine house. It was converted to electricity in 1924. At this time some modifications were carried out to the plain gabled brick structure. The Van Haaften pumping station, built for De Nederwaard, also dates from 1868. It was converted to diesel operation in 1927 and the scoop wheels were replaced by Archimedean screws. It was partly demolished in 1971-72 when the J.U. Smit pumping station was built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most characteristic features of this landscape are the windmills, used to pump water from the polders using internal or external scoops into reservoirs, on two levels. At one time there were more than 150 in the Alblasserwaard and Vijfheerenlanden area; this had dropped to 78 in the 1870s but today the total is only 28, of which 16 are in the Kinderdijk area. The eight mills that survive on De Nederwaard were all built in 1738. They are bonnet mills (in which only the top section revolves with the wind), built from brick and with large sails that come within 30&amp;nbsp;cm of the ground, hence their name, 'ground sailers'. Eight mills are also in place on De Overwaard. All date from 1740 (although one was reconstructed in the 1980s). They are bonnet mills and ground sailers but, unlike those on De Nederwaard, they are octagonal in plan and built from wood on brick substructures. The internal iron scoop wheels are slightly larger than those on De Nederwaard, as are the spans of the sails. In addition to the mills on De Nederwaard and De Overwaard; the World Heritage site contains two mills from the Nieuw-Lekkerland polder and one from the Alblasserdam polder. Both of the former are of the same type as on De Overwaard, but De Hoge Molen (The High Mill) has an internal steel Archimedean screw for raising water, rather than a scoop wheel. The De Blokker mill on the Alblasserdam polder is the only example in this area of the earlier form of mill, the hollow post mill, in which the upper part of the structure that revolves with the wind is considerably larger than that of the bonnet mill. The date of its original construction is unknown, but records show that there has been a mill here since the late 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although they went out of use in the late 1940s, all 19 mills are still maintained in operating condition, because they function as fall-back mills in case of failure of the modern equipment. So far as the landscape is concerned, the other most striking feature is the evidence that still survives in two areas of the medieval land-tenure system, based on long thin strip fields. This is a landscape that has not changed significantly for centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The outstanding contribution made by the people of the Netherlands to the technology of handling water is admirably demonstrated by the installations in the Kinderdijk-Elshout area. Construction of hydraulic works for the drainage of land for agriculture and settlement began in the Middle Ages and have continued uninterruptedly to the present day. The site illustrates all the typical features associated with this technology – dykes, reservoirs, pumping stations, administrative buildings and a series of beautifully preserved windmills.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mill Network at Kinderdijk-Elshout</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>966</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The island society on Cura&amp;ccedil;ao (which covers some 450km2) owes its origin to the expansion of Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. After Spain had encroached upon the island in 1499 at the expense of its indigenous inhabitants, the Arawak Indians, the Dutch took possession of it in 1634, in the period of Dutch domination of trade and the seas, and the settlement was created by the Dutch West India Company (West-lndische Compagnie - WlC). Apart from two brief British occupations (1800-3 and 1807- 16), the island remained Dutch colonial territory until 1955, when the Netherlands Antilles acquired self-government within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Willemstad is a typical port town, but one without a hinterland, which focused on the neighbouring Spanish, English, and French colonies on the mainland of South America and in the Caribbean. Frequent trade with South America (the Spanish Main) led not only to an exchange of goods but also the reciprocal adoption of cultural elements. Cura&amp;ccedil;ao therefore has an Iberian tinge, not least as a result of the settlement of Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, who came there in the 17th century by way of Amsterdam. By 1730 the Jewish community represented 50% of the white population of Cura&amp;ccedil;ao. African influences also entered the island, since Cura&amp;ccedil;ao was a centre of the slave trade at one period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city developed on both banks of Sint Anna Bay, which forms the narrow entrance to the sheltered inland bay of Schottegat; both are excellent deepwater harbours. Settlement started on the eastern side, known as Punda, in the 17th century. Otrobanda, on the western side, developed at the beginning of the 18th century and a little later around Waaigat, the inner bay behind an elongated peninsula facing the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was some decline in the condition of the historic city in the second half of the 20th century, with the departure of many of the more prosperous members of the community, but this has now been halted and is being reversed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/819</http_url><id_number>819</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_819.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this site on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii), (iv) and (v)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that the Historic Area of Willemstad is a European colonial ensemble in the Caribbean of outstanding value and integrity, which illustrates the organic growth of a multicultural community over three centuries and preserves to a high degree significant elements of the many strands that came together to create it.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>12.1019400000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-68.9022200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Area of Willemstad is a European colonial ensemble in the Caribbean of outstanding value and integrity, which illustrates the organic growth of a multicultural community over three centuries and preserves to a high degree significant elements of the many strands that came together to create it. The urban structure and architecture of this area are both authentic examples of colonial town planning and architecture of the period of Dutch expansion. Its cultural and historical significance stems not only from its town planning and architectural qualities as a historic port town, but is also manifest beyond the local level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Willemstad stands out for the diversity in the historical morphology of its four historic districts (Punda, Otrobanda, Pietermaai and Scharloo), separated by the open waters of a natural harbour. Each district has its own distinct urban morphology resulting from successive planning concepts, but they share a unique 'tropicalized' historical architecture of Dutch origin. This area consists of a core area of Sint Anna Bay and part of the Caribbean Sea, Punda and most of Otrobanda, and two transmission areas, consisting of the urban districts of Pietermaai, Scharloo and Kortijn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the core area the entrance to Sint Anna Bay is protected by fortifications on both sides - the Water Fort on the Punda side and the Rif Fort on the Otrobanda side. These defensive works are important and relatively well-preserved examples of contemporary fortifications, especially when taken with other surviving defensive works that lie outside the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city's historical architecture is of a strikingly genuine and colourful European origin set in a tropical environment. Nothing like it can be found elsewhere in the Dutch West or East Indies. Punda represents a dense and compact historical urban structure, reflecting its origin as a fortified town surrounded by ramparts. Pietermaai and Scharloo enjoy the relative freedom of space resulting in an open layout of streets lined by detached and often quite luxurious dwellings, whereas Otrobanda features both an open compound layout and a dense alley structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island society on Cura&amp;ccedil;ao owes its origin to the expansion of Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. After Spain had encroached upon the island in 1499 at the expense of its indigenous inhabitants, the Arawak Indians, the Dutch took possession of it in 1634, in the period of Dutch domination of trade and the seas, and the settlement was created by the Dutch West India Company. The development of Punda began with the construction of Fort Amsterdam, designed according to the old Dutch fortification system. The fort with its five bastions was a self-contained settlement, with its own church and water supply as well as the residence of the governor and barracks for the garrison. Within each of the settlements flanking the bay there is a waterfront square, and they are linked by the famous pontoon bridge erected in 1888, officially known as the Queen Emma Bridge but better known to the inhabitants as the 'Swinging Old Lady'. Apart from two brief British occupations, the island remained Dutch colonial territory until 1955, when the Netherlands Antilles acquired self-government within the Kingdom of the Netherlands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Willemstad is a typical port town, but one without a hinterland, which focused on the neighbouring Spanish, English and French colonies on the mainland of South America and in the Caribbean. Frequent trade with South America led to an exchange of goods and the reciprocal adoption of cultural elements. Cura&amp;ccedil;ao therefore has an Iberian tinge as a result of the settlement of Sephardic Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 17th century. By 1730 the Jewish community represented 50% of the white population of Cura&amp;ccedil;ao. African influences also entered the island, as Cura&amp;ccedil;ao was a centre of the slave trade at one time.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The people of the Netherlands established a trading settlement at a fine natural harbour on the Caribbean island of Curaçao in 1634. The town developed continuously over the following centuries. The modern town consists of several distinct historic districts whose architecture reflects not only European urban-planning concepts but also styles from the Netherlands and from the Spanish and Portuguese colonial towns with which Willemstad engaged in trade.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Area of Willemstad, Inner City and Harbour, Curaçao</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>967</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Centuries of battling against water has created the Dutch landscape. Much of the territory of The Netherlands would be flooded if it had not been protected by building dikes over the centuries and kept dry by means of a sophisticated water-control system (waterstraat). Continuous efforts to drain lakes and open waters in the west of the country began in the 17th century and continue to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excess water was initially discharged by means of windmills, which pumped it successively into intermediate reservoirs and then into open water. This system is admirably represented by the Kinderdijk- Elshout mill network, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1997. The first use of steam for pumping was in 1825 at the Arkelse Dam, near Gorinchem. Radial or centrifugal pumps replaced the water-wheels driven by windmills. Initially manufactured in England, these pumps were being made in The Netherlands by the beginning of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of steam-driven pumping stations reached its peak between 1870 and 1885; very few new ones were built after 1900. It is estimated that there were about 700 in operation between 1900 and 1910. The first diesel-powered pumping station was built in 1904, and shortly afterwards electricity began to be used as the energy source. At the present time there are about 1600 active pumping stations in The Netherlands, the majority of them electrically powered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Friesland, where the nominated property is located, the construction of dikes began around AD 1000. The water was first drained off naturally but, as the area of reclaimed grew, it became necessary to discharge it into the network of interconnecting lakes and waterways known as the Frisian reservoir. This has been managed since 1648 by the Provincial Government of Friesland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Flooding was a regular occurrence, and the first communal ordinance to keep the sea dikes in good order was enacted in 1533. The catastrophic All Saints' Flood of 1570 resulted in all the low-lying land in the Province being inundated. In 1825 over 100,000ha of low-lying land was flooded when dikes burst, among them that at Lemmer, on the Zuyder Zee side of the Province. As a result a sluice was built there and the dikes were reinforced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second half of the 19th century saw considerable developments in the water-management system in the Province: this is demonstrated by the fact that in 1876 around 60,000ha of land were flooded when water levels in the reservoirs were high, whereas this had fallen to c 3000ha by 1993. Water was drained into the Lauwerszee, which served as a storage reservoir from which water was then discharged into the Zuyder Zee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Flooding in 1894 led the Ministry of Transport to form a committee to devise a new system for dealing with the situation. As a result of its recommendations, and those of a committee set up by the Province of Friesland, it was decided to reclaim the Lauwerszee and drain the south-western part of the Province. After some delay the decision was taken to build two new pumping stations along the southern coast of Friesland, with a combined capacity of 1575hp. The Provincial Government approved the construction of the first of these, along with a sea lock connected to the pumping station by a drainage canal, in 1913. The architect was the Chief Engineer of the Provincial Water Authority, Dirk Frederik Wouda (1880-1961), after whom it was renamed in 1947. Professor J C Dijxhoorn of the Technische Hogeschool Delft was responsible for the mechanical installations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction began in 1916 and the new pumping station was opened in 1920. A new inlet sluice was built in 1936-38, to the east of the pumping station. Damming of the Zuyder Zee in 1932 led to the level of water in what was now known as the IJsselmeer falling to such a low level that it was no longer possible to discharge by means of the sluices on the southern and western coasts of the Province: it is now drained into the Wadden Sea.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/867</http_url><id_number>867</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_867.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The advent of steam as a source of energy provided the Dutch engineers with a powerful tool in their millennial task of water management, and the Wouda installation is the largest of its type ever built.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Wouda Pumping Station represents the apogee of Dutch hydraulic engineering, which has provided the models and set the standards for the whole world for centuries.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Wouda pumping installations bear exceptional witness to the power of steam in controlling the forces of nature, especially as applied to water handling by Dutch engineers.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>52.8458300000</latitude><location>Lemmer, Lemsterland Municipality, Province of Friesland</location><longitude>5.6788900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Wouda Pumping Station represents the apogee of Dutch hydraulic engineering, which has provided the models and set the standards worldwide for centuries. It bears exceptional witness to the power of steam in controlling the forces of nature, especially as applied to water handling by Dutch engineers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex is located along the IJsselmeer, west of Lemmer in the Municipality of Lemsterland. The pumping station is at the end of a supply canal, dug in 1915, the Stroomkanaal and the Afwateringskanaal, through which the waters of the Frisian Reservoir flow into the IJsselmeer through the Groote Brekken Lake. The inlet sluice, built in 1936-38, is located a little to the east at the Teroelsterkolk. To the west of the pumping station is the Princess Margriet Lock and canal, in use since 1951 to handle the heavy traffic from the IJsselmeer. Centuries of battling against water has created the Dutch landscape. Much of the territory of the Netherlands would be flooded if it had not been protected by building dykes over the centuries and kept dry by means of a sophisticated water-control system (&lt;em&gt;waterstraat&lt;/em&gt; ). Continuous efforts to drain lakes and open waters in the west of the country began in the 17th century and continue to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excess water was initially discharged by means of windmills, which pumped it successively into intermediate reservoirs and then into open water. The first use of steam for pumping was in 1825 at the Arkelse Dam, near Gorinchem. Radial or centrifugal pumps replaced the water-wheels driven by windmills. Initially manufactured in England, these pumps were being made in the Netherlands by the beginning of the 20th century. The construction of steam-driven pumping stations reached its peak between 1870 and 1885; very few new ones were built after 1900. It is estimated that there were about 700 in operation between 1900 and 1910. The first diesel-powered pumping station was built in 1904, and shortly afterwards electricity began to be used as the energy source. At the present time there are about 1,600 active pumping stations in the Netherlands, most of them electrically powered. In Friesland the construction of dykes began around AD 1000. The water was first drained off naturally but, as the area reclaimed grew, it became necessary to discharge into the network of interconnecting lakes and waterways known as the Frisian reservoir. This has been managed since 1648 by the Provincial Government of Friesland. Flooding was a regular occurrence, and the first communal ordinance to keep the sea dykes in good order was enacted in 1533. The catastrophic All Saints' Flood of 1570 resulted in all the low-lying land in the province being inundated. In 1825 over 100,000&amp;nbsp;ha of low-lying land was flooded when dykes burst, among them that at Lemmer, on the Zuyder Zee side of the province. As a result a sluice was built there and the dykes were reinforced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second half of the 19th century saw considerable developments in the water-management system in the province: this is demonstrated by the fact that in 1876 around 60,000&amp;nbsp;ha of land were flooded when water levels in the reservoirs were high, whereas this had fallen to around 3,000&amp;nbsp;ha by 1993. Water was drained into the Lauwerszee, which served as a storage reservoir from which water was then discharged into the Zuyder Zee. Flooding in 1894 led the Ministry of Transport to form a committee to devise a new system for dealing with the situation. As a result of its recommendations, and those of a committee set up by the Province of Friesland, it was decided to reclaim the Lauwerszee and drain the south-western part of the province. After some delay, the decision was taken to build two new pumping stations along the southern coast of Friesland, with a combined capacity of 1,575 h.p. The Provincial Government approved the construction of the first of these, along with a sea lock connected to the pumping station by a drainage canal, in 1913. The architect was the Chief Engineer of the Provincial Water Authority, Dirk Frederik Wouda (1880-1961), after whom the station was renamed in 1947. Professor J.&amp;nbsp;C. Dijxhoorn of the Technische Hogeschool Delft was responsible for the mechanical installations. Construction began in 1916 and the pumping station was opened in 1920. A new inlet sluice was built in 1936-38, to the east of the pumping station. Damming of the Zuyder Zee in 1932 led to the level of water in what was now known as the IJsselmeer falling to such a low level that it was no longer possible to discharge by means of the sluices on the southern and western coasts of the province: it is now drained into the Wadden Sea.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Wouda Pumping Station at Lemmer in the province of Friesland opened in 1920. It is the largest steam-pumping station ever built and is still in operation. It represents the high point of the contribution made by Netherlands engineers and architects in protecting their people and land against the natural forces of water.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ir.D.F. Woudagemaal (D.F. Wouda Steam Pumping Station)</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1018</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Lagoons and deltas take up the greater part of the Dutch land. Over the centuries this land was made habitable by means of land reclamation and protection against the water. Of the 3.4 million ha which now constitute The Netherlands, a third is below sea level. If no dikes had been constructed and if there were no drainage of excess water, 65% of The Netherlands of today would be under water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The northern coastal area of the Kop van Noord-Holland and along the Wadden Sea was once a virtually interconnected series of mud-flats that extended to southwestern Denmark. The earliest habitation was on knolls, which offered protection from the water before sea walls and dikes had been constructed. The need to 'create' new land arose from the damage caused by the continual flooding, with the added bonus of obtaining excellent agricultural land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Five factors influenced on the process of land reclamation: the availability of capital for investment, stable political and economic relationships, and the availability of technical means, entrepreneurial spirit, and good prices for farmland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The battle against the water began in the northern part of Noord-Holland, in the area situated above the former open waters of the IJ, by keeping out the sea-water. From the 16th century onward efforts were geared toward draining lakes and ponds situated further inland. Land reclamation took place by draining the big lakes, particularly in the northern part of Holland. This process was made possible by the drastic improvement in pumping and draining technology using windmills driving waterwheels. From the end of the Middle Ages the entire north of the IJ (Hollands Noorderkwartier) was enclosed within a ring of dikes; however, considerable areas of water survived within the individual polders and the centre of the region was still occupied by the large Schermer, Purmer, and Beemster lakes. More and more land could be reclaimed when the technique of building dikes with discharging structures (sluices) was developed. These developments are sometimes called the delta-works of the 17th and 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wind power was used to drain the polders as early as the 15th century, through the use of wind-driven waterpumping mills. The 16th century development of the revolving cap on windmills made it possible to drain the larger lakes. From the beginning of the 17th century onward it became possible to drain large bodies of water, such as the Beemster, by using networks of three or four windmills. The invention of this process is attributed to Simon Stevin (1548-1620).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The initiative to drain the water of the Beemster was taken by a number of wealthy regents and merchants from Amsterdam and a number of high-ranking civil servants in The Hague. In 1607 a patent was granted by the States of Holland to sixteen people who founded the Beemstercompagnie to provide the requisite capital. The patent speaks of "work such, that it is possible to make Water into Land." In total there were 123 investors, who received a return of 17% on their investment upon completion of the polder in 1612.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a preliminary to the work, a map of the Beemster and its environs was made by the surveyor Pieter Cornelisz. Cort of Alkmaar, to determine the possible consequences of diking and to establish how to drain the Beemster itself. After Cort's death in 1608, he was succeeded by Lucas Jansz. Sinck, land surveyor in Amsterdam, who laid out the first dike section for the Beemster polder. In 1608 the dike section between Purmerend and Neck was subcontracted, as was the drainage canal to the Zuiderzee.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was decided in 1611 that Sinck would draw in the roads and canals. In that same year a start was made on laying out the canals and roads to prepare for the allotment of land. Within the allotments the owners would be allowed to dig as many canals and ditches as they saw fit. The blocks between the roads were to have a surface area of 400 morgen, divided by canals into four blocks of 100 morgen (1 morgen = c 0.85ha). It was finally decided to divide the land into five allotments. The allotments were made in "packages"; the value of each package compared to the others would be the same, as poor soil was compensated by good.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shovels and pickaxes were used in the basic engineering works; the foundations for sluices and windmills were sunk using manual pile-driving installations operated by 30-40 people. Reclamation was effected by means of windmills. The reclamation of the Beemster ultimately took place with the construction of fifteen windmill networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The polder finally became a reality on 19 May 1612, and in August 1612 the plots of land were allotted. The byelaw of 1616 includes conditions on "plants and trees." This created an "ideal" landscape from 1620 onward with the planting of the lanes with trees. First only the northern and western side of the roads were planted, so that the sun could dry the roads, which were still waterlogged. After the conversion from drainage by wind to steam power in the late 1800s, the water was discharged into the belt canal by three pumping stations. In the 20th century these were converted to diesel power. De Beemster is now drained by the fully automated electric pumping station Wouter Sluis along the Westdijk (Middensloot) and by the diesel pumping station Jacobus Bouman along the Oostdijk (Oosthuizersloot).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/899</http_url><id_number>899</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_899.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Beemster Polder is a masterpiece of creative planning, in which the ideals of antiquity and the Renaissance were applied to the design of a reclaimed landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The innovative and intellectually imaginative landscape of the Beemster Polder had a profound and lasting impact on reclamation projects in Europe and beyond. Criterion iv The creation of the Beemster Polder marks a major step forward in the interrelationship between humankind and water at a crucial period of social and economic expansion.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>52.5488888900</latitude><location>Province of Noord-Holland</location><longitude>4.9111111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The innovative and intellectually imaginative landscape of the Beemster Polder had a profound and lasting impact on reclamation projects in Europe and beyond. The creation of the polder marks a major step forward in the interrelationship between humankind and water at a crucial period of social and economic expansion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lagoons and deltas take up the greater part of Dutch land. Over the centuries this land was made habitable by means of land reclamation and protection against the water. Of the 3.4&amp;nbsp;million hectares that now constitute the Netherlands, a third is below sea level. If no dykes had been constructed and if there were no drainage of excess water, 65% of the country of today would be under water.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The northern coastal area of the Kop van Noord-Holland and along the Wadden Sea was once an interconnected series of mud-flats that extended to south-western Denmark. The earliest habitation was on knolls, which offered protection from the water before sea walls and dykes had been constructed. The need to 'create' new land arose from the damage caused by continual flooding, with the added bonus of obtaining excellent agricultural land. Five factors influenced the process of land reclamation: the availability of capital for investment, stable political and economic relationships, and the availability of technical means, entrepreneurial spirit, and good prices for farmland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The battle against the water began in the northern part of Noord-Holland, in the area situated above the former open waters of the IJ (Hollands Noorderkwartier), by keeping out the seawater. From the 16th century onwards efforts were geared towards draining lakes and ponds situated further inland. Land reclamation took place by draining the big lakes, particularly in the northern part of Holland. This process was made possible by the drastic improvement in pumping and draining technology using windmills driving waterwheels. From the end of the Middle Ages the entire north of the IJ was enclosed within a ring of dykes; however, considerable areas of water survived within the individual polders and the centre of the region was still occupied by the large Schermer, Purmer, and Beemster lakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wind power was used to drain the polders as early as the 15th century, through the use of wind-driven water-pumping mills. The development of the revolving cap on windmills made it possible to drain the larger lakes. From the beginning of the 17th century onwards it became possible to drain large bodies of water, such as the Beemster, by using networks of three or four windmills. The initiative to drain the water of the Beemster was taken by a number of wealthy regents and merchants from Amsterdam and a number of high-ranking civil servants in The Hague.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1608 the dyke section between Purmerend and Neck was subcontracted, as was the drainage canal to the Zuyder Zee. In that same year a start was made on laying out the canals and roads to prepare for the allotment of land. Within the allotments the owners would be allowed to dig as many canals and ditches as they saw fit. The blocks between the roads are divided by canals into four blocks of about 85&amp;nbsp;ha. It was finally decided to divide the land into five allotments. The allotments were made in 'packages'; the value of each package compared to the others would be the same, as poor soil was compensated by good. Shovels and pickaxes were used in the basic engineering works; the foundations for sluices and windmills were sunk using manual pile-driving installations operated by 30-40 people. Reclamation was effected by means of windmills; reclamation of the Beemster took place with the construction of fifteen windmill networks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The polder finally became a reality on 19 May 1612, and the plots of land were allotted. The bye-law of 1616 includes conditions on 'plants and trees'. This created an 'ideal' landscape from 1620 onwards with the planting of the lanes with trees. First only the northern and western side of the roads were planted, so that the heat of the sun could dry the roads, which were still waterlogged. After conversion from drainage by wind to steam power in the 1800s, water was discharged into the belt canal by three pumping stations. In the 20th century these were converted to diesel power, and now drainage is carried out by the fully automated electric pumping station.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Beemster Polder, dating from the early 17th century, is is an exceptional example of reclaimed land in the Netherlands. It has preserved intact its well-ordered landscape of fields, roads, canals, dykes and settlements, laid out in accordance with classical and Renaissance planning principles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Droogmakerij de Beemster (Beemster Polder)</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1051</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rietveld Schr&amp;ouml;der House in Utrecht was commissioned by Mrs Truus Schr&amp;ouml;der-Schr&amp;auml;der (1889-1985), designed by the architect Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1888-1965) and built in 1924. Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der lived in the house for some 60 years, first with her children, then in the company of Rietveld, and finally alone. During this long period some changes were made in the interior, resulting partly from the needs of the inhabitants, partly from the experimental character of the building itself. In the 1970s and 1980s, the building underwent restoration, re-establishing its initial form in the 1920s. The building is now a museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rietveld Schr&amp;ouml;der House can be seen as the manifesto of the De Stijl, an influential group of artists and architects who took their name from a periodical founded in 1917 by Theo van Doesburg (C E M Kupper, 1883-1931). His widow published the last issue in 1932. The periodical was devoted to modern Neo-Plasticism, and it became the most influential voice for the ideals of modern art and architecture in the Netherlands. It invited contributions from the foremost artists of the time, including Hans Arp, Vilmos Huszar, and Piet Mondrian (Mondriaan), and architects C van Eesteren, J J P Oud, and Gerrit Rietveld. Some of the roots of De Stijl can be found in Frank Lloyd Wright's influence on architecture in the Netherlands in the early 1900s. The De Stijl group stressed "total abstraction" with respect to what was called "Neo-Plasticism."&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the destruction wrought in World War I, the members of the group sought for the universal, as the individual was losing its significance. Abstraction, precision, geometry, striving towards artistic purity and austerity, studying the laws of nature to arrive at what really is, determined the thoughts and creations of De Stijl. The members of the group first expressed their ideas mainly in paintings, then in furniture and architecture; Rietveld's furniture has been referred to as "De Stijl sculptures." The Schr&amp;ouml;der House was the first declaration of these ideas in a large scale, thus becoming the architectural manifestation of the group. The range of ideas generated by the group reached Germany, influencing the establishment of the Bauhaus in Weimar in 1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Schr&amp;ouml;der House (Prins Hendriklaan 50a) was located on the edge of the city of Utrecht close to the countryside, at the end of a 19th century row of houses. It was built against the wall of the adjacent brick house. The area beyond the house remained undeveloped, because it contained 19th century Dutch defence lines, which were still in use at the time. The design and building of the house took place simultaneously. The few existing drawings and the scale model show that the design evolved from a fairly close block to an open transparent composition of evenly matched spaces composed of independent planes. Much of the design was determined on the construction site. This was the case also of the colours, particularly the shades of grey, which were repainted several times to achieve the desired quality and tonalities. The building was conceived as a manifesto from the beginning; Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der and Rietveld commissioned a full photographic documentation of the architecture. Their intention was to make sure the new approach to architecture and living were presented to reflect their intended ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The house developed along with its use. Anything that did not suffice or no longer suited was changed, particularly regarding pieces of furniture but also some materials in the interior. After the children left home, there were more radical changes: for example, in 1936 the kitchen was moved from the ground floor close to Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der's bedroom upstairs and the ground floor was often rented. There were many visitors from the beginning. Around 1935, in order to get some privacy, Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der asked Rietveld to design a small room to be built on the roof; this was later removed. In the early years, until 1932, Rietveld kept a studio in the house; from 1958, after his wife died, he came to live there until his death. In 1972, Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der established the Rietveld&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/965</http_url><id_number>965</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_965.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Rietveld Schröderhuis in Utrecht is an icon of the Modern Movement in architecture and an outstanding expression of human creative genius in its purity of ideas and concepts as developed by the De Stijl movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; With its radical approach to design and the use of space, the Rietveld Schröderhuis occupies a seminal position in the development of architecture in the modern age.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>52.0853333333</latitude><location>City and Province of Utrecht</location><longitude>5.1475555556</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;With its radical approach to design and the use of space, the Rietveld is an icon of the Modern Movement in architecture and an outstanding expression of human creative genius in its purity of ideas and concepts as developed by the De Stijl movement. It occupies a seminal position in the development of architecture in the modern age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was commissioned by Mrs Truus Schr&amp;ouml;der-Schr&amp;auml;der, designed by the architect Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1888-1965), and built in 1924. Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der lived in the house for some 60 years, first with her children, then in the company of Rietveld, and finally alone. In the early years, until 1932, Rietveld kept a studio in the house; from 1958, after his wife died, he came to live there until his death. During this long period some changes were made in the interior, resulting partly from the needs of the inhabitants, partly from the experimental character of the building itself. The building is now a museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rietveld Schr&amp;ouml;der House is the manifesto of the De Stijl, an influential group of artists and architects who took their name from a periodical founded in 1917. The periodical was devoted to modern neo-Plasticism, and it became the most influential voice for the ideals of modern art and architecture in the Netherlands. It invited contributions from the foremost artists of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the destruction wrought in the First World War, members of the group sought for the universal, as the individual was losing its significance. Abstraction, precision, geometry, striving towards artistic purity and austerity, studying the laws of nature to arrive at what really is, determined the thoughts and creations of De Stijl. The members of the group first expressed their ideas mainly in paintings, then in furniture and architecture. The Schr&amp;ouml;der House was the first declaration of these ideas on a large scale, thus becoming the architectural manifestation of the group. The range of ideas generated by the group reached Germany, influencing the establishment of the Bauhaus in Weimar in 1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Schr&amp;ouml;der House was built on the edge of the city of Utrecht close to the countryside, at the end of a 19th-century row of houses. The design and building of the house took place simultaneously. The few existing drawings and the scale model show that the design evolved from a fairly close block to an open transparent composition of evenly matched spaces composed of independent planes. Much of the design was determined on the construction site, as were the colours. The building was conceived as a manifesto from the beginning; Mrs Schr&amp;ouml;der and Rietveld commissioned a full photographic documentation of the architecture. Their intention was to make sure the new approach to architecture and living were presented to reflect their intended ideas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In this house the concept of space is no longer elaborated as defined within a cube. As with his early chairs, Rietveld gave a new spatial meaning to the straight lines and rectangular planes of the various architectural and structural elements, slabs, posts and beams, which were composed in a balanced ensemble. At the same time, each element was given autonomy while emphasizing the fluidity and continuity of space. Although the building has obvious artistic value, Rietveld gave much attention to functionality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The house has two floors, developing around a spiral staircase in the centre. The main structure consists of reinforced concrete slabs and steel profiles. It is painted in basic colours, red, blue, yellow, black and white, as well as shades of grey (often referred to Mondriaan's paintings). Unlike a traditional Dutch house, where rooms are accessible through corridors, this house was conceived by Rietveld in a flexible manner. There is no hierarchical arrangement of rooms in the floor plan. The upper floor is one open space around the staircase. It can be divided into three bedrooms and a sitting room by sliding panels. On the ground floor Rietveld was forced to meet Dutch regulations in order to acquire a building permit. There five rooms are grouped around a small hall. The interrelation of the rooms can be sensed by the fanlights above the doors and by the recessed and staggered inner walls.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht was commissioned by Ms Truus Schröder-Schräder, designed by the architect Gerrit Thomas Rietveld, and built in 1924. This small family house, with its interior, the flexible spatial arrangement, and the visual and formal qualities, was a manifesto of the ideals of the De Stijl group of artists and architects in the Netherlands in the 1920s, and has since been considered one of the icons of the Modern Movement in architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rietveld Schröderhuis (Rietveld Schröder House)</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1129</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century Amsterdam was a small fishing village on the banks of the Amstel River and its mouth on the IJ, an arm of the Zuiderzee inlet. The name comes from the combination of Amstel and Dam, the latter word indicating a dyke or dam built to hold back the sea. This earth levee was also used to carry traffic and was extended by a bridge over the Amstel, made toll-free by a decision of the Count of Holland, Floris V. Amsterdam was proclaimed a city in 1306, and by the end of the Middle Ages it had become an important centre for maritime trade in northern Holland as its port developed on the river mouth. It mainly traded with the Hanseatic League, which it joined in 1369; but it was Antwerp that still dominated the maritime trade of The Netherlands and the North Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Protected behind its dyke, the city grew around the port and Damplein, but the marshy soil had first to be drained and many houses built on piles. At that time it was restricted inside an initial semi-circular canal, the Singel, designed both for drainage and for military defence. In 1452 a fire destroyed almost all the city's timber-framed buildings, and brick became the most common material for rebuilding the city. The city built fortifications along the Singel at the end of the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Netherlands passed under Spanish rule in 1515 with the accession of Charles V. The country rose in revolt in the 16th century in defence of public freedom and religious tolerance, since much of the population had espoused the Reformation. After a period of wars and compromises, the seven provinces of the northern Netherlands formed the independent United Provinces in 1581. This situation attracted rich Jewish families, Antwerp traders, and French Huguenots in particular to Amsterdam, the largest city in this relatively dispersed federation without any prince regent. It became a land of refuge and of free-thinking. For two decades the military situation, the naval in particular, with Spain remained tense; there were many conflicts, but maritime trade and warehousing activities developed quickly. The Dutch East India Company (VOC, 1602) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC, 1621) were created to trade with the Indian Ocean and the Americas respectively. The 17th century was a particularly flourishing period for the United Provinces, whose sovereignty, economic importance, and cultural uniqueness were fully recognised by the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 16th century, Amsterdam developed very rapidly and the port-city soon ran out of space within the medieval confines of the Singel. A vast project, for defence and urban growth, was carried out in the 16th and 17th centuries. The new line of defence based on a new boundary canal, the Singelgracht, designed by Daniel Stalpaert, extended the city outwards by around 800m. The Singel was then transformed into an inland port (1601-1603). The positioning between the latter and the Singelgracht opened up space for a new urban area that still had to be drained and backfilled. The project, conceived by Hendrick Jacobszoon Staets, led to the construction of a new port and trading city, built along a network of three new main canals which made it possible for trading vessels to dock. They were in the form of a series of concentric arcs, parallel to the Singel and adopting the same hydraulic morphology. They were dug simultaneously starting from the IJ, towards the south. The two first sections took the work as far as the Leidsegracht radial canal, allowing backfilling and building to begin; the third section extended the work to the Amstel around 1620. Following exactly the same principles, a fourth section was undertaken beyond the river towards the 'eastern islands' in the mid-17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, regular planning following the annular canals stopped at the outermost edge of the three, the Prinsengracht. In its western section, between it and the new Singelgracht defence line, the Jordaan district followed the old plot boundaries of the gardens after which it is named, breaking with the rectilinear pattern of the initial plans. This district, which was originally more working class and inhabited by immigrants, is the only part of the nominated property at its urban boundary with the Prinsengracht Canal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This planned extension of Amsterdam is the work of the mercantile middle class that ran the city. It managed the projects financially, supervised the drafting of the plans, coordinated the work, issued building regulations, and supervised their application. In meeting the needs of trade, practical functionality and hydraulic and military safety were the driving forces for the project. The general rise in wealth of the city and its inhabitants in the 17th century made it possible for this ambitious urban and port extension to be completed in accordance with the initial project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Amsterdam's growth made it one of the great European capitals, and its port became the most important for international maritime trade. In 1685 the city's per capita income was four times that of Paris, allowing the quantity and quality of the real-estate development along the canals throughout the century. Amsterdam continued to develop its tradition as a mercantile, middle-class, humanist, and tolerant city. It continued to welcome&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;immigrants, notably the French Huguenots after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and more generally the free-thinkers of Europe. In this way, it enriched its economic and artistic elite, but also its expertise with the arrival of highly skilled craftsmen. At that time Amsterdam was one of the cultural capitals of Europe and among the most brilliant and most dynamic, notable for its printers, whose products were sold throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The orderly growth of the city's new districts along its canals became a reference urban model, an image of the ideal city that would be adopted and repeated right across 18th century Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The example of this city, enriched by its maritime trade, defended by its canals, dykes, and locks, and never flooded throughout its entire history, attracted the attention of all the great European builders of the day. It directly influenced civil engineering and town planning in England, Sweden, and Russia, where Peter the Great recruited its craftsmen and engineers to create Saint Petersburg, in similar swampy land on the banks of an estuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century saw the prosperity of the city and its port decline. Wars against France and England undermined its maritime trade. The renewal of the port would come in the 19th century as a result of the creation of canals - the North Holland canal in 1825, followed by the direct connection with the North Sea in 1876. Its traffic is still, however, less than that of Rotterdam, close to the mouths of the Rhine and the Meuse.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A trend towards converting the warehouses into apartments began in the 18th century and gathered pace as time passed, in response to the growing urban population, and then to the city's role as a capital demanding greater services. In the 19th and early 20th centuries office buildings were erected, in harmony with the old context in terms of scale, architecture, and materials. However, the arrival of the railway and the central station on the banks of the IJ cut the city off from its direct contact with the inlet.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 20th century Amsterdam became an important administrative and financial centre. It shares the role of political capital of the Kingdom of The Netherlands with The Hague. In World War II around 100,000 Amsterdam Jews were deported, the majority of whom lived in the canal districts. The material damage caused by the war was relatively minor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Retail shops and growing tourism are reflected in the city's changes in the second half of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1349</http_url><id_number>1349</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1349.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.3650000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.8877777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic urban ensemble of the canal district of Amsterdam was a project for a new ‘port city’ built at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. It comprises a network of canals to the west and south of the historic old town and the medieval port that encircled the old town and was accompanied by the repositioning inland of the city’s fortified boundaries, the Singelgracht. This was a long-term programme that involved extending the city by draining the swampland, using a system of canals in concentric arcs and filling in the intermediate spaces. These spaces allowed the development of a homogeneous urban ensemble including gabled houses and numerous monuments. This urban extension was the largest and most homogeneous of its time. It was a model of large-scale town planning, and served as a reference throughout the world until the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Seventeenth-Century Canal Ring Area of Amsterdam inside the Singelgracht</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1666</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1441</http_url><id_number>1441</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1441.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.9233333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>4.4183333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Van Nellefabriek was designed and built in the 1920s on the banks of a canal in the Spaanse Polder industrial zone north-west of Rotterdam. The site is one of the icons of 20th-century industrial architecture, comprising a complex of factories, with fa&amp;ccedil;ades consisting essentially of steel and glass, making large-scale use of the curtain wall principle. It was conceived as an &amp;lsquo;ideal factory&amp;rsquo;, open to the outside world, whose interior working spaces evolved according to need, and in which daylight was used to provide pleasant working conditions. It embodies the new kind of factory that became a symbol of the modernist and functionalist culture of the inter-war period and bears witness to the long commercial and industrial history of the Netherlands in the field of importation and processing of food products from tropical countries, and their industrial processing for marketing in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Van Nellefabriek</site><states>Netherlands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1984</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(vi)(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Maoriare a Polynesian people who reached Aotearoa (New Zealand) before AD 1300 (and possibly as early as AD 600-800). They came as settlers in large double-hulled canoes -men, women, and children, with their plants and domestic animals. One of the most important was the Arawa canoe, which made its first landfall at Whangaparaoa on North Island's East Cape and then travelled to Maketu in the Bay of Plenty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The descendants of that canoe still hold authority over the land as far south as the Tongariro National Park. The people of the Park - Ngati Tuwharetoa - identify with Ngatoroirangi, the navigator of the Arawa canoe and legendary bringer of fire to Tongariro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mananui To Heuheu, paramount chief of Ngati Tuwharetoa, was one of the few Maori chiefs who refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 and thereby cede sovereignty to the British Crown. His son Horonuku, who succeeded Mananui in 1846 when he was buried by an avalanche on the mountain and who became known as Te Heuheu Tukino in 1862, came under severe pressure from land-hungry European settlers. When faced with the dilemma of having to divide his land following a dispute with the Maniapoto iwi or lose it to the Land Court, he took the advice of his sonin- law Lawrence Grace to make it 'a taou place of the Crown, a sacred place under the mana of the Queen". With the approval of the Tuwharetoa chiefs the land was handed over to the Crown as a gift in September 1887.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original deed of gift made an area of 2640 ha consisting of three small circles around the main peaks into the first national park in New Zealand, and the fourth in the world. This was too small for effective management and over the years that followed large-scale purchases of land were made by the Crown, so that when the Tongariro National Park Act was passed in 1894 its area had increased to some 25,000 ha. A survey report in 1904 recommended that the area should be more than doubled, and today the Park's boundaries enclose over 79,000 ha.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/421</http_url><id_number>421</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_421.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-39.2908333300</latitude><location></location><longitude>175.5622222000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Tongariro lies at the south-western terminus of a Pacific chain of volcanoes aligned along a major tectonic plate boundary. The park's volcanoes, which are outstanding scenic features of the island, contain a complete range of volcanic features. The related ecological succession of plant communities is of special scientific interest. The site is directly associated with the living traditions, beliefs and artistic works of the Maori people, whcih are of outstanding universal significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tongariro National Park is situated on the central North Island volcanic plateau. The boundary encircles the Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe and Tongariro mountain massif at an altitude of 500-1,550 m. An outlier, 3 km north of the main park area and separated from it by Lake Rotoaira, includes Lake Rotopounamu, Mount Pihanga and Mount Kakaramea. The park lies at the southern end of a discontinuous 2,500 km chain of volcanoes that extends north-east into the Pacific. The volcanoes in the park, which are predominantly andesitic in composition, fall into two groups on the basis of location, activity and size. Kakaramea, Tihia and Pihanga volcanoes and their associated vents, domes, cones and craters form the northern group. These lie on a 10 km north-west to south-east axis and have not been active for some 20,000-230,000 years. The active group extends for some 20 km along a south-west to north-east axis, with a width of some 10 km, and comprises Tongariro, Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu volcanoes. The Tongariro complex consists of recent cones, craters, explosion pits, lava flows and lakes superimposed on older volcanic features. In addition to these major features, the park contains other extinct volcanoes, lava and glacial deposits and a variety of springs. Extensive glaciation up to 14,700 years ago eroded both Tongariro and Ruapehu and glacial valleys with terminal and lateral moraine formations are present. Glaciers are currently restricted to Mount Ruapehu, although all are less than 1 km in length after several decades of retreat. Habitats are diverse, ranging from remnants of rainforest to practically barren ice fields. From the lowest altitudes to 1,000 m in the west and north, about 3,000 ha of once widespread mixed podocarp-broadleaf rainforest is present. At higher altitudes beech forest occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Scrublands cover some 9,500 ha. Tussock shrubland and tussockland cover extensive areas in the north-west and around the mount Ruapehu massif at about 1,200-1,500 m. The highest altitudes in the park are dominated by gravelfields and stonefields. The vertebrate fauna is restricted mainly to birds although native mammals are represented by short-tailed and long-tailed bats. More than 56 bird species have been recorded in the park, including brown kiwi and North Island fern bird.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area has been occupied by Maoris since they first arrived from Polynesia and ethnic mythology identifies the mountains in the park with &lt;em&gt;tupuna&lt;/em&gt; (god-like ancestors). Until the land was given to the nation in 1887, it was occupied by the Tu Wharetoa tribe.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1993</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1993 Tongariro became the first property to be inscribed on the World Heritage List under the revised criteria describing cultural landscapes. The mountains at the heart of the park have cultural and religious significance for the Maori people and symbolize the spiritual links between this community and its environment. The park has active and extinct volcanoes, a diverse range of ecosystems and some spectacular landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tongariro National Park</site><states>New Zealand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>487</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Proposed for inscription on the Unesco World Heritage List in 1990. A major preservation initiative was the reservation for national park purposes of 950,OOOha of Fiordland in 1904. The name was subsequently changed to Fiordland National Park when it was gazetted under national parks legislation in 1955. Mount Cook and Westland national parks were gazetted in 1953 and 1960, respectively, and Mount Aspiring National Park in 1964. Mount Aspiring National Park almost doubled in size by the mid-1970s, and 24,285ha was added in 1989. The upper Karangarua Valley was added to Westland National Park in 1983. Much of the land not included within national park has been managed as State forest land under the Forests Act, Crown land under the Land Act or as reserves under the Reserves Act.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/551</http_url><id_number>551</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_551.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-45.0360277800</latitude><location>Southwest of South Island</location><longitude>167.3196111000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Te Wahipounamu comprises the least-disturbed tenth of New Zealand's land mass, with some 2&amp;nbsp;million hectares of temperate rainforest, 450&amp;nbsp;km of alpine communities, and a distinctive fauna. It contains the best modern representation of the ancient flora and fauna of Gondwanaland, including &lt;em&gt;Podocarpus&lt;/em&gt; species, genera of beech, flightless kiwis, 'bush' moas and carnivorous &lt;em&gt;Powelliphanta&lt;/em&gt; land snails.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The overwhelming mountainous character of the area results from tectonic movement between the Pacific plate and the Indo-Australian plate over the last 5&amp;nbsp;million years. High local relief is the result of deep glacial excavation. Glaciers are an important feature of the nominated area, especially in the vicinity of Westland and Mount Cook national parks. There have also been substantial post-glacial changes, especially marked in South Westland and the Southern Alps. Erosion is rapid, especially west of the Main Divide. Intense gullying, serrated ridges, and major and minor rock falls are characteristic of this zone. However, glacial landforms are almost entirely intact in Fiordland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation is notable both in national and international terms for its diversity and essentially pristine condition. A floristically rich alpine vegetation of shrubs, tussocks and herbs extends around the summits of the mountains, from about 1,000&amp;nbsp;m to the permanent snowline. At warmer lower altitudes, the rainforest is dominated by dense stands of tall podocarps. The wetter, milder west is characterized by luxuriant rainforest and wetlands; the drier, more continental east has more open forest, shrublands and tussock grasslands. The most extensive and least modified natural freshwater wetlands in New Zealand are found in this area. Sizeable open wetlands, including high-fertility swamps and low-fertility peat bogs, are a particular feature of the south Westland coastal plain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The best-known vegetation chronosequences are those on glacial landforms where the ages of outwash, terrace and higher piedmont surfaces are known. The most impressive landform chronosequence is the flights of marine terraces in southern Fiordland. As the least-modified region on mainland New Zealand, the south-west is the core habitat for many indigenous animals, including a number of primitive taxa, and contains the largest and most significant populations of forest birds in the country, most of which are endemic to New Zealand. A few mountain valleys in Fiordland harbour the total wild population (about 170 birds) of the takahe, a large flightless rail believed extinct until 'rediscovered' in 1948 and which is recognized as endangered. Most of New Zealand's fur seals are found along the south-west coast. Virtually wiped out by sealing in the early 1800s, they currently number about 50,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A Maori association with the area falls into three broad categories: mythological, traditional history and ethnological. All these values are contained within the tradition of the Ngai Tahu tribe, whose ancestral territories cover all except the extreme northern parts of South Island.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The landscape in this park, situated in south-west New Zealand, has been shaped by successive glaciations into fjords, rocky coasts, towering cliffs, lakes and waterfalls. Two-thirds of the park is covered with southern beech and podocarps, some of which are over 800 years old. The kea, the only alpine parrot in the world, lives in the park, as does the rare and endangered takahe, a large flightless bird.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Te Wahipounamu – South West New Zealand</site><states>New Zealand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>648</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/877</http_url><id_number>877</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_877.jpg</image_url><iso_code>nz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands display a pattern of immigration of species, diversifications and emergent endemism, offering particularly good opportunities for research into the dynamics of island ecology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands are remarkable for their high level of biodiversity, population densities,and for endemism in birds, plants and invertebrates. The bird and plant life, especially the endemic albatrosses, cormorants, landbirds and &amp;ldquo;megaherbs&amp;rdquo; are unique to the islands.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-50.7500000000</latitude><location>New Zealand Subantartic zone</location><longitude>166.1044444000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands consist of five island groups located in the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean off the south-eastern coast of New Zealand. Along with the Macquarie Island World Heritage site in Australia, the five islands form the only subantarctic island group in the region. The islands lie between latitudes of 47&amp;ordm; and 52&amp;ordm; south and include the Snares, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Islands. Total land area is 76,458&amp;nbsp;ha. The site includes a marine component extending 12&amp;nbsp;km from each island group.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The islands lie on the shallow continental shelf and three of the groups are eroded remnants of Pliocene volcanoes. Rivers are short with precipitous streams. The lakes are few and generally shallow and small. Quaternary glaciers have left shallow cirques, moraines and fjords on some islands. Cool equable temperatures, strong westerly winds, a few hours of sunshine and high humidity prevail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the exception of the Bounty Islands which have no higher plants, the remaining islands together with neighbouring Macquarie Island, constitute a Centre of Plant Diversity and have the richest flora of all the subantarctic islands. The Snares and two of the Auckland Islands are especially important in that their vegetation has not been modified by human or alien species. The terrestrial flora of the islands comprises 233 vascular plants of which 196 are New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands (New Zealand) indigenous, six endemic, and 30 are rare. Auckland Islands have the southernmost forests in the region, dominated by a species of myrtle. A particular floral feature of the islands is the 'megaherbs' that contribute to rich and colourful flower gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the islands lie between the Antarctic and Subtropical Convergences, the seas have a high level of productivity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Islands are particularly notable for the huge abundance and diversity of pelagic seabirds and penguins that nest there. There are 120 bird species in total, including 40 seabirds of which five breed nowhere else. The islands support major populations of 10 of the world's 24 species of albatross. Almost 6&amp;nbsp;million sooty shearwaters nest on Snares Island alone. There are also a large number of threatened endemic land birds including one of the world's rarest ducks. 95% of the world's population of New Zealand sea lion (formerly known as Hooker's sea lion) breed here and there is a critical breeding site for the southern right whale. A number of endemic invertebrates also occur.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands consist of five island groups (the Snares, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands and Campbell Island) in the Southern Ocean south-east of New Zealand. The islands, lying between the Antarctic and Subtropical Convergences and the seas, have a high level of productivity, biodiversity, wildlife population densities and endemism among birds, plants and invertebrates. They are particularly notable for the large number and diversity of pelagic seabirds and penguins that nest there. There are 126 bird species in total, including 40 seabirds of which five breed nowhere else in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands</site><states>New Zealand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1029</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Although detailed archaeological research has not been carried out on the site of what was to become the capital of the province of Nicaragua, the early Spanish chroniclers record that the region was densely populated before the conquest by Chorotega Indians, a farming society with a moderate hierarchical structure headed by an elected council of elders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Spanish town was founded in 1524 by Francisco Hern&amp;aacute;ndez de C&amp;oacute;rdoba, who was sent from Panam&amp;aacute; by Pedrarias D&amp;aacute;vila to conquer the Pacific zone northwards to Tezoatega (now the village of El Viejo). It developed, like many colonial towns in Latin America, round a central plaza, on the extreme north-east shore of what was to be called the Lake of Le&amp;oacute;n. Its role was to dominate the territory already conquered by the Spaniards and expand towards the Gulf of Fonseca and the mining zone of Olancho, as well as to Agu&amp;aacute;n on the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hern&amp;aacute;ndez de C&amp;oacute;rdoba did not enjoy his new capital for long, since he was executed on the orders of Pedrarias for treason in 1526. Pedrarias came to Le&amp;oacute;n as Governor of Nicaragua in 1528, the year which saw the first convent established, by Francisco de Bobadilla, and also a severe famine, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of the indigenous people. Their numbers were further depleted as a result of their being exported as slaves to Panam&amp;aacute; and Per&amp;uacute; in large numbers, one of the main activities of Le&amp;oacute;n. The end of this momentous year saw the creation of a mint by Royal command, "to process the gold and silver and other metals of this province," thus establishing the second pillar of the economy of the town. Both were productive of violence and demographic catastrophes during its short 86 years of existence. Despite its role as a provincial capital Le&amp;oacute;n was never more than a relatively modest collection of rustic buildings, most of them in the same material as those used by the indigenous people, wood, bamboo, and mud - mezquinas barracas (mean huts) in the contemptuous words of the Marquess of Lozoya. Only the church, the convents, and the houses of the governor and a handful of the richer citizens were more elaborate. The fortress that was built at the beginning of the settlement was allowed to fall into ruins within twenty years, indicating the extent of the pacification of the region. The Royal foundry and mint was also a substantial building, but constructed in the indigenous materials, which resulted in successive fires. The material needs of the inhabitants were well catered for, judging by the range of craftsmen working in the town from early on in its history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Le&amp;oacute;n reached its peak of development around 1545, during the governorship of Rodrigo de Contreras. It was still relatively small, its Spanish population not exceeding some two hundred. The murder of Bishop Antonio de Valdivieso in 1550 seemed to mark a turning point in its fortunes: it was widely believed to have put a curse on the town, which suffered from both natural and economic disasters in the years that followed. There was an eruption of the nearby volcano, Momotombo, in 1578, which combined with the raging inflation to drive the richer inhabitants away. By 1603 there were only ten houses remaining, the others having been abandoned and allowed to fall into ruins. The final blow came on 11 January 1610, when a severe earthquake destroyed what was still standing. The decision was taken to move the city to a site six leagues away, near the village of Subtiava, that had already been under consideration for several years. It is recorded that the ruins of the old town were used as a ready source of building materials for the new settlement.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/613</http_url><id_number>613</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_613.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ni</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii The ruined town of Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo provides exceptional testimony to the material culture of one of the earliest Spanish colonial settlements. Criterion iv The form and nature of early Spanish settlement in the New World, adapting European architectural and planning concepts to the material potential of another region, are uniquely preserved in the archaeological site of Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>12.3972200000</latitude><location>Puerto Momotombo, Municipality of La Paz Centro, Department of León</location><longitude>-86.6102800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The form and nature of early Spanish settlement in the New World, adapting European architectural and planning concepts to the material potential of another region, are uniquely preserved in the archaeological site of Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo, which provides exceptional testimony to the material culture of one of the earliest Spanish colonial settlements. The site of Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo is a historic monument of exceptional importance that is probably unique in Central America. This is largely due to its state of preservation, as few 16th century cities are preserved intact and unaltered by subsequent rebuilding.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo is an excellent laboratory for experimentation with excavation techniques, and the artefacts discovered provide a rich inventory of materials dating from the first years of contact between the Spanish settlers and the indigenous population in the 16th century. These materials may be used to establish comparative chronological sequences to date other sites in Nicaragua and neighbouring regions. Given the presence of a pre-Hispanic population, the site offers the potential to study the demographic, social and economic dynamic between the native and Spanish communities. Moreover, burials may supply details about diet and diseases introduced by the Spaniards. Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo could be a key site for the development of historical archaeology in Central America, a region where the discipline is still in its infancy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region was densely populated before the conquest by Chorotega Indians, a farming society with a moderate hierarchical structure headed by an elected council of elders. The Spanish town was founded in 1524 by Francisco Hern&amp;aacute;ndez de C&amp;oacute;rdoba, who was sent from Panama by Pedrarias D&amp;aacute;vila to conquer the Pacific zone northwards to Tezoatega. It developed, like many colonial towns in Latin America, round a central plaza, on the extreme north-east shore of what was to be called the Lake of Le&amp;oacute;n. Its role was to dominate the territory already conquered by the Spaniards and expand towards the Gulf of Fonseca and the mining zone of Olancho, as well as to Agu&amp;aacute;n on the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite its role as a provincial capital, Le&amp;oacute;n was never more than a relatively modest collection of rustic buildings, most of them in the same material as those used by the indigenous people: wood, bamboo and mud - &lt;em&gt;mezquinas barracas&lt;/em&gt; (mean huts) in the contemptuous words of the Marqu&amp;eacute;s de Lozoya.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only the church, convents and houses of the governor and a handful of the richer citizens were more elaborate. The fortress, which was built at the beginning of the settlement, was allowed to fall into ruins within 20 years, indicating the extent of the pacification of the region. The Royal Foundry and Mint was also a substantial building, but constructed in the indigenous materials, which resulted in successive fires. The material needs of the inhabitants were well catered for, judging by the range of craftsmen working in the town from early in its history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Le&amp;oacute;n reached its peak of development around 1545, during the governorship of Rodrigo de Contreras. It was still relatively small, its Spanish population not exceeding some 200. There was an eruption of the nearby volcano, Momotombo, in 1578, which combined with the raging inflation to drive the richer inhabitants away. By 1603 there were only 10 houses remaining, the others having been abandoned and allowed to fall into ruins. The final blow came on 11 January 1610, when a severe earthquake destroyed what was still standing. The city was taken to a site 'six leagues away', near the village of Subtiava.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original layout of the town is not recorded and has so far not been reconstructed from archaeological data. It was certainly laid out on a regular grid pattern but it is unlikely to have been as large as contemporary towns such as Lima. Excavations carried out since the site was discovered in 1968 have uncovered the remains of a number of buildings, of which the following are the most important: the cathedral, with a central nave and a main altar at the eastern end reached by steps; the Convent of La Merced, which consists of five rooms enclosed by a tapia wall and connecting directly with the convent church; the Royal Foundry, one of the largest buildings in the town, consisting of 11 rooms; and several private houses, some of which can be assigned to a known inhabitant of the town.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo is one of the oldest Spanish colonial settlements in the Americas. It did not develop and so its ruins are outstanding testimony to the social and economic structures of the Spanish Empire in the 16th century. Moreover, the site has immense archaeological potential.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ruins of León Viejo</site><states>Nicaragua</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>728</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1236</http_url><id_number>1236</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1236.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ni</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.4350000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-86.8780555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built between 1747 and the early 19th century to the design of Guatemalan architect Diego Jos&amp;eacute; de Porres Esquivel, the monument expresses the transition from Baroque to Neoclassical architecture and its style can be considered to be eclectic. The Cathedral is characterized by the sobriety of its interior decoration and the abundance of natural light. The vault of the Sanctuary, however, presents rich ornamentation. The Cathedral houses important works of art including a wooden Flemish altarpiece, and paintings of the 14 stations of the Way of the Cross by Nicaraguan artist Antonio Sarria (late 19th and early 20th centuries).&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>León Cathedral</site><states>Nicaragua</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1789</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1992</danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The reserve was gazetted by Decree No. Infobase produced by WCMC, January 1992&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/573</http_url><id_number>573</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_573.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ne</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.0000000000</latitude><location>Départment d’Agades, arrondissement d’Arlit</location><longitude>9.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Saharan region of Niger, approximately 160&amp;nbsp;km north-east of Agadez, the reserve includes a smaller core area integral reserve called Sanctuaire des Addax.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve lies in an arid region of the Sahara, with average rain fall of around 50&amp;nbsp;mm per year. It is composed of two main zones: the mountain massifs of the Air rising to 2,000&amp;nbsp;m in altitude, and the extensive flat plain of the T&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute; desert. Habitats are diverse, ranging from aquatic communities in the permanent rock pools (&lt;em&gt;gueltas&lt;/em&gt; ) of the mountains, to heavily-wooded valleys and open sandy desert. The Air Mountains are basically a Sahelian enclave surrounded by a Saharan environment, but Sudanese and Mediterranean elements are also present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The relict Sudanese and Mediterranean elements are found above 1,000&amp;nbsp;m in the sheltered wetter localities in the massifs. Sudanese species include &lt;em&gt;Grewia&lt;/em&gt; and several species of &lt;em&gt;Ficus&lt;/em&gt; . Mediterranean species include the wild olive. The reserve harbours significant populations of the wild relatives of several important crop species: wild olive, millet and sorghum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;40 species of mammal, 165 birds, 18 reptiles and one amphibian from the reserve have been identified. Significant populations of several internationally threatened Saharan desert ungulate species are present: there are an estimated 12,000 Dorcas gazelle, 170 Dama gazelle, 3,500 Barbary sheep (&lt;em&gt;aoudad&lt;/em&gt; ), occasional addax and possibly slender-horned gazelle. Carnivores include healthy populations of fennec fox, Ruppell's fox, and a small and probably declining population of 15-20 cheetahs. About 85 of the bird species recorded are Palaearctic migrants; of the remainder the estimated 800-2,000 ostrich represent the last viable population of the West African race, and there are substantial numbers of Nubian bustard. The reptilian fauna includes the desert monitor lizard, the sand viper and various species of sand boa and gecko.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palaeolithic and Neolithic archaeological sites are found at many locations in the reserve, as are rock engraving sites. The 3,500-7,000 Twareg inhabitants for the most part maintain a lifestyle of transhumant pastoralism, raising goats and camels. The settled population practises irrigated agriculture, growing wheat, fruit, vegetables and dates.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This is the largest protected area in Africa, covering some 7.7 million ha, though the area considered a protected sanctuary constitutes only one-sixth of the total area. It includes the volcanic rock mass of the Aïr, a small Sahelian pocket, isolated as regards its climate and flora and fauna, and situated in the Saharan desert of Ténéré. The reserves boast an outstanding variety of landscapes, plant species and wild animals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Air and Ténéré Natural Reserves</site><states>Niger</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>678</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1268</http_url><id_number>1268</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1268.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ne</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.9736111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>7.9913888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Known as the gateway to the desert, Agadez, on the southern edge of the Sahara desert, developed in the 15&lt;span&gt;th&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;and 16&lt;span&gt;th&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;centuries when the Sultanate of A&amp;iuml;r was established&amp;nbsp; and Touareg tribes were sedentarized in the city, respecting the boundaries of old encampments, which gave rise to a street pattern still in place today. The historic centre of the city, an important crossroads of the caravan trade, is divided into 11 quarters with irregular shapes. They contain numerous earthen dwellings and a well-preserved group of palatial and religious buildings including a 27m high&amp;nbsp; minaret made entirely of mud brick, the highest such structure in the world.&amp;nbsp; The site is marked by ancestral cultural, commercial and handicraft traditions still practiced today and presents exceptional and sophisticated examples of earthen architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Agadez</site><states>Niger</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1905</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The evidence for Neolithic occupation of Sukur is slight, but a pre-Sukur Iron Age phase is shown by finds of furnaces, ore, and grindstones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present Dur dynasty of chiefs was established in the 17th century. It saw Sukur becoming a major iron-producing region, supplying north-eastern Nigeria with a vital raw material. This phase continued until the first decade of the 20th century. However, between 1912 and 1922 Sukur was subjected to raids and devastation at the hands of Hamman Yaje, the Fulbe Lamido (chief) of nearby Madagali.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Iron smelting continued to decline in the colonial and independence period, ending around 1960. As a result there were substantial migrations of Sukur people from the plateau to the plains lying to north and south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/938</http_url><id_number>938</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_938.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ng</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): Sukur is an exceptional landscape which graphically illustrates a form of land-use that marks a critical stage in human settlement and its relationship with its environment. Criterion (v): The cultural landscape of Sukur has survived unchanged for many centuries, and continues to do so at a period when this form of traditional human settlement is under threat in many parts of the world. Criterion vi The cultural landscape of Sukur is eloquent testimony to a strong and continuing cultural tradition that has endured for many centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>10.7405600000</latitude><location>Madagali Local Government Area, Adamawa State</location><longitude>13.5719400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of Sukur has survived unchanged for many centuries, and graphically illustrates a form of land use that marks a critical stage in human settlement and its relationship with its environment. Situated on a plateau in north-eastern Nigeria, near the frontier with Cameroon, it has been occupied for centuries, and its inhabitants have left abundant traces on the present-day landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hidi's Palace or house complex of the Hidi (chief), the harem section of which is now in ruins, is of considerable political and religious significance for the Sukur people. The evidence for Neolithic occupation of Sukur is slight, but a pre-Sukur Iron Age phase is shown by finds of furnaces, ore and grindstones. The buildings that make up the circular enclosure are relatively simple in design, and constructed of the local granite. Some of the large stones, such as the monoliths that flank one of the gates, are very large and were brought to the site over long distances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present Dur dynasty of chiefs was established in the 17th century. It saw Sukur becoming a major iron-producing region, supplying north-eastern Nigeria with a vital raw material. This phase continued until the first decade of the 20th century. However, between 1912 and 1922 Sukur was subjected to raids and devastation at the hands of Hamman Yaje, the Fulbe Lamido (chief) of nearby Madagali. Iron smelting continued to decline in the colonial and independence period, ending around 1960. As a result there were substantial migrations of Sukur people from the plateau to the plains lying to north and south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Leading up to the palace complex from the north and east are paved walkways, 5-7&amp;nbsp;m wide, made from slabs of the same granite that was used within the palace itself. Within and around the complex there are also paved paths, but composed of much larger slabs. The domesticated landscape of the Sukur plateau is characterized by the extensive terracing, of a type known elsewhere in Nigeria. However, the Sukur terraces have a sacred quality that is lacking in these purely functional terraced landscapes, and they are the product of social organizations whose working parties maintained and progressively extended them. While primarily intended to provide level areas for agriculture, they are invested with a spiritual significance, as shown by the sacred trees, entrances and ritual sites within them. The villages, situated on low-lying ground below the Hidi Palace, have their own domestic architecture of drystone walls, used as social markers and defensive enclosures, sunken animal pens, granaries and threshing floors. Again, local granite is the main source of constructional materials. The living huts are simple circular structures made from clay with roofs of thatch and woven mats. Integrated groups are surrounded by low drystone walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional cemeteries are to be found in the hills. The tombs are simple stone structures, and different clans and social groups had their own cemeteries. The only exceptions were for the Hidi, whose bodies were buried within their own palace complexes, and children, buried close to the settlement. Of considerable social and economic importance are the wells - below ground, surmounted by conical stone structures and surrounded by an enclosure wall. Within these domestic animals such as cattle and sheep were fattened, for consumption by the family or as status symbols used in gift and marriage exchanges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remains of many disused iron-smelting furnaces can still be found. These shaft-type furnaces, blown with bellows, were usually sited close to the houses of their owners. It is clear that iron production involved complex socio-economic relationships and that there was a considerable ritual associated with it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are a number of shrines and altars, many of them ceramic, in the Sukur cultural landscape particularly in and around the Hidi Palace. The landscape as a whole is an integrated one, which symbolizes the political and economic structure of the Sukur people. Authority, in the form of the Hidi, is located in an elevated position overlooking the mass of the people in their low-lying villages. Complex social relationships can be observed in the disposition of the cemeteries, while the relationships between iron furnaces and settlements and within the agricultural terraces illustrate an elaborate economic pattern of production and distribution.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sukur Cultural Landscape, with the Palace of the Hidi (Chief) on a hill dominating the villages below, the terraced fields and their sacred symbols, and the extensive remains of a former flourishing iron industry, is a remarkably intact physical expression of a society and its spiritual and material culture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sukur Cultural Landscape</site><states>Nigeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1093</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Osogbo is believed to have been founded around 400 years ago. It is part of the wider Yoruba community, divided into 16 kingdoms, which legend says were ruled by the children of Oduduwa, the mythic founder, whose abode at Ile-Ife, south-east of Osogbo, is still regarded as the spiritual home of the Yoruba people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest settlement seems to have been in the Osogbo Grove and included palaces and a market. When the population expanded the community moved outside the Grove and created a new town, which reflected spatially the arrangements within the Grove.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1840s Osogbo became a refugee town for people fleeing the Fulani Jihad, as it moved south from what is now northern Nigeria. The Yorubas retreated further south into the forests and Osogbo, right at the northern edge of the forest, became an important centre for northern Yorubaland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fulani attacks on Osogbo were repelled and, as a result, Osogbo has become a symbol of pride for all the Yorubas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the first half of the 20th century, the town of Osogbo expanded considerably. In 1914 British colonial rule begun. As it was delivered under a system of indirect rule through traditional rulers, the authority of the Oba and priests were sustained. A greater change was brought about from the middle of the 19th century through the introduction of both Islam and Christianity. Islam became the religion of traders and ruling houses - as it gave contacts to northern trade routes and links to returning exslaves from Central and South America. For a while all three religions co-existed but as time went by it became less fashionable to be identified with the Ogboni and Osun cults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 1950s the combined political and religious changes were having a marked detrimental effect on the Grove: customary responsibilities and sanctions were weakening, shrines were becoming neglected and traditional priests began to disappear. All this was exacerbated by a rise in the looting of statues and movable sculptures to feed an antiquities market. At around this time part of the Grove was acquired by the Department of Agriculture and Forestry for agricultural experiments. Trees were felled and teak plantations established; sculptures were reportedly stolen and hunting and fishing begun to be recorded - previously forbidden in the sacred Grove.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was at this crucial point in the history of the Grove that Austrian born Suzanne Wenger moved to Osogbo and, with the encouragement of the Oba and the support from local people, formed the New Sacred Art movement to challenge land speculators, repel poachers, protect shrines and begin the long process of bringing the sacred place back to life through once again establishing it as the sacred heart of Osogbo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The artists deliberately created large, heavy and fixed sculptures in iron, cement and mud, as opposed to the smaller traditional wooden ones, in order that their intimidatory architectural forms would help to protect the Grove and stop thefts. All the sculptures have been done in full respect for the spirit of the place, with inspiration from Yoruba mythology and in consultations with the gods in a traditional context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new work has made the Grove a symbol of identity for the Yoruba people. Many from the African Diaspora now undertake a pilgrimage to the annual festival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1965 part of the Grove was declared a national monument. This was extended in 1992 so that now the whole 75 hectares are protected.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1118</http_url><id_number>1118</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1118.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ng</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The development of the movement of New Sacred Artists and the absorption of Suzanne Wenger, an Austrian artist, into the Yoruba community have proved to be a fertile exchange of ideas that revived the sacred Osun Grove ;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt;The Osun Sacred Grove is the largest and perhaps the only remaining example of a once widespread phenomenon that used to characterise every Yoruba settlement. It now represents Yoruba sacred groves and their reflection of Yoruba cosmology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi): &lt;/em&gt;The Osun Grove is a tangible expression of Yoruba divinatory and cosmological systems; its annual festival is a living thriving and evolving response to Yoruba beliefs in the bond between people, their ruler and the Osun goddess.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>7.7555600000</latitude><location>Osogbo, Osun State</location><longitude>4.5522200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Osun Sacred Grove is the largest and perhaps the only remaining example of a once widespread phenomenon that used to characterise every Yoruba settlement. It now represents Yoruba sacred groves and their reflection of Yoruba cosmology. It is a tangible expression of Yoruba divinatory and cosmological systems; its annual festival is a living thriving and evolving response to Yoruba beliefs in the bond between people, their ruler and the Osun goddess.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grove covers 75 ha of ring-fenced forest alongside the Osun River on the outskirts of Osogbo town, Western Nigeria. About 2 million people live in Osogbo. The grove in Yoruba cosmology is the domicile of Osun, the goddess of fertility. Ritual paths lead devotees to 40 shrines, dedicated to Osun and other Yoruba deities, and to nine specific worship points beside the river. Osun is the Yoruba personification of the 'waters of life' and the spiritual mother of the Osogbo township. It also symbolizes a pact between Larooye, the founder of Osogbo, and Osun: the goddess gave prosperity and protection to her people if they built a shrine to her and respected the sprit of the forest. Unlike other Yoruba towns whose sacred groves have atrophied, or disappeared, the Osogbo Grove has, over the past 40 years, been re-established as a central, living focus of the town. The Osogbo Grove is now seen as a symbol of identity for all Yoruba people, including those of the African diaspora, many of whom make pilgrimages to the annual festival.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grove has a mature, reasonably undisturbed, forest canopy, which supports a rich and diverse flora and fauna - including the endangered white-throated monkey. Some parts were cleared in the colonial period, and teak plantations and agriculture introduced, but these are now being re-established. The grove is a highly sacred sanctuary where shrines, sculptures and artworks honour Osun and other Yoruba deities. It has five main sacred divisions associated with different gods and cults, located either side of a path transecting the grove from north-west to south-east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Osun River meanders through the whole grove and along its length are nine worship points. Throughout the grove the broad river is overhung with forest trees. Its waters signify a relationship between nature, the spirits and human beings, reflecting the place given to water in the Yoruba cosmology as symbolizing life. The river is believed to have healing, protective and fertility powers. The fish are said to have been used by the goddess Osun as messengers of peace, blessings and favour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Traditionally, sacred trees and stones and metal objects, along with mud and wood sculptures, defined the deities in the grove. During the past 40 years, new sculptures have been erected in the place of old ones and giant, immovable ones created in threatened spaces in the grove by Suzanne Wenger working with a group of local artists called New Sacred Art. These sculptures are made from a variety of materials - stone, wood, iron and concrete. There are also wall paintings and decorative roofs made from palm fronds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are two palaces. The first is part of the main Osun-Osogbo shrine. The second palace is where Larooye moved to before the community established a new settlement outside the grove. Both buildings are constructed of mud walls with tin roofs supported variously by mud and carved wooden pillars. The three Ogboni buildings are constructed with sweeping roofs rising high over the entrances and supported on a cluster of slender carved wooden posts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Annual Osun-Osogbo festival is a 12-day event held once a year at the end of July and the beginning of August. The grove is seen as the repository of kingship, as well as the spiritual heart of the community. The festival invokes the spirits of the ancestor kings and rededicates the present Oba to Osun, as well as reaffirming and renewing the bonds between the deities represented in the Sacred Grove and the people of Osogbo. The finale of the festival is a procession of the whole population, led by the votary maid Arugba and headed by the Oba and priests, all accompanied by drumming, singing and dancing.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The dense forest of the Osun Sacred Grove, on the outskirts of the city of Osogbo, is one of the last remnants of primary high forest in southern Nigeria. Regarded as the abode of the goddess of fertility Osun, one of the pantheon of Yoruba gods, the landscape of the grove and its meandering river is dotted with sanctuaries and shrines, sculptures and art works in honour of Osun and other deities. The sacred grove, which is now seen as a symbol of identity for all Yoruba people, is probably the last in Yoruba culture. It testifies to the once widespread practice of establishing sacred groves outside all settlements.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove</site><states>Nigeria</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1298</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/99</http_url><id_number>99</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_99.jpg</image_url><iso_code>mk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.1180600000</latitude><location>Ohrid (municipality)</location><longitude>20.8133300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Writing, education and Slavonic culture - all spread out from Ohrid in the 7th to 19th centuries. It is a cultural centre of great importance for the history not only of this part of the Balkan Peninsula, but also for all nations of the Slavonic tongue and for world history and literature, with precious manuscripts and other rarities. This city and its historic-cultural region are located in a natural setting of exceptional beauty, while its architecture represents the best preserved and most complete ensemble of ancient urban architecture of the Slavic lands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ohrid is one of the most ancient human settlements in Europe, containing as it does Neolithic archaeological sites and others from the Bronze Age and the Hellenistic period. With its numerous prehistoric sites and its traces of the material culture of more than 5,000 years ago, Ohrid is indeed an archaeological treasury and the surroundings of the lake can be styled a magical land of archaeology. More than 250 archaeological sites with material remains dating from between the Neolithic period and the late Middle Ages have been excavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the very heart of the present city of Ohrid lies the antique city of Lichnid, significant and rich, as is its successor. The metamorphosis of ancient Lichnid into medieval Ohrid took from the 6th to the 9th century, creating one of the most significant medieval cities in the Balkans. The Ohrid saga reveals memories of the birth of Slavic literacy and culture in the works of St Clement and St Naum; St Clement is worshipped as a patron of the city: his three decades of work in the city (886-916) initiated the foundation of the Clement Slavic University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the old part of the town lying on the hillside below the double ridge of Lake Ohrid, which came into existence in a remote geological period as a result of tectonic shifts, are to be found remains of ancient temples and basilicas as well as numerous churches and chapels, built from the 9th to the 14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient Slavonic St Clement's Monastery of St Panteleimon at Plaosnik was resanctified on 11 August 2002 when, after many years, the remains of St Clement of Ohrid, the first Slavic Bishop (893) and founder of the Macedonian Orthodox Church, were returned to this temple.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations of the cathedral church of St Sophia, which is situated at the foot of the hilly part of Ohrid and close to the lake, show that it was built on the foundations of an early Christian basilica and was reconstructed at the time of Archbishop Leo (1037-56). The name of Theoranius, one of the most important painters of the 14th century, has been discovered on the archangel's sword in the 'Repentance of David' fresco on the first floor in the Church of St Sophia and on painted frescoes and icons for the other churches of Ohrid. The frescoes of St Clement's Church of the Holy Mother of God are primarily distinguished by the artists' obvious tendency towards individual characterization of the portraits and a marked effort to move away from iconographic stereotypes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the pillars in the narthex of St Naum two inscriptions are to be found: made by priests, they are valuable documentary evidence of the development of the Glagolitic and Cyrillic scripts in the Ohrid region. The monumental Early Christian Episcopal Church lies in the hilly part of Ohrid. The Church of St John the Evangelist (or Theologian) at Kaneo, built and decorated towards the end of the 13th century, is of great relevance to a study of Ohrid's medieval monuments as it is a highly successful combination of Byzantine and Armenian elements. The other monuments of Ohrid are Samuel's Fortress, with its enceinte of medieval ramparts, and the classical theatre built about 2,000 years ago, either in the late Hellenistic period or shortly after the Roman occupation. The town's architecture represents, with its old typical streets and houses and its particular atmosphere around old squares, the best preserved and most complete ensemble of ancient urban architecture of this part of Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1980</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the shores of Lake Ohrid, the town of Ohrid is one of the oldest human settlements in Europe. Built mainly between the 7th and 19th centuries, it has the oldest Slav monastery (St Pantelejmon) and more than 800 Byzantine-style icons dating from the 11th to the end of the 14th century. After those of the Tretiakov Gallery in Moscow, this is considered to be the most important collection of icons in the world&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region</site><states>North Macedonia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1714</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/58</http_url><id_number>58</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_58.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>61.3000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>7.3333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The stave churches constitute one of the most elaborate types of wood construction which are typical of northern Europe from the Neolithic period to the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Christianity was introduced into Norway during the reign of St Olav (1016-30). The churches were built on the classic basilical plan, but entirely of wood. The roof frames were lined with boards and the roof itself covered with shingles in accordance with construction techniques which were widespread in Scandinavian countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the roughly 1,300 medieval stave churches indexed, about 30 remain in Norway. Some of them are very large, such as Borgund, Hopperstad or Heddal churches, whereas others, such as Torpo or Underdal, are tiny. Urnes Church was selected to represent this outstanding series of wood buildings for a number of reasons, which make it an exceptional monument:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its antiquity: This church, which was rebuilt towards the mid-12th century, includes some elements originating from a stave church built about one century earlier whose location was revealed by the 1956-57 excavations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The exemplary nature of its structure: This is characterized by the use of cylindrical columns with cubic capitals and semicircular arches, all of which use wood, the indigenous building material, to express the language of stone Romanesque architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The outstanding quality of its sculpted monumental decor: On the outside, this includes strapwork panels and elements of Viking tradition taken from the preceding building (11th century). In the interior is an amazing series of 12th-century figurative capitals that constitute the origin of the Urnes Style production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wealth of liturgical objects of the medieval period: This includes Christ, the Virgin and St John as elements of a rood beam, a pulpit of sculpted wood, enamelled bronze candlesticks, the corona of light, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excellent conservation of a perfectly homogeneous ensemble: The embellishment of the 17th century (1601 and &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1700) and the restorations of 1906-10 preserved its authenticity completely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The location of the church within the backdrop of a glacial valley on the north bank of Sognefjord.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The wooden church of Urnes (the &lt;em&gt;stavkirke&lt;/em&gt;) stands in the natural setting of Sogn og Fjordane. It was built in the 12th and 13th centuries and is an outstanding example of traditional Scandinavian wooden architecture. It brings together traces of Celtic art, Viking traditions and Romanesque spatial structures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Urnes Stave Church</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>62</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/59</http_url><id_number>59</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_59.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>60.3972200000</latitude><location>City of Bergen, County of Hordaland</location><longitude>5.3230600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In its present form, following the 1702 fire, the harmonious ancient quarter of Bryggen illustrates the use of space in a district of Hanseatic merchants. It is a type of northern &lt;em&gt;fondaco&lt;/em&gt; unequalled by even L&amp;uuml;beck or Novgorod.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This part of the town with its traditional wooden buildings perpetuates the memory of one of the oldest large trading port of northern Europe, and the only one outside the Hanseatic League whose original structures remain within the city limits and cityscape. Founded in about 1070 by King Olav the Peaceful (Olav Kyrre), the port of Bergen was initially a possession of the old Norwegian aristocracy that had acquired a monopoly on fish trading. The sagas, such as that of King Sverre (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1180) already spoke of the Bryggen district as the base of patrician merchants. About 1350, the powerful Hanseatic League gained control of Bergen and a food packing trade was established not long afterwards. The Bryggen district owes its physiognomy to the German colonists. It is characterized by the construction of buildings along the narrow streets running parallel to the docks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban unit revolves around a courtyard (&lt;em&gt;g&amp;aring;rd&lt;/em&gt;), which is common to several three-level wooden houses whose gabled facades and lateral walls are covered with shingles, as are the roofs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Towards the back of the &lt;em&gt;g&amp;aring;rd&lt;/em&gt;, there is a small warehouse or storeroom (&lt;em&gt;kjellere&lt;/em&gt;) of stone which protects the area against fire. This repetitive structure was adapted to the living conditions of the colonists of the Hanseatic trading post. The German merchants, who were bachelors, took up winter residence in the small individual wooden houses, and the storeroom was used as a individual or collective warehouse. A true colony, Bryggen enjoyed quasi-extraterritoriality which continued beyond the departure of the Hanseatics until the creation of a Norwegian trading post in 1754 on the impetus of fishermen and shipowners of German origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This district, which bears the traces of social organization of space going back to the 14th century, suffered damage over the centuries, some of the most devastating of which being the fires of 1476 and 1702. It nevertheless retains a medieval appearance owing to the fact that it was always reconstructed in accordance with the original plan and using traditional techniques. In 1955 another fire did extensive damage to the city as a whole, one-third of which was destroyed. Following this last catastrophe, the remaining 58 houses were carefully restored and methodical excavations revealed various levels of occupation, from the 12th to the 18th centuries. On this particular occasion, the variations of the seafront, which contrast with the immutability of the land plot, were studied.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Bryggen, the old wharf of Bergen, is a reminder of the town’s importance as part of the Hanseatic League’s trading empire from the 14th to the mid-16th century. Many fires, the last in 1955, have ravaged the characteristic wooden houses of Bryggen. Its rebuilding has traditionally followed old patterns and methods, thus leaving its main structure preserved, which is a relic of an ancient wooden urban structure once common in Northern Europe. Today, some 62 buildings remain of this former townscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bryggen</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>63</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/352</http_url><id_number>352</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_352.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>69.9500000000</latitude><location>Alta municipality, county of Finnmark</location><longitude>23.1833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rock Drawings of Alta constitute the most important piece of evidence in favour of the existence of human activity in the confines of the Great North during the prehistoric period. Studied from 1967, the petroglyphs of the Alta fjord in the province of Troms&amp;oslash; were immediately classed among the leading rock art sites in the world. Close to the Arctic Circle, they are a valuable illustration of human activity between 4200 and 500 BC in the Northern Hemisphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The position of the paintings and engravings with respect to sea level at different postglacial periods constitutes a relative dating element, which is corroborated by objective iconography data. According to the principle of reverse stratigraphy, the most ancient works are generally the highest, the most recent being close to the present sea level (the height difference is roughly 26&amp;nbsp;m). They are primordial evidence of the fauna, representing reindeer, elks, bears, dogs and/or wolves, foxes, hares, geese, ducks, swans, cormorants, halibut, salmon and whales, and of the environment. They also depict boating, hunting, trapping and fishing scenes, as well as people taking part in dances and ritual acts. In the final phase, some agricultural activities, rendered precarious by the climate, appear to have supplemented certain staples traditionally provided by hunting and fishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The thousands of paintings and engravings located at 45 sites scattered over seven localities illustrate a chronological sequence consisting of four phases. The largest area is at Hjemmeluft/Jiepmaluokta, where Alta Museum is situated. Approximately 3,000 figures have been found here. This is the only area open to the public. In addition, there is an area with rock paintings. Some of the panels at Hjemmeluft/Jiepmaluokta are linked by wooden footways.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hunters and fishers in the late Stone Age/early Metal Age, between 6,200 and 2,000 years ago, made the rock carvings in Alta. During this period, Hjemmeluft/Jiepmaluokta was where people from the coast and inland regions, who gathered here several times a year perhaps in connection with seasonal, nomadic journeys, performed ritual ceremonies. The rock carvings depict some of the beliefs held by these people and the rites they practised. The rock carvings were probably elements in myths and stories about the worlds inhabited by the people and the spirits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rock carvings at Hjemmeluft/Jiepmaluokta were hewn into the massive and hard sandstone using one stone as a chisel and another stone or an antler as a hammer. The outlines of the figures were pecked out first, and then the lines and surfaces were chiselled out. Today many of the figures are difficult to see, and, therefore, some of the figures along the wooden footway are painted with a red colour resembling the colour of the rock paintings in Scandinavia. However, the majority of the rock carvings in Alta are not painted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The museum exhibition covers the period from the pioneer settlement 11,000 years ago to the birth of Christ. It gives a thematic introduction to Finnmark's prehistory, which has been studied by researchers ever since the geologist and archaeologist Anders Nummedal discovered the earliest settlements in this part of Norway in 1925. This pioneer settlement in the early Stone Age was previously known as the Komsa Culture, named after the little mountain in Alta where Nummedal made his first finds. Throughout the Stone Age and early Metal Age, hunting and fishing people lived off the ample resources in the area. The first immigrants settled on the coast, but people gradually also occupied the interior. In the large rock art areas in Alta, groups from coast and inland met to practise religious rites and beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rock carvings in Alta indicate that this was a religious meeting-place in the late Stone Age (4200-1800 BC) and early Metal Age (1800 BC). Various types of bear-hunting scenes are common among the oldest rock carvings, suggesting that the bear may have been viewed in a similar way 5,000-6,000 years ago as it was in the pre-Christian S&amp;aacute;mi religion. The S&amp;aacute;mi gods are presented as they are depicted on the &lt;em&gt;Runebommen&lt;/em&gt; (magic drum). The exhibition also shows how, in the S&amp;aacute;mi religion, nature was regarded as possessing a soul and being alive.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This group of petroglyphs in the Alta Fjord, near the Arctic Circle, bears the traces of a settlement dating from c. 4200 to 500 B.C. The thousands of paintings and engravings add to our understanding of the environment and human activities on the fringes of the Far North in prehistoric times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Art of Alta</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>403</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1195</http_url><id_number>1195</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1195.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii): &lt;/em&gt;The West Norwegian Fjords are classic, superbly developed fjords, considered as the type locality for fjord landscapes in the world. They are comparable in scale and quality to other existing fjords on the World Heritage List and are distinguished by the climate and geological setting. The property displays a full range of the inner segments of two of the world&amp;rsquo;s longest and deepest fjords.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii): &lt;/em&gt;The N&amp;aelig;r&amp;oslash;yfjord and Geirangerfjord areas are considered to be among the most scenically outstanding fjord areas on the planet. Their outstanding natural beauty is derived from their narrow and steep-sided crystalline rock walls that rise up to 1400 m direct from the Norwegian Sea and extend 500 m below sea level. Along the sheer walls of the fjords are numerous waterfalls while free-flowing rivers rise up through deciduous and coniferous forest to glacial lakes, glaciers and rugged mountains. There is a great range of supporting natural phenomena, both terrestrial and marine such as submarine moraines and marine mammals. Remnants of old and now mostly abandoned transhumant farms add a cultural aspect to the dramatic natural landscape that complements and adds human interest to the area.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>62.1166700000</latitude><location>Counties of Møre &amp; Romsdal and Sogn &amp; Fjordane</location><longitude>7.1666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in south-western Norway, north-east of Bergen, Geirangerfjord and N&amp;aelig;r&amp;oslash;yfjord, set 120&amp;nbsp;km from one another, are part of the west Norwegian fjord landscape that stretches from Stavanger in the south to Andalsnes, 500&amp;nbsp;km to the north-east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two fjords, among the world's longest and deepest, are considered as archetypical fjord landscapes and among the most scenically outstanding anywhere. Their exceptional natural beauty is derived from their narrow and steep-sided crystalline rock walls that rise up to 1,400&amp;nbsp;m from the Norwegian Sea and extend 500&amp;nbsp;m below sea level. The sheer walls of the fjords have numerous waterfalls, while free-flowing rivers cross their deciduous and coniferous forests to glacial lakes, glaciers and rugged mountains. The landscape features a range of supporting natural phenomena, both terrestrial and marine such as submarine moraines and marine mammals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Remnants of old and now mostly abandoned transhumant farms add a cultural aspect to the dramatic natural landscape that complements and adds human interest to the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in south-western Norway, north-east of Bergen, Geirangerfjord and N&amp;aelig;r&amp;oslash;yfjord, set 120 km from one another, are part of the west Norwegian fjord landscape, which stretches from Stavanger in the south to Andalsnes, 500 km to the north-east. The two fjords, among the world&amp;rsquo;s longest and deepest, are considered as archetypical fjord landscapes and among the most scenically outstanding anywhere. Their exceptional natural beauty is derived from their narrow and steep-sided crystalline rock walls that rise up to 1,400 m from the Norwegian Sea and extend 500 m below sea level. The sheer walls of the fjords have numerous waterfalls while free-flowing rivers cross their deciduous and coniferous forests to glacial lakes, glaciers and rugged mountains. The landscape features a range of supporting natural phenomena, both terrestrial and marine, such as submarine moraines and marine mammals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>West Norwegian Fjords – Geirangerfjord and Nærøyfjord</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1372</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;When the copper ore was discovered and the first mining activity began there were scattered farms in the region and the areas near R&amp;oslash;ros were used for summer grazing, haymaking, hunting, and fishing. Sami people lived there and in the 17th century, with the start of copper mining, they changed from hunting and fishing to nomadic reindeer husbandry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mining activity was encouraged by the Danish- Norwegian king Christian IV who needed the income and the metal to enable him to wage his wars of expansion. Silver works were established in Kongsberg (1623), while copper mining began in Kvikne (1630), R&amp;oslash;ros (1644), L&amp;oslash;kken (1654), Selbu (1717), and Folldal (1748).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first mine where copper ore was found proved not to be commercially exploitable but mining activities started at Storwartz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1646 the king established an area of privileges to be granted to the mining company. Inside the Circumference R&amp;oslash;ros Copper Works had the monopoly for exploiting the natural resources, and the farmers living there were obliged to work for the company, in return for some form of payment. Farming activities were encouraged and the working timetable of the copper works included one day per week and one month per year free to allow employees to carry out farming work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The company was organised as a &amp;lsquo;partnership': the copper was distributed among the owners according to the size of their share and they had to make independent arrangements for selling their metal. Operating capital had to be advanced every year, and the company was obliged to provide food supplies and educational and health services to the mining town and its related communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The golden age of R&amp;oslash;ros mining town was between the 1740s and 1814, the date of the end of the privileges when Norway secured its independence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The operation of copper works remained profitable until the 1860s, when the price of copper fell and operating costs increased. Major technological advances in mining operations were introduced in this period: the construction of the railway (1877), the use of the adapted Bessemer iron-refining process (1887), and the introduction of electricity (1897). All this ensured a further period of prosperity that declined after World War I until the company's bankruptcy in 1977.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until the 1880s the technology of mining and smelting underwent only occasional and gradual changes and was carried out thanks to animal and water power. To obtain the intermediate product known as copper matte a five-step roasting and smelting process was developed to separate sulphur and iron from copper, which required several days to produce the copper. The introduction of the Bessemer process drastically reduced the&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/55</http_url><id_number>55</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_55.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>62.5738888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>11.3855555556</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;R&amp;oslash;ros is a characteristic example of this type of technological and industrial development, as well as being an outstanding survivor of a traditional kind of human settlement built by traditional methods of construction. Also, it has vulnerable under the impact of economic change since the cessation of copper mining after 333 years of continuous activity. Lastly, R&amp;oslash;ros embodies a strong degree of rarity because of its location. It was built as an industrial community in the mountains (650&amp;nbsp;m above sea level) at a very northern latitude subject to extremely long winters and low temperatures (-50&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the framework of Norway's inventory of cultural property, R&amp;oslash;ros ranks in importance with Bryggen and the stave church at Urnes. R&amp;oslash;ros is an extensive mining settlement dating from 1644, when the development of the copper works began. Its physical history has continued without interruption since the town was burned in 1679.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thus the numerous surviving buildings represent the Norwegian tradition of construction that flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries. The buildings reflect the dual occupations of the inhabitants - mining and farming - the domestic groups being arranged as compact farmyards. These groups are disposed on a regular urban pattern adapted to the mountain terrain, reflecting the particular kind of industrial planning introduced by the Danish kings of Norway in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;R&amp;oslash;ros is in a remarkably complete state of preservation. An engraving of the town as seen from the slag heaps in the 1860s is virtually the same as a photograph of the 1970s taken from the same viewpoint.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Preservation efforts date from the early years of the 20th century. The first legal protection of buildings in R&amp;oslash;ros was effected in 1923. Legal protection now extends to 80 buildings. In 1936 land was purchased for the development of an open-air museum, and the first old building was moved to the site in 1947. However, the museum impetus was overtaken by a movement, dating from 1938, that led to the preparation of plans for the preservation of the town and copper works &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Røros Mining Town and the Circumference is linked to the copper mines, established in the 17th century and exploited for 333 years until 1977. The site comprises the Town and its industrial-rural cultural landscapes; Femundshytta, a smelter with its associated area; and the Winter Transport Route. Completely rebuilt after its destruction by Swedish troops in 1679, Røros contains about 2000 wooden one- and two-storey houses and a smelting house. Many of these buildings have preserved their blackened wooden façades, giving the town a medieval appearance. Surrounded by a buffer zone, coincident with the area of privileges (the Circumference) granted to the mining enterprise by the Danish-Norwegian Crown (1646), the property illustrates the establishment and flourishing of a lasting culture based on copper mining in a remote region with a harsh climate.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Røros Mining Town and the Circumference</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1667</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1486</http_url><id_number>1486</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1486.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.8786111111</latitude><location>N59 52 43 E8 35 37</location><longitude>8.5936111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span&gt;Located in a dramatic landscape of mountains, waterfalls and river valleys, the site comprises hydroelectric power plants, transmission lines, factories, transport systems and towns. The complex was established by the Norsk-Hydro Company to manufacture artificial fertilizer from nitrogen in the air. It was built to meet the Western world’s growing demand for agricultural production in the early 20&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century. The company towns of Rjukan and Notodden show workers’ accommodation and social institutions linked by rail and ferry to ports where the fertilizer was loaded. The Rjukan-Notodden site manifests an exceptional combination of industrial assets and themes associated to the natural landscape. It stands out as an example of a new global industry in the early 20&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span&gt; century.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rjukan-Notodden Industrial Heritage Site</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2047</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological evidence suggests that the island of Vega was well populated with marine hunters and fishermen in the early Mesolithic period, and that this settlement persisted through the Stone Age. Gradually as the ice retreated, larger areas of land rose from the sea and the 6500 islands, islets and skerries slowly evolved. Settlement of the islands closest to Vega was in place by around 1500BP, and of the outer islands by 1000BP. Initially this settlement was seasonal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The small islands begun to be settled permanently around 1000 BP. They were the property of rich estate owners on the mainland and their first permanent occupants would have been landless tenant farmers escaping famine. The landowners required the tenants to look after the eider ducks in order to increase production of the valuable down. In time sealing stations developed in the islands and fishing produced large qualities of dried fish traded out of the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1560, by decree, all wares from the north had to pass through Bergen in the south of Norway. This meant fishermen became bound to certain merchants. At the end of the 16th century discoveries of new fishing grounds in the North America weakened the pre-eminence of Bergen. Following the Great Nordic War (1700-1721) agriculture recovered and Russians begun trading with Nordland. Around 1770 merchants were given landlords' licences and in 1813 trade became free - thus the power links to Bergen ceased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period from the end of the 19th into the beginning of the 20th century was one of massive change. A marked growth in population, and innovations such as boat engines which reduced the need for labour, encouraged many to emigrate to America, and others to move to the mainland. Another landmark change was the Government's centralisation plan of the 1950s (the Nordland Plan) which aimed to put an end to settlement in the islands through the closure of schools and boat services, and the introduction of financial incentives to settle on the mainland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In spite of all these constraints, some people continued to live in the islands, particularly the older generation, and even those who left kept their houses in repair for summer use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recently people have begun to move back to the islands and the policies are being reversed: Vega Council is now looking at ways to encourage the utilisation of the islands' resources as a way of sustaining their rich cultural traditions and ecological diversity.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1143</http_url><id_number>1143</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1143.jpg</image_url><iso_code>no</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Vega archipelago reflects the way generations of fishermen/farmers have, over the past 1500 years, maintained a sustainable living in an inhospitable seascape near the Arctic Circle, based on the now unique practice of eider down harvesting, and it also celebrate the contribution made by women to the eider down process.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>65.6166700000</latitude><location>Nordland, Vega</location><longitude>11.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vega Archipelago reflects the way generations of fishermen/farmers have, over the past 1,500 years, maintained a sustainable living in an inhospitable seascape near the Arctic Circle, based on the now unique practice of eider-down harvesting, and it also celebrates the contribution made by women to the eider-down process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is the major part of the Vega archipelago, a seascape made up of more than 6,500 islands, islets and 'skerries', and surrounding shallow water. It is an exposed landscape of sea and land, with many low, almost treeless islands dotting the surface of the sea against a backdrop of dramatic coastal mountains. Over 50 islands are, or were, inhabited, many seasonally. This seascape is centred on Vega, the largest island, 10&amp;nbsp;km from the mainland. The unique geology forms the raw material for settlement and livelihood. This archipelago is part of a 'strand flat' formation, a wave-cut platform providing a broad area of shallow sea punctuated by low islands and the mainland fjords. The archipelago shares characteristics with Norway's northern Atlantic coast, but its cultural landscape is more intense and better preserved than elsewhere. The Vega seascape contains fishing villages, quays, warehouses, 'eider' houses, the farming landscape and navigation buildings such as lighthouses and beacons. The site reflects the following cultural qualities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Historical depth: There is extensive evidence for early Stone Age habitations. More than 100 sites, some with visible houses, have been discovered on the lower slopes of Vega Mountain, but this is thought to be a tiny percentage of the total. The largest settlement site is Asg&amp;aring;rden, with the safest harbour and where many artefacts have been recovered. Smaller settlements probably functioned as hunting sites. The earlier sites on Vega were abandoned as people moved to lower ground, where there is a continuity of settlement to the present day, and a continuity of livelihood, with finds associated with farming, fishing and collecting down. Finds include house mounds, field clearance cairns, harbours, barrows and 'eider' houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Distinctive settlement patterns: The strand flat formation has allowed agriculture to develop on a small scale on the islands. Fields were formed by building up suitable soil through mulching with seaweed. The traditional pattern of 'infields' and 'outfields' can still be clearly seen. Beyond the fields, varieties of heath have developed through prolonged grazing (by sheep and cattle), scything and burning, and much of the diverse heathland vegetation is now related to these processes. Of the 56 islands that have been inhabited, some had only one house whereas others, such as Skj&amp;aelig;v&amp;aelig;r and Vega, had larger settlements. Many of the houses were used only seasonally, for fishing or down gathering. The local building material was wood. In the extreme climate, buildings had a limited lifespan: no surviving buildings are older than 100-200 years. Many dwellings survive, unlike buildings related to the fishing and farming processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Specialized occupations down collecting and fishing: the harvesting of down (the soft feathers from the nests of eider ducks, which breed in large numbers on the islands) is the most distinctive occupation. Eider duck were encouraged to nest year after year on the same sites in nesting houses built from either stone or wood and lined with seaweed to simulate natural nesting sites under crags on the shore. There is archaeological evidence for the harvesting of birds from the time of the earliest settlements, and archival evidence from Egil's Saga, written down in the 11th century. Eggs were collected for domestic use. The nesting houses attracted the birds and provided shelter from predators. The fishing and hunting of marine animals has taken place since the ice retreated around 10,000 years ago. The type of fishing varied throughout the year. Today there are very few active fishermen compared to their numbers 100 years ago. Remains of this fishing tradition are seen in quays, breakwaters, warehouses and boathouses, as well as the Bremstein lighthouse. The tradition of boat-building dates back to Viking times and is still maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cultural traditions: The oral traditions of the islands relate to the traditions of fishing, farming and down harvesting, and are significant in connection with place-names, landmarks for fishermen, rituals, folk medicine and local superstitions, including spirits to be propitiated for successful fishing or farming, and those that foretold death and disaster.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A cluster of dozens of islands centred on Vega, just south of the Arctic Circle, forms a cultural landscape of 107,294 ha, of which 6,881 ha is land. The islands bear testimony to a distinctive frugal way of life based on fishing and the harvesting of the down of eider ducks, in an inhospitable environment. There are fishing villages, quays, warehouses, eider houses (built for eider ducks to nest in), farming landscapes, lighthouses and beacons. There is evidence of human settlement from the Stone Age onwards. By the 9th century, the islands had become an important centre for the supply of down, which appears to have accounted for around a third of the islanders’ income. The Vega Archipelago reflects the way fishermen/farmers have, over the past 1,500 years, maintained a sustainable living and the contribution of women to eiderdown harvesting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vegaøyan – The Vega Archipelago</site><states>Norway</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2254</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1988-2004</danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/433</http_url><id_number>433</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_433.jpg</image_url><iso_code>om</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.9641700000</latitude><location>Oasis of Bahla, 25 km west of Nazwa</location><longitude>57.3011100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bahla Fort is an outstanding example of the characteristic military architecture of the Sultanate of Oman.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Omani civilization dates back thousands of years. In biblical times the country was the hub of the rich trade in frankincense, the aromatic gum which was once considered more precious than gold. Known for their seafaring tradition, the Sultans of Oman ruled over a wealthy trading empire that stretched from the coast of East Africa to the tip of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th to the 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the foot of Djebel Akhdar lie the fortresses of Rustaq to the north, and Izki, Nizwa and Bahla to the south. These have all been capitals at some time in their history, and as a consequence have played an important role in the history of Oman. It was here that the Kharijite communities resisted all attempts at 'normalization' by Caliph Harun Al-Rashid, and put into practice their religious concepts, which were at once radically puritanical and democratic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not far from the capital of Oman, the oasis of Bahla owed its prosperity to the Banu Nabhan who, from the mid-12th to the end of the 15th centuries, imposed their rule on the other tribes. Only the ruins of what was a glorious past now remain in this magnificent mountain site. Built on a stone base, the adobe walls and towers of the immense fort probably include some structural elements of the pre-Islamic period, but the major part of the constructions dates from the prosperous time of the Banu Nabhan, with the latest reconstruction dating from the beginning of the 16th century. At the foot of the fort, to the south-west, lies the Friday Mosque with its beautiful sculpted &lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; (prayer niche) probably dating back to the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These monuments are inseparable from the small town of Bahla and its souk, palm grove and adobe ramparts surrounding the oasis, a remarkable work with towers, doors and underground irrigation channels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monuments of Bahla were in a critical state when it was inscribed on the World Heritage List. It had never been restored (thereby conserving a high degree of authenticity), and was not protected by any conservation measures. The terrace of the Friday Mosque had not undergone maintenance work, and it collapsed between 1981 and 1983, causing the arches to cave in and the wall plastering to be torn away, thus endangering the &lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; (prayer niche) in the building, which the Ibadite community had abandoned in favour of the new mosque. A detailed survey was made in 1977 by the Omani Archaeology Department, but restoration work did not make any headway until 1988. This was entirely financed by the Omani Government, with photogrammetric recording by the Mining Museum in Bochum (Germany). By 2005 it was virtually complete.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The oasis of Bahla owes its prosperity to the Banu Nebhan, the dominant tribe in the area from the 12th to the end of the 15th century. The ruins of the immense fort, with its walls and towers of unbaked brick and its stone foundations, is a remarkable example of this type of fortification and attests to the power of the Banu Nebhan.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bahla Fort</site><states>Oman</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>502</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/434</http_url><id_number>434</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_434.jpg</image_url><iso_code>om</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>23.2698600000</latitude><location>Al Dhahira region</location><longitude>56.7450000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The zone encompassing the settlement and necropolises of Bat is the most complete and best-known site of the 3rd millennium BC. In a restricted, coherent space, the necropolis of Bat bears characteristic and unique witness to the evolution of funeral practices during the first Bronze Age in the Oman peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Historical sources recuount that the country of Magan was the principal extraction centre for copper, which was exported even to far-away Mesopotamia, as early as about 3000 BC. The appearance of a more strictly hierarchical social organization (as attested to both in the settlements, where circular defensive structures contrast with rectangular houses, and in the necropolises, where the arrangement of funerary space is more complex) goes hand in hand with higher living standards and social changes linked to a trade economy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The protohistoric site extends north of the village and palm grove of Bat, when excavation began in 1972; it includes a settlement and a necropolis from the 3rd millennium BC. In the settlement zone, north of the confluence of a small waterway and Wadi al Hijr, there are five stone 'towers', structures that are very representative of the first Bronze Age in the Oman peninsula. One of the towers has been entirely excavated and it has been determined that it was built between 2595 BC and 2465 BC. At the level of the substructures, the plan of the tower features a series of exterior surface projections and two rows of parallel rooms on either side of a large platform in masonry with a well in the centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the tower, which serves as the site's reference point, can be distinguished immediately to the east on the slope a series of rectangular houses with central courts and, to the north, a vast necropolis that can be divided into two distinct groups. The first group is located at the top of the rocky slope. Its drystone tombs (some of which date from the 4th millennium, although in some cases they may have subsequently been modified) are scattered along the path from Bat to Al Wahrah.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The much more densely concentrated second group extends over rice terraces south-east of the &lt;em&gt;wadi&lt;/em&gt; and includes more than 100 drystone 'beehive' tombs, which tend to be organized according to an overall plan. The most ancient ones are to the north. They have only one entrance and one funerary chamber and were a collective burial place for a small number of dead. Towards the south, the sepulchres become more monumental. They have two entrances which open on to two and sometimes four funerary chambers and were intended for larger numbers of dead.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement and necropolis zones of Bat form a coherent and representative group with two neighbouring contemporary archaeological sites: the tower of Al-Khutm, 2&amp;nbsp;km west of Bat, and the group of beehive tombs of Qubur Juhhal at Al-Ayn, 22&amp;nbsp;km east-south-east of Bat. The 21 tombs from the 3rd millennium, aligned on a rocky crest that stands out in the superb mountainous landscape of Jebel Misht to the north, are in a remarkable state of preservation. They have not been excavated and constitute an obviously interesting archaeological reserve.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The protohistoric site of Bat lies near a palm grove in the interior of the Sultanate of Oman. Together with the neighbouring sites, it forms the most complete collection of settlements and necropolises from the 3rd millennium B.C. in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn</site><states>Oman</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>503</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;- General&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;While Shisr was already playing a major role in the Iron Age as an important outpost providing traders with water before they entered the desert of the Rub al-Khali, the foundation of the fortified port of Khor Rori/Sumhuram by LL'ad Yalut, king of the Hadhramawt, took place at the end of the 1st century BCE in the context of growing sea trade between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. After the decline of Khor Rori during the first half of the 3rd century CE, the site of al- Balid can be considered to be that of the port which took over the main role in sea trade up to the Late Islamic period In the region of Dhofar the natural setting of Wadi Andoor, Wadi Hogar, and Wadi Dawkah represents the most significant area where frankincense trees grow. The Wadi Dawkah Park has been chosen for nomination as a natural/cultural site, representative of the harvesting of the incense gum from very early times and still intact in its natural setting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Early hominids (Homo erectus) arrived in Dhofar around 1 million years ago from East Africa. Evidence of their crossing is preserved in archaeological sites, principally in Yemen and western Saudi Arabia. Recent studies point to modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) reaching Dhofar around 1000,000 BP1, as shown by finds from the Nejd, and especially around the Shisr area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An extremely arid phase between 20,000 and 8000 years BP in southern Arabia led to the abandonment of most of the peninsula. In the Neolithic period, around 6000 BCE, pastoral nomads arrived in southern Arabia. These Semitic speakers came from the Levant and gradually occupied most of the peninsula. Traces of their herding of cattle, sheep, and goats, recognizable from their distinctive flint tools, are to be found throughout the Nejd on ancient river courses and lakes. It was these people who established the ancient longdistance trading routes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They first began trading frankincense from Dhofar in response to a demand from southern Mesopotamia. By 3200 BCE, with the introduction of writing, there is evidence that trade in frankincense increased in volume and frequency. The specific ethnic identity of the traders is unknown, but distinctive flint types link the trade specifically to Dhofar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Bronze Age in Dhofar (2200-1300 BCE) was a period of retrenchment. The population retreated to the edges of the hills and the Salalah plain near permanent springs. They had close ties with the Bronze Age villages of Yemen. It was at this time that domestication of camels began. Maritime trade, most likely of copper, linked Masirah with Dhofar. The palaeo-lagoons and upland terraces were exploited intensively for the first time. Frankincense continued to be traded widely.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Iron Age (1300-300 BCE) saw the emergence of local populations again, herding cattle, goats, and now camels, as well as growing plants specific to Dhofar such as sorghum and millets following a lifestyle similar to that of the contemporary Mahra peoples. The rise of the southern Arabic states created a formal network for incense that reached to the west, along with a continuing demand from northern Yemen and eastern Arabia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 300 BCE the site of Shisr had become part of this network. The Periplus of Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century CE) provides a clearer picture of the region and its peoples. Excavations at Shisr and the Salalah plain show that both the Hadrami state of Shabwa (Khor Rori/Sumhuram) and the indigenous people participated in the incense trade. The Omani Arabs, moving north-eastwards from Yemen, enter the picture at this time as part of the complex interaction in social relations and economic life. The Parthian Persians also influenced Dhofar, as instanced by material remains at Shisr and the Salalah coast. Combining the historical and archaeological evidence, it has been suggested that Shisr could be either Ubar or the Omanum Emporium of Ptolemy, whilst Khor Rori has been associated with the Moscha limen of the Periplus Maris Erythraei (1st century CE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Islamic period internal trade continued to prosper, perhaps fuelled by the demand for incense and horses. Links to India that had been developed millennia earlier continued to be strong. Coastal Dhofar participated in long-distance international trade, especially in the Abbasid Period. Both fortified inlets and harbours and small settlements testify to these ties between the Red Sea and East Africa to the west and India and China to the east. Al-Balid and Mirbat continued to prosper, reaching their peak in the Middle Islamic Period. By 1450 the Turkish and Portuguese invasions brought the network created in Iron Age and Islamic times to a standstill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Shisr&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a number of Neolithic sites in the immediate vicinity of Shisr. This agricultural oasis and caravan site on the route along which frankincense was brought from the Nejd to the port of Sumhuram was dominated by an Iron Age fortress of the 2nd century BCE. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that the site continued in use in the Early and Middle Islamic periods. However, it declined steadily from the late 1st century CE and had lost its importance by the 3rd century. There was very limited occupation along the southern wall which lasted into the Late Islamic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Khor Rori/Sumhuram&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The port of Sumhuram (Smhrm - &amp;quot;His Name is Great&amp;quot;) was founded at the end of the 1st century BCE. Inscriptions record that it was established by LL'ad Yalut to control the trade in Dhofar incense. It is identified as the Moscha of classical geographical texts, where Indian seamen who had brought cotton cloth, corn, and oil in exchange for incense overwintered, waiting for the favourable monsoon winds to take them home.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The port was the hub of the trading settlement on this coast during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Its close links with the powerful Shabwa state made it a very rich town. At this time it was a small, strongly fortified town covering some 1ha. However, the process of disintegration began in the first half of the 3rd century, a process that was completed by the end of the century, when the site was reclaimed by the sea and by natural vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Al-Balid&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Al-Balid is the historically late name for a medieval town in the Mahra area, the name of which is transcribed variously as &amp;quot;Dhofar,&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Dhufar,&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Zafar,&amp;quot; etc. However, archaeological excavations have shown that there was an Iron Age settlement here. It most probably survived for a long period afterwards, despite the lack of a specific mention in Ptolemy's Geographia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is no doubt of its importance in the Islamic period. However, it began to decline in the 12th century, and it was attached and partially destroyed on several occasions in the 13th century, both by Arab rulers and by Persian raiders. By the late 15th century radical changes to trading patterns imposed by Portuguese and other European trading nations sealed the fate of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Frankincense Park of Wadi Dawkah&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Neolithic inhabitants of southern Arabia were, on the basis of archaeological evidence, engaged in long-distance trade with the Arabian coastal littoral and from there into Mesopotamia. Excavations have revealed that shells and obsidian were being traded, and there are documentary and epigraphic sources relating to trade in frankincense by the later 3rd millennium BCE, when it was certainly flourishing, not only with Mesopotamia but also with Egypt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sources of frankincense are clearly described by Ptolemy, and can be identified with the three areas in the Dhofar region in which the frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra) is still to be found. This trade continued throughout the Iron Age and into the Islamic Period. The other main export from southern Arabia at this time was that of horses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1010</http_url><id_number>1010</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1010.jpg</image_url><iso_code>om</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion iii The group of archaeological sites in Oman represent the production and distribution of frankincense, one of the most important luxury items of trade in the Old World in antiquity. Criterion iv The Oasis of Shishr and the entrepots of Khor Rori and Al-Balid are outstanding examples of medieval fortified settlements in the Persian Gulf region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>18.2533300000</latitude><location>Dhofar Province</location><longitude>53.6475900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This group of archaeological sites in Oman represents the production and distribution of frankincense, one of the most important luxury items of trade in antiquity from the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions to Mesopotamia, India and China. They constitute outstanding testimony to the civilization that from the Neolithic to the late Islamic period flourished in southern Arabia. The Oasis of Shishr and the entrep&amp;ocirc;ts of Khor Rori and Al-Balīd are excellent examples of medieval fortified settlements in the Persian Gulf region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Shisr lies about 180&amp;nbsp;km north of Salalah in the desert. This agricultural oasis and caravan site on the route along which frankincense was brought from the Nejd to the port of Sumhuram was dominated by an Iron Age fortress and continued to be used in the Islamic periods. The archaeological remains occur near a large collapsed limestone dome in which there is a cave from which a perpetual spring flows. A fortress wall, constructed of limestone blocks and an irregular pentagon in plan, surrounds a central complex on a rocky outcrop. Stubs of walls indicate that the enceinte was divided into two enclosures, dominated by a substantial building that underwent a number of alterations and extensions during the medieval period, oriented on the cardinal points of the compass in what may be a southern Arabic tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The port of Sumhuram/Khor Rori (the Moscha of classical geographical texts) was founded at the end of the 1st century by LL'ad Yalut to control the trade in Dhofar incense. Indian seamen who had brought cotton cloth, corn and oil in exchange for incense overwintered there, waiting for the favourable monsoon winds to take them home. It was the hub of the trading settlement on this coast during the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. Its close links with the powerful Shabwa state made this small fortified town very rich. The process of disintegration began in the first half of the 3rd century, when the site was reclaimed by the sea and by natural vegetation. Khor Rori lies 40&amp;nbsp;km to the east of Salalah on a hilltop on the eastern bank of a sweet-water outlet (&lt;em&gt;khor&lt;/em&gt; ). The remains of the fortress are located on a rocky spur running east-west. It forms part of a wider defensive system, details of which still can be distinguished. The walls are built from dressed-stone facings with rubble cores. The most heavily fortified part is on the north, where the entrance is located, which itself is a massive structure with three successive gates on the steep entry path. It is flanked by the remains of towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Al-Balīd, an elevated site extending along the coast with a &lt;em&gt;khor&lt;/em&gt; providing water from the mountains, is the historically late name for a medieval town in the Mahra area. It began to decline in the 12th century, and it was attacked and partially destroyed on several occasions in the 13th century, both by Arab rulers and by Persian raiders. By the late 15th century, radical changes to trading patterns imposed by Portuguese and other European trading nations sealed the fate of the town. Most of the site now consists of a barren landscape covered with stone blocks, the result of robbing for the construction of more recent buildings. The Great Mosque was surrounded by an outer platform on three sides. There was an inner courtyard and the 4&amp;nbsp;m square minaret was originally in the north-east corner. The main prayer hall was lined with 144 octagonal columns, which supported the roof. The structure underwent many changes, in some cases for collapses due to poor construction and for ground instability.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Frankincense Park of Wadi Dawkah: The Neolithic inhabitants of southern Arabia were engaged in long-distance trade with the Arabian littoral and from there into Mesopotamia. Excavations have revealed that shells and obsidian were being traded, and there are documentary and epigraphic sources relating to trade in frankincense by the later 3rd millennium BCE, when it was certainly flourishing, not only with Mesopotamia but also with Egypt. The sources of frankincense can be identified with the three areas in the Dhofar region in which the frankincense tree is still to be found. The other main export from southern Arabia at this time was that of horses. The central feature is a north-draining &lt;em&gt;wadi&lt;/em&gt; on the edge of the desert; the frankincense trees are to be found in the flat bed of the &lt;em&gt;wadi&lt;/em&gt; . The higher areas within the park are largely acacias and similar species that can tolerate the more extreme conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The frankincense trees of Wadi Dawkah and the remains of the caravan oasis of Shisr/Wubar and the affiliated ports of Khor Rori and Al-Baleed vividly illustrate the trade in frankincense that flourished in this region for many centuries, as one of the most important trading activities of the ancient and medieval world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Land of Frankincense</site><states>Oman</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1180</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The histories of the five aflaj in the nomination are unknown, since no written records survive. By virtue of its size and complexity, and the importance of the town of Izki that it supplies, a case could be made for Falaj Al-Malki as being one of the earliest in Oman. There are similar indications that Falaj Daris, with its links to the town of Nizwa, could be considerable antiquity. The relationship of Falaj Al-Khatmeen to the Bait Al-Redadah fort, known to have been built during the Yaruba Imamates, suggests that this falaj originated in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It would be helpful if more information could be assembled from both technical and archival sources and excavations to allow clearer indication to emerge of the chronology of daoudi aflaj construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207</http_url><id_number>1207</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1207.jpg</image_url><iso_code>om</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.9988888889</latitude><location>Dakhiliya, Sharqiya and Batinah Regions</location><longitude>57.5360555555</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property includes five &lt;em&gt;aflaj&lt;/em&gt; irrigation systems and is representative of some 3,000 such systems still in use in Oman. The origins of this system of irrigation may date back to AD 500, but archaeological evidence suggests that irrigation systems existed in this extremely arid area as early as 2500 BC. Using gravity, water is channelled from underground sources or springs to support agriculture and domestic use. The fair and effective management and sharing of water in villages and towns is still underpinned by mutual dependence and communal values and guided by astronomical observations. Numerous watchtowers built to defend the water systems form part of the site reflecting the historic dependence of communities on the &lt;em&gt;aflaj&lt;/em&gt; system. Threatened by falling level of the underground water table, the &lt;em&gt;aflaj&lt;/em&gt; represent an exceptionally well-preserved form of land use.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>&lt;i&gt;Aflaj&lt;/i&gt; Irrigation Systems of Oman</site><states>Oman</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1384</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1537</http_url><id_number>1537</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1537.jpg</image_url><iso_code>om</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>22.6952222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>59.3781111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property, which is located on the east coast of the Sultanate of Oman, includes the ancient city of Qalhat, surrounded by inner and outer walls, as well as areas beyond the ramparts where necropolises are located. The city developed as a major port on the east coast of Arabia between the 11th and 15th centuries CE, during the reign of the Hormuz princes. The Ancient City bears unique archaeological testimony to the trade links between the east coast of Arabia, East Africa, India, China and South-East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Qalhat</site><states>Oman</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2217</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/138</http_url><id_number>138</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_138.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>27.3291666700</latitude><location>Sind</location><longitude>68.1388888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Mohenjodaro is the most ancient and best-preserved urban ruin on the Indian subcontinent, dating back to the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, and exercised a considerable influence on the subsequent development of urbanization on the Indian peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site is located on the right bank of the Indus River, 400&amp;nbsp;km from Karachi, in Pakistan's Sind Province. It flourished for about 800 years during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. Centre of the Indus Civilization, one of the largest in the Old World, this 5,000-year-old city is the earliest manifestation of urbanization in South Asia. Its urban planning surpasses that of many other sites of the oriental civilizations that were to follow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of massive proportions, Mohenjodaro comprises two sectors: a stupa mound that rises in the western sector and, to the east, the lower city ruins spread out along the banks of the Indus. The acropolis, set on high embankments, the ramparts, and the lower town, which is laid out according to strict rules, provide evidence of an early system of town planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The stupa mound, built on a massive platform of mud brick, is composed of the ruins of several major structures - Great Bath, Great Granary, College Square and Pillared Hall - as well as a number of private homes. The extensive lower city is a complex of private and public houses, wells, shops and commercial buildings. These buildings are laid out along streets intersecting each other at right angles, in a highly orderly form of city planning that also incorporated important systems of sanitation and drainage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of this vast urban ruin of Moenjodaro, only about one-third has been reveal by excavation since 1922. The foundations of the site are threatened by saline action due to a rise of the water table of the Indus River. This was the subject of a UNESCO international campaign in the 1970s, which partially mitigated the attack on the prehistoric mud-brick buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of the huge city of Moenjodaro &amp;ndash; built entirely of unbaked brick in the 3rd millennium B.C. &amp;ndash; lie in the Indus valley. The acropolis, set on high embankments, the ramparts, and the lower town, which is laid out according to strict rules, provide evidence of an early system of town planning.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro</site><states>Pakistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>151</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139</http_url><id_number>139</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_139.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>33.7791666700</latitude><location>Province of Punjab</location><longitude>72.8875000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Taxila lies 30&amp;nbsp;km north-west of Rawalpindi on the Grand Trunk Road. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in Asia. Situated strategically on a branch of the Silk Road that linked China to the West, the city flourished both economically and culturally. Taxila reached its apogee between the 1st and 5th centuries AD. Buddhist monuments were erected throughout the Taxila valley, which was transformed into a religious heartland and a destination for pilgrims from as far afield as Central Asia and China. That Taxila was very famous can be deduced from the fact that it is mentioned in several languages. In Sanskrit, the city was called Taksha&amp;ccedil;ila (Prince of the Serpent Tribe); in P&amp;acirc;li it was known as Takkasil&amp;acirc;; the Greeks knew the town as Taxila, which the Romans rendered as Taxilla; the Chinese called it Chu-ch'a-shi-lo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taxila is a vast complex of ruins, some 30&amp;nbsp;km north-west of modern Islamabad, which includes a Mesolithic cave (Khanpur cave), four settlement sites (Saraidala, Bhir, Sirkap and Sirsukh), a number of Buddhist monasteries of various periods and above Giri, Muslim mosques and &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; of the medieval period. The Bhir mound is the earliest historic city of Taxila and was probably founded in the 6th century BC by the Achaemenids, according to legend by a son of the brother of the legendary hero Rama. The first town was situated on a hill that commanded the river Tamra Nala, a tributary of the Indus. It was an important cultural centre and it is said that the Mahabharata was first recited at Taxila. Stone walls, house foundations and winding streets represent the earliest forms of urbanization on the subcontinent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sirkap was a fortified city founded during the mid-2nd century BC. Taxila was the capital of a kingdom called Hindu&amp;scaron; (Indus country) and consisted of the western half of the Punjab. It was added to the Achaemenid empire under Darius I the Great, but the Persian occupation did not last long. The many private houses, stupas and temples are laid out on the Hellenistic grid system and show the strong Western classical influence on local architecture. The city was destroyed in the 1st century AD by the Kushans of central Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the north, excavations of the ruins of the Kushan city of Sirsukh have brought to light an irregular rectangle of walls in ashlar masonry with rounded bastions. This wall attests to the early influence of Central Asian architectural forms on those of the subcontinent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Sirkap (Severed Head), chronologically the second major city of Taxila, is to be found spreading down the Hathial Spur and on to the plains of the Taxila valley. It is bounded by the Tamra stream and to the north and south by the Gau stream, which today has been almost completely obliterated by a modern road and water channel. The present layout of the city was established by the Bactrian Greeks sometime around 180 BC and takes the form of a wide and open grid system. In general, the city presents a better planned architecture than Bhir Mound. The city is encompassed by a mighty wall over 5&amp;nbsp;km long and up to 6&amp;nbsp;m thick. There may well have been an entrance on each of the four sides originally, but today the only one evident is the northern wall and it is through here that visitors normally enter the city. A number of temples and monasteries can be found here: Apsidal Temple, Sun Temple, Shrine of the Double Headed Eagle, Kunala Monastery and Ghai Monastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The major attraction in this city is the Great Stupa, one of the largest and most impressive throughout Pakistan, located just 2&amp;nbsp;km east of Bhir Mound and Sirkap. The chapels and chambers around the Great Stupa were built at various times from the 1st century BC to the post-Kushan period. These structures display a wide range of designs and probably were donated by pilgrims, possibly representing various schools of Buddhism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other sites of interest include the city of Sirsukh which is believed to belong to the Kushan period. To the north of Sirkap are four temples, all standing on earlier mounds and overlooking the city. They are all in the style of Greek temples. The best to visit is probably the one at Jandial, 1.5&amp;nbsp;km north of Sirkap.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From the ancient Neolithic tumulus of Saraikala to the ramparts of Sirkap (2nd century B.C.) and the city of Sirsukh (1st century A.D.), Taxila illustrates the different stages in the development of a city on the Indus that was alternately influenced by Persia, Greece and Central Asia and which, from the 5th century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D., was an important Buddhist centre of learning.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Taxila</site><states>Pakistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>153</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/140</http_url><id_number>140</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_140.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.3208333300</latitude><location>North West Frontier Province</location><longitude>71.9458333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and the neighbouring city remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol are among the most characteristic of this type of structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist monastic complex of Takht-i-Bahi (Throne of Origins) is situated on top of a 152 m high hill, about 80 km from Peshawar and 16 km north-west of the city of Mardan. It was founded in the early 1st century AD, and was successively occupied and expanded from that time until it fell into disuse through the discontinuation of charitable endowments in modern times. Owing to its location on the crest of a hill, it escaped the invasions of the Huns and other antagonistic peoples, leaving it today with much of its original character intact. The name Takht-i-Bahi derives from the spring on the hilltop and is literally translated as 'Spring Throne'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex, the most impressive and complete Buddhist monastery in Pakistan, consists of four main groups:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul type="disc"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the Court of Stupas with a cluster of stupas beside the main stupa in the middle courtyard, embellished with a series of tall niches to enshrine Buddhist statues;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the early monastic complex with residential cells around an open court, assembly hall and refectory;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the temple complex with a main stupa in the middle of a courtyard adorned with statues niches similar to the earlier stupa court;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the tantric monastic complex with an open courtyard in front of a series of dark cells with low openings for mystical meditation, in keeping with tantric practice.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1871, many sculptures were found at Takht-i-Bahi. Some depicted stories from the life of the Buddha while others, more devotional in nature, included the Buddha and Bodhisattava.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Court of Stupas is surrounded on three sides by open alcoves or chapels. The excavators were of the view that originally they contained single plaster statues of the Buddha sitting or standing, dedicated in memory of holy men or donated by rich pilgrims. The monastery to the north was probably a two-storey structure consisting of an open court, ringed with cells, kitchens and a refectory.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Buddhist monastic complex of Takht-i-Bahi (Throne of Origins) was founded in the early 1st century. Owing to its location on the crest of a high hill, it escaped successive invasions and is still exceptionally well preserved. Nearby are the ruins of Sahr-i-Bahlol, a small fortified city dating from the same period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol</site><states>Pakistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>154</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/143</http_url><id_number>143</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_143.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.7666666700</latitude><location>Province of Sind</location><longitude>67.9000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Thatta and the necropolis of Makli testify in an outstanding manner to the civilization of Sind from the 14th to the 18th centuries. Within the broad family of Islamic monuments, those of Thatta represent a particular type, notable for the fusion of diverse influences into a local style. The effect of the Grand Mosque of Shah Jahan with its complex of blue and white buildings capped by 93 domes is unique.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 14th to the 18th centuries, Thatta played an important role in the history of Sind, as the city, which commanded the delta of the Indus, had been successively the capital of the Samma, Argun and Tarkhan dynasties before being governed from 1592 to 1739 in the name of the Mughal emperors of Delhi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1739, when the province of Sind was ceded to the Shah Nadir of Iran, Thatta entered into a period of decadence and neglect. The site preserves, in a state of exceptional integrity, an imposing monumental complex with the remains of the city itself in the valley and especially those of the necropolis, massed at the edge of the Makli plateau, covering a distance of about 12&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The four centuries that comprise the golden age of Thatta have left their traces on the form of monuments of high quality in stone and brick. Among those in stone are the tombs of Jam Nizammudin, who reigned from 1461 to 1509, and those of Isa Khan Tarkhan the Younger and of his father, Jan Baba, both of which were constructed before 1644. Among the edifices in brick and glazed tiles are the mosque of Dabgir, that of Shah Jahan (1644-47) and numerous mausolea, and tombs of which the most colourful is that of Diwan Shurfa Khan (died 1638).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;If the tomb of Jam Nizamuddin establishes evident ties with Hindu architecture of the Gujerat style and the influence of Mughal imperial architecture, it is in no way a simple copy. At Thatta, an original concept of stone decoration was born, perhaps using glazed tile models. Even in the area of architectural terracotta, the distant examples of Persia and Asia were transposed. Neither in their technique nor in their colour do the monuments of Thatta resemble those of Lahore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The salt air carried by the monsoons has an extremely harmful and corrosive effect on the brick, rendering the preservation of a large number of monuments of the Makli plateau highly precarious.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The capital of three successive dynasties and later ruled by the Mughal emperors of Delhi, Thatta was constantly embellished from the 14th to the 18th century. The remains of the city and its necropolis provide a unique view of civilization in Sind.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta</site><states>Pakistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>158</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2000-2012</danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/171</http_url><id_number>171</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_171.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.5902777800</latitude><location>Lahore, Punjab</location><longitude>74.3097222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore are a unique artistic realization which, while bearing exceptional testimony to the Mughal civilization, has exercised a considerable influence, long after its creation in the Punjab and throughout the Indian subcontinent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lahore Fort, situated north-west of the city, has the same mythical origins as the city because its foundation is attributed to Prince Lob, son of Rama. Yet the first historic references to the fort date from before the 11th century. Destroyed and rebuilt several times by the Mughals from the 13th to the 15th centuries, it was definitively rebuilt and reorganized starting with the reign of Emperor Akbar (1542-1605). Based on the 21 monuments preserved within its boundaries, it comprises the most beautiful repertory of the forms of Mughal architecture, whose evolution may be followed over more than two centuries. The monuments from the reign of Akbar are characterized by the use of regular wall masonry consisting of baked bricks and blocks of red sandstone. Hindu influence may be noted, especially in the zoomorphic corbels which do not belong to the Mughal tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the testimonies to this first series of structures, the Masjidi Gate flanked by two bastions and the Khana-e-Khas-o-Am (Public and Private Audience Hall) may be cited. The style of Akbar's constructions was not appreciably altered by his successor, Jahangir, who finished the large north court in 1617-18 that had been begun by Akbar and, in 1624-25, undertook the decoration of the north and north-west walls of the Fort.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the other hand, the buildings constructed by Shah Jahan (1627-58), the prince-architect with sumptuous tastes, differ from their antecedents given the luxururious materials, marble, hard stone, and mosaics, and their exuberant decorative repertory, which is alive with motifs borrowed from Iranian art. The entire complex of fairy-like buildings surrounding the Court of Shah Jahan (Diwan-e-Kas, Lal Burj, Khwabgah-e-Jahangiri, etc.) and especially the Shah Burj or Shish Mahal, make it one of the most beautiful palaces in the world. Built in 1631-32, it sparkles with mosaics of glass, gilt, semi-precious stones and marble screening. All these monuments, and those, no less attractive, built under the reign of Aurangzeb, suffered greatly after the fall of the Mughal dynasty. The wars and sieges undergone by the Sikhs in the 19th century, and the British occupation, considerably reduced the monumental heritage of Lahore. Since 1927, a reorganization plan has been under study. It took effect in 1973 and suitable preservation measures were declared by the Government of Pakistan in 1975.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These are two masterpieces from the time of the brilliant Mughal civilization, which reached its height during the reign of the Emperor Shah Jahan. The fort contains marble palaces and mosques decorated with mosaics and gilt. The elegance of these splendid gardens, built near the city of Lahore on three terraces with lodges, waterfalls and large ornamental ponds, is unequalled.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore</site><states>Pakistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>189</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Muslims settled in the north of the Indian subcontinent around 1200, but there were Arab communities throughout the peninsula from as early as the 8th century. In 1526 a powerful Islamic state, the Mughal Empire, was created in the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Qila Rohtas (Rohtas Fort) was built in 1541-43, at a strategic site on a high plain in the north of what is now Pakistan after the Mughal Emperor Humayun was expelled after his defeat at Chausa by Sher Khan, who was to take the name Sher Shah Suri. The fort was built to control the hostile local people, the Ghakkars, and as a precaution against the return of Humayuu, an event which did not take place until ten years after the death of Sher Shah in 1545, when it was surrendered by its Governor, Tatar Khan Kasi, WithOUt resistance. Its name derives from Rohtasgarh, the site of Sher Shah's victory in 1539 over a Hindu power. After falling to the Mughal invaders, the Fort continued in use until the reign of Aurangzeb (d 1707).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the course of the subsequent centuries it served successive Durrani and Sikh masters, without being called upon to serve its original fimction. A village grew up within the walls and survives to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/586</http_url><id_number>586</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_586.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pk</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii) and (iv), considering that the Rohtas Fort is an exceptional example of the Muslim military architecture of central and south Asia, which blends architectural and artistic traditions from Turkey and the Indian sub-continent to create the model for Mughal architecture and its subsequent refinements and adaptations.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>32.9625000000</latitude><location>Jhelum City, Punjab</location><longitude>73.5888888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rohtas Fort is an exceptional example of the Muslim military architecture of central and south Asia, blending architectural and artistic traditions from Turkey and the Indian subcontinent to create the model for Mughal architecture and its subsequent refinements and adaptations. The majestic fort, surpassing many other citadels in grandeur and massiveness, is the only example of architecture of the time of Sher Shah Suri. The monument represents a milestone in the history of fort architecture. Its commanding situation, with its awesomely huge walls and trap gates, makes it a unique part of the cultural heritage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Muslims settled in the north of the Indian subcontinent around 1200, but there were Arab communities throughout the peninsula from as early as the 8th century. In 1526 a powerful Islamic state, the Mughal Empire, was created in the north. Qila Rohtas (Rohtas Fort) was built in 1541-43, at a strategic site on a high plain in the north of what is now Pakistan, after the Mughal Emperor Humayun was expelled following his defeat at Chausa by Sher Khan, who was to take the name Sher Shah Suri. The fort was built to control the hostile local people, the Ghakkars, and as a precaution against the return of Humayun, which did not take place until 10 years after the death of Sher Shah in 1545, when it was surrendered by its governor, Tatar Khan Kasi, without resistance. Its name derives from Rohtasgarh, the site of Sher Shah's victory in 1539 over a Hindu power. After falling to the Mughal invaders, the fort continued in use until the reign of Aurangzeb. Over the subsequent centuries it served successive Durrani and Sikh masters, without being called upon to serve its original function. A village grew up within the walls and survives to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rohtas is a complex of defensive works surrounding a small hill alongside the Kahan River. The massive defensive walls are irregular in plan, conforming with the broken topography, and extend for more than 4&amp;nbsp;km. They are built from stone and range in thickness up to a maximum of 12.5&amp;nbsp;m. Their height also varies according to the terrain, between 10.05&amp;nbsp;m and 18.28&amp;nbsp;m. There are usually two internal terraces or platforms, increased to three where the walls are higher, and these are linked by stone stairways. The ramparts are surmounted by imposing stone merlons. Within the thickness of the walls there are vaulted rectangular-plan galleries for use by the garrison as living quarters and as stores. The whole enceinte is lined with 68 semi-circular solid bastions, spaced irregularly, and pierced by 12 gates, some double and some single. Within the enclosure a cross-wall, of the same construction and 533&amp;nbsp;m long, defines the inner citadel or inner fort. The gates, built from sandstone, are massive and ornate. The finest is the Sohail Gate, which is flanked with elaborately decorated balconies carried on brackets and sturdy bastions. This style, based on earlier Pathan models, was to have a profound influence on the development of Mughal architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shishi Gate derives its name from the glazed tiles used in the spandrels of the outer arch. This is one of the earliest examples of facing with glazed tiles in the region, a technique that was to be applied widely in the architecture of the Mughal Empire. Four of the other gates, covering particularly vulnerable approaches, are double ('trap') or oblique gates, which provide extra hazards for attackers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Few buildings were constructed within the interior of the fort, much of which would have been given over to the production of food for the garrison. The Shahi Masjid, near the Kabuli Gate, is a small mosque consisting only of a prayer hall and a courtyard. Its simple but elegant ornamentation, such as the lily motif on the outer arches, foreshadows the decoration of later Mughal architecture, with elements derived from Hindu temple ornamentation. The fort had its own internal water supply, in the form of two &lt;em&gt;baolis&lt;/em&gt; (stepped wells or tanks) cut into the limestone bedrock. That near the Kabuli Gate is surrounded by small chambers thought to have been intended for use as baths by members of the ruling family.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Haveli Man Singh, named after the trusted general of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, is built on a rocky eminence. It is a two-storey structure in brick (unlike the rest of the fort) faced with plaster, in pure Hindu style, with canopied balconies. Only one of its four rooms survives intact.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Following his defeat of the Mughal emperor Humayun in 1541, Sher Shah Suri built a strong fortified complex at Rohtas, a strategic site in the north of what is now Pakistan. It was never taken by storm and has survived intact to the present day. The main fortifications consist of the massive walls, which extend for more than 4 km; they are lined with bastions and pierced by monumental gateways. Rohtas Fort, also called Qila Rohtas, is an exceptional example of early Muslim military architecture in Central and South Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rohtas Fort</site><states>Pakistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>693</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1386</http_url><id_number>1386</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1386.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.2469250000</latitude><location></location><longitude>134.3525000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Rock Islands Southern Lagoon covers 100,200&amp;nbsp;ha and includes 445 uninhabited limestone islands of volcanic origin. Many of them display unique mushroom-like shapes in turquoise lagoons surrounded by coral reefs. The aesthetic beauty of the site is heightened by a complex reef system featuring over 385 coral species and different types of habitat. They sustain a large diversity of plants, birds and marine life including dugong and at least thirteen shark species. The site harbours the highest concentration of marine lakes anywhere, isolated bodies of seawater separated from the ocean by land barriers. They are among the islands&amp;rsquo; distinctive features and sustain high endemism of populations which continue to yield new species discoveries. The remains of stonework villages, as well as burial sites and rock art, bear testimony to the organization of small island communities over some three millennia. The abandonment of the villages in the 17th and 18th centuries illustrates the consequences of climate change, population growth and subsistence behaviour on a society living in a marginal marine environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Islands Southern Lagoon</site><states>Palau</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1801</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1433</http_url><id_number>1433</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1433.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ps</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.7043527778</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.2075000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The inscribed property is situated 10 km south of Jerusalem on the site identified by Christian tradition as the birthplace of Jesus since the 2nd century. A church was first completed there in ad 339 and the edifice that replaced it after a fire in the 6th century retains elaborate floor mosaics from the original building. The site also includes Latin, Greek Orthodox, Franciscan and Armenian convents and churches, as well as bell towers, terraced gardens and a pilgrimage route.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Birthplace of Jesus: Church of the Nativity and the Pilgrimage Route, Bethlehem</site><states>Palestine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1922</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2014</danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1492</http_url><id_number>1492</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1492.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ps</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.7197222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.1305555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site is located a few kilometres south-west of Jerusalem, in the Central Highlands between Nablus and Hebron. The Battir hill landscape comprises a series of farmed valleys, known as &lt;em&gt;widian&lt;/em&gt;, with characteristic stone terraces, some of which are irrigated for market garden production, while others are dry and planted with grapevines and olive trees. The development of terrace farming in such a mountainous region is supported by a network of irrigation channels fed by underground sources. A traditional system of distribution is then used to share the water collected through this network between families from the nearby village of Battir.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palestine: Land of Olives and Vines – Cultural Landscape of Southern Jerusalem, Battir</site><states>Palestine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2012</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1565</http_url><id_number>1565</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1565.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ps</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>31.5241666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.1088888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The use of a local limestone shaped the construction of the old town of Hebron/Al-Khalil during the Mamluk period between 1250 and 1517. The centre of interest of the town was the site of Al-Ibrahimi Mosque/The tomb of the Patriarchs whose buildings are in a compound built in the 1st century AD to protect the tombs of the patriarch Abraham/Ibrahim and his family. This place became a site of pilgrimage for the three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The town was sited at the crossroads of trade routes for caravans travelling between southern Palestine, Sinai, Eastern Jordan and the north of the Arabian Peninsula. Although the subsequent Ottoman Period (1517-1917) heralded an extension of the town to the surrounding areas and brought numerous architectural additions, particularly the raising of the roof level of houses to provide more upper stories, the overall Mamluk morphology of the town is seen to have persisted with its hierarchy of areas, quarters based on ethnic, religious or professional groupings, and houses with groups of rooms organized according to a tree-shaped system.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hebron/Al-Khalil Old Town</site><states>Palestine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2230</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2012</danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/135</http_url><id_number>135</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_135.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>9.5538888890</latitude><location>Province of Colon - Distric of Cristobal</location><longitude>-79.6558333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The group of 17th- and 18th-century fortifications, the historic sites of Portobelo and San Lorenzo, are outstanding examples of Spanish colonial military architecture of this period. These fortifications, imbued with history, are a magnificent example of Spanish military architecture, located in a natural setting of great beauty.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The forts, castles, barracks and batteries of Portobelo created a defensive line around the bay and protected the harbour; the works at San Lorenzo guarded the mouth of the Chagres River. Conquered by Henry Morgan in 1668 and by Admiral Edward Vernon in 1739, these fortifications were continuously rebuilt because they command the access to the Isthmus of Panama, which has always been of the utmost importance for Europe's commerce with its colonies. In 1761 the Spaniards rebuilt the fort for the third time, building the structures seen today. However, trade routes had changed and the new fort did not suffer any new attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Antonelli's Spanish military architecture characterizes the first construction period (1596-99) and the neoclassical style of Salas and Hernandez (1753-60) dominated afterwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pan American Institute of Geography and History, along with other international organizations, already recognizes the sites of Portobelo and San Lorenzo El Real to be of universal importance; they are an essential link to an understanding of American history. The forts are however in a poor state of preservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fort San Lorenzo was abandoned by Spain in 1821 when Panama became independent. After Panama became part of Colombia, the fort was used as a prison, then as the point of entry for mail from Britain to Latin America. During the California Gold Rush in 1849 it served as a camping ground for adventurers, particularly on the old town of Chagres below the fort and on the west bank of the Chagres River. The Chagres River stayed as the main inter-ocean route until the construction of the railroad from Manzanillo Island (now Col&amp;oacute;n City) to Panama in 1850.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Magnificent examples of 17th- and 18th-century military architecture, these Panamanian forts on the Caribbean coast form part of the defence system built by the Spanish Crown to protect transatlantic trade.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fortifications on the Caribbean Side of Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo</site><states>Panama</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>148</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/159</http_url><id_number>159</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_159.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.7361111110</latitude><location>Province of Darien</location><longitude>-77.5472222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Darien National Park is located in the Province of Darien to the east of Santa Fe and the Gulf of San Miguel. It extends along about 80% of the Colombian border and includes part of the Pacific coast. The Darién, Sapo, Jungurudo and Pirre mountain ranges are found within the site as well as the Jurado mountain chain and basins of the Tuira, Balsas, Sambu, Jaqué rivers and part of the Chucunaque River. Access is by river and heavy truck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area has been under protection since 1972, with the establishment of Alto Darién Protection Forest and was declared a national park on 1980. This park is in a unique geographical position, as it forms a land-bridge between the Central and South American continents. It has emerged from below sea level on several occasions, the most recent being in the early Pleistocene. The Pacific tides influence the Chucunaque and Tuira rivers for many kilometres inland. Natural erosion has resulted in numerous landslides with deep cuts and gorges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Darién contains a wide range of habitats: sandy beaches, rocky coasts, mangroves, freshwater marshes, palm forest swamps and lowland and upland moist tropical forest. The eroded landslides and associated gorges have given rise to successional plant communities, with major tracts of primary and secondary forests covering most of the terrain. The average height of the monsoon forest is approximately 40 m with occasional dominant trees reaching 50 m. The most abundant species in the area is &lt;em&gt;cuipo&lt;/em&gt;. Premontane and montane forests occur above 200 m, with several types of botanically interesting ecosystem including cloud forest and the elfin forest of Cerro Pirre. Wetland forest along the Chucunaque and Tuira rivers is often covered by pure stands of &lt;em&gt;cativo&lt;/em&gt;, this species being the most utilized timber tree in the region, and mangroves along the Pacific coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There have been few studies of the fauna. Mammals include bush dog, giant anteater, jaguar, ocelot, capybara, douroucoulis, howler monkey, brown-headed spider monkey, Baird's tapir, agoutis and white-lipped peccary. Harpy eagle also occurs in the park, as do Cayman crocodile and American crocodile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is both anthropologically and historically rich, with two major indigenous groups: Chocó and Kuna Indians and a number of smaller groups still living by traditional practices. The area was visited by Spanish conquistadors and the coast was explored by Christopher Columbus in 1502. In 1510, the town of Santa Maria la Antigua del Darién was established probably somewhere within the park boundaries. As a result of the Spanish presence and mistreatment, many of the Indians moved away. Today, conservation of the Indian's culture is included as a management objective. There are a number of archaeological sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two Indian tribes live in the park along the edges of the rivers: approximately 1,000 Chocó and 200 Kuna Indians. These groups have maintained their subsistence agricultural systems through centuries of European contact. On the western boundary of the park are a number of small farming plots whose owners have no title deeds.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Forming a bridge between the two continents of the New World, Darien National Park contains an exceptional variety of habitats – sandy beaches, rocky coasts, mangroves, swamps, and lowland and upland tropical forests containing remarkable wildlife. Two Indian tribes live in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Darien National Park</site><states>Panama</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>177</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first settlement to bear the name of Panam&amp;aacute; (now Panam&amp;aacute; Viejo) was founded in 1519 by the Spanish conquistador Pedrarias D&amp;aacute;vila. It was the point of departure for the first explorations along the Pacific coast, which had been discovered in 1513 by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. There were originally some four hundred settlers in Panam&amp;aacute;, living in some seventy huts. Many of these moved down to Peru when the conquest of that region was completed in 1532: there were only thirteen male Spanish settlers left in Panam&amp;aacute;, with some five hundred Indians, by the following year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, Panam&amp;aacute; eventually consolidated its key position on the transoceanic route between Spain and the Americas as the terminal on the Pacific coast (that on the Atlantic coast was first Nombre de Dios and then Portobello). Its importance is indicated by the fact that it became a Real Audiencia (Royal Court of Justice), the third to be created in the Americas (after Santo Domingo and Mexico City). The town, with its imposing monuments, was ravaged by the 1621 earthquake and then by fire in 1644, but it was not deserted by its inhabitants until 1671, when it was burnt by the privateer Henry Morgan, who had taken Portobello three years earlier.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new settlement was built on a small peninsula nearby and provided with the fortifications that its predecessor had lacked. Dressed stone from Panam&amp;aacute; Viejo was re-used: in some cases, such as La Merced, entire church facades were reconstructed on the new site. However, the 18th century saw a decline in the city's fortunes.. It lost its strategic significance when bullion from upper Per&amp;uacute; began to be transported to Spain via the River Plate: the Real Audiencia was closed, and the Portobello fairs were cancelled. It was also badly damaged by fire in 1737, 1756, and 1781. By the time Panam&amp;aacute; secured its independence from Spain in 1821 the population was only some five thousand. In 1826 El Libertador, Simon Bolivar, invited all the newly independent American nations to an Amphictyonic Congress in Panam&amp;aacute;, and delegates from Peru, Colombia, Central America, and Mexico took part, along with representatives of the USA, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. It took place in the former chapter hall of the Franciscan monastery, which had been abandoned by the community in 1821 (it was to house the first Constitutional Assembly in 1904).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It enjoyed a short boom during the California Gold Rush, since many people preferred to travel to the isthmus and cross to Panam&amp;aacute; so as to continue by ship to California rather than crossing the North American continent by railroad. By 1870 the population of the town had reached 10,000, and this had risen to 25,000 by the end of the 19th century. A watershed was reached in 1903, when Panam&amp;aacute; gained its independence from Colombia and the USA took over the great canal project. The town expanded enormously, with the inevitable result that, since the more desirable properties were located in the outlying districts, the historic centre fell into a decline; by 1950 most of the houses were in multiple occupation. Nevertheless, the Historic District remained the seat of the Panamanian Government: the Presidency and several ministries are still there.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/790</http_url><id_number>790</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_790.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pa</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of cultural criteria (ii), (iv) and (vi), considering that Panamá was the first European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas, in 1519, and the Historic District preserves intact a street pattern, together with a substantial number of early domestic buildings, which are exceptional testimony to the nature of this early settlement. The Salón Bolivar is of outstanding historical importance, as the venue for Simón Bolivar's visionary attempt in 1826 to create a Pan-American congress, more than a century before such institutions became a reality.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>8.9511111110</latitude><location>Panama’ Province, Panama’ District</location><longitude>-79.5405555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Le&amp;oacute;n Viejo is closely linked to the European discovery of the Pacific Ocean, Spanish expansion, the history of piracy and the bullion lifeline to Europe. The layout of the town illustrates an important interchange of human values and the buildings represent a significant stage in the development of colonial Spanish society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Panam&amp;aacute; Viejo is the site of the oldest European town on the American mainland, founded in 1519. When the town was moved to a new location in 1673, the site was abandoned and never rebuilt. It retained its original streets and pattern of open spaces; it is now a public park where the impressive ruins of the cathedral, churches, water installations, town hall and private houses are preserved and well presented to the public.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the older remains, dating to up to 1,000 years before the arrival of the Europeans, have been excavated and the finds are presented in the local museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old town was founded in 1519 by Pedrarias d'&amp;Aacute;vila. It soon became a commercial and administrative centre as well as an important port and the seat of a Royal Tribunal. Only the climate, being considered unhealthy, prevented the development of the town to the size and importance of Guatemala or Bogot&amp;aacute;. The old town was destroyed by fire in 1672 and the new town, 8&amp;nbsp;km to the south-west replaced it a year later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site remained state property and only in 1949 was a new neighbourhood established at its northern fringes, not affecting the state of conservation of any visible or known remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Panama was the first European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas, in 1519, and the Historic District preserves intact a street pattern, together with a substantial number of early domestic buildings, which are exceptional testimony to the nature of this early settlement. The Sal&amp;oacute;n Bolivar is of outstanding historical importance, as the venue for Sim&amp;oacute;n Bolivar's visionary attempt in 1826 to create a Pan-American congress, more than a century before such institutions became a reality.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2003</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1519 by the conquistador Pedrarías Dávila, Panamá Viejo is the oldest European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas. It was laid out on a rectilinear grid and marks the transference from Europe of the idea of a planned town. Abandoned in the mid-17th century, it was replaced by a ‘new town’ (the ‘Historic District’), which has also preserved its original street plan, its architecture and an unusual mixture of Spanish, French and early American styles. The Salón Bolívar was the venue for the unsuccessful attempt made by &lt;em&gt;El Libertador&lt;/em&gt; in 1826 to establish a multinational continental congress.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Panamá Viejo and Historic District of Panamá</site><states>Panama</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>934</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1138</http_url><id_number>1138</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1138.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pa</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix): &lt;/em&gt;Despite the short time of isolation of the islands of the Gulf of Chiriqu&amp;iacute; on an evolutionary timeframe, new species are being formed, which is evident from the levels of endemism reported for many groups (mammals, birds, plants), making the property an outstanding natural laboratory for scientific research. Furthermore the Eastern Pacific reefs, such as those within the property, are characterized by complex biological interactions of their inhabitants and provide a key ecological link in the Tropical Eastern Pacific for the transit and survival of numerous pelagic fish as well as marine mammals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x): &lt;/em&gt;The forests of Coiba Island possess a high variety of endemic birds, mammals and plants. Coiba Island also serves as the last refuge for a number of threatened species that have largely disappeared from the rest of Panama, such as the Crested Eagle and the Scarlet Macaw. Furthermore the marine ecosystems within the property are repositories of extraordinary biodiversity conditioned to the ability of the Gulf of Chiriqu&amp;iacute; to buffer against temperature extremes associated to El Ni&amp;ntilde;o/Southern Oscilation phenomenon. The property includes 760 species of marine fishes, 33 species of sharks and 20 species of cetaceans. The islands within the property are the only group of inshore islands in the tropical eastern Pacific that have significant populations of trans-Pacific fishes, namely, Indo-Pacific species that have established themselves in the eastern Pacific.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>7.4330000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Veraguas and Chiriquí</location><longitude>-81.7660000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Coiba National Park, off the southwest coast of Panama, protects Coiba Island, 38 smaller islands and the surrounding marine areas within the Gulf of Chiriqu&amp;iacute;. Protected from the cold winds and effects of El Ni&amp;ntilde;o, Coiba's Pacific tropical moist forest maintains exceptionally high levels of endemism of mammals, birds and plants due to the ongoing evolution of new species. It is also the last refuge for a number of threatened animals such as the crested eagle. The property is an outstanding natural laboratory for scientific research and provides a key ecological link to the Tropical Eastern Pacific for the transit and survival of pelagic fish and marine mammals.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Coiba National Park, off the southwest coast of Panama, protects Coiba Island, 38 smaller islands and the surrounding marine areas within the Gulf of Chiriqui. Protected from the cold winds and effects of El Ni&amp;ntilde;o, Coiba&amp;rsquo;s Pacific tropical moist forest maintains exceptionally high levels of endemism of mammals, birds and plants due to the ongoing evolution of new species. It is also the last refuge for a number of threatened animals such as the crested eagle. The property is an outstanding natural laboratory for scientific research and provides a key ecological link to the Tropical Eastern Pacific for the transit and survival of pelagic fish and marine mammals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection</site><states>Panama</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1319</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Until around 100 years ago the Kuk wetlands were farmed traditionally with bananas and root crops grown on land drained by ditches and around the margins of the valley grassland burned periodically to encourage good grazing for animals. This latter practice persisted until the 1930s when Europeans arrived to prospect for gold and as missionaries. The first coffee and tea plantations followed quickly after the access road had been created in the 1950s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1968 the Kuk swamp was leased from the Kawelkas people for 99 years by the Australian colonial administration and a research station was established first for tea and later for other crops. The swamp was drained with parallel drainage trenches across the landscape, and eucalyptus trees planted along parallel roads between experimental plots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional gardening patterns that existed up until the 1950s were overlaid for a comparatively short period (approximately 40 years). Just before the independence of Papua New Guinea in 1975, archaeological investigations of the newly dug plantation drains were begun under the direction of the Australian National University. For four years until 1977 large-scale excavations revealed traces of ancient drainage systems. With the closure of the Research station in 1991, excavations ceased and local people begun once more to farm the land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the colonial style plantation/research station era of Kuk was a comparatively a short break in traditional cultivation, it appears to have markedly changed the mosaic pattern of gardens and the informal pattern of the drainage networks. The gardening practiced today although re-establishing some traditional practices has also integrated commercial crops such as coffee with traditional food plants and appears to be grided by the drainage trenches of the plantation/research station era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1997 the Papua New Guinea National Museum working with experts from the University of Papua New Guinea started to negotiate for international recognitions of the property as a World Heritage site. Multidisciplinary investigations were carried out over two years in 1998 and 1999 to re-assess earlier work and to try and establish firm dating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/887</http_url><id_number>887</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_887.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-5.7837111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>144.3317222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kuk Early Agricultural Site consists of 116 ha of swamps in the western highlands of New Guinea 1,500 metres above sea-level. Archaeological excavation has revealed the landscape to be one of wetland reclamation worked almost continuously for 7,000, and possibly for 10,000 years. It contains well-preserved archaeological remains demonstrating the technological leap which transformed plant exploitation to agriculture around 6,500 years ago. It is an excellent example of transformation of agricultural practices over time, from cultivation mounds to draining the wetlands through the digging of ditches with wooden tools. Kuk is one of the few places in the world where archaeological evidence suggests independent agricultural development and changes in agricultural practice over such a long period of time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kuk Early Agricultural Site</site><states>Papua New Guinea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1546</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Society of Jesus established itself in the region known as the Guayr&amp;aacute; in 1588, by permission of Philip II. One of its objectives became the protection of the Indians against the abuses of the encomienda system, which reduced them to a condition of virtual slavery; at the same time they would be brought into the Christian Church and educated into a sedentary form of life. Following the granting of the frontier zone of Paraguay to the Jesuits in 1609 by the Spanish Crown, they moved into the lands of the Guaran&amp;iacute; people in the Rio de la Plata basin, where they created reducciones (settlements), each with its mission. There were 30 in all, 8 in latter-day Paraguay, 15 in Argentina, and 7 in Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad, the most ambitious of these missions and the capital of the Guayr&amp;aacute;, was built in 1706, the work of the noted Jesuit architect Juan Bautista Primoli. It was constructed in stone with a fine dome and elaborate decoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reducci&amp;oacute;n of Jes&amp;uacute;s de Tavarangue was founded in 1685, but moved some years later to its present site, when the mission was built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santos Cosme y Dami&amp;aacute;n, founded in 1632 on Brazilian territory, moved to its present site in 1740.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/648</http_url><id_number>648</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_648.jpg</image_url><iso_code>py</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-27.1333300000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-55.7000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Society of Jesus established itself in the region known as the Guayr&amp;aacute; in 1588, by permission of Philip II. One of its objectives became the protection of the Indians against the abuses of the colonial &lt;em&gt;encomienda&lt;/em&gt; system of tribute or labour, which reduced them to a condition of virtual slavery; at the same time they would be brought into the Christian Church and educated into a sedentary form of life. Following the granting of the frontier zone of Paraguay to the Jesuits in 1609 by the Spanish Crown, they moved into the lands of the Guaran&amp;iacute; people in the Rio de la Plata basin, where they created &lt;em&gt;reducciones&lt;/em&gt; (settlements), each with its mission. There were 30 in all, 8 in latter-day Paraguay, 15 in Argentina, and 7 in Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad, the most ambitious of these missions and the capital of the Guayr&amp;aacute;, was built in 1706, the work of the noted Jesuit architect Juan Bautista Primoli. It was constructed in stone with a fine dome and elaborated decoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;reducci&amp;oacute;n&lt;/em&gt; of Jes&amp;uacute;s de Tavarangue was founded in 1685, but moved some years later to its present site, when the mission was built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santos Cosme y Dami&amp;aacute;n, founded in 1632 on Brazilian territory, moved to its present site in 1740.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad de Paran&amp;aacute; has the best preserved urban structure: Plaza Mayor, main church (crypt), small church, college and cloister, cemeteries, kitchen gardens, belfry, native houses and workshops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruined church of Jes&amp;uacute;s de Tavarangue retains much of its imposing appearance, but only one room of the college survives. There are significant remains of the urban structure, including the Plaza Mayor, native houses and cemeteries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church of Santos Cosme y Dami&amp;aacute;n was never finished. However, it has continued to serve as a place of worship. Other remains also survive, including one of the wings of the college, the cemetery, and contemporary Indian houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All three are in essence archaeological sites, consisting of ruined building and occupation layers, and so their authenticity is not in question. The church of Santos Cosme y Dami&amp;aacute;n, being in current use, has some more recent features, but restoration interventions have respected the ancient fabric and materials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Sant&amp;iacute;sima Trinidad, the best preserved of the three, is of great symbolic importance, because its decoration reflects the spirit of its conception, with its fusion of Christian and native artistic elements. Santos Cosme y Dami&amp;agrave;n is important because, in addition to its historical significance, it has retained its role as a centre of worship for the village and district in which it is located.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In addition to their artistic interest, these missions are a reminder of the Jesuits' Christianization of the R&amp;iacute;o de la Plata basin in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the accompanying social and economic initiatives.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jesuit Missions of La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue</site><states>Paraguay</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>768</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/273</http_url><id_number>273</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_273.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-13.5222200000</latitude><location>City of Cuzco</location><longitude>-71.9833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cuzco and the old villages still retain traces of land occupation from the Inca Empire to preserve, in a more global manner, an archaeological heritage, which has become susceptible to the effects of urbanization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated at 3,400&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, in a fertile alluvial valley fed by several rivers in the Peruvian Andes, Cuzco was developed under the Inca ruler Pachacutec into a complex urban centre with distinct religious and administrative functions. It was surrounded by clearly delineated areas for agricultural, artisanal and industrial production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1536, within the Spanish colonial domain from which it did not definitively emerge until after the proclamation of independence (1821) and the victory of Bol&amp;iacute;var at Ayacucho. From its complex past, woven with significant events and beautiful legends, the city has retained a remarkable monumental ensemble and a coherence that recent changes have not compromised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inca mythology attributes the foundation of the city to the Inca Manco C&amp;aacute;pac: according to tradition the golden sceptre that the Sun had given him was thrust into the fertile soil of Cuzco to designate the emplacement of the capital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In actuality, Cuzco appears to have been a centre of only mediocre importance until the 15th century when the power of the Incas was affirmed following the battle against the Chancas invaders: its reconstruction, directed by two great Incas, Pachacutec (1438-71) and Tupac Yupanqui (1471-93) lasted 20 years and, supposedly, employed 50,000 men. The first of these rulers (to whom is also attributed the construction of Machu Picchu) wished to create an ideal city that would respond to the multiple functions of a capital: after having canalized the two principal rivers (Saphi and Tullumayo), whose flooding periodically menaced the inhabitants of the old Cuzco, he laid down the foundations of an extremely hierarchical organization in which the urban centre united administrative and religious functions, whereas the outlying areas and especially the satellite-towns situated in a cultivated zone (Cayaucachi, Claquillchaca, Picchu, Quillipata, Carmenca, Huacapunco, etc.) were units of agricultural, artisanal and industrial production. This tripartite division must have stirred the imagination of the conquistadores, as did the orthogonal layout of the streets of the Ciudad Nobiliaria, barely inflected to accommodate land erosion. The European invaders respected the plan of this rational city, so curiously close to the idea cities of the Renaissance. They limited themselves to the destruction of the principal edifices charged with political and religious symbolism, and constructed new monuments, aggressively Catholic and Spanish, on the admirable cyclopean masonry of the demolished walls of these buildings. The Huaccapayta, centre of the Inca empire, bordered by the palaces of Pachacutec, Viracocha and Huayna Capac, is the present-day Plaza de Armas; the palace of Viracocha was demolished in order to build the cathedral begun in 1560; the Acclahuasi to construct the convent of Santa Catalina; the Coricaucha, partially destroyed in order to make space for the convent of Santo Domingo de Guzman, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cuzco is today an amazing amalgam of the Inca capital and the colonial city. Of the first, it preserves impressive vestiges, especially its plan: walls of meticulously cut granite or andesite, rectilinear streets running within the walls, ruins of the Sun Temple of which the Golden Garden, once covered with sculptures of precious metals, was pillaged by the Spanish soldiers to enrich the coffers of Charles V. Of the colonial city, there remain the freshly whitewashed squat houses, the palace and the marvellous Baroque churches which achieved the impossible fusion of the Plateresco, Mudejar or Churrigueresco styles with that of the Inca tradition.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Peruvian Andes, Cuzco developed, under the Inca ruler Pachacutec, into a complex urban centre with distinct religious and administrative functions. It was surrounded by clearly delineated areas for agricultural, artisan and industrial production. When the Spaniards conquered it in the 16th century, they preserved the basic structure but built Baroque churches and palaces over the ruins of the Inca city.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Cuzco</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>304</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/274</http_url><id_number>274</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_274.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-13.1166666700</latitude><location></location><longitude>-72.5833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Machu Picchu bears, with Cuzco and the other archaeological sites of the valley of the Urubamba (Ollantautaybo, Runcuracay, Sayacmarca, Phuyupamarca, Huiñay Huayna, Intipucu, etc.) a unique testimony to the Inca civilization. Cuzco and the old villages still retain traces of land occupation from the Inca Empire to preserve, in a more global manner, an archaeological heritage which has become susceptible to the effects of urbanization. Furthermore, Macchu Picchu is an outstanding example of man's interaction with his natural environment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Standing 2,430 m above sea level, in the midst of a tropical mountain forest in an extraordinarily beautiful setting, Machu Picchu was probably the most amazing urban creation of the Inca Empire at its height. Its giant walls, terraces and ramps seem as if they have been cut naturally in the continuous rock escarpments. The natural setting, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, encompasses the upper Amazon basin with its rich diversity of flora and fauna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Machu Picchu covers 32,500 ha in some of the scenically most attractive mountainous territory of the Peruvian Andes. As the last stronghold of the Incas and of superb architectural and archaeological importance, Machu Picchu is one of the most important cultural sites in Latin America; the stonework of the site remains as one of the world's great examples of the use of a natural raw material to provide outstanding architecture which is totally appropriate to the surroundings. The surrounding valleys have been cultivated continuously for well over 1,000 years, providing one of the world's greatest examples of a productive man-land relationship; the people living around Machu Picchu continue a way of life which closely resembles that of their Inca ancestors, being based on potatoes, maize and llamas. Machu Picchu also provides a secure habitat for several endangered species, notably the spectacled bear, one of the most interesting species in the area. Others animals include: dwarf brocket, the otter, long-tailed weasel, pampas cat and the vulnerable ocelot, boa, the Andean cock of the rock, and the Andean condor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The natural vegetation is of humid and very humid lower montane forest of the subtropical region, mainly with genera and ferns of the Cyathea and palms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Set on the vertiginous site of a granite mountain sculpted by erosion and dominating a meander in the Rio Urubamba, Machu Picchu is a world renowned archaeological site. The construction of this amazing city, set out according to a very rigorous plan, comprises one of the most spectacular creations of the Inca Empire. It appears to date from the period of the two great Incas, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438-71) and Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1472-93). The function of this city situated at least 100 km from the capital, Cuzco, has not been formulated which are not verifiable given the absence of written documentation and sufficiently explicit material evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Without making a judgement as to their purpose, several quite individual quarters may be noted in the ruins of Machu Picchu: a quarter 'of the Farmers' near the colossal terraces whose slopes were cultivated and transformed into hanging gardens; an 'industrial' quarter; a 'royal' quarter and a 'religious' quarter. Inca architecture reveals itself here in all of its force with the titanic earthen works which multiplied the platforms, levelled the rocky relief, constructed ramps and stairways and literally sculpted the mountain whose cyclopean constructions appear to be a prolongation of nature.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Machu Picchu stands 2,430 m above sea-level, in the middle of a tropical mountain forest, in an extraordinarily beautiful setting. It was probably the most amazing urban creation of the Inca Empire at its height; its giant walls, terraces and ramps seem as if they have been cut naturally in the continuous rock escarpments. The natural setting, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, encompasses the upper Amazon basin with its rich diversity of flora and fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>305</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/330</http_url><id_number>330</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_330.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-9.5927725444</latitude><location>Ancash Department, Huari Province, Chavin District</location><longitude>-77.1784535027</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The village of Chav&amp;iacute;n de Hu&amp;aacute;ntar, located in a high valley of the Peruvian Andes at an altitude of 3,177&amp;nbsp;m was constructed near one of the oldest known and most admired pre-Hispanic sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This site gave its name to the Chav&amp;iacute;n Culture, one of the ancient civilizations of South America, which developed roughly between 1500 and 300 BC. It preceded the first regional civilizations such as that of Salinar Maranga and Nasca.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Visited on a regular basis by travellers during the 19th century, Chav&amp;iacute;n was excavated from 1919 by the Peruvian archaeologist, Julio C. Tello, whose work contributed to the site's international reputation. In 1945, a good many of the monuments were covered up by a disastrous landslide. Moreover, Chav&amp;iacute;n was affected by an earthquake in 1970.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'archaeological project of Chav&amp;iacute;n', which since 1980 has been the focus of joint efforts on the part of Federico Villareal University and the Volkswagen Foundation, has made possible the resumption of excavation and safeguard plan for the site under the supervision of the Instituto Nacionale de Cultura.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of a number of terraces and squares having constructions of bonded stones. The prevailing ceremonial and cultural nature of the entire Chav&amp;iacute;n complex is very clear. It characterizes the architecture of the 'Lanzon temple', the 'Tello pyramid' which are both built upon a complex network of galleries, and the sculpted decor of the immense ornate megaliths: the Lanzon, a granite monolith of more than 4&amp;nbsp;m in height, the Raimondi stele, a 2&amp;nbsp;m block of diorite, the Tello obelisk, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bas-relief sculptures on slabs, lintels and columns is characterized by an essentially zoomorphic repertory (jaguars, snakes, condors, caimans) to which human faces are added here and there. The renowned &lt;em&gt;cabezas claves&lt;/em&gt;, a sort of round corbel embossed on the wall stones (one of which still exists &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; on the 'Castillo' wall at the temple's southern flank) are one of the most gripping creations of the monumental art of Chav&amp;iacute;n.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Chavin gave its name to the culture that developed between 1500 and 300 B.C. in this high valley of the Peruvian Andes. This former place of worship is one of the earliest and best-known pre-Columbian sites. Its appearance is striking, with the complex of terraces and squares, surrounded by structures of dressed stone, and the mainly zoomorphic ornamentation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chavin (Archaeological Site)</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>375</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The national park was established on 1 July 1975 by Supreme Decree no. 0622-75-AG (under the law on forests and wildlife, Decree-law no. 21147). Accepted as a biosphere reserve by Unesco on 1 March 1977 and designated a World Heritage site in 1985.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/333</http_url><id_number>333</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_333.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-9.3333300000</latitude><location>Department Ancash, Provincia: recuay, Carhuas, Huaráz, Yungay, Pomabamba, Mariscal Luzuriaga, Huari, Corongo, Sihuas y Bolognesi</location><longitude>-77.4000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Huascar&amp;aacute;n National Park is located in the Cordillera Blanca Range, in the Sierra Central of the Peruvian Andes. The park covers the most of the Cordillera Blanca, the highest tropical mountain range in the world. It has 27 snow-capped peaks 6,000&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, of which El Huascar&amp;aacute;n (6,768&amp;nbsp;m) is the highest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park encloses a diversity of geomorphologic features. The deep ravines contain rushing torrents formed from one of the 80 glaciers, and there are some 120 glacial lakes ranging in size from 1&amp;nbsp;million m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&amp;nbsp;million m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of water. Lower down are thermal springs used for their therapeutic properties. There is still seismic activity in the area, which was affected by an earthquake in 1970. The wide topographic range has lead to a wide range in vegetation types. Vegetation is characteristic of humid montane forest in the valleys, with nival, alpine fluvial tundra, and very wet subalpine paramo formations at higher levels. The distinctive alpine bromeliad is abundant. Other plants include &lt;em&gt;Bromeliceae&lt;/em&gt; , mountain orchids and relict forests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The spectacled bear, puma, mountain cat, white-tailed deer and the vicuna are important indigenous species, but all have been heavily hunted in the past. The North Andean huemul, a rare species of deer, is also found here. Among the birds the most noteworthy are the cordillera hawk, the Andean condor, giant coot and the giant hummingbird, ornate tinamou as well as various species of duck, including the torrent duck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cordillero region has for centuries been a site for the settlement of ethnic groups, as witnessed by ruins at Gekosh and Chuchumpunta and at Willcahuain-Huyllap-Pumacayan, Hechkap-Jonkapampa and others. These represent the largest collection of such remains in the world known to date. The most ancient cultures seem to have developed in the northern part of the park; the remains at the Cueva Del Guitanero in Yungay date back 2,000 years before the Chavin culture, spreading from Carhuaz to Pomabamba.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Callejon de Huaylas is a valley containing numerous towns and is intensively used for agriculture, grazing, mining and plantation forestry. The national park is uninhabited, although there is some grazing in the lowlands by native livestock (llama and alpaca) under an agreement with the local people.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Cordillera Blanca, the world's highest tropical mountain range, Mount Huascar&amp;aacute;n rises to 6,768 m above sea-level. The deep ravines watered by numerous torrents, the glacial lakes and the variety of the vegetation make it a site of spectacular beauty. It is the home of such species as the spectacled bear and the Andean condor.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Huascarán National Park</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>379</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 1986</danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/366</http_url><id_number>366</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_366.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-8.1000000000</latitude><location>District of Huanchaco</location><longitude>-79.0833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The planning of Chan Chan, the largest city of pre-Hispanic America and unique testimony to the disappeared Chimu kingdom, is a masterpiece of inhabited space, and hierarchical construction which illustrates a political and social ideal that has rarely been expressed with such clarity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Chimu kingdom reached its zenith in the 15th century, not long before falling under the sway of the Incas. In about 1470, after a long war, the Inca Tupac Yupanqui took King Minchancaman in captivity to Cuzco. The king's son, Chumun Caur, governed the kingdom of the north, thereafter weakened and divided, on behalf of the Inca. Some 60 years later, the Spanish conquistadores, favourably welcomed by the Chimus out of hate for the Incas, founded a new capital 5&amp;nbsp;km from Chan Chan which in 1535 was given the name of Pizarro's home town, Trujillo, when the site of Chan Chan was quickly abandoned. Archaeology which has provided us with data on the Chimu civilization which, around 1200, replaced the Mochica culture on the very location where the latter began developing in the 4th century. It was the Moche valley which was the vital centre of a vast empire stretching from the Gulf of Guayaqu&amp;iacute;l in the north to the region of Pramonga in the south. In this dry zone the river, which flowed into a canal 80&amp;nbsp;km long, was used, via an intricate system of irrigation, to supply the entire region that lay close to Chan Chan. It is now difficult to imagine the fertility of this region during the height of the Chimu civilization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Chan Chan, which were plundered by Spanish treasure hunters and which continue to be by their modern counterparts, the 'huaqueros', in spite of protective legislation, very early on attracted the attention of travellers, historians and archaeologists. A simplified plan of the ruins was drawn up between 1755 and 1785 by the Spaniard Baltazar Martinez de Compa&amp;ntilde;on. Even today, in spite of the excellent surveys conducted from 1969 by the Harvard mission headed by Michael E. Moseley, mapping of the site is incomplete and archaeological exploration has only just begun. Yet the rapid and seemingly unstoppable erosion of a particularly vulnerable building material, adobe, constitutes a serious obstacle to in-depth knowledge of the site. Many of the structures excavated and surveyed in the past have entirely disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;What strikes all visitors is the sheer size of Chan Chan and the intense organization of its strictly hierarchical urban space. The city as a whole covers occupies no less than 6&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. This zone comprises nine large rectangular ensembles delineated by high, thick earthen walls and known as 'citadels' or 'palaces'. Each of these 'palaces' forms a type of independent urban unit which comprises several spaces, built or not as the case may be, around one or more squares, the ceremonial character is in some cases quite obvious. Among them are temples, dwellings, storehouses, kitchens, reservoirs, orchards, gardens, funeral platforms, cemeteries, etc. The cob walls decorated with raised friezes in which abstract motifs, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic subjects add to the exceptional splendours of these large arrays of ruins. Outside these nine rectangular units four industrial sectors were found to the west and south. The main activities appear to have been woodworking, weaving and the working of gold and silver. An area further to the south seems to have been used for farming as witnessed by the remains of an irrigation system, but many temples have been found there as well.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Chimu Kingdom, with Chan Chan as its capital, reached its apogee in the 15th century, not long before falling to the Incas. The planning of this huge city, the largest in pre-Columbian America, reflects a strict political and social strategy, marked by the city's division into nine 'citadels' or 'palaces' forming autonomous units.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chan Chan Archaeological Zone</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>419</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/500</http_url><id_number>500</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_500.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-12.0513900000</latitude><location>City of Lima</location><longitude>-77.0430600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Lima bears witness to the architecture and urban development of a Spanish colonial town of great political, economic, and cultural importance in Latin American. San Francisco de Lima is an outstanding example of a convent ensemble of the colonial periods in Latin America and, along with Santa Catalina de Arequipa, is one of the most complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Lima was founded on 5&amp;nbsp;January 1535. The city played a leading role in the history of the New World from 1542, when Charles V established the Viceroyalty of Peru there, to the 18th century when the creation of the Viceroyalties of New Granada (1718) and particularly of La Plata gradually put an end to the omnipotence of the oldest Spanish colony on South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The demographic change, from the colonial city to today, explains the serious modifications to the urban landscape. Scant trace of the historic centre of Lima can be seen in the present metropolitan area, with the exception of a few remarkable ensembles - the Plaza de Armas (with the cathedral, Sagrario chapel, archbishop's palace), the Plaza de la Vera Cruz with Santo Domingo, and especially the monumental complex of the convent of San Francisco (founded by Emperor Charles V and Francisco Pizarro).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortified port of Callao defended the town from attack by sea, while a fortified enceinte was built at the end of the 17th century to protect Lima from potential invaders attacking from inland territories. The University of San Marcos was established in the Peruvian capital in 1551 and the first shop opened in 1584. The town's cultural life was strongly influenced by the many religious orders (monasteries of San Francisco, Santo Domingo, San August&amp;iacute;n and others) founded within it. In the 17th century Lima flourished as an economic and cultural centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic monuments (religious or public buildings, such as the Torre Tagle palace) which lie within the perimeter of the World Heritage site date from the 17th and 18th centuries and are typical examples of Hispano-American Baroque. The architecture of the other buildings is often representative of the same period. Thus, despite the addition of certain 19th-century constructions (such as Casa Courret in the Art Nouveau style) to the old urban fabric, the historic nucleus of the town recalls Lima at the of the Spanish Kingdom of Peru.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although urban development in the 20th century - the construction of the Avenida Abancay in 1940 - has whittled away at this immense domain, San Francisco still presents an ensemble of convent buildings that is remarkable for its surface area, its coherence, the beauty of the architecture and the richness of interior decorations. Within the monumental complex are three churches - San Francisco, La Soledad and El Milagro - which connect with a number of communal areas laid out around five cloisters. Most of the buildings date from the 17th century, because the 1655 earthquake destroyed the original buildings, some of which, like the Church of the Miracle (El Milagro), had been built before 1553. The reconstruction undertaken in 1657 owes much to the Portuguese architect Constantino de Vasconcelos, succeeded in 1668 by his disciple Manuel de Escobar, a native of Lima, who protected the Baroque structures against earthquakes by using indigenous techniques: common joists and ribs of wood, vaults and cupolas of earth on reed lattices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inside the church, the projections in white on a red ochre background highlight the lovely simplicity of volumes and let the full symphony of the gilt and colour of the Baroque altarpieces burst forth. Several of the most striking features of the convent building (e.g. the main two-storey cloister, the chapter house and the monks' choir, are universally known and admired. Their architectural quality is enhances by splendid decoration: &lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; wall coverings, marble altarpieces, frescoes and paintings, the &lt;em&gt;artesonados&lt;/em&gt; ceilings of the cloister, the stalls in the monk' choir and in the chapter house, the woodwork in the sacristy, and others.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1991</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Although severely damaged by earthquakes, this 'City of the Kings' was, until the middle of the 18th century, the capital and most important city of the Spanish dominions in South America. Many of its buildings, such as the Convent of San Francisco (the largest of its type in this part of the world), are the result of collaboration between local craftspeople and others from the Old World.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Lima</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>583</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Rio Abiseo National Park was founded in 1983, east of Trujillo in the Department of San Martin, in order to protect the fauna and flora of the damp forests that thrive at a high altitude. The objective of the Peruvian authorities was to make the park covering 274.520 hectares both a reserve and a laboratory, with research on its natural and cultural resources to be carried out in a spirit of international co-operation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1985 a five-year agreement for research on the archaeological and ethnological heritage of the park was signed between the government of Peru and the universities of La Molina and La Catolica de Lima, the University of La Libertad de Trujillo, and the University of Colorado at Boulder. The programme provided for the exploration of a zone covering 64.690 hectares in the upper basin of the Rio Montecristo, north-west of the park. In that zone, a number of pre-Hispanic sites had been discovered accidentally, including Gran Pajaten (1963 and 1965). La Playa (1973) and Los Pinchudos (1975 and 1977).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work since 1985 has identified and recorded a total of 36 previously unknown sites, all between 2.500 and 4.000 m above sea-level. Among the most important are the following:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Playa Some 25 structures and stone circles have been recorded in an area of 10 ha on an elevated river terrace. Building 14, 7m in diameter, is constructed of dressed masonry and has a decorated cornice: it was probably used for ceremonial purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Las Papayas At least 100 structures have been recorded at this site. located on 16 artificial terraces in the Valle de Montecristo. Most are well built in dressed stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Los Pinchudos This is a burial complex, situated between the Las Papayas and Gran Pajaten settlements. There is a rectangular funerary enclosure containing both small mounds and niches: four of the tombs are highly decorated with Greek fret and zigzag ornament, and much of the original paintwork survives. The roof beam of another structure (N&amp;deg;5) is surmounted by five wooden figures of Chimu type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gran Pajaten On this site, which covers 4 ha, 16 round structures and two rectangular buildings have been located and the undergrowth partially cleared. The round structure for which the most amount of information is available reveals, on the outside, an interesting decoration on two levels with, on the lower level, 10 anthropomorphic figures of a characteristic design. Two phases of occupation have been identified by radiocarbon dating -900-200 BC and 200 BC-AD 600.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cerro Central At this settlement. which faces Gran Pajaten on the other side of the Rio Montecristo, it is estimated that there were at least 200 buildings, some of which in terms of decoration resemble the circumar building at Gran Pajaten. Human figures and stylized birds made of thin sheets of dry stone inserted into a very irregular pattern constitute, in the opinion of some, one of the characteristic features of the "Rio Abiseo culture".&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Manachagui Cave This site, which lies on the western border of the National Park. away from the Montecristo group has produced evidence of a long sequence of human occupation from the Late Palaeo-lndian and Pre-Ceramic Periods (6.000- 1.800 BC) through to the mid-16th century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Settlement in the upper part of Montecristo valley began before the 4th century BC, and especially in the Intermediate Horizon Period (200 BC-AD 600). There was dense occupation in the region when the Spanish colonizers arrived in the 16th century, but it declined rapidly from that period onwards.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/548</http_url><id_number>548</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_548.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-7.7500000000</latitude><location>Department of San Martin, Province Mariscal Caceres, District of Huicungo</location><longitude>-77.2500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Rio Abiseo National Park is an outstanding example of significant ongoing geological processes, biological evolution and man's interaction with the natural environment. It contains exceptional combinations of natural and cultural elements and most important and significant natural habitants where threatened species still survive. The pre-Hispanic monuments in the Montecristo valley area within the Rio Abiseo National Park constitute an outstanding example of pre-Hispanic human occupation at high altitudes in the Andean region from as early as the 4th century BC. Evidence from the Manachaqui Cave suggests that the Rio Abiseo Natural Park area was settled by man from an even remoter period, as early as 6000 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Andes mountain chain (Cordillera Oriental de los Andes), to the east of Huicungo on the Amazon slope of the Peruviar Andes, the park is located at a crossroads between the Mara&amp;ntilde;on and Huallaga rivers. Founded in 1983, it encompasses the entire Abiseo River basin.The topography is mountainous, with very acidic soils and slopes often greater than 50%. Almost all the Rio Abiseo soils are characterized by never having been disturbed by agriculture or timber extraction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rio Abiseo is renowned for its pristine primary cloud forest and highland grasslands (&lt;em&gt;paramo&lt;/em&gt; ). The cloud forest is reputed to the last glaciation, leading to great species diversity and a high degree of endemism. High-altitude grassland inventories have resulted in identification of 1,000 species of plant. The cloud forest supports a wide diversity of fauna, including marvellous spatuletail, South American pochard and golden-plumed conure. The more threatened species include nine endemics and five species of restricted distribution, representing a new location for species such as yellow-browed toucanet. Altitude zonation has strongly influenced the avifauna: there are over 132 bird species at between 3,000&amp;nbsp;m and 4,100&amp;nbsp;m altitude. There are several notable mammal species, such as the endemic yellow-tailed woolly monkey, previously believed to be extinct in 1926; also present are three other species of monkey including long-haired spider monkey. Other notable larger mammals include North Andean huemul, spectacled bear, jaguar, jaguarundi, giant armadillo and possibly tapir. Studies of the invertebrates have shown a high level of endemism, a key example being the Ithomiidae; the park is a centre of evolution and a quaternary refuge. The rich herpetological fauna includes 15 unique species of anurans which are highly site-specific.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the most important pre-Columbian ruins are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;La Playa&lt;/em&gt; : some 25 structures and stone circles have been recorded in an area on an elevated river terrace. Buliding 14 is constructed of dressed masonry and has a decorated cornice: it was probably used for ceremonial purposes.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Las Papayas&lt;/em&gt; : at least 100 structures have been recorded at this site, located on 16 artificial terraces in the Valley of Montecristo. Most are well built from dressed stone.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Los Pinchudos&lt;/em&gt; is a burial complex. A funerary enclosure contains small mounds and niches: four of the tombs are decorated with Greek fret and zigzag ornament, and much of the original paintwork survives. The roof beam of another is surmounted by five wooden figures of Chimu type.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Gran Pajat&amp;eacute;n&lt;/em&gt; is a round structure for which on the outside there is an interesting decoration on two levels with, on the lower level, and ten anthropomorphic figures of a characteristic design.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cerro Central&lt;/em&gt; has 200 buildings. Human figures and stylized birds made from thin sheets of dry stone are inserted into a very irregular pattern.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Manachaqui Cave&lt;/em&gt; , which lies on the western border of the National Park, away from the Montecristo group, has produced evidence of a long sequence of human occupation from the palaeo-Indian and pre-Ceramic periods until the mid-16th century AD.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1992</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The park was created in 1983 to protect the fauna and flora of the rainforests that are characteristic of this region of the Andes. There is a high level of endemism among the fauna and flora found in the park. The yellow-tailed woolly monkey, previously thought extinct, is found only in this area. Research undertaken since 1985 has already uncovered 36 previously unknown archaeological sites at altitudes of between 2,500 and 4,000 m, which give a good picture of pre-Inca society.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Río Abiseo National Park</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>644</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Intensive study of the geoglyphs and comparison with other manifestations of contemporary art forms suggests that they can be divided into three chronological phases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first dates from the Chavin period (500-300 BC) and is characterized by the technique of forming figures by piling stones. This was an important period for cultural developments in the Andean region, with strong influence exerted in the lea region from the north by the Formative Middle Late Culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The local development known as Paracas represents the second phase (400-200 BC), again strongly influenced from the north. The town of Paracas adapted its culture skillfully to its severe geographical location and&amp;gt;achieved a high level of artistic development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third phase, which represents the great majority of the geoglyphs, is the Nazca phase proper (200 BC-AD 500). The Nazca culture derived directly from that of Paracas. The Andean towns developed a powerful religious system which produced, along with Moche on the northern coast of Peru, an outstanding culture represented by its handicrafts (notably pottery) and textiles. Most of the geoglyphs of this period are located close to villages of this culture, such as La Quebrada del Frayle, Cahuachi, Palpa, and lngenio, concentrated in Pampa de Jumana.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/700</http_url><id_number>700</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_700.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-14.7258300000</latitude><location>Libertadores / Wari Region</location><longitude>-75.1486100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Nazca lines and geoglyphs form a unique and magnificent artistic achievement that is unrivalled in its dimensions and diversity anywhere in the prehistoric world. This unique form of land use bears exceptional witness to the culture and beliefs of this region of pre-Hispanic South America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nasca geoglyphs are located in the arid Peruvian coastal plain 400&amp;nbsp;km south of Lima, and cover 450&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , both in the desert and in the low Andean foothills. These are covered with ferruginous sand and gravel which has acquired a dark patina from weathering. Removal of the gravel reveals the underlying lighter coloured strata, which contrasts strongly with the darker gravels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'Nazca Lines', as they are commonly known, are the most outstanding group of geoglyphs anywhere in the world. They are also one of the most impenetrable enigmas of archaeology by virtue of their quantity, nature and size, as well as their continuity. The concentration and juxtaposition of the lines, as well as their cultural continuity, demonstrate that this was an important and long-lasting activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Intensive study of the geoglyphs and comparison with other manifestations of contemporary art forms suggests that they can be divided into three chronological phases. The first dates from the Chav&amp;iacute;n period (500-300 BC) and is characterized by the technique of forming figures by piling stones. This was an important time of cultural developments in the Andean region, with strong influence exerted in the Inca region from the north by the Formative Middle Late Culture. The local development known as Paracas represents the second phase (400-200 BC), again strongly influenced from the north. The town of Paracas adapted its culture skilfully to its severe location and achieved a high level of artistic development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third phase, which represents the great majority of the geoglyphs, is the Nazca phase proper (200 BC-AD 500). The Nazca culture derived directly from that of Paracas. The Andean towns developed a powerful religious system which produced, along with Moche on the northern coast of Peru, an outstanding culture represented by its handicrafts (notably pottery) and textiles. Most of the geoglyphs of this period are located close to villages of this culture, such as La Quebrada del Frayle, Cahuachi, Palpa and Ingenio, concentrated in Pampa de Jumana.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two techniques were used to define the geoglyphs. In the earlier Chav&amp;iacute;n period they were defined in outline, the gravel being removed and piled inwards, so as to leave the figures in slight relief. For the most part, however, the technique used was the removal of the gravel from the figure, providing a solid figure that contrasts with its surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In general terms the geoglyphs fall into two categories: the first group (of which about 70 have been identified) are representational, depicting in schematic form a variety of natural forms. Many of these are animals, birds, insects, and other living creatures: examples include the spider, the monkey, the guanay or guano bird, the lizard, the hummingbird, the killer whales, and the largest of all, the pelican (285&amp;nbsp;m). Stylistically they can be linked closely with motifs on other representational art of the period, such as pottery and textiles. Other figures represent flowers, plants, and trees, deformed or fantastic figures (strange creature with two human hands, one with only four fingers), and objects of everyday life, such as looms and tupus (ornamental clasps). There are very few anthropomorphic figures, for the most part paralleled by the petroglyphs to be found in the more rocky parts of the region and are considered to be early in date.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The second group comprises the lines proper. These generally straight lines criss-cross certain parts of the pampas of the region in all directions. Some are several kilometres in length and form designs of many different geometrical figures - triangles, spirals, rectangles, wavy lines, etc. Others radiate from a central promontory or encircle it, as in the cases of the quipus. Yet another group consists of so-called 'tracks', which appear to have been laid out to accommodate large numbers of people.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the arid Peruvian coastal plain, some 400 km south of Lima, the geoglyphs of Nasca and the pampas of Jumana cover about 450 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . These lines, which were scratched on the surface of the ground between 500 B.C. and A.D. 500, are among archaeology's greatest enigmas because of their quantity, nature, size and continuity. The geoglyphs depict living creatures, stylized plants and imaginary beings, as well as geometric figures several kilometres long. They are believed to have had ritual astronomical functions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lines and Geoglyphs of Nasca and Palpa</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>828</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Arequipa was founded on 15 August 1540 by a handful of Spanish conquistadores. The site was in a valley that had been intensively farmed by pre-Hispanic communities, a fact that has contributed to the topography of the place. The layout of an indigenous hamlet has survived close to the Historic Centre in the district of San L&amp;aacute;zaro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Major earthquakes have marked the key moments of change in the development of Arequipa architecture. It is thus possible to identify five periods of development: the foundation period as a village (1540-82), the period of Baroque splendour (1582-1784), the introduction of Rococo and Neo-Classicism (1784-1868), modern empiricism and Neo-Classical fashion (1868-1960), and contemporary design. The city underwent its principal development in the era of the viceroyalty and it was an important economic centre in the southern Andes. Its role in the history of the Peruvian Republic was, and continues to be, crucial. The Historic Centre has been a centre of popular civic rebellions and demonstrations, as well as being the birthplace of many outstanding intellectual, political, and religious figures in the country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first buildings in Arequipa were constructed using adobe and stone, with roofs of straw, sticks, or mud. Some of these still exist in the old district of San L&amp;aacute;zaro. Later building materials were brick and straw, still found in some examples in the Convent of Santa Catalina. The natural disaster of 1582 caused a major change in favour of antiseismic construction, introducing a systematic use of sillar, a pink or pearl-coloured volcanic stone that was freely available. Earlier this material had only been used in the doorways of the main church and in a handful of dwellings. Being soft, light, thermic, and resistant, it now provided a solution to the problems caused by earth tremors, as well as being pleasing aesthetically.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1016</http_url><id_number>1016</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1016.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion i The ornamented architecture in the historic centre of Arequipa represents a masterpiece of the creative integration of European and native characteristics, crucial for the cultural expression of the entire region. Criterion iv The historic centre of Arequipa is an outstanding example of a colonial settlement, challenged by the natural conditions, the indigenous influences, the process of conquest and evangelization, as well as the spectacular nature of its setting.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-16.4000000000</latitude><location>Province of Arequipa</location><longitude>-71.5333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historical Centre of Arequipa is an outstanding example of a colonial settlement, challenged by natural conditions, indigenous influences, the process of conquest and evangelization, and the spectacular nature of its setting. Its ornamented architecture represents a masterpiece of the creative integration of European and native characteristics, crucial for the cultural expression of the entire region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Arequipa was founded in 1540 by a handful of conquistadores. The site was in a valley that had been intensively farmed by pre-Hispanic communities, a fact that has contributed to the topography of the place. The layout of an indigenous hamlet has survived close to the Historic Centre in the district of San L&amp;aacute;zaro. The World Heritage site consists of 49 original blocks of the Spanish layout (excluding three blocks adjacent to the Mercado San Camilo not considered to be adequate because of their style). In addition there are 24 blocks from the colonial period and the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Major earthquakes have marked the key moments of change in the development of Arequipa architecture. It is thus possible to identify five periods of development: foundation as a village (1540-82), Baroque splendour (1582-1784), introduction of Rococo and neoclassicism (1784-1868), modern empiricism and neoclassical fashion (1868-1960), and contemporary design. The natural disaster of 1582 caused a major change in favour of antiseismic construction, introducing a systematic use of sillar, a pink or pearl-coloured volcanic stone that was freely available. Earlier this material had only been used in the doorways of the main church and in a handful of dwellings. Being soft, light, thermic and resistant, it now provided a solution to the problems caused by earth tremors, as well as being pleasing aesthetically.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The core of the historic town is the Plaza de Armas (Plaza Mayor) with its archways, the municipality, and the cathedral, the most important neoclassical religious building in the country, constructed in the mid-19th century on the ruins of an earlier Baroque church. At one corner of the plaza there are the church and cloisters of La Compa&amp;ntilde;ia, the most representative ensemble of the Baroque mestizo period at the end of the 18th century. The Monasterio de Santa Catalina is a spectacular religious citadel, integrating architectural styles from the 16th to 19th centuries and having an area of 20,000&amp;nbsp;m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . The complex of San Francisco includes a small square, the main church, the convent, and the cloisters of the third order.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The chapels and convents of Santo Domingo date from the 16th to 18th centuries: San Agust&amp;iacute;n, La Merced and the church of Santa Maria; Santa Teresa and Santa Rosa; Puente Real (now Puente Bolognesi) and Puente Grau are also built from sillar. The Historic Centre contains some 500 &lt;em&gt;casonas&lt;/em&gt; , of which over 250 are listed for protection. These were generally built in the 19th century on the sites of earlier colonial buildings destroyed in the 1868 earthquake. The heavy structures have been enhanced with ornamental designs in large thick rounded frames or deep protrusions and sculptures on flat surfaces. Light combines with such features to create a dynamism which alleviates the heaviness of the structure and makes it more interesting. The lateral doorway of the Iglesia de Santo Domingo, an allegory of the Last Judgement, is an example of such artistic expressions, typically found in all doorways of the city and the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The merit of Arequipa architecture is not limited to the grandeur of its religious monuments. It is also in the profusion of dignified casonas, characteristic well-proportioned vernacular houses. The urban space penetrates the interior of the city blocks through large doorways and hallways into the courtyards, where the carvings of the facades are reproduced, thus accentuating spatial continuity. Doorways and windows are flanked with pillars and crowned with protruding pediments that blend with the large walls. The ornamental economy of the porches harmonizes with the shape of the vaults, the projecting cornices and the carved corbels. Narrow window openings allow light to enter the semi-circular arches or vaulted roof spaces. Together with the monumental ensembles, streets, and squares the casonas ensure the harmony and integrity of the townscape and give the city exceptional urban value.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Arequipa, built in volcanic sillar rock, represents an integration of European and native building techniques and characteristics, expressed in the admirable work of colonial masters and Criollo and Indian masons. This combination of influences is illustrated by the city's robust walls, archways and vaults, courtyards and open spaces, and the intricate Baroque decoration of its facades.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historical Centre of the City of Arequipa</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1186</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;During its period of occupancy, approximately 1,000 years, Caral was remodelled several times. In fact, almost all of the buildings show successive periods of occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Research carried out by a cross-disciplinary team has demonstrated that although the Supe Valley settlements were occupied in 3000 B.C., it was not until 2600 B.C. that their occupants became part of an organised social system with a "capital zone" in the lower middle valley. And it was this zone that was the centre of the most outstanding social and cultural tradition of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Based on socio-cultural information and dating data, the theory has been posited that the influence of the social system of Supe first affected the populations of the nearest valleys. It then extended further and, by 2200 B.C., its influence had spread as far south as the archaeological site of El Paraiso in the Chill&amp;oacute;n Valley, and to all the valleys northward as far as the Santa River Valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The chronological sequence is summarised as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Remote Period (before 3000 B.C.): Land possession by groups of families/lineages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Ancient Period (3000-2600 B.C.): "Capital zone" growth; plazas and impressive buildings constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Final Middle Period (2300-2200 B.C.): Buildings enlarged in area and volume; large platforms and plazas constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Initial Late Period (2200-2100 B.C.): Public buildings remodelled; plazas constructed with quadrangular platform framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Final Late Period (2100-1800 B.C.): Public buildings remodelled (using smaller stones); occupation of site reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Throughout the occupancy of the site, there have been periods of great change, and it is possible to see clear distinctions in the design and architecture of the city, and the burial and renewal of buildings. There have also been minor changes or phases within each of the periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Each period is distinguishable from the one preceding it in several ways: elements of architectural style; building techniques; materials; and the colour of paint used on walls. However, the overall design is maintained as well as the associated cultural traditions and building functions. In reply to the letter sent to the State Party by ICOMOS on 13 January 2009 asking for further information regarding the sacred nature of the site, the State Party on 27 February 2009 explained to the satisfaction of ICOMOS the reason for this descriptor. The archaeological work to date has enabled researchers to establish the sacred nature of Caral through both architectural and contextual analyses. Both the city (in its urban plan) and its component parts (including, for example, the pyramidal structures and residences of the elite) show clear evidence of ceremonial functions, thereby signifying what can be called a powerful religious ideology.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1269</http_url><id_number>1269</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1269.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-10.8916666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>-77.5213888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 5000-year-old 626-hectare archaeological site of The Sacred City of Caral-Supe is situated on a dry desert terrace overlooking the green valley of the Supe river. It dates back to the Late Archaic Period of the Central Andes and is the oldest centre of civilization in the Americas. Exceptionally well-preserved, the site is impressive in terms of its design and the complexity of its architectural, especially its monumental stone and earthen platform mounts and sunken circular courts. One of 18 urban settlements situated in the same area, Caral features complex and monumental architecture, including six large pyramidal structures. A quipu (the knot system used in Andean civilizations to record information) found on the site testifies to the development and complexity of Caral society. The city&amp;rsquo;s plan and some of its components, including pyramidal structures and residence of the elite, show clear evidence of ceremonial functions, signifying a powerful religious ideology.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sacred City of Caral-Supe</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1615</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Established by Supreme Decree No.644-73-AG, 29 May 1973, and fully protected. Accepted as part of a MAB biosphere reserve March 1977, which also includes the Manu Reserved Zone established by Supreme Resolution No.151-1980, and adjacent areas of human settlement. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1987.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/402</http_url><id_number>402</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_402.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pe</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-12.2500000000</latitude><location>Dep. Madre de Dios y Cusco,  Provincias: Manu y Paucartambo</location><longitude>-71.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The biological diversity found in Man&amp;uacute; National Park exceeds that of any other place on Earth. The park is located in the provinces of Man&amp;uacute; and Paucartambo, comprising lands on the eastern slopes of the Andes and the Peruvian Amazon. The area is situated within the Amazon River basin and protects almost the entire watershed of the River Man&amp;uacute; and most of the tributaries of the River Alto Madre de Dios. Alluvial plains are found along the rivers where sediments may be deposited on a seasonal basis. The hills occupy the lowlands between the rivers and are relatively small with slopes, forming an undulating topography, which covers much of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With a park the size of Man&amp;uacute;, with a wide range of altitude, vegetation varies widely, however the most widespread vegetation types found are tropical lowland rainforest, tropical montane rainforest and &lt;em&gt;puna&lt;/em&gt; vegetation (grasslands). The lowland forests occur on the alluvial plains and the interfluvial hills. Those on the hills may experience seasonal water supply, given the monthly variation in rainfall, whereas the forests on the alluvial plains are likely to be seasonally flooded. The montane forests experience less variation in the water supply and are exposed to lower temperatures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the high diversity of plant species in this region, the flora of Man&amp;uacute; is still poorly known and floristic inventories must be considered as preliminary. In the last 10 years, 1,147 plant species have been identified in the park within quite a small area, and it is likely that the number of species to be found within the park is well over this figure. More recent data indicate 1,200 lowland vascular species and a single 1&amp;nbsp;ha plot near the Cocha Cashu research station supported more than 200 tree species. Another striking feature of these forests is the high abundance of &lt;em&gt;Ficus&lt;/em&gt; , of which there are at least 18 species. Lianas are common. With the current knowledge of the flora of the park it is not possible to give a detailed account of threatened, endemic or potentially economically important species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A total of more than 800 bird species and 200 species of mammals have been identified. Six species of macaw occur in the lowland forest. Three Endemic Bird Areas are represented within the park: the south-east Peruvian lowlands, the eastern and western Andes of Peru. There are 13 species of monkey, over 100 species of bat, 12 species of reptile, as well as 77 species of amphibian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is inhabited by at least four different native groups: the Machiguenga, the Mascho-Piro, the Yaminahua and the Amahuaca. The best known and largest ethnic group within the park is the Machiguenga, found throughout the area with the exception of the highlands and upper parts of the Man&amp;uacute; River. The forest Indians are nomadic, mostly subsistent on some form of root crop agriculture on alluvial soils along river banks and lakes, on hunting along water courses and inside the forest, on fishing and on the collection of turtle eggs. Shifting cultivation is the basic agricultural practice. In this system, a patch of primary forest or an abandoned field is cleared, burned and used during the first, second and sometimes third year for cultivation. The field is then abandoned for at least five years and a new one is opened up. As it is easier to clear secondary growth on abandoned fields than to clear the primary forest, the Indians prefer to reuse old fields. These peoples are considered part of the park's natural system, and are left to use the park as they please while their lifestyle does not threaten the park's objectives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the people within the park are Indians. Very little is known about the Amahuaca and Yaminahua distribution and their numbers are relatively small. There are no towns in the park, but there are some 70,000 Quechua-speaking inhabitants grouped in 30 rural communities in the high Andean zone, which is adjacent to the park in Paucartambo Province.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This huge 1.5 million-ha park has successive tiers of vegetation rising from 150 to 4,200 m above sea-level. The tropical forest in the lower tiers is home to an unrivalled variety of animal and plant species. Some 850 species of birds have been identified and rare species such as the giant otter and the giant armadillo also find refuge there. Jaguars are often sighted in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Manú National Park</site><states>Peru</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1705</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Before the arrival of the Spanish, there was a small indigenous settlement on what was at that time an island, consisting wooden or bamboo houses on stilts. In 1572 the conquistador Juan de Salcedo founded a new town, which he named Villa Ferdinandina, on this site, and made it his capital when he was appointed Lieutenant Governor (Encomendero) of the entire Ilocos region. Intended as a trading centre rather than a fortress, it was the northernmost city established in the Philippines by the Spanish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 17th century a new form of architecture evolved, which combined the traditional construction with the techniques of building in stone and wood introduced by the Spanish. Brick was introduced by the Augustinian friars for their churches and other buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The seat of the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia was transferred there in 1758, making it the centre of religious activity in the region. In 1778, as a result of its expansion, it was renamed Ciudad Ferdinandina.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mestizo river was central to the development of the town in the 16th-19th centuries: large sea-going vessels could berth in the delta and small craft communicated with the interior. However, it is now no longer navigable owing to silting, as a result of which the town is no longer an island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the major commercial centre for the region, Vigan traded directly with China. As a stage in the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade that lasted throughout the Spanish colonial period, it supplied goods that were shipped across the Pacific to Mexico, and thence onwards across the Atlantic to Europe. These trading links resulted in constant exchanges of peoples and cultures between the Ilocanos, Filipinos, Chinese, Spanish, and (in the 20th century) North Americans.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/502</http_url><id_number>502</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_502.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ph</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.5750000000</latitude><location>Province of Ilocos Sur</location><longitude>120.3875000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vigan is an exceptionally intact and well-preserved example of a European trading town in East and South-East Asia. The architecture is truly reflective of its roots in both materials and design, in its fusion of Asian building design and construction with European colonial architecture and planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is located in the delta of the Abra River, off the coastal plain of the China Sea, close to the north-east tip of the island of Luzon. The present-day municipality divided into nine urban districts and thirty rural villages. Almost half the total area is still in use for agriculture. The Historic Core Zone is defined on two sides by the Govantes and Mestizo rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Before the arrival of the Spanish, there was a small indigenous settlement on what was at that time an island, consisting of wooden or bamboo houses on stilts. In 1572 the conquistador Juan de Salcedo founded a new town, which he named Villa Ferdinandina, and made it his capital when appointed Lieutenant Governor (&lt;em&gt;Encomendero&lt;/em&gt; ) of the entire Ilocos region. Intended as a trading centre rather than a fortress, it was the northernmost city established in the Philippines by the Spanish. At the end of the 17th century a new form of architecture evolved, which combined traditional construction with the techniques of building in stone and wood introduced by the Spanish. Brick was introduced by the Augustinians for their churches and other buildings. In 1778, as a result of its expansion, it was renamed Ciudad Ferdinandina. The Mestizo River was central to the development of the town in the 16th-19th centuries: large sea-going vessels could berth in the delta and small craft communicated with the interior. It is no longer navigable owing to silting, and so the town is no longer an island. As the major commercial centre for the region, Vigan traded directly with China. As a stage in the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade in the Spanish colonial period, it supplied goods for shipping to Mexico, and thence onwards to Europe. This trade resulted in constant exchanges of peoples and cultures between the Ilocanos, Filipinos, Chinese, Spanish, and (in the 20th century) North Americans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The traditional Spanish chequerboard street plan opens up into a main plaza, in two parts. The Plaza Salcedo is the longer arm of an L-shaped open space, with the Plaza Burgos as the shorter. The former is dominated by the Municipal Hall and the Provincial Capitol and the latter by the cathedral. The urban plan of the town closely conforms to the Renaissance grid plan specified in the Ley de las Indias for all 149 new towns in the Spanish Empire. There is, however, a noticeable difference between Vigan and contemporary Spanish colonial towns in Latin America in the Historic Core (known as the Mestizo district), where the Latin tradition is tempered by strong Chinese, Ilocano and Filipino influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The building materials used in Vigan are terracotta, wood, shells, stone and lime, all obtained from the surrounding area. The architecture of the typical Vigan house is derived from the traditional Filipino dwelling, the bahay kubo, a small one-room hut built from light woven materials (wood, bamboo, thatch), raised on stilts for ventilation and as protection against monsoon flooding. Such structures are no longer to be found in Vigan, but their influence is discernible in the much larger &lt;em&gt;bahay na bato&lt;/em&gt; (stone house), a much more solid structure, with a stone-built lower storey surmounted by a timber-framed upper storey, and with a steeply pitched tiled roof (reminiscent of traditional Chinese architecture). The exterior walls of the upper storey are enclosed by window panels of &lt;em&gt;kapis&lt;/em&gt; shells framed in wood which can be slid back for better ventilation. The Chinese merchants and traders conducted their business from offices and warehouses on the ground floors of their houses, with the living quarters above. This is characteristic of Chinese society. Vigan also possesses a number of significant public buildings, which also show multi-cultural influences. These include the Cathedral of St Paul, the Archbishop's Palace, St Paul's College, the Catholic Cemetery Chapel, and the neoclassical early 20th-century provincial Capitol.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Established in the 16th century, Vigan is the best-preserved example of a planned Spanish colonial town in Asia. Its architecture reflects the coming together of cultural elements from elsewhere in the Philippines, from China and from Europe, resulting in a culture and townscape that have no parallel anywhere in East and South-East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Vigan</site><states>Philippines</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>586</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/652</http_url><id_number>652</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_652.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ph</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park features a spectacular limestone karst landscape with its underground river. A distinguishing feature of the river is that it flows directly into the sea, and the lower portion of the river is subject to tidal influences. The area also represents a significant habitat for biodiversity conservation. The site contains a full mountain to the sea ecosystem and protects forests, which are among the most significant in Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>10.1666666700</latitude><location>Palawan Province</location><longitude>118.9166667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of the Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park is located in the Saint Paul Mountain Range. It is north-west of Puerto Princesa, the capital of Palawan Province. The topography varies from flat plains to rolling hinterlands and hills to mountain peaks. Over 90% of the park comprises sharp, karst limestone ridges around Mount St Paul, which is itself part of a series of rounded, limestone peaks aligned on a north-south axis, along the western coast of Palawan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The focus of the area is a spectacular karst landscape which features both surface karst features (pinnacles, shafts, dolines and limestone cliffs), as well as an extensive underground river system. The subterranean river is 8.2&amp;nbsp;km long, one of the most unique of its type in the world and includes many speleotherms, several large chambers exist, up to 120&amp;nbsp;m wide and 60&amp;nbsp;m high. A distinguishing feature of the river is the fact that it emerges directly into the sea, and that the lower portion of the river is brackish and subject to tidal influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The underground river (the Cabayugan River) arises approximately 2&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Mount Saint Paul at an altitude of 100&amp;nbsp;m, and flows underground for almost its entire length to an outflow into St Paul's Bay. All rivers and associated tributaries are within the park, which is important in relation to catchments impacts on the water quality of the Cabayugan River.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Approximately two-thirds of the site is forested, dominated by hardwood species. Three forest formations are present: lowland, karst and limestone. The karst forest is restricted to small pockets where soils have developed. In the coastal area, mangroves, mossy forest, seagrass beds and coral reefs are also found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The faunal diversity in the park is moderate, especially with respect to invertebrates. Endemic mammals include the Palawan tree shrew, Palawan porcupine and Palawan stink badger. Dugong has been recorded in the marine component of the park. Monitor lizard and marine turtles are also present. The Palawan Peacock Pheasant has also been recorded in this site (recognized as an internationally threatened species). The subterranean fauna has not been studied in detail, but comprises fish, prawns, snakes and insects. The tunnel and chambers of the subterranean river are home to abundant populations of swiftlets and bats. Eight species of bat are also found in the cave, and cave swiftlets nest on some of the underground boulder piles. Further studies are required to determine the extent and diversity of the underground fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This park features a spectacular limestone karst landscape with an underground river. One of the river's distinguishing features is that it emerges directly into the sea, and its lower portion is subject to tidal influences. The area also represents a significant habitat for biodiversity conservation. The site contains a full 'mountain-to-sea' ecosystem and has some of the most important forests in Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park</site><states>Philippines</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>773</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2001-2012</danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The rice terraces of the Cordilleras are the only monuments in the Philippines that show no evidence of having been influenced by colonial cultures. Owing to the difficult terrain, the Cordillera tribes are among the few peoples of the Philippines who have successfully resisted any foreign domination and have preserved their authentic tribal culture. The history of the terraces is intertwined with that of its people, their culture, and their traditional practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terraces, which spread over five present-day provinces, are the only form of stone construction from the pre-colonial period. The Philippines alone among south-east Asian cultures is a wholly wood-based one: unlike Cambodia, Indonesia, or Thailand, for example, in the Philippines both domestic buildings and ritual structures such as temples and shrines were all built in wood, a tradition that has survived in the terrace hamlets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is believed that terracing began in the Cordilleras some two thousand years ago, though scholars are not in agreement about the original purpose for which it was employed. It is evidence of a high level of knowledge of structural and hydraulic engineering on the part of those who built the terraces. The knowledge and practices, supported by rituals, involved in maintaining the terraces are transferred orally from generation to generation, without written records. Taro was the first crop when they began to be used for agriculture, later to be replaced by rice, which is the predominant crop today.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/722</http_url><id_number>722</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_722.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ph</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.9338900000</latitude><location>Ifugao Province, Cordillera Region, Luzon Island</location><longitude>121.1366700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The rice terraces of the Philippines Cordilleras are living cultural landscapes devoted to the production of one of the world's most important staple crops, rice. They preserve traditional techniques and forms dating back many centuries, still viable today. At the same time they illustrate a remarkable degree of harmony between humankind and the natural environment of great aesthetic appeal, as well as demonstrating sustainable farming systems in mountainous terrain, based on a careful use of natural resources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They are the only monuments in the Philippines that show no evidence of having been influenced by colonial cultures. Owing to the difficult terrain, the Cordillera tribes are among the few peoples of the Philippines who have successfully resisted foreign domination and preserved their authentic tribal culture. The history of the terraces is intertwined with that of its people, their culture, and their traditional practices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terraces are the only form of stone construction from the pre-colonial period. The Philippines alone among south-east Asian cultures is a wholly wood-based one: unlike Cambodia, Indonesia, or Thailand, in the Philippines both domestic buildings and ritual structures such as temples and shrines were built from wood, a tradition that has survived in the terrace hamlets. Terracing began in the Cordilleras some 2,000 years ago, although scholars disagree about its original purpose. It is evidence of a high level of knowledge of structural and hydraulic engineering on the part of those who built the terraces. The knowledges and practices, supported by rituals, involved in maintaining the terraces are transferred orally from generation to generation, without written records. Taro was the first crop when they began to be used for agriculture, later to be replaced by rice, which is the predominant crop today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terraces are situated at altitudes between 700&amp;nbsp;m and 1,500&amp;nbsp;m above sea level. There are four clusters of the best preserved terraces in the region, with its basic elements of a buffer ring of private forests (&lt;em&gt;muyong&lt;/em&gt; ), terraces, village and sacred grove. Terraced rice fields are not uncommon in Asia. To contain the water needed for rice cultivation within the paddies, even gently rolling terrain must be terraced with stone or mud walls. High-altitude paddies must be kept wet and have to rely upon a man-made water-collecting system. The principal differences between the Philippines terraces and those elsewhere are their higher altitude and the steeper slopes. The high-altitude cultivation is based on the use of a special strain of rice, which germinates under freezing conditions and grows chest-high, with non-shattering panicles, to facilitate harvesting on slopes that are too steep to permit the use of animals or machinery of any kind.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of the terraces is carried out with great care and precision. An underground conduit is placed within the fill for drainage purposes. The groups of terraces blanket the mountainsides, following their contours. Above them, rising to the mountain-tops, is the ring of private woods (&lt;em&gt;muyong&lt;/em&gt; ), intensively managed in conformity with traditional practices, which recognize a total ecosystem which assures an adequate water supply to keep the terraces flooded. Water is equitably shared, and no single terrace obstructs the flow on its way down to the next terrace below. There is a complex system, of dams, sluices, channels and bamboo pipes, communally maintained, which drain into a stream at the bottom of the valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The villages or hamlets are associated with groups of terraces, and consist of groups of single-family tribal dwellings which architecturally reproduce the people's spatial interpretation of their mountain environment. A steeply pitched thatched pyramidal roof covers a wooden one-room dwelling, raised above the ground on four posts and reached by a ladder which is pulled up at night. Clusters of dwellings form small hamlets of interrelated families, with a centrally located ritual rice-field as their focus. This is the first parcel to be planted or harvested; its owners makes all the agricultural decisions for the community, manages its primary ritual property, which includes a granary housing carved wooden gods, and the basket reliquary in which portions of consecrated sacrifices from all agricultural ceremonial rites are kept. A short distance from the cluster of dwellings is the ritual hill, usually marked by a grove of sacred betel trees round a hut or open shed where the holy men live and carry out traditional rites.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;For 2,000 years, the high rice fields of the Ifugao have followed the contours of the mountains. The fruit of knowledge handed down from one generation to the next, and the expression of sacred traditions and a delicate social balance, they have helped to create a landscape of great beauty that expresses the harmony between humankind and the environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras</site><states>Philippines</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>853</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;11 August 1988. Established under Proclamation No. 306; also protected under Presidential Decree No. 705 (Forestry Reform Code). Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/653</http_url><id_number>653</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_653.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ph</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>8.9533333333</latitude><location>Municipality  of Cagayancillo, Province of Palawan</location><longitude>119.8675000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2009</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tubbataha Reef Marine Park covers 130,028 ha, including the North and South Reefs. It is a unique example of an atoll reef with a very high density of marine species; the North Islet serving as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles. The site is an excellent example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall, extensive lagoons and two coral islands.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park</site><states>Philippines</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1554</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Immaculate Conception of San Agustin was the first church built on the island of Luzon in 1571, immediately after the Spanish conquest of Manila. A site within the district of Intramuros was assigned to the Augustinian Order, who were the first to evangelize in the Philippines. In 1587 the impermanent earliest building in wood and palm fronds was replaced by a church and monastery in stone, the latter becoming the Augustinian mother house in the Philippines. As a result the church was richly endowed, with a fine retablo, pulpit, wall paintings, lectern, and choir-stalls. It was the only structure in Intramuros to survive the liberation of Manila in 1945.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mission at Santa Maria, founded in 1765 on a narrow, flat plain between the sea and the central mountain range of Luzon, was one of the most successful Augustinian houses in the Philippines. It served as the base for the Christianization of the northern parts of the archipelago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Augustinian mission station of Miag-ao became an independent parish in 1731, when a simple church and convento (parish house) were built. However, destruction of the town by Moslem pirates in 1741 and 1754 led to the town being rebuilt in a more secure location. The new church, constructed in 1787-97, was built as a fortress, to withstand further incursions. It was, however, damaged severely by fire on two occasions - during the revolution against Spain in 1898 and in World War II.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Paoay is called "Bombay" in early documents, in keeping with the legend that the earliest inhabitants came from India. It is first mentioned in 1593 and became an Augustinian independent parish in 1686. Building work on the present church started in 1694 and it was finally completed in 1710.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/677</http_url><id_number>677</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_677.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ph</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.5900000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>120.9700000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This group of churches established a style of building and design that was adapted to the physical conditions in the Philippines and had an important influence on later church architecture in the region. The four churches are outstanding examples of the Philippine interpretation of the Baroque style, and represent the fusion of European church design and construction with local materials and decorative motifs to form a new church-building tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Immaculate Conception of San Agust&amp;iacute;n was the first church built on the island of Luzon in 1571, immediately after the Spanish conquest of Manila. A site within the district of Intramuros was assigned to the Augustinian Order, the first to evangelize in the Philippines. In 1587 the impermanent earliest building in wood and palm fronds was replaced by a stone church and monastery in stone, the latter becoming the Augustinian mother house in the Philippines. It was the only structure in Intramuros to survive the liberation of Manila in 1945. Miag-ao became an independent parish in 1731, when a simple church and convento were built. However, destruction of the town by Muslim pirates in 1741 and 1754 led to the town being rebuilt in a more secure location. The new church, constructed in 1787-97, was built as a fortress, to withstand further incursions. It was, however, damaged severely by fire during the revolution against Spain in 1898 and in the Second World War. Two bell towers were added in 1854, but the northern one cracked in the 1880 earthquake and had to be demolished. In the interior of the church the wall paintings date from the 19th century, but they overlie the original tempera murals. As a result the church was richly endowed, with a fine retablo, pulpit, lectern and choir-stalls. Of special interest is the series of crypto-collateral chapels lining both sides of the nave. The walls separating them act as buttresses. The stone barrel vault, dome, and arched vestibule are all unique in the Philippines. A monastery complex was formerly linked to the church by a series of cloisters, arcades, courtyards and gardens, but all except one building were destroyed in 1945.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unlike other town churches in the Philippines, which conform to the Spanish tradition of sitting them on the central plaza, the Church of Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de la Asuncion in Santa Maria with its convento are on a hill surrounded by a defensive wall. Also unusual are the sitting of the convento parallel to the facade of the church and that of the separate bell tower (characteristic of Philippine-Hispanic architecture) at the midpoint of the nave wall. This was dictated by the hill on which it is located The brick church follows the standard Philippine layout, with a monumental facade masking a straight roof-line covering a long rectangular building. It is alleged to be built on a solid raft as a precaution against earthquake damage. The walls are devoid of ornament but have delicately carved side entrances and strong buttresses&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of Santo Tomas de Villanueva stands on the highest point of Miag-ao, its towers serving as lookouts against Muslim raids. It is the finest surviving example of 'Fortress Baroque'. The sumptuous facade epitomizes the Filipino transfiguration of western decorative elements, with the figure of St Christopher on the pediment dressed in native clothes, carrying the Christ Child on his back, and holding on to a coconut palm for support. The entire riotously decorated facade is flanked by massive tapering bell towers of unequal heights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of San Agust&amp;iacute;n at Paoay is the most outstanding example in the Philippines of 'Earthquake Baroque'. Fourteen buttresses are ranged along the lines of a giant volute supporting a smaller one and surmounted by pyramidal finials. A pair of buttresses at the midpoint of each nave wall have stairways for access to the roof. The lower part of the apse and most of the walls are constructed of coral stone blocks, the upper levels being finished in brick, but this order is reversed on the facade. The massive coral stone bell tower, which was added half a century after the church was completed, stands at some distance from the church, again as a protection against damage during earthquakes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These four churches, the first of which was built by the Spanish in the late 16th century, are located in Manila, Santa Maria, Paoay and Miag-ao. Their unique architectural style is a reinterpretation of European Baroque by Chinese and Philippine craftsmen.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Baroque Churches of the Philippines</site><states>Philippines</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1955</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1403</http_url><id_number>1403</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1403.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ph</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>6.7171694444</latitude><location></location><longitude>126.1734305556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Forming a mountain ridge running north-south along the Pujada Peninsula in the south-eastern part of the Eastern Mindanao Biodiversity Corridor, the Mount Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary has an elevation range of 75&amp;ndash;1,637&amp;nbsp;m above sea level and provides critical habitat for a range of plant and animal species. The property showcases terrestrial and aquatic habitats at different elevations, and includes threatened and endemic flora and fauna species, eight of which are found only at Mount Hamiguitan. These include critically endangered trees, plants and the iconic Philippine eagle and Philippine cockatoo.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mount Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary</site><states>Philippines</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2010</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/31</http_url><id_number>31</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_31.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.0388888889</latitude><location>Oswiecim County, Lesser Poland (Malopolska) Voivodship (formerly Bielsko-Biala)</location><longitude>19.1750000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified walls, barbed wire, platforms, barracks, gallows, gas chambers and cremation ovens show the conditions within which the Nazi genocide took place in the former concentration and extermination camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau, the largest in the Third Reich. According to historical investigations, 1.5 million people, among them a great number of Jews, were systematically starved, tortured and murdered in this camp, the symbol of humanity's cruelty to its fellow human beings in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Auschwitz Birkenau &lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)&lt;/small&gt;</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>34</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Zamosc was the personal creation of the hetman (head of the army) Jan Zamysky, on his own lands. Located on the trade route linking western and northern Europe with the Black Sea, the town was conceived from the beginning as an economic centre based on trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zamysky, who was educated at the University of Padua, modelled his town on the Italian trading cities. He called on an Italian architect, Bernardo Morando, a native of Padua, who had already worked in Warsaw, to design the town around two functions: trade centre and residence of the hetman's family. It was under construction for nine years, from 1582 to 1591.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Morando organized the space within the enceinte into two distinct sections: on the west the noble residence, and on the east the town proper, laid out around three squares. To populate it, Zamysky brought in merchants of various nationalities and displayed great religious tolerance to encourage people to settle there: they included Ruthenes (Slavs of the Orthodox church), Turks, Armenians, Jews, and others. Moreover, he endowed the town with its own academy (1595). modelled on Italian cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zamosc is spoken of as a Renaissance town. However, on the one hand, Morando himself must have had Mannerist training, and on the other, in all the countries of Central Europe (Poland, Bohemia, Slovakia, Hungary, certain German regions and, in part, Austria proper), Italian Renaissance architecture had been well assimilated and adapted to local traditions since the 15th century. Consequently, Zamosc was planned as a town in which the Mannerist taste mingled with certain Central European urban traditions, such as the arcaded galleries which surround the squares and create a sheltered passage in front of the shops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the town designed by Morando, who died in the early 17th century, was mostly built during the Baroque period. Ideally located for trade, it was also exposed to military attack. It became a strategic military point and, after the old enceinte was reinforced, new fortifications of the Vauban type were added in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The modem town grew for the most part outside the fortifications, which gives the old town a great degree of coherence in its plan and architecture. Having escaped the vast destruction suffered by many other Polish towns during the Second World War, Zamosc is an outstanding example of Polish architecture and urbanism of the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/564</http_url><id_number>564</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_564.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.7166700000</latitude><location>City and County of Zamość, Lublin Voivodship (formerly Zamość Voivodship)</location><longitude>23.2666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Zamość is an outstanding example of a Renaissance planned town of the late 16th century, which retains its original layout and fortifications and a large number of buildings of particular interest, blending Italian and central European architectural traditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was the personal creation of the &lt;em&gt;Hetman&lt;/em&gt; (head of the army) Jan Zamysky, on his own lands. Located on the trade route linking western and northern Europe with the Black Sea, the town was conceived from the beginning as an economic centre based on trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zamysky, who was educated at the University of Padua, modelled his town on the Italian trading cities. He called on an Italian architect, Bernardo Morando, a native of Padua, who had already worked in Warsaw, to design the town around two functions: trade centre and residence of the &lt;em&gt;Hetman&lt;/em&gt; 's family. It was under construction for nine years, from 1582 to 1591.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Morando organized the space within the enceinte into two distinct sections: on the west the noble residence, and on the east the town proper, laid out around three squares. To populate it, Zamysky brought in merchants of various nationalities and displayed great religious tolerance to encourage people to settle there: they included Ruthenes (Slavs of the Orthodox Church), Turks, Armenians and Jews, among others. Moreover, he endowed the town with its own academy (1595), modelled on Italian cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zamość is spoken of as a Renaissance town. However, on the one hand, Morando himself must have had Mannerist training, and on the other, in all the countries of Central Europe (Poland, Bohemia, Slovakia, Hungary, certain German regions and, in part, Austria proper), Italian Renaissance architecture had been well assimilated and adapted to local traditions since the 15th century. Consequently, Zamość was planned as a town in which the Mannerist taste mingled with certain Central European urban traditions, such as the arcaded galleries that surround the squares and create a sheltered passage in front of the shops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the town designed by Morando, who died in the early 17th century, was mainly built during the Baroque period. Ideally located for trade, it was also exposed to military attack. It became a strategic military point and, after the old enceinte was reinforced, new fortifications of the Vauban type were added in the 17th century. The modern town grew for the most part outside the fortifications, which gives the old town a great degree of coherence in its plan and architecture. Having escaped the vast destruction suffered by many other Polish towns during the Second World War, Zamość is an outstanding example of Polish architecture and urbanism of the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Zamosc was founded in the 16th century by the chancellor Jan Zamoysky on the trade route linking western and northern Europe with the Black Sea. Modelled on Italian theories of the 'ideal city' and built by the architect Bernando Morando, a native of Padua, Zamosc is a perfect example of a late-16th-century Renaissance town. It has retained its original layout and fortifications and a large number of buildings that combine Italian and central European architectural traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Zamość</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>666</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Torun is situated in the region known in the Middle Ages as the Land of Chelmno (Terra Culmensis), which acted as a buffer zone in the l2th and early 13th centuries between Poland and the regions occupied by the pagan Prussian tribes. It was granted a town charter in 1233, at that time for a site 7km down the Vistula river from which it moved to that part of the Old Town lying between the Old Town Square and the river in 1236. It progressively expanded during the 13th century to occupy the area of the Old Town, and was enclosed by defensive walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A fort bad been built in the early medieval period to the south-east of the town, facing the river, and this was rebuilt in the mid-13th century by the Teutonic Order as a castle. The original function of Torun was to act as a base for the conquest and colonization of Prussia by the Order. However, the Old Town had quickly developed as a major commercial centre for trade between the Baltic and Eastern Europe, along the Vistula to towns such as Pskov, Novgorod, and Vladimir. This commercial role, trading grain, timber, metals, furs, and wax in exchange for western cloth, fish, and luxury goods, expanded as the century proceeded. Torun became the leading member of the Hanseatic League in the territories ruled by the Teutonic Order. The New Town developed from 1264 onwards to the north of the castle and the east of the Old Town, mainly as a centre for crafts and industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The peak of Torun's prosperity was in the second half of the 14th and the first half of the 15th century. At the same time tension developed between the citizens and the Teutonic Order, leading eventually to an uprising in 1454, followed by the expulsion of the Knights and the incorporation of the town and its surrounding region into the Kingdom of Po land. The town gained a number of privileges as a result, but lost its commercial supremacy to Gdansk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two periods, 1350-1410 and 1470-1520, stand out in the cultural and artistic history of Torun. It was one of the most important artistic centres, in particular in respect of architecture, in this part of Europe. The town was endowed at this time with many architectural masterpieces, which were to exert a powerful influence on the whole Teutonic state and neighbouring countries. It is worth y of mention that the great astronomer, Nicholas Copemicus, was born in Tonm in 1473 and spent his youth there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Swedish wars and the crisis in Poland in the 17th century brought Torun's prosperity to an end. It came under Prussian rule in 1793, when it became known under its German name, Thom, and was transformed into the main fortress on the frontier between Prussia and Russia. After World War I it was part of the reunited Polish state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/835</http_url><id_number>835</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_835.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii) and (iv), considering that Torun is a small historic trading city that preserves to a remarkable extent its original street pattern and outstanding early buildings, and which provides an exceptionally complete picture of the medieval way of life.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.0100000000</latitude><location>City and County of Toruń, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship</location><longitude>18.6194400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Toruń is a small historic trading city that preserves to a remarkable extent its original street pattern and outstanding early buildings, providing an exceptionally complete picture of the medieval way of life. These buildings in Toruń represent the highest achievements of medieval architecture in brick. Some of them, moreover, influenced the evolution of certain types of building. The town sets a standard for the evolution of towns in the region: the combination of two towns with a castle is a rare form of medieval settlement agglomeration. The unique spatial layout of Toruń has survived almost intact and provides valuable source material for the history of town development in medieval Europe. It is an outstanding masterpiece of the human creative mind. Toruń displays evidence of cultural contacts with the leading centres of European art, and in particular that of the large mercantile cities of northern Europe such as Bruges and Ghent. It therefore bears witness to the interchange and creative adaptation of artistic experience, and in particular among the Hanseatic towns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Toruń is situated in the region known in the Middle Ages as the Land of Chelmno (&lt;em&gt;Terra Culmensis&lt;/em&gt; ). It was granted a town charter in 1233; a fort had been built in the early medieval period to the south-east of the town, facing the river, and this was rebuilt in the mid-13th century by the Teutonic Order. The original function of Toruń was a base for the conquest and colonization of Prussia. However, the Old Town had quickly developed as a major commercial centre for trade between the Baltic and Eastern Europe, along the Vistula to towns such as Pskov, Novgorod and Vladimir. This commercial role expanded as the century proceeded. Toruń became the leading member of the Hanseatic League in the territories ruled by the Teutonic Order. The New Town developed from 1264 to the north of the castle and the east of the Old Town as a centre for crafts and industry. Toruń was one of the most important artistic centres, in particular in architecture, in this part of Europe. It was endowed with many architectural masterpieces, which were to exert a powerful influence on the Teutonic state and neighbouring countries. The astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was born in Toruń in 1473 and spent his youth there. The Swedish wars and the crisis in Poland in the 17th century brought the town's prosperity to an end.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Old Town, which forms the western part of the complex, is laid out around its central Market Place. The street pattern to the south, up to the river, is regular, with five parallel streets running down to the river intersected by cross-streets. The part to the north is also based on perpendicular streets, but they are laid out in a less regular fashion. The main feature of the Market Square is the imposing Old Town Hall, built in 1391-99 using some elements, including the tower of 1274, from its predecessor. An additional storey was added, in full conformity with the Gothic form of the building, in 1602-5. The Parish Church of St John (Cathedral of Toruń since 1992) was built in stages. The Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, formerly the church of the Grey Friars (Franciscans), contains 14th-century wall paintings, as well as some fine Baroque furnishings. The Old Town was fortified progressively between 1250 and 1300 with a double wall strengthened by bastions; these fortifications were reconstructed in 1420-49 and partly dismantled in the 19th century, but most of the southern sector facing the river survives intact, with gates and towers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the New Town, the Parish Church of St James is another fine building in late Gothic style. Its interior contains many Baroque furnishings. The Blackfriars (Dominican) Church of St Nicholas was almost entirely demolished in the 19th century. However, the remains of the church and its cloister have been excavated and laid out as a public park. Most of the Castle of the Teutonic Order was destroyed during the uprising of 1454. The remains have been excavated and laid out for public presentation as a museum. Both the Old and the New Town are rich in fine medieval brick burgher houses, many of which retain their original Gothic facades and interior fittings (partition walls, ceilings, painted decoration). Because of the survival of so many houses from this period, the medieval plots are for the most part still preserved, delineated by their original brick boundary walls.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Torun owes its origins to the Teutonic Order, which built a castle there in the mid-13th century as a base for the conquest and evangelization of Prussia. It soon developed a commercial role as part of the Hanseatic League. In the Old and New Town, the many imposing public and private buildings from the 14th and 15th centuries (among them the house of Copernicus) are striking evidence of Torun's importance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medieval Town of Toruń</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>984</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Malbork (German Marienburg) is located in the south-west of a territory inhabited since prehistoric times by the Prussians (Pruzzi), a tribe of Baltic origin who were pagans until the 13th century. To the south lay the Polish state, which had accepted Christianity in the 10th century. The missions organized by Polish rulers to bring Christianity to the Prussians had little success, and led to the martyrdom of St Adalbert (997) and St Bruno (1009). An intensification of Polish missionary activities in the early 12th century led to devastating Prussian raids on Polish territory. In 1215 Pope Innocent IlI created a missionary bishopric to the Prussians, and two years later his successor Honorius lIl decreed that a Crusade to their lands would be equal to those to the Holy Land.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Polish Prince Conrad called upon the Teutonic Order for assistance. granting them lands on the frontier of his territory. The Order established itself there in 1230, but the fierce resistance of the Prussians lasted for half a century. Taking advantage of his good relations with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, and his influence in the Papal court, the Grand Master of the Order, Hermann von Salza, secured the grant of the entire conquered territory and independence from Polish ecclesiastical control.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Teutonic Knights built many castles on the captured territories, with a dual political and religious function. The castle at Malbork, work on which began some time after 1270, was among the most important of these. Its importance increased greatly after 1309, when the seat of the Grand Master of the Order was moved there from Venice. The original Fore Castle was adapted as his residence and administrative headquarters, the impressive palace of the Grand Masters being built in its south-west comer. The Great Refectory was built to the north of the palace, the north side of the Middle Castle was closed with a wing housing the hospital and the residence of the commander of the Castle, whilst the chapel in the High Castle was enlarged, with a mortuary chapel of the Grand Masters dedicated to St Anne beneath the new presbytery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Treaty of Torun brought the wars between Poland and the Teutonic Order to an end in 1457, Malbork Castle passed to the Polish Crown, and remained in use, virtually unmodified from its medieval form, for three centuries, serving at different times as an administrative headquarters, a central arsenal, and a temporary royal residence. It suffered some damage during the successive Thirty Years' War (161%48), Polish-Swedish War (1655- 60), and Nordic War (1700-21), but its robust basic structure remained intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the first partition of Poland between Austria. Prussia, and Russia in 1772, Malbork Castle became part of the Kingdom of Prussia and was promptly modified to serve as a barracks; a number of unsympathetic demolitions and additions took place in the period 1799-1803. However, a number of artists and intellectuals had begun to take an interest in the Castle, and as a result of their pressure it was designated as an historic monument in 1804. Conservation work began after 1815 and continued until 1939.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Castle was partly destroyed at the end of World War II, after which it passed once again within the boundaries of the new Poland. Since 1947 there have been continuous campaigns for the reconstruction and restoration of the monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/847</http_url><id_number>847</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_847.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that Malbork Castle is the supreme example of the medieval brick castle that characterizes the unique architecture of the Crusading Teutonic Order in eastern Europe. It is also of considerable historical significance for the evidence that it provides of the evolution of the modern philosophy and practice of restoration and conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>54.0416666700</latitude><location>City and County of Malbork, Pomeranian Voivodship (formerly Elblag Voivodship)</location><longitude>19.0333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Malbork Castle is generally accepted as an architectural work of unique character. Many of the methods used by its builders in handling technical and artistic problems (among them the design and construction of the vaulting and portals and the use of architectural sculpture) greatly influenced Gothic buildings in a wide region of north-eastern Europe. The castle was built so as to make use of the rich repertoire of medieval defensive architecture on an exceptionally large scale. At the same time it was an architecturally perfectly planned economic, military, and administrative centre not only of the extensive Teutonic Order with branches all over Europe but also of the mighty state that it founded here. It was also the social residence of the Master of the Order, who was also head of state. Taking all these functions into account, the castle must be recognized as a unique creation, with no equivalent in Gothic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle is situated on a peninsula on the right bank of the Nogat River. To the south lay the Polish state, which had accepted Christianity in the 10th century. The missions organized by Polish rulers to bring Christianity to the Prussians had little success, and led to the martyrdom of St Adalbert (997) and St Bruno (1009). In 1215 Pope Innocent III created a missionary bishopric to the Prussians. The Polish Prince Conrad called upon the Teutonic Order for assistance, granting them lands on the frontier of his territory. The order established itself there, but the resistance of the Prussians lasted for half a century&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The castle at Malbork (or Marienburg, its German name), work on which began after 1270, was among the most important of the many castles built by the order. Its importance increased greatly after 1309, when the seat of the Grand Master of the Order was moved there from Venice. The original Fore Castle was adapted as his residence and administrative headquarters, the impressive palace of the Grand Masters being built in its south-west comer. The Great Refectory was built to the north of the palace; the north side of the Middle Castle was closed with a wing housing the hospital and the residence of the commander, and the chapel in the High Castle was enlarged, with a mortuary chapel of the Grand Masters dedicated to St Anne beneath the new presbytery. After the first partition in 1772, Malbork Castle became part of the Kingdom of Prussia and was promptly modified to serve as a barracks. A number of artists and intellectuals had begun to take an interest in the castle, and as a result of their pressure it was designated a historic monument in 1804. It was partly destroyed at the end of the Second World War, and since 1947 there have been continuous campaigns for its reconstruction and restoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The High Castle was the convent of the Teutonic Order in the final phase. It is square in plan, with a central courtyard, and it contained living accommodation for the knights, with dormitories, refectories, kitchens and extensive storage facilities. Attached to it is the Conventual Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, originally on the first floor of the eastern wing and extended outside the perimeter of the High Castle with a new presbytery. The main portal, the Golden Gate, retains much of its original polychrome decoration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Middle Castle and the High Castle were surrounded by fortifications of walls, ramparts and moats. When Malbork became the seat of the Grand Master of the Order, a new three-sided enclosure was created, communicating with the High Castle by a drawbridge. The entrance gate to the High Castle and the Great Refectory are outstanding examples of High Gothic, with slender vaulting and large windows providing an atmosphere of soaring space and light. This section also houses the infirmary, the quarters of the military commander, and a guest wing used by visiting dignitaries of the order and secular knights.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the 14th-century enlargement took place, a new Fore Castle was created, and the fortifications extended to defend the entire complex. A monumental gateway in the north wing of the Middle Castle gives access to the central open space of the Fore Castle. The buildings in this section were quarters for the servants of the order, workshops, armouries, cannon foundries, other services, a stable and wagon house complex, and a chapel dedicated to St Lawrence. The whole complex is surrounded by an intricate system of defensive works, including massive walls and bastions, wet and dry moats and ditches, earthen ramparts and ponds (which also served to supply the castle with water).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This 13th-century fortified monastery belonging to the Teutonic Order was substantially enlarged and embellished after 1309, when the seat of the Grand Master moved here from Venice. A particularly fine example of a medieval brick castle, it later fell into decay, but was meticulously restored in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Many of the conservation techniques now accepted as standard were evolved here. Following severe damage in the Second World War it was once again restored, using the detailed documentation prepared by earlier conservators.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>998</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Work on building the Calvary was begun in 1600 by Mikolaj Zebrzydowski, the Voyevode of Cracow, who built the Chapel of the Crucifixion on the slopes of Żar Mountain. Together with a small hermitage, this was used by him for personal meditation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, Zebrzydowski was persuaded by the Bernardine (Franciscan) monks Tomasz Bucki and Ludwig Boguski to enlarge his original concept to cover an extensive landscape complex with many chapels, linked in form and theme to those in Jerusalem. It was conceived as being for the use not only of the local inhabitants but also of believers from elsewhere in Poland and in neighbouring countries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The layout was the work of the distinguished mathematician, astronomer, and surveyor Feliks Żebrowski. He based it on the landscape of Jerusalem at the time of Christ, using a system of measurement that he developed to enable the urban landscape of Jerusalem to be reproduced symbolically on the natural landscape. This makes use of the natural topography, the Lackarańska Mountain representing the Mount of Olives and the Żar Mountain Golgotha, for example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sites chosen for the chapels that represented the stages in the taking of Christ and the Stations of the Cross were linked by tracks cut through the natural woodland and were marked first by a simple cross. These were replaced by chapels, nearly all of which were built between 1605 and 1632. The architect of the chapels was a Belgian, Paul Baudarth, and the influence of the Mannerist architecture of The Netherlands is very marked. In 1632 a wall was built (now no longer extant) which symbolized the urban limits of the Holy City, and also a system of routes that linked ten chapels associated with the life of the Blessed Virgin Mary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only four further chapels were added - those dedicated to the Third Fall of Christ (1754), the Weeping Women (1782), St John Nepomucen (1824), and the Angel (1836). The original Bridge of the Angels was replaced by a new structure in 1907.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Our Lady of the Angels and the Bernardine monastery were designed by the Italian architect Giovanni Maria Bernardoni. However, he did not complete the project, which was finished by Baudarth in 1609. The monastery was considerably enlarged in 1654-56, and took on the appearance of a Baroque castle.. A pilgrim chapel in developed Baroque style was added to the church in 1658- 67, to house a miraculous picture of the Virgin. The church achieved its present form at the end of the 17th century, whilst the monastery was enlarged once again at the beginning of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the monastery was founded in 1617 the inhabitants of the town of Kalwaria Zebrzydowska that had sprung up were allowed to rent part of its lands within the Calvary park. They began to clear the woodland for pastures, and in the mid-18th century they were allowed to build houses on their plots. A process of reforestation began at the beginning of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 18th century the Czartoryski family, the owners of the park, built a palatial residence near the pilgrim church, but this was largely destroyed in the 19th century. At the end of World War II the plot on which the palace had stood, together with some surviving outbuildings, passed into the ownership of the state, which used it for the construction of a theological college.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Historical archives show that Kalwaria Zebrzydowska had many distinguished royal and noble visitors as well as countless pious pilgrims. Many were attracted by religious performances and ritual that were staged there. As early as 1613 Mikolaj Zebrzydowski had received permission to found a religious fraternity to organize religious ceremonies of this kind. Local people joined the Bernardine monks at Easter to take part in dramatic enactments of Christ's Passion. These religious performances were discouraged during the Austrian occupation of this region, but they were revived after 1947. In addition to the Passion procession at Easter, there is a similar event at the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in August.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/905</http_url><id_number>905</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_905.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Kalwaria Zebrzydowska is an exceptional cultural monument in which the natural landscape was used as the setting for a symbolic representation in the form of chapels and avenues of the events of the Passion of Christ. The result is a cultural landscape of great beauty and spiritual quality in which natural and man-made elements combine in a harmonious manner.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Counter Reformation in the late 16th century led to a flowering in the creation of Calvaries in Europe. Kalwaria Zebrzydowska is an outstanding example of this type of large-scale landscape design, which incorporates natural beauty with spiritual objectives and the principles of Baroque park design.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.8666666700</latitude><location>Lesser Poland (Malopolska).Voivodship (formerly Bielsko-Biala)</location><longitude>19.6666666700</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kalwaria Zebrzydowska is a breathtaking cultural landscape of great spiritual significance. Its natural setting – in which a series of symbolic places of worship relating to the Passion of Jesus Christ and the life of the Virgin Mary was laid out at the beginning of the 17th century – has remained virtually unchanged. It is still today a place of pilgrimage.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kalwaria Zebrzydowska: the Mannerist Architectural and Park Landscape Complex and Pilgrimage Park</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1058</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Thirty Years' War in Europe ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which upheld the principle of cuius regio eius religio, ie the faith professed by the ruler was obligatory for his subjects. At that time Silesia was a part of the Catholic Habsburg monarchy. In most of the province Protestants were persecuted and deprived of the right and possibility to practise their faith. Through the agency of the Lutheran king of Sweden, the Emperor finally allowed (1651-52) the erection of three churches, henceforth known as the Churches of Peace, in Silesian principalities under direct Habsburg rule in Glogow (Glogau), which ceased to exist in the 18th century, Jawor (Jauer), and Swidnica (Schweidnitz) in the south-west part of present-day Poland. The Emperor's consent was, however, given upon conditions that were difficult to comply with. The churches had to be built exclusively of perishable materials (wood and clay), located outside city walls, and built in a limited period of time. These restrictions, together with the need to provide adequate space for large crowds of worshippers, forced the architect, Albrecht von Sabisch (1610-88), a prominent master-builder and fortification designer active in Wroclaw, to implement pioneering constructional and architectural solutions of a scale and complexity unknown ever before or since in wooden architecture. The timber-framed structures of enormous scale and complexity were assembled. The Churches of Peace, as they are still called today, were to be as inconspicuous as possible in the townscape; they were to be the refuge of a legally disadvantaged and only reluctantly tolerated minority, whose role as outsiders should be evident in the location of the churches outside the protective city walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first permit was given to Glogow (1651) and the site was located 300m outside the city walls. Building started quickly and the first service was held in October 1652, but the church was destroyed by a violent storm in the summer of 1654. A new church was built the following year, but this burnt down in 1758 and was then replaced by a brick building. The permit for the other two churches was given in 1652. The church of Jawor was built in 1654-55. In Swidnica a temporary structure (Gottesh&amp;uuml;ttlein, God's Hut) was built in 1652 and the actual construction was able to take place in 1656-57, thanks to the donation of Count Hans Heinrich von Hochberg and support from the Lutheran magistrate of Swidnica. A new sacristy was erected in 1695 and private pews were built by noble families in the early 18th century. Several auxiliary buildings were added to the ensemble, including the residences of the pastor and the vicars, a Latin school, and a German school. The two churches were designed as basilicas with built-in galleries but their plans and spatial arrangements differed. In their d&amp;eacute;cor, integrated into the architectural framework, exuberant Baroque forms and complex imagery were used in a truly unique way to convey concepts of Protestant theology. During the Silesian War, Swidnica was under siege on several occasions, and the hostilities resulted in the destruction of the sacristy and structural damage to the northern wall. All the damage was repaired by 1763.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1054</http_url><id_number>1054</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1054.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Churches of Peace are outstanding testimony to an exceptional act of tolerance on the part of the Catholic Habsburg Emperor towards Protestant communities in Silesia in the period following the Thirty Years’ War in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; As a result of conditions imposed by the Emperor the Churches of Peace required the builders, to implement pioneering constructional and architectural solutions of a scale and complexity unknown ever before or since in wooden architecture. The success may be judged by their survival to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Churches of Peace bear exceptional witness to a particular political development in Europe in the 17th century of great spiritual power and commitment.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.0542777800</latitude><location>Jawor and Świdnica counties, Lower Silesian (Dolnoslaskie) Voivodship</location><longitude>16.1959444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Churches of Peace are outstanding testimony to an exceptional act of tolerance on the part of the Catholic Habsburg Emperor towards Protestant communities in Silesia in the period following the Thirty Years' War in Europe. As a result of conditions imposed by the emperor, the Churches of Peace required the builders to implement pioneering constructional and architectural solutions of a scale and complexity unknown in wooden architecture. The success may be judged by their survival to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Thirty Years' War in Europe ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which upheld the principle of &lt;em&gt;cuius regio eius religio&lt;/em&gt; , i.e. the faith professed by the ruler was obligatory for his subjects. At that time Silesia was part of the Catholic Habsburg monarchy. In most of the province Protestants were persecuted and deprived of the right and possibility to practise their faith. Through the agency of the Lutheran king of Sweden, the emperor finally allowed (1651-52) the erection of three churches, henceforth known as the Churches of Peace, in Silesian principalities under direct Habsburg rule - in Głog&amp;oacute;w, which ceased to exist in the 18th century, Jawor, and Swidnica in the south-west part of present-day Poland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unlike the Baroque Roman Catholic churches of Silesia, the Churches of Peace do not represent a self-confident mission-oriented religion, triumphant in its victory over heretics, but rather they embody a place of refuge for an oppressed religious minority that wanted to assert its faith, to remain conscious of its individuality, and to preserve the communal cult of its traditions and practices. Stability and durability were achieved by means of an efficient structural system and careful use of traditional techniques in handling the materials and in connecting the individual timbers with one another. The Churches of Peace are among the latest examples of an architecture that combines post-and-beam construction (building with one-piece wall-high posts) with the use of halved joints; the structural framework of regularly placed uprights and horizontal connecting rails is reinforced by means of diagonal crossed struts that are inserted in the posts and rails in a way that makes shifting of the structural framework impossible. As post-and-beam buildings, the Churches of Peace are part of a European tradition that goes back to the 12th century and continued into the 18th century. The churches in Jawor and Swidnica differ in the character of their floor plans. Both have three aisles, both terminated in a polygonal east end, but whereas in Jawor the eastern end is still a true chancel, in Swidnica it is only the formal remembrance of such: its function has become that of a sacristy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lutheran Church of Peace in Jawor was designed by the architect Albert von Sabisch and constructed by the master carpenter Andreas Gamper from Jawor in 1654-55. Located outside the town, the church is surrounded by a park, the former graveyard, with the original layout of tree-lined alleys. The auxiliary buildings occupy a quarter of the site. The church is in the form of a basilica with one nave, two aisles and a presbytery. The building is timber-framed, filled with vertical wooden chips wrapped in straw and plastered with clay. It is covered with shingle roofs. The bell tower was erected in 1707 on a rectangular plan. The interior has two tiers of principal galleries and two tiers of auxiliary galleries, added in the 18th century. The polychrome decoration consists of ornaments in white and blue and 143 biblical scenes with inscriptions. The paintings, inspired by Mathias Merian, were executed by Georg Flegel. Similar decoration is also on the auxiliary galleries, and the decor is supplemented by cartouches bearing coats of arms. The high altar (1672) is a multistoreyed structure executed by the workshop of Michael Schneider of Landshut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lutheran Church of Peace in Swidnica was designed by the same architect as the Church of Jawor, Albert von Sabisch, and built by master carpenters Andreas Gamper and Kaspar K&amp;ouml;nig in 1656-57. North of the town centre, it was incorporated into the outer ring of fortifications in the mid-18th century. The auxiliary buildings include the head pastor's residence, the vicarage and two schools. The church is in the form of a basilica with a transept and four tiers of galleries. Its plan is close to a Greek cross. The polychrome decoration of the interior, started in 1693 under the direction of Christian Sussenbach, was inspired by the Bible. The high altar was executed in 1752 by the sculptor Gottfried August Hoffman, replacing an old altarpiece, and he also built the pulpit. The main organ was built by Christoph Klose.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica&lt;span style="font-size: 8pt; font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, the largest timber-framed religious buildings in Europe, were built in the former Silesia in the mid-17th century, amid the religious strife that followed the Peace of Westphalia. Constrained by the physical and political conditions, the Churches of Peace bear testimony to the quest for religious freedom and are a rare expression of Lutheran ideology in an idiom generally associated with the Catholic Church.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Churches of Peace in Jawor and Świdnica</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1228</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of the city of Wroclaw is coloured by many influences and rulers, also reflected in the varying forms of the name of this &amp;lsquo;Island City': Wrotizla, Vretslav, Presslaw, Bresslau, Breslau, Wroclaw. As the capital of an important province and one of the principal cities in the German Empire, Wroclaw (then Breslau) developed rapidly in the late 19th century. Taking into consideration the city's historically strategic location and its role as an important multicultural communication centre, it was considered to require a permanent structures to house exhibitions such as those in Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Leipzig or Dresden. An opportunity for building the new Exhibition Grounds was the commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the address to the German Nation presented by King Frederick William III, in 1813. The decision was taken by the City Council in 1910. The location was decided as part of the suburban complex (150 ha), consisting of the mid-19th century Park Szczytnicki, designed by distinguished garden designers, and the Municipal Zoological Garden of 1864-1865. This area was a favourite retreat for visitors, and a tram line had been built to connect it to the city in late 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1909, architect Max Berg (1870-1947), who had studied in Munich and worked in Frankfurt am Main, was appointed municipal architect. In the following year, he started preparing a design for a multipurpose exhibition hall, presenting the project in early 1911 as a part of a plan for city improvement. On 28 June, 1911, the City Council approved Berg's design and gave its consent to the construction of the Exhibition Grounds and the Centennial Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time, an architectural competition was announced for the design of the Exhibition Grounds. The task of developing the overall layout was entrusted to Hans Poelzig (1869-1936), the Principal of the State Academy of Fine and Decorative Arts in the city. The final project was developed by him in collaboration with Berg. The focal point was the Centennial Hall, and the overall layout of the grounds was based on two principal axes, instead of one as had been proposed by many other competitors. In 1912, the City Council approved the plans for the second exhibition building, the Four-Dome Pavilion designed by Hans Poelzig, to house a historical exhibition on the Napoleonic Wars. To this were added the administrative building and a restaurant, these structures formed a forum-like square, with the main gate located on the west side, and a view to the north over an artificial pond surrounded by a monumental pergola, designed by Poelzig.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The work site was opened in 1911, and the construction of the monumental arches started in April 1912. The technology was avant-garde. Specially designed electric compressors were used to pre-stress the concrete. The stability was verified by Professor Heinrich M&amp;uuml;ller of Berlin. Building materials were selected with great care. Special cement, supplied by the Silesia Cement Plant in Opole and tested in Gro&amp;szlig; Lichterfelde, Berlin, was used for the concrete. High-grade rolled steel was employed for reinforcement rods instead of the standard structural steel. In the sections exposed to higher stress, an aggregate made of the highest quality granite was used. The municipal authority examined the hardening of concrete during month-long tests. The required strength was 6 times greater than estimated. A hardwood model of the apse was built in scale 1:25 and tested under a load of 6000 kg. Only qualified and experienced workers were employed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Centennial Exhibition opened in May 1913, attended by Crown Prince Wilhelm. Over 100 000 people visited the Exhibition. After it closed, the temporary pavilions were dismantled, but the Centennial Hall continued to serve as an assembly place and Poelzig's Four-Dome Pavilion as an exhibition hall. After World War I, the Exhibition Grounds were managed by a joint stock company. National and international industrial fairs were organised, as well as art exhibitions, concerts and theatrical productions. In 1924-1925 the Exhibition Grounds were expanded, and a large exhibition pavilion, Messehalle, and a monumental colonnaded entrance were built to Berg's design, but destroyed during World War II. In 1929, a "Living and Work-space" exhibition (WUWA) was organised in Breslau by the German Werkbund, an important manifesto of new architecture, innovative technologies and services.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Exhibition Grounds survived World War II relatively intact. In 1948 the Exhibition of the Reclaimed Territories (returned to Poland) was staged here, commemorated by the steel Spire ("Iglica"), designed by Professor Stanisław Hempel, erected on the square in front of the Centennial Hall. In August 1948, the World Congress of Intellectuals in the Defence of Peace was staged at the Centennial Hall, attended by Pablo Picasso. In 1995-1997 the interior of the Centennial Hall was renovated.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1165</http_url><id_number>1165</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1165.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i): &lt;/em&gt;The Centennial Hall of Wroc&lt;span style="font-size: 8pt; font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"&gt;ł&lt;/span&gt; aw is a creative and innovative example in the development of construction technology in large reinforced concrete structures. The Centennial Hall occupies a key position in the evolution of methods of reinforcement in architecture, and one of the climax points in the history of the use of metal in structural consolidation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The Centennial Hall is a pioneering work of modern engineering and architecture, which exhibits an important interchange of influences in the early 20th century, becoming a key reference in the later development of reinforced concrete structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; As part of the exhibition grounds of Wroc&lt;span style="font-size: 8pt; font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: SimSun; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: ZH-CN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"&gt;ł&lt;/span&gt; aw, the Centennial Hall is an outstanding example of modern recreational architecture that served a variety of purposes, ranging from conferences and exhibitions to concerts, theatre and opera.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.1069472222</latitude><location>Silesia Region, Lower Silesian Voivodship</location><longitude>17.0770138888</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Centennial Hall, a landmark in the history of reinforced concrete architecture, was erected in 1911-1913 by the architect Max Berg as a multi-purpose recreational building, situated in the Exhibition Grounds. In form it is a symmetrical quatrefoil with a vast circular central space that can seat some 6,000 persons. The 23m-high dome is topped with a lantern in steel and glass. The Centennial Hall is a pioneering work of modern engineering and architecture, which exhibits an important interchange of influences in the early 20th century, becoming a key reference in the later development of reinforced concrete structures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Centennial Hall in Wrocław</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1343</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of Poland goes back to the unification of the Christian lands and the constitution of the kingdom in the 10th and 11th centuries. Marked by important progress and the foundation of dozens of new cities in the 14th century, Poland's most impressive development is from the end of the 15th to the 18th centuries, when it was united with Lithuania and formed an empire ranging across the whole of central Europe. It is against this background that one can also see the development of wooden architecture in southern Poland, where it has been an inseparable element of the cultural landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Churches have been of particular significance in the development of Polish wooden architecture, and an essential element of settlement structures, both as landmarks and as ideological symbols. They were an outward sign of the cultural identity of communities, reflecting the artistic and social aspirations of their patrons and creators. In early Poland, churches were elite buildings of exceptional significance due to the importance of their patrons, who were usually monarchs, Church officials, monasteries, and finally knights (later aristocrats). Church building was not the work of folk carpenters, except much later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, in a period of increasing social and cultural differentiation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest well preserved Roman Catholic wooden churches date back to the 15th century. They demonstrate the participation of professional craft workshops belonging to guilds and builders' lodges, sometimes employing both carpenters and masons. These churches are complex, of good craftsmanship, and free from improvisation in their construction. The few well preserved late medieval churches have many features in common. The typical church building was composed of a nave, almost square in plan with a narrow chancel, and generally with a three-sided east end. The churches were orientated with their altars to the east. Originally, the churches were built without towers, which were added later. There were various architectural developments, such as roof structures, in succeeding centuries, and some of the solutions are unique in Europe. The Gothic character of medieval churches was emphasized by simple stylistic details, such as the shape of door and window openings, arcades, and arches. Until the second quarter of the 16th century there was a common plan for the churches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The internal fittings were in the style of the period, produced in guild workshops, and the themes and presentations followed rigorous ideological and iconographic rules. New architectural elements, such as towers and arcades, started appearing in the late 16th century, and strict adherence to the old church type was gradually abandoned. From the beginning of the 18th century there was a tendency to exceed the limitations of the traditional model, a symptom of institutional and social changes, and architects or skilled dilettantes attempted to apply to wood Baroque concepts developed in brick architecture. This is an interesting chapter in the history of the wooden sacral architecture, represented in basilica- and aisled-hall churches, sometimes with cupola-covered chapels or cruciform buildings with a central plan, facades with two towers and elaborate interiors with spiral columns, cornices, all executed in wood in &amp;lsquo;imitation' of brick architecture. Later styles, such as late Baroque, the Regency, and Rococo, also had an impact and mural decoration is used in illusionist compositions to increase the impression of interior spaciousness. In the 19th century there were revivals, and wooden churches were built with classicist or neo-Gothic features but mostly in details and interiors. The beginning of the 20th century was marked by an interest in the beauty of folk art and the &amp;lsquo;rediscovery' of a &amp;lsquo;national' architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1053</http_url><id_number>1053</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1053.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The wooden churches of Little Poland bear important testimony to medieval church building traditions, as these related to the liturgical and cult functions of the Roman Catholic Church in a relatively closed region in central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;The churches are the most representative examples of surviving Gothic churches built in horizontal log technique, particularly impressive in their artistic and technical execution, and sponsored by noble families and rulers as symbols of social and political prestige.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.7500000000</latitude><location>Gorlice, Nowy Targ, and Bochnia counties, Voivodship of Lesser Poland (Malopolskie);&#xd;
Brzozów County, Subcarpathian (Podkarpackie) Voivodship</location><longitude>21.2333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The wooden churches of southern Little Poland bear exceptional testimony to the tradition of church building from the Middle Ages. They have also been preserved in the context of the vernacular village and landscape setting, and related to the liturgical and cult functions of the Roman Catholic Church in a relatively closed region in central Europe. They are exceptionally well-preserved and representative examples of the medieval Gothic church, built using the horizontal log technique, particularly impressive in their artistic and technical execution, and sponsored by noble families and rulers as symbols of prestige.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Poland goes back to the unification of the Christian lands and the constitution of the kingdom in the 10th and 11th centuries. Churches have been of particular significance in the development of Polish wooden architecture, and an essential element of settlement structures, both as landmarks and as ideological symbols. They were an outward sign of the cultural identity of communities, reflecting the artistic and social aspirations of their patrons and creators. The nine sites in southern Little Poland represent different aspects of these developments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Archangel Michael (Binarowa) was built around 1500, with a roof of &lt;em&gt;zaskrzynienia&lt;/em&gt; type. [CL - explain term?]In 1595 a tower was added to the west end, and at the beginning of the 17th century the church was enclosed by an external arcade. Window openings were enlarged and new polychrome decoration replaced the earlier stencilled work. The Church of All Saints (Blizne) has a rich painted decoration: the remarkable Last Judgement scene is from this period. In the early 18th century there were changes to interior decorations and furniture. Near the church, there is a group of buildings of the presbytery. The Church of the Archangel Michael (Debno) is first mentioned in 1335. The present building, the second on the site, dates from the late 15th century. This church has a unique example of medieval decorations. The ceiling and the interior walls are painted using stencils from the 15th and 16th centuries. The decoration contains more than 77 motifs: architectural recalling Gothic forms, animal, human and religious.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary and Archangel Michael (Haczow) has original Gothic polychrome decoration from the late 15th century, although the building has been dated to the previous century. At the beginning of the 17th century the church was enclosed by an earthen defensive rampart. The Church of St Peter and St Paul was built in 1789 from a donation. The furniture was designed in Baroque style but was substantially altered in 1836. In 1846 the Stations of the Cross were installed in the external arcade. There were more renovations later, but the form and decorations have been kept. The Church of St Leonard (Lipnica Murowana) was built at the end of the 15th century. From this date have survived parts of the polychrome decoration stencilled on the ceiling of the nave. The church was situated outside the defensive wall of the township and had the function of a cemetery church, a function that it still fulfils. It has been renovated many times, but this has not significantly affected its form or spatial arrangement&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St John the Baptist was originally connected with the re-Catholicization of the region by the Austrian Emperor Ferdinand III. The construction of this church began in 1651. It was renovated in 1816-19 and the tower was remodelled in 1901. In 1926-27 the chapel was covered with a cupola, which was removed in 1935 and rebuilt as it had been earlier. The Church of St Philip and St James the Apostles (Sekowa) is an auxiliary church, built around 1520, on the site of an earlier church. The building has a square plan with no aisles; the chancel has a three-sided east end and the building is covered with a high roof. The Church of Archangel Michael of Szalowa was built in 1736-56. The vestibules in the facade are later additions. This church differs from the others because of its architectural form, although it was still built using the same technique as the rest. The church has a nave and two aisles, and it is built in basilica form. The extremely rich Baroque-Rococo polychrome decoration and fittings date from the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The wooden churches of southern Little Poland represent outstanding examples of the different aspects of medieval church-building traditions in Roman Catholic culture. Built using the horizontal log technique, common in eastern and northern Europe since the Middle Ages, these churches were sponsored by noble families and became status symbols. They offered an alternative to the stone structures erected in urban centres.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wooden Churches of Southern Małopolska</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1489</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/29</http_url><id_number>29</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_29.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.0613888889</latitude><location>City and County of Cracow, Lesser Poland (Malopolska) Voivodship</location><longitude>19.9372222222</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The urban layout of Cracow, an outstanding example of medieval architecture, is based on four core areas: the centre, around the market square; the Wawel, the hill inhabited since the Palaeolithic and the site of the imperial palace; the urban district of Kazimierz; and the Stradom quarter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Cracow, the former capital of Poland, is situated at the foot of the Royal Wawel Castle. The 13th-century merchants' town has Europe's largest market square and numerous historical houses, palaces and churches with magnificent interiors. Further evidence of the town's fascinating history is provided by the remnants of the 14th-century fortifications and the medieval site of Kazimierz with its ancient synagogues in the southern part of town, the Jagellonian University, and the Gothic cathedral where the kings of Poland were buried.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Stare Miasto is the old city, characterized by the rigid grid of perfectly orthogonal streets, the layout ordered by Boloslaw the Chaste in 1257 when he decided to unify the various peoples scattered around the hill of the Wawel. All that remains now of the medieval enclosure walls is the gate and the little wall that was built in 1499 near the main city gate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old city is separated from the old district of Kazimierz. Until the 1880 Diet Kazimierz was an island, forming the Jewish quarter of Cracow. As in every city, Jewish culture enriched Cracow, until in the Second World War the entire Jewish community of 64,000 individuals was deported to the nearby concentration camps at Auschwitz; only 6,000 returning at the end of the war.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The university quarter is the oldest in Poland and among the oldest in Europe. Students here have included Copernicus and Karol Wojtyla (Pope John Paul II). Within the historic centre there are many churches and monasteries. The limestone hill of the Wawel is the site of a complex that houses some of the most important buildings. These include the Royal Palace, seat of the king in the period when the boundaries of Poland extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Today the palace accommodates a museum that displays splendid tapestries, the Royal Treasury (unfortunately depleted in periods of difficulty), royal standards, and antique furniture. Within the Wawel is the Gothic cathedral of St Wenceslas. Its exterior illustrates the complex history of this building. The cathedral was for centuries the scene of the main events of the Polish royal families - coronations, weddings, and funerals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the part of the castle accessible on the Wisla, there is a small park at the base of the hill with the cave of the legendary Krak, prince and head of a Slav tribe. At the entrance to the Wawel the ancient Royal Way of monuments and remarkable historical buildings begins. Then comes the heart of the old city: the Market Square (Rynek Głowny). This is one of the largest medieval public squares in Europe, 200&amp;nbsp;m on each side. The building in the centre of the square is the Skiennice, the ancient cloth market. One side is dominated by the Gothic church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Centre of Kraków, the former capital of Poland, is situated at the foot of the Royal Wawel Castle. The 13th-century merchants' town has Europe's largest market square and numerous historical houses, palaces and churches with their magnificent interiors. Further evidence of the town's fascinating history is provided by the remnants of the 14th-century fortifications and the medieval site of Kazimierz with its ancient synagogues in the southern part of town, Jagellonian University and the Gothic cathedral where the kings of Poland were buried.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Kraków</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1739</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/32</http_url><id_number>32</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_32.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.9791666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>20.0638888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2008,2013</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The deposit of rock salt in Wieliczka and Bochnia has been mined since the 13th century. This major industrial undertaking has royal status and is the oldest of its type in Europe. The site is a serial property consisting of Wieliczka and Bochnia salt mines and Wieliczka Saltworks Castle. The Wieliczka and Bochnia Royal Salt Mines illustrate the historic stages of the development of mining techniques in Europe from the 13th to the 20th centuries: both mines have hundreds of kilometers of galleries with works of art, underground chapels and statues sculpted in the salt, making a fascinating pilgrimage into the past. The mines were administratively and technically run by Wieliczka Saltworks Castle, which dates from the medieval period and has been rebuilt several times in the course of its history.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wieliczka and Bochnia Royal Salt Mines</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1854</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/30</http_url><id_number>30</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_30.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.2663900000</latitude><location>City and County of Warsaw, Masovian Voivodship</location><longitude>21.0116700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The reconstruction of the historic centre of Warsaw, associated with events of considerable historic significance, has exercised a considerable influence, in the majority of European countries, on the evolution of doctrines of urbanization and the preservation of older districts of cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the insurrection of the inhabitants of Warsaw in August 1944, the Polish capital was annihilated in a reprisal by the Nazi occupation troops. From these ruins, between 1945 and 1966, the will of the nation brought to life again a city of which 85% had been destroyed. The reconstruction of the historic centre so that it is identical with the original symbolizes the will to ensure the survival of one of the prime settings of Polish culture and illustrates, in an exemplary fashion, the restoration techniques of the second half of the 20th century. The reconstruction of religious edifices such as the Cathedral of St John, the churches of Our Lady, St James and the Holy Trinity, and the palace, was accompanied by the integral restitution of the urban whole, with its full land allotment and its reconstruction. The example of the market place of the Old City is justifiably famous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Warsaw Old Town was established in the 13th century. The heart of the area is the Old Town Market Square: until the end of the 18th century the square was the most important place in Warsaw; regular fairs and festivities were held here. During the Second World War the square was turned into rubble, but after many years of reconstruction it was restored to its original beauty. Surrounding streets feature old architecture such as the City Walls and the Barbican. The Cathedral of St John, completed in the 15th century, was originally a parish church and only became a cathedral in 1798. During the war it was destroyed but it has been restored to its original Gothic style. The interior of the cathedral features many works of religious art, tombs and various sculptures and paintings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Royal Castle is a magnificent example of the Baroque style, built in the 14th century. In 1569 King Zygmunt III Waza moved his residence there when Warsaw became the capital of Poland. Between 1598 and 1619 the king had the castle restyled as a polygon by Italian architects. In the 18th century King Augustus III converted the east wing into Baroque style, while King Stanislaw Poniatowski added sessions of the Royal Library. The Royal Castle served as both a residence for the kings as well as hosting sessions of the Sejm (Polish Parliament). It is now a museum displaying furniture, famous paintings and other great works of art. The fascinating interiors of the castle contain many original furnishings, statues, paintings and other &lt;em&gt;objets d'art&lt;/em&gt;. Among the paintings are works by Bernardo Bellotto and Marcello Bacciarelli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Almost every building in the Old Town, a blend of different styles from Gothic to Baroque, is old and of a unique architectural style. Among the other attractive historic structures are the many churches, the Barbican, the City Walls, Fukier House, Pelican House, Pod Blacha Palace and Salvator House.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;During the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944, more than 85% of Warsaw's historic centre was destroyed by Nazi troops. After the war, a five-year reconstruction campaign by its citizens resulted in today's meticulous restoration of the Old Town, with its churches, palaces and market-place. It is an outstanding example of a near-total reconstruction of a span of history covering the 13th to the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Warsaw</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2068</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1539</http_url><id_number>1539</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1539.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pl</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.4426972222</latitude><location></location><longitude>18.8512277778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in Upper Silesia, in southern Poland, one of the main mining areas of central Europe, the property includes the entire underground mine with adits, shafts, galleries and other features of the water management system. Most of the property is situated underground while the surface mining topography features relics of shafts and waste heaps, as well as the remains of the 19th century steam water pumping station. The elements of the water management system, located underground and on the surface, testify to continuous efforts over three centuries to drain the underground extraction zone and to use undesirable water from the mines to supply towns and industry. Tarnowskie Góry represents a significant contribution to the global production of lead and zinc.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tarnowskie Góry Lead-Silver-Zinc Mine and its Underground Water Management System</site><states>Poland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2165</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/206</http_url><id_number>206</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_206.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.6550000000</latitude><location>Région autonome des Açores</location><longitude>-27.2200000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Like the Tower of Bel&amp;eacute;m and the Monastery of the Hieronymites in Lisbon, and Goa in India, Angra do Heroismo is directly and tangibly associated with an event of a universal historic significance: the maritime exploration that allowed exchanges between the world's great civilizations. Set in the mid-Atlantic, the port of Angra, obligatory port-of-call for fleets from Africa and the Indies, is the eminent example of a creation linked to the maritime world, within the framework of the great explorations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the history of the maritime explorations of the 15th and 16th centuries, which established communications between the great civilizations of Africa, Asia, America and Europe, Angra do Heroismo holds an eminent position: this port on the island of Terceira, in the Azores, served as a link for almost three centuries between Europe and the 'New World'. Vasco de Gama in 1499 and Pedro de Alvarado in 1536 set up an obligatory port-of-call for the fleets of Equatorial Africa and of the East and West Indies during their voyages back and forth from Europe. A Provedoria das Armadas e Naus da India (Office of Fleets and Vessels of the Indies) was immediately set up there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site, admirably chosen by the first navigators, was protected from the prevailing winds by a series of hills; the port comprises two natural basins, that of the Beacon and that of the Anchorage (Angra) from which the village took its name. An impregnable defensive system was installed immediately following its foundation with the construction of the large fortresses of S&amp;atilde;o Sebasti&amp;atilde;o and S&amp;atilde;o Filipe (today named S&amp;atilde;o Jo&amp;atilde;o Baptista). At the same time, it was decided to set out the city based on an original layout: the characteristic chequerboard plan of new cities was altered to take into account the prevailing winds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Angra do Heroism thus offers a perhaps unique example of the adaptation of an urban model to particular climatic conditions. It has been conjectured, and not without reason, that the choice was imposed by the navigators and their cartographers. Angra was officially raised to the status of a city on 21 August 1534; during the same year, it became the seat of the Archbishop of the Azores. This religious function contributed to the development of the monumental character of the city where the cathedral of the Santissimo Salvador, the churches of the Miseric&amp;oacute;rdia and of the Santo Esp&amp;eacute;rito, the convents of the Franciscans and the Jesuits, were all constructed in the Baroque style. Even following the earthquake of 1 January 1980, Angra has preserved the better part of its monumental heritage and a homogenous urban ensemble, characterized by original vernacular architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on one of the islands in the Azores archipelago, this was an obligatory port of call from the 15th century until the advent of the steamship in the 19th century. The 400-year-old San Sebastião and San João Baptista fortifications are unique examples of military architecture. Damaged by an earthquake in 1980, Angra is now being restored.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central Zone of the Town of Angra do Heroismo in the Azores</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>227</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/264</http_url><id_number>264</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_264.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.6577800000</latitude><location>Batalha (Leiria)</location><longitude>-8.8269400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Constructed in fulfilment of a vow by King Jo&amp;atilde;o to commemorate the victory over the Castilians at Aljubarrota (15 August 1385), the Dominican monastery of Batalha is one of the great masterpieces of Gothic art. The majority of the monumental complex dates from the reign of Jo&amp;atilde;o I, when the church (finished in 1416), the royal cloister, the chapter-house, and the funeral chapel of the founder were constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following a brief interruption, work was begun again under King Duarte on the prolongation of the choir, the construction of his funerary chapel and that of his descendants, a spacious edifice based an octagonal plan that the death of the king in 1438 left unfinished. The design has been attributed to the English architect Master Huguet. The chapel's floor plan consists of an octagonal space inserted inside a square, creating two separate volumes that combine most harmoniously. The ceiling consists of an eight-point star-shaped lantern. The most dramatic feature is to be found in the centre of the chapel: the enormous medieval tomb of Dom Jo&amp;atilde;o I and his wife, Queen Philippa of Lancaster, the first tomb for husband and wife made in Portugal, on which are carved the coats of arms of the Houses of Avis and Lancaster. Bays in the chapel walls contain the tombs of their sons, among them Prince Henry the Navigator.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main entrance of the church is through the porch on the west facade. On both sides of this portal are sculptures of the twelve apostles standing on consoles. In the centre is a high relief statue of Christ in Majesty surrounded by the Evangelists, framed by six covings decorated with sculptures of biblical kings and queens, prophets and angels holding musical instruments from the Middle Ages. This great profusion of sculptures is completed by the crowning of the Virgin Mary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church's interior refers back to the period of sober Gothic majesty that has remained undisturbed by later additions. The nave and aisles are separated by thick pillars crowned by capitals with plant motifs. The chancel windows, decorated with beautiful 16th century stained-glass windows representing the Visitation, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight into Egypt and the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, project a diffused light that gives the church a feeling of great spirituality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last great period of Batalha coincided with the reign of Manuel I, who built the monumental vestibule and the principal portal, and restored the royal cloister, built in the reign of Dom Jo&amp;atilde;o I. The arches overlooking the garden were built later and are embellished with finely carved tracery displaying the emblems of Dom Manuel I, the Cross of the Order of Christ and the armillary sphere. In the galleries are doors leading to the various rooms of the former monastery, beginning with the large Chapter House, a marvellous example of the pointed arches of Gothic architecture, in which the enormous vaulted ceiling has no central supports.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a monument charged with a symbolic value from its foundation, the convent of Batalha was, for more than two centuries, the great workshop of the Portuguese monarchy. It is not surprising that the roost characteristic features of a national art would have been determined there, during both the Gothic and the Renaissance periods. Batalha is the conservatory of several privileged expressions of Portuguese art: the sober and audacious architectural style of the end of the 14th century, with the stupendous nave of the abbatial, of which the two-storey elevation, whit broad arcades and high windows, renders more impressive its dimensions; the exuberant aesthetic of the capelas imperfeitas; the marvellous flamboyant arcades embroidered in a lace-work of stone: the Manueline Baroque even more perceptible in the openwork decor of the tracery of the arcades of the royal cloister than on the immense portal attributed to Mateus Fernandes the Elder; and finally, the hybrid style of Jo&amp;atilde;o de Castilho, architect of the loggia constructed under Jo&amp;atilde;o III.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of the Dominicans of Batalha was built to commemorate the victory of the Portuguese over the Castilians at the battle of Aljubarrota in 1385. It was to be the Portuguese monarchy's main building project for the next two centuries. Here a highly original, national Gothic style evolved, profoundly influenced by Manueline art, as demonstrated by its masterpiece, the Royal Cloister.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastery of Batalha</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>294</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/265</http_url><id_number>265</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_265.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.6047200000</latitude><location>Tomar (Santarem)</location><longitude>-8.4175000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Convent of Tomar, originally conceived as a symbolic monument of the Reconquest, became, from the Manueline period, an inverse symbol: that of the opening of Portugal to external civilizations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the second half of the 12th century, the Knights Templar were called to Portugal where they were of considerable assistance in the Reconquest. Their first and principal fortress was Tomar. When, in the 14th century, the Order of the Knights Templar was abolished and replaced by the Knights of the Order of Christ, Tomar lost none of its importance. Successive embellishments rendered it one of the most prestigious monuments of Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original church, built at the end of the 12th century by the first great Master of the Templars, Gualdim Pais, was based on a polygonal ground plan of 16 bays including an octagonal choir with ambulatory: this is one of the typical 'rotondas' of Templar architecture of which all too few examples are still extant in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cloisters were added at different periods: that of the cemetery, constructed to the north-east of the rotunda around 1430 by Infante Don Henrique, employed pointed arches of a sober, elegant Gothic style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Manueline influence was, as elsewhere, decisive and compelling: it was under King Manuel that Diego de Arruda was commissioned to create the enormous choir based on a square plan with a tribune raised above the chapter-room. The elevations of these two storeys are marked on the exterior by two renowned bays, a window and an oculus, whose prodigious decor combines with stupefying ease Gothic reminiscences and Moorish influences, offering the most accomplished expression of the Manueline decorative style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other cloisters and new monastic buildings were constructed under Jo&amp;atilde;o III by Jo&amp;atilde;o de Castilho which, at Tomar as at Bel&amp;eacute;m, were not insensitive to Italian influence. The evolution terminated in the second half of the century in the cloister of the 'Philips', the principal cloister, modified by Diego de Torralva, and finished by F. Terzi: the facades are set into rhythm by a magnificent Palladian ordering of two storeys of Corinthian and Tuscan columns.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Originally designed as a monument symbolizing the Reconquest, the Convent of the Knights Templar of Tomar (transferred in 1344 to the Knights of the Order of Christ) came to symbolize just the opposite during the Manueline period – the opening up of Portugal to other civilizations.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Convent of Christ in Tomar</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>295</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/361</http_url><id_number>361</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_361.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.5730600000</latitude><location>Province: Alentejo,  District: Evora</location><longitude>-7.9077800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;&amp;Eacute;vora is the finest example of a city of the golden age of Portugal after the destruction of Lisbon by the earthquake of 1755. The cityscape of &amp;Eacute;vora demonstrates the influence exerted by Portuguese architecture in Brazil, in sites such as Salvador de Bahia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is the capital of Alentejo Province and one of the tourist attractions of the south. In spite of sharp population growth which has led to the construction of new quarters to the west, south and east, this museum city has retained all of its traditional charm inside the Vauban-style wall built in the 17th century according to the plans of Nicolas de Langres, a French engineer. The rural landscape to the north has remained virtually unchanged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;Eacute;vora has been shaped by some 20 centuries of history, going as far back as Celtic times. It fell under Roman domination, when it was called Liberalitas Julia and, among other ruins, still retains those of the Temple of Diana. During the Visigothic period, the Christian city occupied the surface area surrounded by the Roman wall, which was then reworked. Under Moorish domination, which came to an end in 1165, further improvements were made to the original defensive system as shown by a fortified gate and the remains of the ancient Kasbah. Moreover, the toponymy is indicative of the Maghreb population, which remained after the reconquest in the La Mouraria quarter of the north-east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are a number of buildings from the medieval period, the best known of which is unquestionably the cathedral, begun in 1186 and essentially completed in the 13th-14th centuries. It was in the 15th century, however, when the Portuguese kings began living there on an increasingly regular basis, that &amp;Eacute;vora 's golden age began. At that time, convents and royal palaces sprang up everywhere: St Claire Convent, the royal church and convent of S&amp;atilde;o Francisco, not far from the royal palace of the same name, Os L&amp;oacute;ios Convent with the S&amp;atilde;o Jo&amp;atilde;o Evangelista Church. These splendid monuments, which were either entirely new buildings or else constructed within already existing establishments, are characterized by the Manueline style which survived in the major creations of the 16th century: Palace of the Counts of Basto, built on the site of the Alcazar, and the Church of the Knights of Calatrava, the convents of Carmo and da Gra&amp;ccedil;a, Santo Ant&amp;atilde;o, Santa Helena do Monte Calvario, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 16th century was a time of major urban planning as demonstrated by the ancient style: Agua da Prata aqueduct built in 1537 by Francisco de Arruda and the many fountains that remain (la Pra&amp;ccedil;a do Geraldo is the best known). It also marked the beginning of &amp;Eacute;vora's intellectual and religious influence. The University of the Holy Spirit, where the Jesuits taught from 1553, played a role in the south which was comparable to that of Coimbra in the north of the kingdom. Moreover, &amp;Eacute;vora began a rapid decline following the expulsion of the Company of Jesus by the Minister, Pombal, in 1759. &amp;Eacute;vora is also interesting for reasons other than its monumental heritage related to significant historic events and royal orders. This interest also goes beyond the many 16th-century patrician houses (Cordovil house, the house of Garcia de Resende). In fact, the unique quality of the city arises from the coherence of the minor architecture of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, which finds its overall expression in the form of myriad low whitewashed houses, covered with tile roofs or of terraces which line narrow streets whose layout is of medieval configuration in the old city centre and which in other areas bears witness to the concentric growth of the town until the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wrought iron and azulejo decoration, which is splendid in the convents and palaces and very charming in the most humble dwellings, serves to strengthen the fundamental unity of a type of architecture which is perfectly adapted to the climate and the site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This museum-city, whose roots go back to Roman times, reached its golden age in the 15th century, when it became the residence of the Portuguese kings. Its unique quality stems from the whitewashed houses decorated with &lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; and wrought-iron balconies dating from the 16th to the 18th century. Its monuments had a profound influence on Portuguese architecture in Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Évora</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>414</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1989</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/505</http_url><id_number>505</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_505.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.5500000000</latitude><location>Alcobaça - Leiria</location><longitude>-8.9766700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;By virtue of its magnificent dimensions, the clarity of the architectural style, the beauty of the material used and the care with which it was built, the Cistercian Monastery of Santa Maria d'Alcoba&amp;ccedil;a is a masterpiece of Gothic Cistercian art. It bears witness to the spread of an aesthetic style that developed in Burgundy at the time of St Bernard and to the survival of the ascetic ideal which characterized the order's early establishments such as Fontenay. The tombs of Dom Pedro and Do&amp;ntilde;a In&amp;eacute;s de Castro are among the most beautiful of Gothic funerary sculptures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery is also an outstanding example of a great Cistercian establishment with a unique infrastructure of hydraulic systems and functional buildings. Deservedly renowned, the 18th-century kitchen adds to the interest of the group of monastic buildings from the medieval period (cloister and lavabo, chapter room, parlour, dormitory, the monks' room and the refectory).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The founding of the monastery is intimately linked with the beginnings of the Portuguese monarchy. When Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King Afonso I in 1139, he based his political reconquest on the Crusaders - cruelly present in Lisbon in 1147 - and on religious orders. Alcoba&amp;ccedil;a was given to the Cistercians in recognition of the victory of Santar&amp;eacute;m (1152) with the understanding that they would colonize and work the surrounding lands. The White Monks were already well established by 1153, the year of the death of St Bernard of Clairvaux, Alcoba&amp;ccedil;a was, thus, the last of the saint's 'offspring' during his lifetime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite an offensive led by Al-Mansoor at the end of the 12th century, the royal establishment began to prosper. In the 13th century, while the abbey church, laid out similarly to Pontigny, and beautiful monastic buildings were under construction, the abbey's intellectual and political influence had already spread throughout the western part of the Iberian Peninsula. It was a centre of study and religious doctrine (the kingdom's most important monastic school was there) and it enjoyed a wealthy congregation. The abbot was a powerful ecclesiastical lord whose authority extended over the fertile lands, 13 towns, four seaports and two castles. Later, from the reign of Jo&amp;atilde;o I to that of Jo&amp;atilde;o IV, the abbot was appointed by the king and became a member of the Council, Grand Almoner, and Lord Protector of the Border. A number of enhancements underscored the exceptional character of this royal establishment: the Manueline sacristy of the Infante Dom Afonso, named Abbot of Alcoba&amp;ccedil;a in 1505, the upper cloister of Jo&amp;atilde;o do Castilho, one of the architects of the Convent of the Hieronymites of Bel&amp;eacute;m, the facade and main part of the Baroque lodgings of Friar Jo&amp;atilde;o Turriano (1702), and the King's Room. The ultimate symbol of this privileged relationship with the Portuguese monarchy is found in the famous tombs of In&amp;eacute;s de Castro and Dom Pedro (Peter I). He commissioned the twin tombs after the dramatic event that would later inspire Camo&amp;euml;ns, Velez de Guevara and so many other contemporary authors and filmmakers. There the avenging king and his murdered queen are buried. The design of a high sarcophagus supporting the giants watched over by angels, frequently used in the 14th century, here finds one of its most perfect artistic expressions. The stylistic quality of the sculptured ornaments, even with the restoration necessitated after Napoleon's troops mutilated them in 1810-11, is surpassed by the compelling symbolism of the iconography which evokes human destiny, death and the Christian hope of eternal life. Built around 1360, the tombs are the tangible sign of Peter I's mystical rehabilitation of In&amp;eacute;s, assassinated at Coimbra on the orders of his father Afonso IV.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Santa Maria d'Alcoba&amp;ccedil;a, north of Lisbon, was founded in the 12th century by King Alfonso I. Its size, the purity of its architectural style, the beauty of the materials and the care with which it was built make this a masterpiece of Cistercian Gothic art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastery of Alcobaça</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>589</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Its favourable climate, fertile soil, and proximity to the River Tagus have attracted human settlement in this area from early times. There are archaeological sites in the area dating from the early Neolithic (5tn millennium BC), Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition (3rd millennium BC), Beaker (3rd-2nd millennium BC), Bronze Age (15th-6th centuries BC), and Iron Age (4th-2nd centuries BC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman occupation began in the mid-2nd century BC, when the area formed part of the territorium of the Roman town of Olisipo (modern Lisbon). The local inhabitants embraced the Roman way of life with enthusiasm, and there are indications that there was a Roman settlement on the site of the modern town of Sintra. In the late Roman and Bvzantine period, archaeological discoveries demonstrate commercial links with North Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first written references to the settlement of Sintra date from the period of Moorish occupation, when it is describe as being a dependency of Lisbon. Others qualify it as the most important centre In the region after Lisbon. The town and its castle were devastated several times during the Reconquest. It was first liberated by Alfonso VI of Leon in 1093, but recaptured by the Moors two years later. Sintra finally yielded to King Afonzo Henriques after the conquest of Lisbon in 1147, and seven years later was awarded its charter as a concelho (commune). The territory covered by the charter was very large, and was divided into four parishes. The inhabitants Of the early town were of several races, but they Quickly lost their individual identities to become saloios, the term used to describe the mixed-race population in the towns around Lisbon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the suppression of the Templars in 1181 the lands granted to them by Afonso Henriques passed to the Order of Christ, which replaced them in Portugal. During the crisis of 1383-85 Sintra was one of the last towns to yield to Jo&amp;atilde;o, and as a result it was deprived of the Queen's House, Which had been granted to it by King Dinis. Afonso built an imposing Royal Palace there which served as the Royal summer residence until the late 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the late 15th century Sintra was closely associated with one of the greatest Queens of Portugal, Leonor, widow of Jo&amp;atilde;o, the &amp;quot;Perfect prince&amp;quot;. However, it was under the patronage of Manuel I that the town became indissolubly linked with the Crown: he caused the Royal palace to be substantially enlarged and founded the Monastery Of Nossa Senhora da Penha, from which he watched the return of Vasco de Gama from his historic voyage. Succeeding monarchs spent much time in the town, and legend has It that King Sebasti&amp;atilde;o listened to Cam&amp;otilde;es reading his great epic poem Os Lusiadas there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Restoration of 1640 Sintra lost this link and the Royal palace served only as a prison for Afonso VI. This neglect lasted until the early 19th century, when the town began to attract the Portuguese upper classes, following the distinguished foreigners who had begun to visit it. It was not until the middle of the century that Fernando II, consort of Maria II, inspired by Romanticism, converted the ruined Hieronymite monastery into a fine palace, which brought many wealthy foreign people to the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The artistic and historic qualities of the town and its surroundings were properly appreciated and jealously protected in the ensuing decades. In the past decade a vigorous cultural policy has been developed for the study and presentation of the area's historical heritage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/723</http_url><id_number>723</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_723.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.7833300000</latitude><location>Sintra/Serra</location><longitude>-9.4166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of the Serra and the town of Sintra represents a pioneering approach to Romantic landscaping that had an outstanding influence on developments elsewhere in Europe. It is a unique example of the cultural occupation of a specific location that has maintained its essential integrity as the representation of diverse successive cultures. Its structures harmonize indigenous flora with a refined and cultivated landscape created by man as a result of literary and artistic influences. Its integrity is fragile and vulnerable to neglect and unsympathetic management and use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Serra stands out from the relatively flat surrounding landscape, its highest point being the Crux Alta. There are slight local variations and three ecological areas relevant to the cultural landscape: an area of pinewood, a natural forest of various species (oak, pine, chestnut), and an area colonized by the forest tree species plus olives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 'Sacred Mountains' of Varro and Columela and Ptolemy's 'Mountain of the Moon' enclose various significant man-made parks and gardens: the Parque de Pena, begun by Ferdinand II around 1840. Alongside the indigenous vegetation there are many exotic species. There are some startling contrasts: the Convento dos Capuchos, with monastic asceticism at its most extreme, lies close to the most sophisticated residences of the court. The whole park including the Tapada do Mocha and the Moorish castle is enclosed by a stone wall. The higher ground is covered with oak, cypress, pine woodland, and more classical gardens, with parterres and some remarkable specimens. Among the most notable features of these gardens are the Garden of the Camellias and the 'English Garden'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although almost all the built heritage was destroyed in the 1755 earthquake, there are some outstanding court and military buildings, examples of religious architecture and archaeological sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Royal Palace is undoubtedly the dominant architectural feature of Sintra, situated in the centre of the town. Probably constructed on the site of the Moorish Alcazar, its buildings result from two main periods (15th-16th centuries). The interior contains much painted and tiled decoration, but one of the most important features is the facing with tiles (&lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; ), the finest example of this Mudejar technique on the Iberian Peninsula. The Pena Palace, high on a peak in the Serra, is a work of pure Romanticism, designed by the Portuguese architect Possid&amp;oacute;nio da Silva. Within the 19th-century palace are the church, cloister and refectory of the monastery, richly decorated. The Palace of Montserrate was designed for Sir Francis Cook by the distinguished British architect, James Knowles Jr. It is an example of mid-19th-century eclecticism, and it combines neo-Gothicism with substantial elements derived from the architecture of India. Montserrate is renowned for its gardens. The planned gardens are surrounded by a semi-natural oak forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest structure on the site of the Quinta da Penha Verde was built by the great 16th century Portuguese captain and viceroy, Jo&amp;atilde;o de Castro and enlarged by his heirs and successors. The ensemble is somewhat austere but has a harmony of its own. The Palace of Ribafrias is in the centre of the town and was built in 1514 by the Royal Great Chamberlain, Gaspar Gon&amp;ccedil;alves. Its original rather severe lines have been softened by subsequent alterations, such as the insertion of Manueline and Pombaline windows into the facade. The Moorish Castle, high on a peak of the Serra, may be of Visigothic origin; it was certainly being used in the 9th century, during the Moorish occupation. It was finally abandoned with the successful Reconquest of Portugal from the Moors. Now in ruins, the remains of its barbican, keep and walls vividly illustrate the problems of constructing a fortress on a rocky outcrop of this kind. Other buildings in this group are the Palace of Seteals, the Quinta de Regaleira and the Town Hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Trinity Convent of the Arrabalde was founded by a group of monks from the Trinity Convent in Lisbon in 1374, but replaced with a century later. The small cloister dates from 1570 and the church largely from the later 18th century. Other churches in the town are Santa Maria, S&amp;atilde;o Martinho, S&amp;atilde;o Miguel, the former S&amp;atilde;o Pedro de Canaferrim parish church inside the Moorish Castle, and the Church of Nossa Senhora da Miseric&amp;oacute;rdia.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century Sintra became the first centre of European Romantic architecture. Ferdinand II turned a ruined monastery into a castle where this new sensitivity was displayed in the use of Gothic, Egyptian, Moorish and Renaissance elements and in the creation of a park blending local and exotic species of trees. Other fine dwellings, built along the same lines in the surrounding &lt;em&gt;serra&lt;/em&gt; , created a unique combination of parks and gardens which influenced the development of landscape architecture throughout Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Landscape of Sintra</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>854</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations nave revealed that there has been human occupation on the site of modern Oporto, at the mouth of the Douro River, since the 8th century BC, when there was a Phoenician trading settlement there, taking advantage of the access to the Interior afforded by the river. The Romans established a town there in the 1st century BC, under the name of Portus (= the port).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the arrival in the early 5th century of the barbarians, who followed the rivers in their invasions, the town became very important as an administrative and trading centre. The Visigoths established an episcopal see there. In the succeeding centuries it was the object of attacks and Pillage by successive groups - Swabians, Visigoths again, Normans, and Moors. By the early 11th century, however, it was firmly established as part of the Castilian realm. The inhabitants rallied in support of Afonso Henriques in his crusade to drive the Moors out of Portugal and became part of the new kingdom. The first period of expansion came in the late 14th century, with the construction in 1374 of a new town wall protecting the two urban nuclei- the original medieval town and the hitherto extramural harbour area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Oporto was later to lend massive support to the expeditions organized by Henry the Navigator (who was born in the town) in the early 15th century, though it drew little profit from its investment. It was not until the signing of the Treaty of Methuen in 1703 that economic expansion began, with the commercial links established between Oporto and England. English entrepreneurs invested heavily in the vineyards of the Douro valley, to supply the huge English market, and Oporto, as the port for the export of these wines, benefited greatly, as the wealth of Baroque buildings in the town attests. The citizens reacted strongly against Pombal's creation of the companhia do Alto Douro, designed to end the English monopoly, and restored the status quo by burning down the company's headquarters in the Revolta dos Barrachos (Revolt of the Drunkards).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Oporto was the birthplace of the &amp;quot;Liberal Revolution&amp;quot; in 1820, which led to the adoption by the monarchy of the seminal Constitution of 1822. During the attempt by Miguel I to reimpose autocracy, Oporto rose against him and its trade suffered badly during a long blockade in 1832. The town played an important role in the expulsion of the monarchy in 1910, and also in the 1974 revolution that led to the return of democracy to Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 19th century the town centre moved from the banks of the river to the new developments around the Pra&amp;ccedil;a da Liberdade. It was at this time that Gustav Eiffel designed the railway bridge across the river (1875). and many new buildings were constructed. In the course of the 20th century Oporto has progressively changed from a primarily industrial town to one whose economic basis is the service industries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/755</http_url><id_number>755</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_755.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criterion (iv) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value as the urban fabric and its many historic buildings bear remarkable testimony to the development over the past thousand years of a European city that looks outward to the west for its cultural and commercial links.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.1416666700</latitude><location>Northern region</location><longitude>-8.6166666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Oporto is of outstanding universal value as the urban fabric and its many historic buildings bear remarkable testimony to the development over the past 1,000 years of a European city that looks outward to the West for its cultural and commercial links.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of is a townscape of high aesthetic value, with evidence of urban development from the Roman, medieval, and Almadas periods. The rich and varied civil architecture of the historic centre expresses the cultural values of succeeding periods - Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, neoclassical and modern. The active social and institutional tissue of the town ensures its survival as a living historic centre. Military, commercial, agricultural, and demographic interests converged here to shelter a population capable of building the city. It is a collective work, not accomplished at a particular moment but the result of successive contributions. One of the most relevant aspects of Oporto is its scenic character, resulting from the complexity of the landform, the harmonious articulation of its roads, and the dialogue with the river. It also represents a successful interaction between the social and geographical environments&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been human occupation on the site of modern Oporto, at the mouth of the Douro River, since the 8th century BC. There the Romans established a town under the name of Portus. With the arrival in the early 5th century of the barbarians, the town became very important as an administrative and trading centre. By the early 11th century, it was firmly established as part of the Castilian realm. The first period of expansion came with the construction in 1374 of a new town wall protecting the two urban nuclei - the original medieval town and the hitherto extramural harbour area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Oporto lent support to the expeditions organized by Henry the Navigator (who was born in the town) in the early 15th century. English entrepreneurs invested in the vineyards of the Douro valley, to supply the huge English market, and Oporto, as the port for the export of these wines, benefited greatly, as the wealth of Baroque buildings in the town attests. The citizens reacted against Pombal's creation of the Companhia do Alto Douro, designed to end the English monopoly. Oporto was the birthplace of the Liberal Revolution in 1820, which led to the adoption by the monarchy of the Seminal Constitution of 1822. During the 19th century, the town centre moved from the banks of the river to the new developments around the Pra&amp;ccedil;a da Liberdade: Gustav Eiffel designed the railway bridge across the river (1875), and many new buildings were constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre is enclosed within the enceinte of the 14th-century Fernandine walls, together with some smaller areas that retain their medieval characteristics. This area conserves to a large extent the medieval town plan and urban fabric, with some later monumental insertions. Remains of the 12th-century ramparts that survive in place were erected on Roman foundations. Only two sections of the Fernandine walls, initiated by Dom Afonso IV in 1336 but named after his successor, Dom Fernando, in whose reign they were completed in 1376, are still standing. The massive crenellated stone walls were strengthened with many bastions and square towers. In this area there are many important ecclesiastical building, such as the Romanesque core of the cathedral. Among the many fine Gothic churches are S&amp;atilde;o Francisco, S&amp;atilde;o Louren&amp;ccedil;o dos Grillos, in the Mannerist style, Santa Clara in the Gothic Manueline style with later classical Renaissance elements, Nossa Senhora da Vit&amp;oacute;ria, the early Baroque lgreja da Miseric&amp;oacute;rdia, and lgreja dos Cl&amp;eacute;rigos of Niccol&amp;ograve; Nazzoni. Oporto also has a number of outstanding public buildings: the S&amp;atilde;o Jo&amp;atilde;o Theatre, the Pal&amp;aacute;cio da Batalha, the Pal&amp;aacute;cio das Sereias and the former Prison da Rela&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o. Among the important later structures are the neo-Palladian Hospital Sant'Ant&amp;oacute;nio, the imposing Alf&amp;aacute;ndega, and the Palace da Bolsa in neoclassical style, the Ferreira Borges Market, the S&amp;atilde;o Bento railway station and the Pa&amp;ccedil;os do Concelho.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Oporto, built along the hillsides overlooking the mouth of the Douro river, is an outstanding urban landscape with a 2,000-year history. Its continuous growth, linked to the sea (the Romans gave it the name Portus, or port), can be seen in the many and varied monuments, from the cathedral with its Romanesque choir, to the neoclassical Stock Exchange and the typically Portuguese Manueline-style Church of Santa Clara.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Oporto, Luiz I Bridge and Monastery of Serra do Pilar </site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>890</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/934</http_url><id_number>934</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_934.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The site contains the largest surviving relict of the virtually extinct laurisilva forest type that was once widespread in Europe. This forest type is considered to be a centre of plant diversity containing numerous rare, relict and endemic species, especially of bryophytes, ferns and flowering plants. It also has a very rich invertebrate fauna. Endemic species include the Madeiran long-toed pigeon and some 66 species of vascular plants.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>32.7666666700</latitude><location>Island of Madeira</location><longitude>-17.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Laurisilva of Madeira consists of approximately 15,000&amp;nbsp;ha within the 27,000&amp;nbsp;ha Madeira Nature Reserve. The site conserves primary laurel forest (&lt;em&gt;laurisilva&lt;/em&gt;), a vegetation type that is now confined to the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. The &lt;em&gt;laurisilva&lt;/em&gt; on Madeira is the largest area of laurel forest surviving and is in very good condition, with around 90% believed to be primary forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fossil evidence shows that &lt;em&gt;laurisilva&lt;/em&gt; flora once covered much of southern Europe in the Tertiary era, 15-40&amp;nbsp;million years ago, and what is now seen in Madeira is the largest surviving relict of a virtually extinct flora of great interest. As climate change brought about its demise on continental Europe, the ocean-moderated climate of the island groups of the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands maintained relicts of this previously widespread forest type.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The laurel forest has great ecological value, playing an important role in maintaining the ecological balance of the island. It provides ecological services to the island by protecting the micro-climate and maintaining water supplies by collecting and retaining water. The forest completely covers a series of very steep, V-shaped valleys leading from the plateau and east-west ridge in the centre of the island to the north coast. Ancient trees in the valley bottoms, waterfalls and cliffs provide spectacular scenery. At the higher altitudes, arborescent plants in normally herbaceous genera such as sow-thistle cling to steep cliffs and in the valley bottom giant ferns abound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;laurisilva&lt;/em&gt; of Madeira is notable for its biological diversity with at least 66 vascular plant species endemic to Madeira occurring in the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;13 liverwort species and 20 moss species are listed as rare or threatened on a European scale; and endemic animals include a species of pigeon (Madeiran long-toed pigeon, which eats the laurel fruits); a lizard species; two species of bat; and endemic subspecies of chaffinch and fire-crest.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Laurisilva of Madeira is an outstanding relict of a previously widespread laurel forest type. It is the largest surviving area of laurel forest and is believed to be 90% primary forest. It contains a unique suite of plants and animals, including many endemic species such as the Madeiran long-toed pigeon.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Laurisilva of Madeira</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1090</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Guimar&amp;atilde;es was situated on the most important early medieval route of communication connecting Mon&amp;ccedil;ao and Braga with Viseu and Caminha, the seat of the Portuguese (Portucalense) Counts from the 10th century. This urban settlement developed as a result of two forces, a monastery and a fort, one in the valley, the other on the hill, surrounded by two rivers. The town thus dominated the fertile plain that extended towards the sea. The two focal points continued growing in parallel until they were brought together within a single enclosure in the 13th and 14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The early history of Guimar&amp;atilde;es is closely associated with the forming of the national identity and the language of Portugal, being associated with the early Portuguese sovereigns. The region was given as a feudal property to the family that created the country in the 12th century. In 1139 Count Dom Afonso Henriques declared the independence of Portugal from Le&amp;oacute;n and took the name of Afonso I as the first king of the new kingdom. Because of the association of the family with the region, the monastery of Guimar&amp;atilde;es was transformed into a royal college, thus obtaining a primary institutional role in the country. It also became a pilgrimage place on the route of Santiago de Compostela because of an image of the Madonna that was considered to be miraculous.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Bourg developed a variety of activities, including the manufacture of cutlery and jewellery, the treatment of leather, and marketing of the goods. The production reinforced the position of Guimar&amp;atilde;es on the route between the coast and the inland. The establishment of Dominican and Franciscan orders outside the walls of the Bourg contributed to the beginning of urbanization extra muros, including an area for the treatment of leather close to the river Couros. The economic and social status of the town was recognized in the new charter granted by Dom Manuel in 1517.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 18th century was a period of intensive construction activity, particularly marked by noble residences. It was also the period of the first urban master plan, though most of the implementation took place in the first half of the 19th century. There were also new access roads, which came to modify the medieval situation, establishing the basis for the present-day layout in the region. The medieval defence walls and gates, which had already lost their function in the 16th century, were gradually demolished starting from the 17th to 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 20th century the town expanded at an increasing speed owing to industrial development. In the 1980s the municipality recognized the importance of the historic centre of the town, establishing a technical office responsible for the strategies of conservation and rehabilitation.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1031</http_url><id_number>1031</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1031.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Guimarães is of considerable universal significance by virtue of the fact that specialized building techniques developed there in the Middle Ages were transmitted to Portuguese colonies in Africa and the New World, becoming their characteristic feature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The early history of Guimarães is closely associated with the establishment of Portuguese national identity and the Portuguese language in the 12th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; An exceptionally well preserved town, Guimarães illustrates the evolution of particular building types from the medieval settlement to the present-day city, and particularly in the 15th–19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.4437310000</latitude><location>Province of Minho, District of Braga</location><longitude>-8.2928030000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The early history of Guimar&amp;atilde;es is closely associated with the establishment of Portuguese national identity and the Portuguese language in the 12th century. Guimar&amp;atilde;es is of considerable significance by virtue of the fact that specialized building techniques developed there in the Middle Ages were transmitted to Portuguese colonies in Africa and the New World, becoming their characteristic feature. It is an exceptionally well-preserved town illustrating the evolution of particular building types from the medieval settlement to the present-day city, and particularly in the 15th-19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Guimar&amp;atilde;es dominates the fertile plain that extends towards the sea. It is situated on the most important medieval communication routes connecting Mon&amp;ccedil;ao and Braga with Viseu and Caminha, the seat of the Portuguese Counts from the 10th century. This urban settlement developed as a result of two forces, a monastery in the south valley, and a fort on the north hill, surrounded by two rivers, until they were brought together within a single enclosure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre is formed by a large number of stone constructions (950-1498). The period from Renaissance to neoclassicism is characterized by noble houses and the development of civic facilities, city squares, etc. The eclectic and industrial periods and modern expansion (1926 until today) include some changes, although the town has maintained its medieval urban layout. The systems and building types have evolved over time. The residential buildings are characterized by the use of two construction techniques, one dating from before the 16th century (&lt;em&gt;taipa de rod&amp;iacute;zio&lt;/em&gt; ), a half-timbered structure, which mixed granite with a structure in timber and a filling of sun-dried brick, using clay mortar. The other (&lt;em&gt;taipa de fasquio&lt;/em&gt; ), which came into use in the 19th century and is still practised today, was entirely in timber. From here this technology was exported to other parts of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monuments include the medieval castle, built on the site of the first fort of the 10th century. The present construction was built from stone, begun at the time of Afonso I and continued with various modifications in the following centuries. The building is an austere crenellated structure with towers, designed for defence. Part of it was demolished in the 18th century and since then it has been subject to restorations. Close to the castle, there is a small Romanesque church, S&amp;atilde;o Miguel do Castelo, ruined in the 19th century and restored in the 1920s. The church of Nossa Senhora da Oliveira was founded in the 12th century on the site where the first monastery had existed some three centuries earlier. It was completely renovated from 1387 to 1413, with three naves and a wooden roof structure, according to the Portuguese Gothic model. The cloister was added in the 16th century and the present sanctuary to the church in the 17th.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palace of the Dukes of Bragan&amp;ccedil;a is a large complex built from stone down the hill from the castle. The first construction dates from 1420-22, most probably under French influence. The building was conceived as a symbol of the pride of the Bragan&amp;ccedil;a family. The building underwent various vicissitudes, serving as a military headquarters in the late 19th century. The Town Hall, in the square in front of the church of Nossa Senhora, dates mainly from the 16th and 17th centuries. The palace, primarily in stone, has one main floor with large doors opening to a balcony along the main facade. The ground floor is characterized by open arcades. In the same square, in front of the church, there is also a 14th-century Gothic arch, a monument commemorating the victory of Dom Afonso IV in the battle of Padr&amp;atilde;o do Salado.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bourgeois houses of the 16th century have a ground floor in granite and the upper floors are built using the half-timbered structure of &lt;em&gt;taipa de rod&amp;iacute;zio&lt;/em&gt; . The houses of noble families have often been an modification of a previous structure, and generally have their elevations built from granite as a sign of distinction. The typical houses of the 17th century continued using the same construction technique (granite in the ground floor and half-timbered structure in the upper floors - usually three). Another type of house of the same century was built with a peristyle and arcaded ground floor, and is usually found in public squares.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Guimarães is associated with the emergence of the Portuguese national identity in the 12th century. An exceptionally well-preserved and authentic example of the evolution of a medieval settlement into a modern town, its rich building typology exemplifies the specific development of Portuguese architecture from the 15th to 19th century through the consistent use of traditional building materials and techniques.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Guimarães</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1204</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Recent archaeological discoveries have revealed the presence of very ancient human settlements in the more sheltered valleys of the Douro and its tributaries and in neighbouring mountains. The great many Palaeolithic rock carvings found in the extreme eastern area of the Demarcated Douro Region between the valleys of the rivers C&amp;ocirc;a and &amp;Aacute;gueda and Douro represent a cultural aggregate that itself is of outstanding universal value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Seeds of Vitis vinifera have recently been found at the 3-4 thousand year old Buraco da Pala Chalcolithic archaeological site near Mirandela. However, the more significant relics of viticulture and winemaking that have been uncovered date to the Roman occupation and particularly to the end of the Western Empire (3rd and 4th centuries AD). At the beginning of the Christian era, the Romans redefined all the land-use and restructured the economic activities in the entire valley of the Douro. From the 1st century onwards, they either introduced or promoted cultivation of vines, olive trees and cereals (the "cultural trilogy of Mediterranean agriculture"), exploited the numerous sources of mineral water, mined minerals and ore, and built roads and bridges. One of the most important rural sanctuaries in Europe (Pan&amp;oacute;ias, near Vila Real) shows traces of native, Roman, and oriental religious cults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the beginning of the Middle Ages, until just before the birth of Portugal as a nation in the 12th century, the valley of the Douro was ruled in turn by the Suevi (5th century), the Visigoths (6th century), and the Moors (8th- 11th centuries). This opening of the region to a communion of assorted, continuously overlapping, cultures is reflected in the traditional collective imagination. The victory of the Christians over the Moors in Iberia does not appear to have interrupted the Douro valley's longstanding tradition of interracial cross-breeding and cultural acceptance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The valley continued to be occupied. Viticulture increased during a period of the establishment and growth of several religious communities whose importance to the economy was especially noteworthy from the mid-12th century onwards, namely the Cistercian monasteries of Salzedas, S&amp;atilde;o Jo&amp;atilde;o de Tarouca, and S&amp;atilde;o Pedro das &amp;Aacute;guias. They invested in extensive vineyards in the best areas and created many notable quintas. The end of the Middle Ages saw an increase in population, agriculture, and commercial exchange as towns and cities grew, particularly walled towns such as Miranda and Porto. Long-distance trade flourished, namely the shipping of products from the region down river to the city of Porto, linked with the major European trading routes. The rising demand for strong wine to supply the armadas led to a new expansion of the regional vineyards, particularly in those areas that were rapidly becoming famous for the quality of their wine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century onwards, the making of quality wines for commercial purposes assumed an increasing importance. Viticulture continued to expand throughout the 17th century, accompanied by advances in the techniques for producing wines and increased involvement in European markets for wine. The first reference to "Port Wine," in a shipping document of wine for Holland, dates to 1675. This period marked the onset of a great volume of trade with England that benefited greatly from the wars between Britain and France. Port rapidly dominated the British market for wine, overtaking those from France, Spain, and Italy. The 1703 Treaty of Methuen between Portugal and England set the diplomatic seal of approval on this trade and granted preferential rights to Portuguese wines. Throughout the 18th century, the fact that the sale of fortified wines from the Douro depended on the British market was reflected by adapting the product to the taste of this market and, at the same time, by a rapid increase in the number of British wine merchants. The British Factory House was founded in Porto in 1727.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Conflicts arose between these commercial interests and the Douro farmers. The latter were forced to accept continuously lower prices, together with the demand for darker, stronger, sweeter wines with a higher alcohol content. The State therefore regulated the production and trade of this vital economic product, initially with the creation, by Royal Charter on 10 September 1756, of the Companhia Geral da Agricultura das Vinhas do Alto Douro. The productive region was formally marked out. Its entire perimeter around the vineyards was carefully demarcated by 335 large rectangular, flat, or semi-circular granite markers. The word FEITORIA and the date on which each was placed in situ (usually 1758, occasionally 1761), was carved on the side facing the road.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This first demarcation represents an early manifestation of unmistakably contemporary practices. It included making an inventory and classifying the vineyards and their respective wines according to the complexity of the region. It created institutional mechanisms for controlling and certifying the product, supported by a vast legislative framework.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first demarcation enveloped the traditional winegrowing area, mainly in the Lower Corgo. Not until 1788- 92 did the vineyards expand to the Upper Douro. The surge of commercial vineyards eastwards of the gorge, however, only occurred following epidemics of diseases of the vines (especially oidium in 1852 and phylloxera in 1863) that devastated the vines in the traditional wine-growing areas. The regime that relaxed control over production and trade (1865-1907) and the construction of the Douro railway line (1873-87) encouraged this expansion. When in 1907 the State undertook a profound revision of the legislation regulating the winemaking sector, the new demarcation covered the entire area under vines, including the Upper Douro, as far as the Spanish border.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Concurrently, in 1876, Douro farmers began to recover the vineyards that had been damaged by phylloxera. As throughout Europe, the definitive solution only appeared with the introduction of American rootstock on which domestic varieties of vines were grafted. Recovery of Douro viticulture and the introduction of new techniques for planting and training the vines has had a significant impact on the landscape due to the construction of wider socalcos with taller and more geometric walls that are distinctly different from the narrow pre-phylloxera terraces and their lower, tortuous walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Throughout the 20th century the Demarcated Douro Region has been subject to several regulatory models. The Interprofessional Committee for the Demarcated Douro Region (CIRDD) was instituted in 1995. The principal regulatory mechanism for production continues to be the system for distributing the benef&amp;iacute;cio, according to which the amount of must that is authorized for making port wine is allocated according to the characteristics and quality of the respective vines. Mechanization was introduced, somewhat hesitantly, in the 1970s to help with some of the more arduous tasks in the vineyard such as the scarifying of the land and bringing with it new wide, earth-banked vineyards and "vertical planting" along steeper hillsides that no longer require building walls to shore up the terraces. The aesthetic impact of these new vineyards on the landscape varies, yet the mountain viticulture of the Douro continues to be carried out almost totally by hand. The rocky nature of the soil, the steep hillsides, and the existing terraces themselves are extremely difficult to adapt to the use of machines, though the product, port wine, is today mostly made in modern, totally mechanized wineries.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1046</http_url><id_number>1046</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1046.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Alto Douro Region has been producing wine for nearly two thousand years and its landscape has been moulded by human activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The components of the Alto Douro landscape are representative of the full range of activities association with winemaking – terraces, quintas (wine-producing farm complexes), villages, chapels, and roads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The cultural landscape of the Alto Douro is an outstanding example of a traditional European wine-producing region, reflecting the evolution of this human activity over time.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.1016666700</latitude><location>Douro Region, Trás-os-Montes e&#xd;
&#xd;
Alto Douro</location><longitude>-7.7988888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Alto Douro Region has been producing wine for some 2,000 years and its landscape has been moulded by human activities. The components of the landscape are representative of the full range of activities association with winemaking - terraces, &lt;em&gt;quintas&lt;/em&gt; (wine-producing farm complexes), villages, chapels and roads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Protected from the harsh Atlantic winds by the Mar&amp;atilde;o and Montemuro mountains, the property is located in the north-east of Portugal, between Barqueiros and Mazouco, on the Spanish border. The terraces, by blending into infinity with the curves of the countryside, endow this property with its unique character. The Douro and its principal tributaries, the Varosa, Corgo, T&amp;aacute;vora, Torto and Pinh&amp;atilde;o, form the backbone of the nominated property, itself defined by a succession of watersheds. The boundaries correspond to identifiable natural features of the landscape - watercourses, mountain ridges, roads and paths. The landscape in the Demarcated Region of the Douro is formed by steep hills and boxed-in valleys that flatten out into plateaux above 400&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Douro valley is now water-filled behind dams. Soil is almost non-existent, which is why walls were built to retain the manufactured soil on the steep hillsides. It has been created literally by breaking up rocks and is known as 'anthroposoil'. The most dominant feature of the landscape is the terraced vineyards that blanket the countryside. Throughout the centuries, row upon row of terraces have been built according to different techniques. The earliest, employed pre-Phylloxera (pre-1860), was that of the &lt;em&gt;socalcos&lt;/em&gt; , narrow and irregular terraces buttressed by walls of schistous stone that were regularly taken down and rebuilt, on which only one or two rows of vines could be planted. The long lines of continuous, regularly shaped terraces date mainly from the end of the 19th century when the Douro vineyards were rebuilt, following the Phylloxera attack. The new terraces altered the landscape, not only because of the monumental walls that were built but also owing to the fact that they were wider and slightly sloping to ensure that the vines would be better exposed to the sun. Furthermore, these terraces were planted with a greater number of rows of vines, set more widely apart, in order to favour the use of more technical equipment such as mule-drawn ploughs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Transforming the natural environment, clearing the land, and restructuring the hillsides required a great of labour that was brought in from outside. The more recent terracing techniques, the &lt;em&gt;patamares&lt;/em&gt; , and the vertical planting that began in the 1970s, have greatly altered the appearance of this built landscape. Large plots of slightly sloping earth-banked land, usually planted with two rows of vines, were laid out to facilitate mechanization of the vineyard. Trials of other systems are continuing with a view to finding alternatives to the &lt;em&gt;patamares&lt;/em&gt; and to minimize the impact of the new methods on the landscape. Among the expanse of vineyards remain areas, nevertheless, which have survived untouched since the days of Phylloxera, abandoned &lt;em&gt;socalcos&lt;/em&gt; known as &lt;em&gt;mort&amp;oacute;rios&lt;/em&gt; . These have become overrun with native scrub or olive trees. More continuous, regular olive groves have been planted on either side of the land under vine. In the Upper Douro, olive and almond trees represent the dominant crops, although these are slowly being replaced by vines. Along the lower banks of the Douro or on the edges of watercourses on the hillsides are groves of orange trees, sometimes walled. On the heights, above the altitude at which vines can grow, the land is covered with brushwood and scrub and rare coppices. During the long, hot, dry summers of the region, water used to be collected in underground catchments located on the hills or even within a vineyard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Above, characteristically white-walled villages, medieval in origin, and &lt;em&gt;casais&lt;/em&gt; are usually located midway up the valley sides. Around an 18th-century parish church, rows of houses open directly on to the street to form a web of narrow winding roads with notable examples of vernacular architecture. The Douro &lt;em&gt;quintas&lt;/em&gt; are major landmarks, easily identified by the groups of farm buildings around the main house. No churches or shrines of any significant value lie in the World Heritage site, although the landscape is dotted with small chapels located high on the hills or next to manor houses.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Wine has been produced by traditional landholders in the Alto Douro region for some 2,000 years. Since the 18th century, its main product, port wine, has been world famous for its quality. This long tradition of viticulture has produced a cultural landscape of outstanding beauty that reflects its technological, social and economic evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Alto Douro Wine Region</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1220</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The documentary history of Pico and its winegrowing has been well-researched but the fields themselves have hardly been studied, certainly not archaeologically and structurally. It is difficult at this stage to correlate the two types of evidence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Documentary references to wine-growing in the second half of the 15th century have understandably encouraged a local belief that the system of land enclosure as we see it now is of that date. It may well be that the nominated areas, especially the Cria&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o Velha area, embrace an area of early viticulture and might even include fragments of early enclosure; but there is no proof of the original date of construction of the system of land allotment now existing on the ground. It clearly is not, in any case, of one period, since its structure shows phases and changes which suggest development over time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In very broad terms, after initial clearance around the first, widely-spaced settlements, clusters of stone-walled fields probably developed as land was cleared in the 16th-17th centuries. The main axial arrangements may well have been laid out in the 18th century when a small number of land-lords, symbolised by the manor houses, owned much of the land. While small plots would always have been necessary for practical reasons, much of their present extensive rectilinear pattern could well be of the 19th century when, instead of large estates, social and agricultural change encouraged the growth of a mosaic of land holdings cultivated by numerous &amp;lsquo;small farmers'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wine making was introduced by the Portuguese, probably in the 15th century. During the 16th century the Franciscan and Carmelite orders introduced improvements. The production reached its climax in the 19th century when wine production was so extensive that significant quantities were exported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the formerly-cultivated area of stone-walled plots has been progressively abandoned since the phylloxera disease in the mid-late 19th century and during rural desertification throughout the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1117</http_url><id_number>1117</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1117.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (iii) and (v):&lt;/em&gt; The Pico Island landscape reflects a unique response to viniculture on a small volcanic island and one that has been evolving since the arrival of the first settlers in the 15th century. The extraordinarily beautiful man-made landscape of small, stone walled fields is testimony to generations of small-scale farmers who, in a hostile environment, created a sustainable living and much-prized wine.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.5134444400</latitude><location>Azores</location><longitude>-28.5411666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Pico Island landscape reflects a unique response to viticulture on a small volcanic island and one that has been evolving since the arrival of the first settlers in the 15th century. The extraordinarily beautiful man-made landscape of small, stone walled fields is testimony to generations of small-scale farmers who, in a hostile environment, created a sustainable living and a much prized wine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pico, uninhabited until the mid-15th century, is the second largest of the nine islands of the Azores; Pico Mountain (a stratovolcano) dominates the island. It reaches a height of 2,351&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, the highest point in Portugal. Part of the site is an actively farmed viticulture area immediately south of the island's main town, Madalena; to the north the area was formerly used for growing vines and figs but has since been largely abandoned and is now extensively covered by vegetation, mainly clumps of heather as much as several metres high. Within the Cria&amp;ccedil;&amp;atilde;o Velha area, traditional winegrowing continues, producing a sweet, much-prized and once widely exported desert wine called Verdelho.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The geometrical network of small walled fields covers the strip of flat land along the coast. Constructed from irregular weather-worn black basalt stones, these tiny fields covered rocky land of no use for arable cultivation. They were constructed to shelter vines from sea breezes with walls around 2&amp;nbsp;m high. Groups of fields have two types of patterns: in the first, six small fields form a group with one main entrance; in the second and more common arrangement two parallel groups of fields 'interlock' with narrow gaps at the ends of cross-walls to allow access along the strip. In general the fields were used for growing vines. Traditionally and still, cultivation and cropping is entirely by hand. None of the enclosures contain soil. The purpose of the little walled plots was to protect the crops from Atlantic winds and salt spray; and for the walls to provide support for the vines themselves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Rock tracks along shore and between the fields&lt;/em&gt; : Immediately below the farmed zone is a strip of lava coastline, roughly 50-100 m deep and too exposed to wind and salt spray. Along it ran a track, occasionally made-up but otherwise on the bare rock where the wheels of ox-carts loaded with produce ground out permanent ruts. The track was joined by other tracks running down through the vineyards at right angles to it. The whole network was connected with storage sheds and small ports along the rocky shore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cellars, distilleries and warehouses&lt;/em&gt; : Small groups of cellars are located in the settlements and near to cultivated land. These small one- or two-storey buildings, built from dry random, black, basalt stones, with shallow clay tile roofs, were inhabited seasonally during the grape harvest, with the upper storey being used as accommodation. Some settlements have as many as thirty cellars. Warehouses are larger storage buildings, similarly constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Small ports and harbours&lt;/em&gt; : Lajido village, near Santa Luzia, is one of the larger of such ports, inhabited and now very much officially conserved. Its installations in place include a small quay, a ramp for sea-access, church, warehouses, tide well, and a manor house available to the public as an &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Tidal wells&lt;/em&gt; : Owing to shortage of surface water, wells were dug through the rock to pick up underground watercourses. Either rectangular or square, their deep shafts are lined with random stone. Around 20 still survive in the area, providing often brackish water for household use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Houses and churches&lt;/em&gt; : In the northern part of the site there are several nucleated settlements with a strong urban character, such as Cachorro de Santa Luzia. Here are the houses of the viticulturalists together with many cellars and warehouses. In the west there are fewer small towns and more scattered cellars. The local vernacular architecture is most immediately characterized by brilliant white exteriors and, rarely, black-walled buildings, notably in Lajido.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 987-ha site on the volcanic island of Pico, the second largest in the Azores archipelago, consists of a remarkable pattern of spaced-out, long linear walls running inland from, and parallel to, the rocky shore. The walls were built to protect the thousands of small, contiguous, rectangular plots (currais) from wind and seawater. Evidence of this viniculture, whose origins date back to the 15th century, is manifest in the extraordinary assembly of the fields, in houses and early 19th-century manor houses, in wine-cellars, churches and ports. The extraordinarily beautiful man-made landscape of the site is the best remaining area of a once much more widespread practice.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Landscape of the Pico Island Vineyard Culture</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1297</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/263</http_url><id_number>263</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_263.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.6919400000</latitude><location>City of Lisbon</location><longitude>-9.2158300000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Standing at the entrance to Lisbon harbour, the Monastery of the Hieronymites &amp;ndash; construction of which began in 1502 &amp;ndash; exemplifies Portuguese art at its best. The nearby Tower of Bel&amp;eacute;m, built to commemorate Vasco da Gama's expedition, is a reminder of the great maritime discoveries that laid the foundations of the modern world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastery of the Hieronymites and Tower of Belém in Lisbon</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1630</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1387</http_url><id_number>1387</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1387.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.2078111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>-8.4257750000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on a hill overlooking the city, the University of Coimbra with its colleges grew and evolved over more than seven centuries within the old town. Notable university buildings include the 12&lt;span&gt;th&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;century Cathedral of Santa Cruz and a number of 16&lt;span&gt;th&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;century colleges,&amp;nbsp; the Royal Palace of Alc&amp;aacute;&amp;ccedil;ova, which has housed the University since 1537, the Joanine Library with its rich baroque decor, the 18&lt;span&gt;th&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;century Botanical Garden and University Press, as well as the large &amp;ldquo;University City&amp;rdquo; created during the 1940s. The University&amp;rsquo;s edifices became a reference in the development of other institutions of higher education in the Portuguese-speaking world where it also exerted a major influence on learning and literature. Coimbra offers an outstanding example of an integrated university city with a specific urban typology as well as its own ceremonial and cultural traditions that have been kept alive through the ages.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>University of Coimbra – Alta and Sofia</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1899</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p align="left"&gt;Elvas is one of the rare cities about which an abundant historical literature exists. It has been written ever since the 17 &lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;century, but has been particularly extensive since the first half &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;of the 20 &lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;. The histories of the city and its fortifications have been mixed together, and we will &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;henceforth concentrate on the city's relationship with the frontier, a pairing that is fundamental to an understanding of the country's main battle site.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align="left"&gt;The history of Elvas is indeed indelibly marked by a sequence of events which have each in its turn left a clear division between the city before and after, all of them directly or indirectly connected with its frontier location, at the natural point of entry onto Portuguese territory.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1367</http_url><id_number>1367</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1367.jpg</image_url><iso_code>pt</iso_code><justification>&lt;p align="left"&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;Elvas is the largest complex of dry-ditched bulwarked land fortifications in the world surviving to the present day.The bulwarked fortifications of the Historic Centre are the best extant evidence of the Old Dutch Method of fortification in the world.&amp;nbsp;Fort of Santa Luzia is paradigmatic of the highly functional character of bulwarked military architecture, in sacrificing a perfect - and redundant -geometric regularity in order to maximize the military effectiveness of the territorial defensive system to which it belongs.&amp;nbsp;The excellence of design and construction of the Fort of Gra&amp;ccedil;a, in a situation also conditioned strongly by its location and available space. At the end of the 18th &lt;span&gt;century, &lt;/span&gt;experienced European military men already thought so, among them Christian, Prince of Waldeck (Principality of Germany), engaged with the post of Marshal, on 10 March 1797 to assist the Commander-in-Chief of the Portuguese army. From his journey of inspection made in 1798, the following reference to the fort remains: &amp;ldquo;The fort continues to be a masterpiece of fortification, incorporating all the skill and art available at the time (&amp;hellip;)&amp;rdquo;.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.8806194444</latitude><location></location><longitude>-7.1633222222</longitude><long_description>&lt;p align="left"&gt;The fortifications of the city of Elvas have their origins in the Arab period; these were substantially upgraded during the Christian period up until the 16 &lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;century. From this &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;medieval military architectural period all that remains is the castle and the two city walls, known as the &amp;ldquo;Muslim&amp;rdquo; walls.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align="left"&gt;In the 17 &lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;century, and as a consequence of the War of the Restoration (1641-1668), a &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;third medieval wall, the &amp;ldquo;Fernandina&amp;rdquo;, constructed in the period between 1340 and 1369 -- and of which we have as testimony the beautiful drawings by Duarte de Armas (circa 1509) - was demolished to provide building material for the imposing bulwarked fortification of the historic centre (construction: 1643-1653).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align="left"&gt;The advances in artillery and actual experience with the Battle of the Lines of Elvas (1659) demanded that all risings that surrounded the city be strategically occupied by forts and fortlets, thus forcing the enemy that lay siege to the city to considerably disperse its forces and not directly threaten the city in its first approach-trench&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: ArialMT,Italic;"&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;Whence the creation of the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;entrenchment field which is still in existence today (Fig. 2.a.3), also known as the Lines of Elvas &amp;ndash; since the aforementioned battle. This system is further fortified by the fortifications of the historic centre, which also includes the Fort of Santa L&amp;uacute;zia (construction: 1641-1648), the Fort of Gra&amp;ccedil;a (construction: 1763 &amp;ndash; beginning of the 19&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;century) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;and three of the four fortlets that were built in the beginning of the 19&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: xx-small;"&gt;th &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family: Arial;"&gt;century, in the form that &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;they present today: Fortlet of S&amp;atilde;o Mamede, Fortlet of S&amp;atilde;o Pedro and Fortlet of S&amp;atilde;o Domingos or of Piedade.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align="left"&gt;In addition to the fortified system, the historic centre presents a monumental richness in buildings that are mainly of a military function and attest to the uniqueness of this city. The complete urban fabric of the city was designed as an enormous garrison that defended the main natural entry point into Portuguese territory.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site, extensively fortified from the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; to 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries, represents the largest bulwarked dry-ditch system in the world. Within its walls, the town contains barracks and other military buildings as well as churches and monasteries. While Elvas contains remains dating back to the 10th century ad, its fortification began when Portugal regained independence in 1640. The fortifications designed by Dutch Jesuit padre Cosmander represent the best surviving example of the Dutch school of fortifications anywhere. The site also contains the Amoreira aqueduct, built to enable the stronghold to withstand lengthy sieges.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Garrison Border Town of Elvas and its Fortifications</site><states>Portugal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1956</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1402</http_url><id_number>1402</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1402.jpg</image_url><iso_code>qa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.9780555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>51.0297222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The walled coastal town of Al Zubarah in the &lt;span&gt;Persian &lt;/span&gt;Gulf flourished as a pearling and trading centre in the late 18&lt;span&gt;th&lt;/span&gt; century and early 19&lt;span&gt;th &lt;/span&gt;centuries, before it was destroyed in 1811 and abandoned in the early 1900s. Founded by merchants from Kuwait, Al Zubarah had trading links across the Indian Ocean, Arabia and Western Asia. A layer of sand blown from the desert has protected the remains of the site’s palaces, mosques, streets, courtyard houses, and fishermen’s huts; its harbour and double defensive walls, a canal, walls, and cemeteries. Excavation has only taken place over a small part of the site, which offers an outstanding testimony to an urban trading and pearl-diving tradition which sustained the region’s major coastal towns and led to the development of small independent states that flourished outside the control of the Ottoman, European, and Persian empires and eventually led to the emergence of modern day Gulf States.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Al Zubarah Archaeological Site</site><states>Qatar</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1948</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Construction of Sokkuram Grotto began in AD 751, the tenth year of the reign of Shilla King Kyongdyok, by Kim the Prime Minister, Tae-song and completed in 774, the tenth year of the reign of King Hyegong. lt is recorded that it was originally known as Sokbulsa Temple. There are no subsequent documentary references until the mid Choson period, when it is recorded that it was restored in 1703 and again in 1758.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/736</http_url><id_number>736</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_736.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.7833333300</latitude><location></location><longitude>129.3500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Construction of Seokguram Grotto, located on the south-eastern slope of Mount Toham, facing the East Sea, began in AD 751, the 10th year of the reign of Silla King Gyeongdeok, by the Prime Minister KIM Daeseong, and completed in 774, the 10th year of the reign of King Hyegong. It is recorded that it was originally known as Seokbulsa Temple. It is built from granite and features 39 Buddhist engravings on the main wall and the principal sculpture of the Buddha in the centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grotto consists of an antechamber, a corridor, and a main rotunda. The Eight Guardian Deities are carved in relief on the walls of the rectangular antechamber, four on either side. Two figures of Vajradhara stand on either side of the entrance to the corridor leading from the antechamber to the main rotunda. The Four Guardian Kings are carved in pairs on either side of the narrowed part of the corridor. There are two octagonal stone pillars, one on either side of the entrance to the main rotunda, where the main Buddha stands slightly off-centre. The walls to the left and right of the entrance are covered with relief images of two Devas, two Bodhisattvas and the Ten Disciples. In the middle of the wall behind the main Buddha there is an exquisite wall carving of an eleven-faced Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The stones beneath each carved figure on the walls of the antechamber and the main rotunda are also carved. At the time of construction there was a marble stupa in front of the Avalokitesvara, but it was removed during the Japanese colonial period. A large circular lotus flower is set in the wall above the Avalokitesvara behind the main Buddha, creating the illusion of a halo for the Buddha when seen from the front. There are 10 niches lining the upper wall on either side of this lotus flower: originally each contained images of Bodhisattvas or Buddhist devotees, but two are now missing. The vaulted ceiling is made from dressed stones that meet in another carved lotus flower at the top of the main hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main Sakyamuni Buddha figure is 3.45 m high, and set on a lotus flower-shaped pedestal. The hair is tightly curled and there is a distinct usnisa, the protuberance on the top of the head symbolizing Supreme Wisdom. Beneath the broad forehead the eyebrows are shaped like crescent moons and the half-closed eyes gaze towards the East Sea. The Buddha's robe is slung over the right shoulder; the details of the robe covering the left arm and chest are realistically depicted. The Buddha is portrayed cross-legged with the hands in the bhumisparsha mudra position, the gesture with which the historical Buddha summoned the Earth as witness to his realization of Enlightenment. All the other figures - Vajradharas, Guardian Kings, Devas, Bodhisattvas, Disciples and Guardian Deities - are elaborately carved with great attention to naturalistic detailing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main Buddha of Seokguram is a masterpiece that perfectly depicts the moment Sakyamuni attained enlightenment, and Bulguksa Temple is an ambitious architectural work through which Silla revealed the world of Buddhism to the terrestrial world. Built at the same time Seokguram was constructed, the construction of Bulguksa Temple was also initiated and supervised by Prime Minister Kim Dae-seong. With deep filial piety, Kim Dae-seong built Bulguksa Temple in memory of his parents in the present life and the cave temple of Seokguram for his parents of the previous life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The realization of Buddha Land in the mundance world was a long-cherished dream in Silla, and the people of Silla believed that their kingdom was this very land. Even the name, Bulguksa, indicates the great meaning it had to the people of Silla. It literally means Temple of Buddha Land. In other words, Bulguksa is a terrestrial paradise of the land of Buddha.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The grounds of Bulguksa were seen as a utopia of Buddhism itself in the mundance world, and are divided into three areas with wooden buildings on raised stone terraces. They are Birojeon (Vairocana Buddha Hall), Daeungjeon (Hall of Great Enlightenment) and Geungnakjeon (Hall of Supreme Bliss).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They represent the terrestrial and the two celestial abodes: The Pure Land of Buddhism, that is, the terrestrial of Vairocana Buddha; the paradise of Amitabha Buddha; and the World of Endurance of Sakyamuni.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Birojeon, Geungnakjeon and Daeungjeon and areas on stone terraces are posed as the land of Buddha; the lower areas below these terraces are the mundance world. These two worlds are connected by two beautiful bridges known as Cheongun/ Baegun (Bridge of Blue Clouds/ Bridge of White Clouds), and Yeonhwa/ Chilbo (Bridge of Lotus Flowers/ Bridge of Seven Treasures). The stone terraces and bridges, Seokgatap (Pagoda of Sakyamuni), and Dabotap (Pagoda of Bountiful Treasures) in front of the Daeungjeon attest the fine masonry of Silla. Like Seokguram, Bulguksa is built of granite, which is very hard and difficult to fashion. It is said that there originally was a lotus pond called Gupumyeonji, which was fed by waters from Mt. Toham. Although the pond no longer exists, traces of the water channel from Mt. Toham remain on the stone terrace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, Bulguksa suffered extensive damage. The wooden buildings were all destroyed by fire, but the stone terraces and stairs, stone pagodas, lanterns, and gilt bronze statues of Buddha survived. The buildings were later partially restored and Bulguksa as we see today is a modern restoration done from 1969 to 1973. At this time, the site of Bulguksa Temple was excavated and studied, before construction began. However the complex is not nearly of such great scale as during the Silla period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the main courtyard in front of Daeungjeon, the center of Bulguksa, are two pagodas, Dabotap and Seokgatap, standing on an east-west axis. Since the Unified Silla period, it was standard practice to erect a pair of pagodas of the same appearance in front of the main building of a temple, but in this case each of these pagodas are different.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two pagodas reflect a story in the Lotus sutra. When Sakyamuni was giving sermons on Vulture Peak, the Pagoda of Bountiful Treasures rose from the ground, and Dabo, a Buddha who had already achieved enlightenment, appeared riding the Pagoda to attest to the validity of Sakyamuni's sermons. Dabo and Sakyamuni then sat side-by-side within the tower. Dabotap represents the Dabo Buddha, and the other represents Sakyamuni.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Also noteworthy is Mugu jeonggwang dae darani-gyeong (Great Dharani Sutra of Immaculate and Pure Light) in a paper scroll 6.7 centimeters wide and 6.2 meters long. It was discovered in the second level of Seokgatap in 1966. Dated to the 8th century, this is the oldest known sutra printed from carved wooden blocks in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Established in the 8th century on the slopes of Mount Toham, the Seokguram Grotto contains a monumental statue of the Buddha looking at the sea in the &lt;em&gt;bhumisparsha mudra&lt;/em&gt; position. With the surrounding portrayals of gods, Bodhisattvas and disciples, all realistically and delicately sculpted in high and low relief, it is considered a masterpiece of Buddhist art in the Far East. The Temple of Bulguksa (built in 774) and the Seokguram Grotto form a religious architectural complex of exceptional significance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Seokguram Grotto and Bulguksa Temple</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>869</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Haeinsa Temple is Situated on Mount Kaya (1430 m), one of Korea's most beautiful mountains which, because of its rugged terrain, has been immune from the ravages of war that have plagued Korea throughout its history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The temple was first built in 802 during the United Shilla Kingdom, and has been restored and enlarged on a number of occasions. The Changgyong P'ango are the four depositories used to store the 80,000 woodblocks used to print the Tripitaka Koreana. Their original form is uncertain: it is known, however, that the Queen ordered their restoration in 1481 during the reign of the Choson King Sejo, the work being completed in 1488. Sudarajang, one of the main depositories, was restored in 1622 and the other main depository, Poppojon, in 1624 (as shown by a dedication found during restoration work in 1964). They remain intact and in use for their original purpose today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Haeinsa Changgyong p'ango depositories house the world's most complete and accurate version of the Tripitaka, the complete Buddhist canons. They were carved to replace the first Tripitaka Koreana woodblocks, carved during the reign of King Hyonjong (reigned 1010-31) in the hopes of protecting the Koryo kingdom from invasion by the Khitan people of Mongolia. The first set of woodblocks were carved during the Mongol invasion of 1232. The seat of the Koryo court was moved to Kanghwa Island in that year, at the beginning Of a long episode of resistance. The project began in 1237 with the woodblocks for two volumes, comprising a total of 113 books, and was completed twelve years later with the woodblocks for the three-book index, making a total of 1496 volumes (6568 books) Of Buddhists teachings, sutras, and rules.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Haeinsa Tripitaka Koreana is considered to be the most accurate Of all extant Tripitaka texts using Chinese characters because at the time of carving the National preceptor Sugi, the Buddhist monk in charge of the carving, thoroughly compared them with the contents Of texts extant at that time, including the Northern Sung Chinese version, the Khitan version, and the first version of the Tripitaka Koreana, to correct errors and replace missing characters. His revisions are recorded in the thirty-volume Record of the Revisions of the Tripitaka. The Haeinsa Tripitaka Koreana is the only Tripitaka to include material found in the Northern Sung and Khitan versions, which are almost non-existent today. In addition, the Haeinsa Tripitaka Koreana includes the pop won Churim, IIch'ae Kyongumui, and Naejon Suhamumso, three texts that would otherwise have remained unknown.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They were carved in Namhae (South Kyongsang province), and after their completion were stored in the Taejanggyong p'andang, outside the west gate of the Kanghwa Fortress. A ceremony was held to celebrate their completion in 1251; they were moved first to Sonwonsa Temple on Kanghwa Island in 1318 and to the present depositories in 1398, because of frequent foreign invasions towards the end of the Koryo period. Records indicate that the king went to the Yongsan River (now the Han River) to supervise personally the transportation of the woodblocks.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/737</http_url><id_number>737</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_737.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.8000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>128.1000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Temple of Haeinsa, on Mount Gaya, is home to the &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka Koreana&lt;/em&gt; , the most complete collection of Buddhist texts, laws and treaties extant, engraved on 80,000 woodblocks between 1237 and 1248. The buildings of Janggyeong Panjeon, which date from the 15th century, were constructed to house the woodblocks, which are also revered as exceptional works of art. As the oldest depository of the &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka&lt;/em&gt; (Three Baskets), they reveal an astonishing mastery of the invention and implementation of the conservation techniques used to preserve these woodblocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Haeinsa &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka&lt;/em&gt; woodblocks were carved in an appeal to the authority of the Buddha in the defence of Korea against the Mongol invasions. They are recognized by Buddhist scholars around the world for their outstanding accuracy and superior quality. Chinese Buddhist scholars have also used the &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka Koreana&lt;/em&gt; as a reference in their compilations. The woodblocks are also valuable for the delicate carving of the Chinese characters, so regular as to suggest that they are the work of a single hand.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The collection is also an invaluable cultural heritage because of its outstanding historical significance and associations with ideology, religion, historical events and the experiences of individuals. Among Korea's historic Buddhist temples, three are recognized as the Three Jewels of Korean Buddhism. Haeinsa, the largest temple in Korea, is known as the Dharma Jewel Temple because it houses the woodblock texts. Originally the term 'Dharma Jewel' (&lt;em&gt;poppa&lt;/em&gt; ) referred to Buddhist doctrine or the compilation of the Buddha's teachings, which form the basis of Buddhist laws. As the Haeinsa woodblock depositories house the most complete and accurate version of the scriptures in the world, they are a famous destination for pilgrimages, not only among Korean Buddhists but also Buddhists and scholars from all over the world. There are some 500 monks living at Haeinsa today, studying the Buddha's teachings and guarding the &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka Koreana&lt;/em&gt; . The depositories at Haeinsa are extremely rare in that they were built for the express purpose of housing the woodblocks; 18th- and 19th-century buildings for the same purpose in China and Japan are inferior in design and construction. They are also among the largest wooden structures in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is a distinctive cultural heritage testifying to the development of important cultural assets, society, art, science and industry. The depositories were built in the traditional wooden architectural style of the early Joseon period and are unparalleled not only for their beauty but also for their scientific layout, size and faithfulness to function, i.e. preservation of the woodblocks. They were specially designed to provide natural ventilation and to modulate temperature and humidity, adapted to climatic conditions and thus preserving the precious woodblocks for some 500 years undamaged by rodent or insect infestation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Temple of Haeinsa, on Mount Gaya, is home to the &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka Koreana&lt;/em&gt; , the most complete collection of Buddhist texts, engraved on 80,000 woodblocks between 1237 and 1248. The buildings of Janggyeong Panjeon, which date from the 15th century, were constructed to house the woodblocks, which are also revered as exceptional works of art. As the oldest depository of the &lt;em&gt;Tripitaka&lt;/em&gt; , they reveal an astonishing mastery of the invention and implementation of the conservation techniques used to preserve these woodblocks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Haeinsa Temple Janggyeong Panjeon, the Depositories for the &lt;I&gt;Tripitaka Koreana&lt;/I&gt; Woodblocks</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>870</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Chongmyo is the royal ancestral shrine of the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910). Taejo, founder of the Choson Kingdom, transferred the seat of government to Hanyang (today's Seoul) in August 1394 and ordered Ch'oe Won, his director of government administration, to start building Chongmyo in December the same year. It was completed ten months later and named T'aemyo. The spirit tablets of four generations of T'aejo's ancestors were moved there from Kaesong.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the fust year of the reign of Sejong (1419) an auxiliary building, Yeongnyeongjeon, was built to the west of Taemyo to receive the spirit tablet of the second Joseon king, Chongjong. Four shrine chambers were added to this structure in 1547 because of shortage of space.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ali the buildings were destroyed by fire in May 1592, during the Hideyoshi invasions.- King Sor&amp;uuml;o took the Chongmyo tablets with him when he fled before the Japanese, but the ancestral shrine was destroyed. Restoration was completed in 1608, on his retum to his capital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More rooms were added to Yongnyongjon in 1667 and to Chongjon in 1778 and again in 1836, bringing the total of rooms in the former to eight and the latter to nineteen. Subsequent additions have brought them to 16 and 35 rooms respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chongmyo Cherye, the memorial services conducted each year at Chongjon, also constitute a heritage of great antiquity and significance in terms of intangible culture. They incorporate music, song, and dance, and owe their origins to court music imported from China by King T'aejo at the end of the 14th century.-&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/738</http_url><id_number>738</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_738.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.5500000000</latitude><location>Seoul</location><longitude>126.9833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jongmyo Shrine is an outstanding example of the Confucian royal ancestral shrine, which has survived relatively intact since the 16th century, the importance of which is enhanced by the persistence of an important element of the intangible cultural heritage in the form of traditional ritual practices and forms.&lt;br /&gt;Jongmyo is the royal ancestral shrine of the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910). Taejo, founder of the kingdom, transferred the seat of government to Hanyang (present-day Seoul) in 1394 and ordered the building of Jongmyo. The spirit tablets of four generations of Taejos ancestors were moved there from Gaeseong. Subsequently additional buildings were added to receive the spirit tablets of later Joseon kings, bringing the total of rooms in the former to 16 in Yeongnyeongjeon and 35 rooms in Jongmyo, respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Jongmyo is situated in valleys and surrounded by low hills, artificial additions created to reinforce the balance of natural elements on the site as defined in traditional geomancy. Jongmyo is composed of three sets of buildings centred on Hyangdaecheong, a single building, on the main shrine, and the Hall of Eternal Peace, an auxiliary shrine. The main features are as follows: Changyeopmun (the main gate), built from thick wooden planks; Mangmyoru, a wooden structure with a tiled roof where the king waited before the ancestral rituals; Gongmingdang, the shrine to the Goryeo King, built by the Joseon King Taejo; Hyangdaecheong, the storage building for ritual utensils; Jaesil, a main hall and two wings, where participants waited for the rites to take place.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Jongmyo Jeongjeon is surrounded by rectangular walls with gates to the south, east and west. The rectangular inner court platform is floored with rough granite slabs. Three sets of steps ascend the front of the stone base and there are smaller sets of steps at the far ends on either side. Jeongjeon itself is a wooden structure, both the left and the right flanking chambers. The two wings jut out into the woldae. It is divided into several rooms, with the open corridors in front and the 19 inner shrine rooms, separated by wooden doors. The shrine rooms are divided into cubicles, for the 49 spirit tablets lodged there, and antechambers, which are in turn separated by screens. The gabled roof is supported by simple wooden brackets. The main entrance is reserved for the spirits and no one is allowed to pass through it. The east gate is used by the king and the smaller west gate by the musical performers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chilsadang houses seven deities, including the gods of palace gates, kitchens, roads, halls and rooms, entrances and exits, and those who die of epidemic diseases; Gongsindang houses the spirit tablets of 83 loyal subjects of the Joseon kings. Jonsacheong is where the ritual utensils and offerings used in the rites are prepared; Subokbang is the ground-keeper's residence, when the food offered during the rituals is examined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yeongnyeongjeon is the building in which the spirit tablets of kings not recognized worthy of being honoured indefinitely were lodged when they were removed after a set time from Jeongjeon. It is situated in a rectangular compound entered by three gates. It is built on a rectangular platform, paved with thin slabs of granite. The building has two side wings flanking the main chamber, different in size. Wooden brackets at the tops of the round pillars support the eaves of the gabled roof.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Jongmyo is the oldest and most authentic of the Confucian royal shrines to have been preserved. Dedicated to the forefathers of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), the shrine has existed in its present form since the 16th century and houses tablets bearing the teachings of members of the former royal family. Ritual ceremonies linking music, song and dance still take place there, perpetuating a tradition that goes back to the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jongmyo Shrine</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>871</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/816</http_url><id_number>816</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_816.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the Changdeogung Palace Complex is an outstanding example of Far Eastern palace architecture and garden design, exceptional for the way in which the buildings are integrated into and harmonized with the natural setting, adapting to the topography and retaining indigenous tree cover.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.5500000000</latitude><location>Seoul</location><longitude>126.9833333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Changdeokgung Palace had a great influence on the development of Korean architecture, garden and landscape planning, and related arts, for many centuries. It reflects sophisticated architectural values, harmonized with beautiful surroundings. The palace compound is an outstanding example of Far Eastern palace architecture and garden design, exceptional for the way in which the buildings are integrated into and harmonized with the natural setting, adapting to the topography and retaining indigenous tree cover.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early years of the Joseon dynasty in Korea, the capital moved many times between Gaeseong and Hanyang (present-day Seoul). In 1405 the King Taejong (1400-18), moved the capital back to Hanyang. Considering the existing Gyeongbokgung Palace to be inauspicious, he ordered a new palace to be built, which he named Changdeokgung (Palace of Illustrious Virtue). This palace occupies an irregular rectangle of 57.9 ha, north of Seoul at the foot of Mount Eungbongsan, the main geomantic guardian mountain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A Bureau of Palace Construction was set up to create the complex, consisting of a number of official and residential buildings, carried out to traditional design principles. These included the palace in front, the market behind, three gates and three courts (administrative court, royal residence court and official audience court). The compound was divided into two parts: the main palace buildings and the Biwon (royal secret garden). The main buildings (throne hall, hall of government affairs, and royal residences) were completed in 1405, and other major elements were added in the succeeding seven years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The compound was extended to the north-west in 1462. In 1592, during the Japanese invasion of Korea, the palace was burned down, along with many of the important structures in Hanyang. The ruler, Seonjo, began reconstruction in 1607, and this work was completed in 1610, when it again became the seat of government and the royal residence, a role that it was to play for 258 years. It underwent some vicissitudes during that period, but reconstruction was always faithful to the original design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main gate (Donhwamun) is a two-storey structure, built in 1406 and reconstructed in 1607 after destruction by fire. The first of the three functional sectors of the palace (administrative court) is entered through the impressive single-storey Injeongmun gate, in the same style as Donhwamun. It gives access to a courtyard whose dominant feature is the majestic throne hall (Injeongjeon). It was destroyed twice by fire, in 1592 and 1803. Set on a double terrace, it is a two-storey structure supported on four huge columns. The elaborate throne in the main hall is placed on a dais beneath a carved ceiling screen. The roof ridge is decorated with carvings of guardian animals, such as eagles and dragons. The main stairway leading to the hall is ornamented with statues of mythical guardian animals. To the east of the Injeongjeon Hall is the simple blue-tiled Seonjeongjeon Hall, used by the king for everyday business. Next to it is the Huigyeongdang Hall, another modest building, which contained the king's bedchamber and sleeping quarters for his staff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Daejojeon Hall nearby was for the use of the queen. The garden was landscaped with a series of terraces planted with lawns, flowering trees, flowers, a lotus pool, and pavilions set against a wooded background. There are over 26,000 specimens of 100 indigenous trees in the garden. To these should be added 23,000 planted specimens of 15 imported species, including yew, stone pine, white pine, gingko and Chinese junipers.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the early 15th century, the King Taejong ordered the construction of a new palace at an auspicious site. A Bureau of Palace Construction was set up to create the complex, consisting of a number of official and residential buildings set in a garden that was cleverly adapted to the uneven topography of the 58-ha site. The result is an exceptional example of Far Eastern palace architecture and design, blending harmoniously with the surrounding landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Changdeokgung Palace Complex</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>964</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/817</http_url><id_number>817</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_817.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii) and (iii), considering that the Hwaseong Fortress is an outstanding example of early modern military architecture, incorporating the most highly developed features of that science from both east and west.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.2722200000</latitude><location>Gyeonggi-do Province</location><longitude>127.0083300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hwaseong Fortress had a great influence on the development of Korean architecture, urban planning, and landscaping and related arts for many centuries. It is the epitome of this type of structure in the Far East and is a landmark in the history of military architecture. It differs from fortresses in China and Japan in that it combines military, political and commercial functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Crown Prince Sado, son of the Joseon ruler Yeongjo, was unjustly condemned and executed by his father. When Sado's son Jeongjo succeeded Yeongjo in 1776, he had his father's remains exhumed and buried in a tomb on Mount Hwasan, the most auspicious geomantic site. He built Yongjusa Temple nearby for the repose of his soul, and moved the seat of government to the foot of Mount Paldalsan in Suwon. By moving his seat of government Jeongjo was able to end factional strife, enhance the authority of the throne, and provide greater security for the court within the walls of the new fortress. This was laid out in accordance with the work by Jeong Yakyong, a leading scholar of the School of Practical Learning. Building was completed between 1794 and 1796, under the supervision of Chae Jegong, a former minister and magistrate. Cranes, pulleys, and other special pieces of equipment were designed and built specially for the project, which is described in detail in Archives on the Construction of Hwaseong Fortress.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Various other structures were built around the Fortress, including the Hwaseong Temporary Palace and Sajikdan, the altar for sacrifices to the guardian deities of the state. These were burned down during the course of later wars and rebellions, and only Nangnamheon Hall, an annex of the Temporary Palace, has survived to the present day. Parts of the Fortress were destroyed or damaged during the Japanese occupation and the Korean War, but the availability of the archives has made it possible for the fortress to be restored to its authentic original form.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The massive walls of the fortress enclose an area that includes the foot of Mount Paldalsan. They follow the topography of the land, rather than taking up a regular or symmetrical form. The walls were originally 48 defensive features along the length of the walls - four gates, floodgates, observation towers, command posts, multiple-arrow launcher towers, firearms bastions, angle towers, secret gates, beacon towers, bastions and bunkers - and most of these survive intact. Each merlon has three gun embrasures.&lt;br /&gt;There are four main gates, on the cardinal points. The Paldalmun Gate in the south and the Janganmun Gate in the north are impressive two-storey wooden structures on stone bases, flanked by guard platforms and shielded by half-moon ravelins built from fired brick. They are linked by the main road running through the complex. The west and east gates are single-storey structures, during the Korean War, also protected by ravelins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work on the restoration and reconstruction of the Fortress began in 1964, and has continued since that time. The angle towers, command posts, observation towers, bastions, and other defensive features are all solidly constructed and strategically sited for maximum utility and minimum visibility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The circuit of walls and most of its elements (gates, towers, bastions, etc.) preserve the authenticity of their origin in terms of site, materials and techniques.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;When the Joseon King Jeongjo moved his father's tomb to Suwon at the end of the 18th century, he surrounded it with strong defensive works, laid out according to the precepts of an influential military architect of the period, who brought together the latest developments in the field from both East and West. The massive walls, extending for nearly 6 km, still survive; they are pierced by four gates and equipped with bastions, artillery towers and other features.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hwaseong Fortress</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>965</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement at and around the site of the present-day town of Kyongju from the prehistoric period. The Shilla clan became the rulers of the south-eastern part of the peninsula in 57 BCE. They chose Kyongju as their capital. There followed a long period of internal struggles between rival kingdoms. With the help of the Tang Dynasty in China, the Shilla Kingdom defeated its rivals in the 7th century and established its rule over most of the peninsula; this remained unchallenged until the beginning of the 10th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Shilla rulers embellished their city with many public buildings, palaces, temples, and fortresses. Their tombs are to be found in the surroundings of the ancient city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mahayana Buddhism spread from China into Korea during the course of the 7th century and was adopted by the Shilla Kingdom. Mount Namsan, which had been venerated by the existing cults of Korea, became a Buddhist sacred mountain and attracted its adherents, who employed the most outstanding architects and craftsmen of the day to create temples, shrines, and monasteries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the end of the Shilla Kingdom, Korea underwent a further period of internal strife. It was unified again under Korean rule by the Yi (Chosun) Dynasty, which reigned until 1910. However, the country was invaded and devastated by the Japanese in the late 16th century and the Manchu in the 18th century, before being annexed by Japan in 1910. Throughout this long period, Kyongju has maintained its urban identity, though many of its major buildings have suffered degradation and demolition.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/976</http_url><id_number>976</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_976.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii) The Gyeongju Historic Areas contain a number of sites and monuments of exceptional significance in the development of Buddhist and secular architecture in Korea. Criterion (iii) The Korean peninsula was ruled for nearly a thousand years by the Silla dynasty, and the sites and monuments in and around Gyeongju (including the holy mountain of Namsan) bear outstanding testimony to its cultural achievements.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>35.7888900000</latitude><location>Gyeongju City, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province</location><longitude>129.2266700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Gyeongju Historic Areas contain a remarkable concentration of outstanding examples of Korean Buddhist art, in the form of sculptures, reliefs, pagodas, and the remains of temples and palaces from the flowering, in particular between the 7th and 10th centuries, of this unique form of artistic expression. The Korean peninsula was ruled for almost 1,000 years by the Silla dynasty, and the sites and monuments in and around Gyeongju bear outstanding testimony to its cultural achievements. These monuments are of exceptional significance in the development of Buddhist and secular architecture in Korea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been human settlement at and around the site of the present-day town of Gyeongju from the prehistoric period. The Silla clan became the rulers of the south-eastern part of the peninsula in 57 BCE. They chose Gyeongju as their capital. There followed a long period of internal struggles between rival kingdoms. With the help of the Tang dynasty in China, the Silla kingdom defeated its rivals in the 7th century and established its rule over most of the peninsula; this remained unchallenged until the beginning of the 10th century. The Silla rulers embellished their city with many public buildings, palaces, temples, and fortresses. Their tombs are to be found in the surroundings of the ancient city. Mahayana Buddhism spread from China into Korea during the course of the 7th century and was adopted by the Silla Kingdom. Mount Namsan, which had been venerated by the existing cults of Korea, became a Buddhist sacred mountain and attracted its adherents, who employed the most outstanding architects and craftsmen of the day to create temples, shrines, and monasteries. With the end of the Silla Kingdom, Korea underwent a further period of internal strife. It was unified again under Korean rule by the Joseon dynasty, which reigned until 1910. However, the country was invaded and devastated by the Japanese in the late 16th century and the Manchu in the 18th century, before being annexed by Japan in 1910. Throughout this long period, Gyeongju has maintained its urban identity, although many of its major buildings have suffered degradation and demolition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are three major components ('belts') that make up the Gyeongju Historic Areas; in addition, the World Heritage site covers Hwangnyongsa and the Sanseong Fortress.&lt;br /&gt;Mount Namsan Belt lies to the north of Gyeongju City: there is a large number of prehistoric and historic remains within the designated area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wolseong Belt, in which the main monuments are the ruined palace site of Wolseong, the Gyerim woodland which legend identifies as the birthplace of the founder of the Gyeongju Kim clan, Anapji Pond, on the site of the ruined Imhaejeon Palace, and the Cheomseongdae Observatory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tumuli Park Belt, which consists of three groups of royal tombs. Most of the mounds are domed, but some take the form of a half-moon or a gourd. They contain double wooden coffins covered with gravel. Excavations have produced rich grave-goods of gold, glass and fine ceramics. One of the earlier tombs yielded a mural painting on birch bark of a winged horse.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Gyeongju Historic Areas contain a remarkable concentration of outstanding examples of Korean Buddhist art, in the form of sculptures, reliefs, pagodas, and the remains of temples and palaces from the flowering, in particular between the 7th and 10th centuries, of this form of unique artistic expression.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gyeongju Historic Areas</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1140</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/977</http_url><id_number>977</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_977.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii) The global prehistoric technological and social phenomenon that resulted in the appearance in the 2nd and 3rd millennia BCE of funerary and ritual monuments constructed of large stones (the "Megalithic Culture") is nowhere more vividly illustrated than in the dolmen cemeteries of Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>34.9666700000</latitude><location>Gochang-gun County, Jeollabuk-do Province; Hwasun-gun County, Jeollanam-do Province; Ganghwa-gun County, Incheon  Metropolitan City</location><longitude>126.9291700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa sites contain the highest density and greatest variety of dolmens in Korea, and indeed of any country. They preserve important evidence of how the stones were quarried, transported and raised and of how dolmen types changed over time in north-east Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dolmens are manifestations of the 'megalithic' culture that figured prominently in Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures across the world during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. The prehistoric cemeteries at Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa contain many hundreds of examples of dolmens - tombs from the 1st millennium BC. They are to be found in western China (Tibet, Sichuan and Gansu) and the coastal areas of the Yellow Sea basin (Shandong peninsula, north-western Kyushu). They arrived in the Korean Peninsula with the Bronze Age. The Jungnim-ri group in Gochang is considered to date from around the 7th century BC. Dolmen construction ceased here in the 3rd century BC. The Hwasun dolmens are a little later, from the 6th-5th centuries BC. There are insufficient data to permit dating of the Ganghwa group, but they are thought to be earlier rather than later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dolmens usually consist of two or more undressed stone slabs supporting a huge capstone. It is generally accepted that they were simple burial chambers, erected over the bodies or bones of Neolithic and Bronze Age worthies. Earth mounds (barrows) would have covered them, but these would gradually disappear as a result of weathering and animal action. They may have been platforms on which corpses were exposed to permit excarnation to take place, leaving bones for burial in collective or family tombs. Dolmens are usually to be found in cemeteries on elevated sites, to allow them to be seen from the settlements on lower ground of the people who built them. In East Asia two main groups have been recognized, classified according to their form: the table type ('northern' type) and the go-board type ('southern' type). The first is an above-ground construction: four stone slabs are set up an edge to form a box or cist and a large capstone is laid on top. In the second case, the burial chamber is constructed below ground, with walls of slabs or piled stones; the capstone is supported on a number of stones laid on the ground. The so-called 'capstone' type is a variant of the go-board type in which the capstone is laid directly on the buried slabs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gochang Dolmen Sites: the Jungnim-ri dolmens, the largest and most diversified group, centre on the village of Maesan. Most of them are located at altitudes of 15-50 m along the southern foot of the hills running east-west. A total of 442 dolmens have been recorded, of various types, based on the shape of the capstone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hwasun Dolmen Sites: like those in the Gochang group, the Hwasun dolmens are located on the slopes of low ranges of hills, along the Jiseokgang River. Individual dolmens in this area are less intact than those in Gochang. The Hyosan-ri group is estimated to comprise 158 monuments and the Daesin-ri group 129. In a number of cases the stone outcrops from which the stones making up the dolmens were quarried can be identified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ganghwa Dolmen Sites: these sites are on the offshore island of Ganghwa, once again on mountain slopes. They tend to be higher than those in the other sites and stylistically early, notably those at Bugeun-ri and Gojeon-ri.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The prehistoric cemeteries at Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa contain many hundreds of examples of dolmens - tombs from the 1st millennium BC constructed of large stone slabs. They form part of the Megalithic culture, found in many parts of the world, but nowhere in such a concentrated form.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1141</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Clan villages developed and flourished in the Joseon dynasty which consolidated its absolute rule over Korea, encouraged the adoption of Confucian ideals in Korean society, (which had been introduced to Korean Peninsula in the first century), absorbed Chinese culture, and, through prosperity founded on trade, fostered classical Korean culture, science, literature, and technology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the concept of villages planned to harmonise with the local topography, through the implementation of pungsu principles, had appeared in the preceding Goryeo period, it was during the Joseon Dynasty that those who had become small and medium sized land owners and local government officers rose into yangban or nobility clans, and then played a central role in the founding or enlargement of new settlements, based on Confucian principles. These clan villages for the nobility usually housed members of one or two clans and existed alongside fortified, walled towns where government and county officers lived who were of lower status and from diverse backgrounds. The clan villages also produced civil and military officials for the government.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hahoe village is an example of a new yangban settlement being formed at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty by three clans, Heo, An and Ryu.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the Ryu clan produced distinguished politicians and scholars and this is reflected in the architecture of the village, particularly the study halls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new village flourished but by the mid 17th century the Heo and An clans left and Hahoe village became the clan village of the single Ryu clan. The village continued to expand in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 1980s, in line with the majority of Korean villages, young people migrated to the towns and cities and in 1991 the elementary school was closed. However there are some signs of a reversal of this trend with two newly built traditional houses in the 1990s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yangdong village is an example of a settlement that grew into a village of the nobility through the marriage of one of its daughters to the son of the Son clan. In turn his daughter married into the Yi clan. These two clans produced several distinguished figures in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The village expanded around the clan branches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 20th century a railway line was built to the village and a school constructed. In the 1940s a Buddhist Temple was constructed, and a decade later a Church. In the 1970s a bridge was erected over the Allakcheon Stream and in 1971 the pattern of arable land on the Angang Field was restructured and a community warehouse built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1980s, the village did not suffer such a severe decline in population as some other villages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1324</http_url><id_number>1324</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1324.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.5391666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>128.5166666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 14th-15th centuries, Hahoe and Yangdong are seen as the two most representative historic clan villages in the Republic of Korea. Their layout and location - sheltered by forested mountains and facing out onto a river and open agricultural fields &amp;ndash; reflect the distinctive aristocratic Confucian culture of the early part of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). The villages were located to provide both physical and spiritual nourishment from their surrounding landscapes. They include residences of the head families, together with substantial timber framed houses of other clan members, also pavilions, study halls, Confucian academies for learning, and clusters of one story mud-walled, thatched-roofed houses, formerly for commoners. The landscapes of mountains, trees and water around the village, framed in views from pavilions and retreats, were celebrated for their beauty by 17th and 18th century poets.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Villages of Korea: Hahoe and Yangdong</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1688</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The place of tombs, and especially royal tombs, is central to understanding Korean culture. As expressed in the nomination dossier, royal tombs are the final resting places for the royal family, and, as such, the tombs not only indicate the status of the family but become carefully constructed complexes for ancestral worship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dolmen, the oldest known tomb in the Korean Peninsula, was built from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. During the Three Kingdoms Period, construction principles were defined for tombs and it was the Silla Kingdom, in particular, that developed the tomb system unique to Korea: a wide hole in the ground, lined with wood, filled with stones and covered by earth (the mound). After the Silla conquered the other kingdoms (with the help of the Chinese), what is called the Unified Silla Period emerged and it was within this period that Korean royal tombs developed unique characteristics, such as stone tigers in four directions, stone tables in front of the burial mound and stone objects with unique features. Royal tombs were built not only on flat land, but on mountains as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392), royal tombs continued to be built using Unified Silla principles, but they were built between mountain ridges with west to east flowing streams. They included new features as well, such as the watch stone pillar, stone lantern, T-shaped shrine and stele shed. Additionally, stone tigers, lions and sheep surrounded the burial mound.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction during the Joseon Dynasty has a degree of consistency, although there are some variations reflecting the wishes of the king or his descendants. Compared to royal tombs built during the Goryeo Dynasty, royal tombs constructed during the Joseon Dynasty were built on hills and divided into three areas, with the upper/burial area having upper, middle and lower platforms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are five development phases of the Royal Joseon Tombs:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-In Phase 1, Continuation of Goryeo Kingdom principles, changes are seen in the design of stone lanterns and the use of octagonal stone pillars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- In Phase 2, Emergence of Joseon principles, the Joseon Dynasty adopted its own funeral system based on The Five Rites of the State (state protocol and etiquette).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-In Phase 3, Emphasis on geomancy principles, some simplification of tombs occurs, i.e. balustrades replace screens and stone chambers are replaced by those with plaster walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- In Phase 4, Emergence of realism, the practice of having stone figures of scholars occupy a platform higher than the one for stone figures of soldiers is discontinued and stone figures are reduced to life-size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- In Phase 5, Transformation to reflect the change in royal title from king to emperor, there is an increase in the number of stone figures and they are placed in new positions at the front of the platforms used for ancestral rites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to the five development stages, stone objects, in particular, underwent slight changes in size and shape, although the object types and their layout remained unchanged. Four phases of stone objects have been identified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-First Phase: Early 15th century to middle 15th century. Examples: Geonwolleung of King Taejo (1408) and Changneung of King Yejong (1470). Characteristics: Royal tombs built on hills; stone horses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Second Phase: Late 15th century to late 16th century. Examples: Seolleung of King Seongjong (1495) and Gangneung of King Myeongjong (1567). Characteristic: Stone objects increase in size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;-Third Phase: Early 17th century to early 18th century. Examples: Mongneung of King Seonjo (1630) and Uireung of King Gyeongjong (1724). Characteristic: Stone objects become smaller in later years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Fourth Phase: Middle 18th century to early 20th century. Examples: Wolleung of King Yeongjo (1776) and Yureung of Emperor Sunjong (1926). Characteristic: Two platforms replace the usual three.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1319</http_url><id_number>1319</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1319.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.1972222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>128.4527777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty form a collection of 40 tombs scattered over 18 locations. Built over five centuries, from 1408 to 1966, the tombs honoured the memory of ancestors, showed respect for their achievements, asserted royal authority, protected ancestral spirits from evil and provided protection from vandalism. Spots of outstanding natural beauty were chosen for the tombs which typically have their back protected by a hill as they face south toward water and, ideally, layers of mountain ridges in the distance. Alongside the burial area, the royal tombs feature a ceremonial area and an entrance. In addition to the burial mounds, associated buildings that are an integral part of the tombs include a T-shaped wooden shrine, a shed for stele, a royal kitchen and a guards&amp;rsquo; house, a red-spiked gate and the tomb keeper&amp;rsquo;s house. The grounds are adorned on the outside with a range of stone objects including figures of people and animals. The Joseon Tombs completes the 5,000 year history of royal tombs architecture in the Korean peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1957</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1439</http_url><id_number>1439</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1439.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.4788888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>127.1811111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Namhansanseong was designed as an emergency capital for the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), in a mountainous site 25 km south-east of Seoul. Built and defended by Buddhist monk-soldiers, it could accommodate 4,000 people and fulfilled important administrative and military functions. Its earliest remains date from the 7th century, but it was rebuilt several times, notably in the early 17th century in anticipation of an attack from the Sino-Manchu Qing dynasty. The city embodies a synthesis of the defensive military engineering concepts of the period, based on Chinese and Japanese influences, and changes in the art of fortification following the introduction from the West of weapons using gunpowder. A city that has always been inhabited, and which was the provincial capital over a long period, it contains evidence of a variety of military, civil and religious buildings and has become a symbol of Korean sovereignty.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Namhansanseong</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1982</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1477</http_url><id_number>1477</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1477.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.4619444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>127.1272222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the mountainous mid-western region of the Republic of Korea, this property comprises eight archaeological sites dating from 475 to 660 CE, including the Gongsanseong fortress and royal tombs at Songsan-ri related to the capital, Ungjin (present day Gongju), the Busosanseong Fortress and Gwanbuk-ri administrative buildings, the Jeongnimsa Temple, the royal tombs in Neungsan-ri and the Naseong city wall related to the capital, Sabi (now Buyeo), the royal palace at Wanggung-ri and the Mireuksa Temple in Iksan related to the secondary Sabi capital. Together, these sites represent the later period of the Baekje Kingdom – one of the three earliest kingdoms on the Korean peninsula (18 BCE to 660 CE) - during which time they were at the crossroads of considerable technological, religious (Buddhist), cultural and artistic exchanges between the ancient East Asian kingdoms in Korea, China and Japan.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Baekje Historic Areas</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2038</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1562</http_url><id_number>1562</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1562.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.5419444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>127.8333333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sansa are Buddhist mountain monasteries located throughout the southern provinces of the Korean Peninsula. The spatial arrangement of the seven temples that comprise the property, established from the 7th to 9th centuries, present common characteristics that are specific to Korea – the ‘madang’ (open courtyard) flanked by four buildings (Buddha Hall, pavilion, lecture hall and dormitory). They contain a large number of individually remarkable structures, objects, documents and shrines. These mountain monasteries are sacred places, which have survived as living centres of faith and daily religious practice to the present.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2227</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1264</http_url><id_number>1264</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1264.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>33.4688888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>126.7202777777</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes together comprise three sites that make up 18,846 ha. It includes Geomunoreum, regarded as the finest lava tube system of caves anywhere, with its multicoloured carbonate roofs and floors, and dark-coloured lava walls; the fortress-like Seongsan Ilchulbong tuff cone, rising out of the ocean, a dramatic landscape; and Mount Halla, the highest in Korea, with its waterfalls, multi-shaped rock formations, and lake-filled crater. The site, of outstanding aesthetic beauty, also bears testimony to the history of the planet, its features and processes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes</site><states>Republic of Korea</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2314</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1938 the Council of Ministers passed Decision No 645 declaring 'Letea Forest' as a nature reserve. In 1961 it passed Decision No 891 declaring Rosca-Buhaiova (14,60Oha), St George-Perisor -Zatoane (16,40Oha), Periteasca-Gura Portitei (3,900ha) and Popina Island (98ha) as nature reserves. In 1971 the Management of Forestry declared the Caraorman Forest (840ha) and Erenciuc Forest (41ha). In 1975 the Council of Ministers passed the Decision No. 524 extending the Danube Delta protected areas to cover 41,500ha. In 1979 an area of 18,145ha combining Rosca-Buhaiova Reserve and Letea Forest was designated as Rosca-Letea Biosphere Reserve.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An area of 500,000ha including all previous designations was declared a biosphere reserve under National Decree No. 983 with supporting Articles 5, and 6 on 27 August 1990. Further legislation is under preparation. This area was further enlarged in early 1991 to cover 547,000ha. International recognition is imminent with submissions in May 1991 to Unesco for biosphere reserve nomination and to the Ramsar Bureau for nomination as a Ramsar site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The latest legislation gives patrimony of the biosphere reserve to the Delta Authority. Decree 264/91 passed on 12 April 1991 places all institute, agency and inspectorate staff under the administration of the biosphere reserve. The environment agency for Tulcea Judet is also subordinate. All public domain and aquatic and natural resources generated are the ownership of the biosphere reserve authority. Further legislation will significantly strengthen the administration of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588</http_url><id_number>588</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_588.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.0833300000</latitude><location>Tulcea County, Dobruja Region</location><longitude>29.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The waters of the Danube, which flow into the Black Sea, form the largest and best preserved of Europe's deltas. The Danube delta hosts over 300 species of birds as well as 45 freshwater fish species in its numerous lakes and marshes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve is vast in European terms with numerous freshwater Lakes interconnected by narrow channels featuring huge expanses of aquatic vegetation. This is the largest continuous marshland on Europe and the second-largest delta (the Volga being the largest), which includes the greatest stretch of reedbeds in the world. The marsh vegetation is dominated by reeds which form floating or fixed islands of decaying vegetation Reeds cover some 1,700&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and the floating reed islands (&lt;em&gt;plaur&lt;/em&gt; ) 1,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , whereas the total area not inundated is only 148&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . The Razelm-Sinoie complex to the south comprises several large brackish lagoons separated from the sea by a sandbar. The overall basic hydrological and ecological system of the delta, although strongly degraded, is intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The higher ground supports stands of willow, popular, alder and oak. There are also sandy areas covered with feather grass and other steppe species. Forest elements are best observed in Letea Forest where a series of bands occur along dunes up to 250&amp;nbsp;m long and 10&amp;nbsp;m wide. The delta has been classified into 12 habitat types as follows: aquatic, lakes covered with flooded reedbeds; 'plaur', flooded islets; flooded reeds and willows; riverine forest of willows and poplars; cane-fields; sandy and muddy beaches; wet meadows; dry meadows (arid); human settlements; sandy and rocky areas; steep banks; and forests on high ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 300 species of bird have been recorded, of which over 176 species breed, the most important being cormorant, pygmy cormorant, white pelican and Dalmatian pelican. There are numerous multi-species heron colonies and raptor species including white-tailed eagle. The marsh tern colonies are especially notable. The delta holds huge numbers of geese in the winter white-fronted geese, red-breasted geese (a globally threatened species with almost all the world wintering population present), teal, mallard and pochard. The delta is very important for fish, with 45 fresh water species present. Otter and weasel are to be found on the floating islands. The Danube Delta is a remarkable alluvial feature constituting critical habitat for migratory birds and other animals. It is the major remaining wetland on the flyway between central and Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean and Middle East and Africa. It is exceptional for its contiguity of wetland ecosystem and currently supports endangered flora and fauna. The threats remain numerous and include intensive fish farming, shooting, canal and dyke construction and pollution and eutrophication.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The waters of the Danube, which flow into the Black Sea, form the largest and best preserved of Europe's deltas. The Danube delta hosts over 300 species of birds as well as 45 freshwater fish species in its numerous lakes and marshes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Danube Delta</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>695</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century the Kings of Hungary encouraged the colonization of the Sub-Carpathian region of Transylvania (Erdely) by a German-speaking population of artisans, farmers, and merchants, mainly from the Rhineland. Known as the Transylvanian Saxons, they enjoyed special privileges granted by the Hungarian Crown, especially in the period preceding the creation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite living in a country where the majority of the population consisted of ethnic Hungarians or Romanians, the Transylvanian Saxons were able to preserve their language and their customs intact throughout the centuries. Their formidable ethnic solidarity is vividly illustrated by their settlements, which remained resistant to external influences. This is explained partly by their privileged status and partly by the fact that they were cut off from their German contacts during the period of Ottoman rule over the Middle Danube in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Their geographical location in the foothills of the Carpathians exposed the Transylvanian Saxon communities to danger when the Ottoman Empire began to menace the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Their reaction was to build defensive works within which they could take shelter from the invaders. Lacking the resources of the European nobility and rich merchants, who were able to fortify entire towns, the Transylvanian Saxons chose to create fortresses round their churches, enclosing storehouses within the enceintes to enable them to withstand long sieges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first documentary reference to Biertan dates from 1283. In 1397 it was raised to the status of oppidum (fortified town) and twenty years later the Hungarian King granted it the right of droit de l'épée (jus gladii) - ie the right to bear arms. From 1572 to 1867 Biertan was the see of the Evangelical (Lutheran) Bishop of Transylvania, and as such played a major role in the cultural and religious life of the considerable German population of the region.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/596</http_url><id_number>596</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_596.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.1358333300</latitude><location>Counties of Alba, Brasov, Harghita, Mureş, Sibiu, Region of Transylvania</location><longitude>24.7730555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Transylvanian villages with fortified churches provide a vivid picture of the cultural landscape of southern Transylvania. They are characterized by the specific land-use system, settlement pattern, and organization of the family farmstead units preserved since the late Middle Ages, dominated by their fortified churches, which illustrate building periods from the 13th to 16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century the kings of Hungary encouraged the colonization of the sub-Carpathian region of Transylvania (Erdely) by a German-speaking population of artisans, farmers and merchants, mainly from the Rhineland. Known as the Transylvanian Saxons, they enjoyed special privileges granted by the Hungarian Crown, especially in the period preceding the creation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Despite living in a country where the majority of the population was ethnic Hungarians or Romanians, the Transylvanian Saxons were able to preserve their language and their customs intact throughout the centuries. Their ethnic solidarity is vividly illustrated by their settlements, which remained resistant to external influences&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Their geographical location in the foothills of the Carpathians exposed the Transylvanian Saxon communities to danger when the Ottoman Empire began to menace the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Their reaction was to build defensive works within which they could take shelter from the invaders. Lacking the resources of the European nobility and rich merchants, who were able to fortify entire towns, the Transylvanian Saxons chose to create fortresses round their churches, enclosing storehouses within the enceintes to enable them to withstand long sieges. The first documentary reference to Biertan dates from 1283. In 1397 it was raised to the status of Oppidum (fortified town) and twenty years later the Hungarian King granted it &lt;em&gt;droit de l'épée&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;jus gladii&lt;/em&gt; ), i.e. the right to bear arms. From 1572 to 1867 Biertan was the See of the Evangelical (Lutheran) Bishop of Transylvania, and as such played a major role in the cultural and religious life of the considerable German population of the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The seven churches are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Biertan:&lt;/em&gt; Late Gothic hall-type building, completed around 1522-23, on a low hill, with two lines of walls, at the foot of the hill, built at the same time as the church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Câlnic:&lt;/em&gt; Based on a mid-13th-century dwelling tower, a chapel and an oval enceinte; presented in 1430 to the village community, which raised the walls fitted with two towers and transformed the dwelling tower into one for defensive purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Prejmer:&lt;/em&gt; Early Gothic Church of the Holy Cross, in the shape of a cross; walled in the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Viscri:&lt;/em&gt; Romanesque chapel enlarged in the early 16th century to form a single-nave church, with a fortified storey resting on semicircular arches supported by massive buttresses; walls strengthened in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Dârjiu:&lt;/em&gt; Late Gothic church fortified towards 1520, decorated with murals going back to 1419; rectangular enceinte restructured in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Saschiz:&lt;/em&gt; Romanesque church and its enceinte replaced by a late Gothic church (1493-1525); defensive storey gives the church the appearance of a high bastion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Valea Viilor:&lt;/em&gt; Church transformed into late Gothic style and fortified in the early 16th century; defensive storeys built above the choir, nave and tower, communicating with each other; porches of the northern and southern entrances protected by small towers with portcullises.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1999</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These Transylvanian villages with their fortified churches provide a vivid picture of the cultural landscape of southern Transylvania. The seven villages inscribed, founded by the Transylvanian Saxons, are characterized by a specific land-use system, settlement pattern and organization of the family farmstead that have been preserved since the late Middle Ages. They are dominated by their fortified churches, which illustrate building styles from the 13th to the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Villages with Fortified Churches in Transylvania</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>705</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Wallachia was a Romanian principality that was recognized as an independent state in the 14th century. It was never part of the Ottoman Empire and so it was able to undergo a post- Byzantine cultural evolution that distinguishes it from the artistic Balkan family to which it belongs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The only artistic centre in this region in the 17th century was Mount Athos (Greece), which prospered as a result of the patronage of sovereigns and nobility in the Romanian principalities and Russia. The Athonite tradition was fostered in Wallachia by its rich and cultured Cantacuzene rulers and gave rise to the flowering of Wallachian art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Horezu was founded in 1690 and richly endowed by the Cantacuzene Prince Constantin Brancovan. He and his family were responsible for the creation of many monastic ensembles and churches in Wallachia, paintings, richly adorned with wall sumptuous iconostases, and other decorations. This artistic effort was followed by many other noblemen and church dignitaries, giving rise to the remarkable artistic flowering known as Brancovan art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The catholicon of the Monastery, dedicated to Saints Constantine and Helena, was built in 1690-92 and the interior decoration was completed two years later, the work of the Greek artist Constantinos, who founded the celebrated school of mural and icon painters of Horezu. Other buildings constructed at the same period included the prince's residence, ranges of two-storey monks' cells, kitchens, and other monastic offices. The entrance was originally in the centre of the western wall of the enclosure, where the paraklesion was located, but this was shortly afterwards converted to a refectory, access being provided beneath the bell-tower on the south wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church of Bolnica, which is a sub-group of the main Monastery, was founded by Princess Maria, wife of Constantin Brancovan. Other contemporary foundations by members of the princely family include the skites of the Holy Apostles and St Stephen. The Church of the Holy Angels at the former skite of Tigania was founded by the Horezu community in the first decade of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery suffered badly in the Turko-Austrian and Turko-Russian wars of 1716-18 and 1787-1789 respectively, all the buildings lying outside the enclosure being destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/597</http_url><id_number>597</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_597.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.1833333300</latitude><location>Vâlcea County, Region of Wallachia</location><longitude>24.0166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Horezu represents an important centre for the diffusion of culture. The Horezu School of painting was pre-eminent throughout the region in the 18th century&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wallachia was a Romanian principality that was recognized as an independent state in the 14th century. It was never part of the Ottoman Empire and so it was able to undergo a post- Byzantine cultural evolution that distinguishes it from the artistic Balkan family to which it belongs. The only artistic centre in this region in the 17th century was Mount Athos (Greece), which prospered as a result of the patronage of sovereigns and nobility in the Romanian principalities and Russia. The Athonite tradition was fostered in Wallachia by its rich and cultured Cantacuzene rulers and gave rise to the flowering of Wallachian art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Horezu was founded in 1690 and richly endowed by the Cantacuzene Prince Constantin Brancovan. He and his family were responsible for the creation of many monastic ensembles and churches in Wallachia, paintings, richly adorned with wall sumptuous iconostases, and other decorations. This artistic effort was followed by many other noblemen and church dignitaries, giving rise to the remarkable artistic flowering known as Brancovan art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The catholicon of the monastery, situated in a picturesque landscape of wooded hills and dedicated to Saints Constantine and Helena, was built in 1690-92 and the interior decoration was completed two years later, the work of the Greek artist Constantinos, who founded the celebrated school of mural and icon painters of Horezu. It is laid out according to the precepts of the Athonite Order around the catholicon, which is enclosed by a wall and surrounded by a series of skites. The overall layout is symmetrical on an east-west axis, the skites forming a cruciform plan. The catholicon is three-aisled with a very large narthex, following the pattern laid down by the church of the Monastery of Arges (1512-17). Inside the narthex, the lower tier of the walls is entirely filled with votive pictures of Constantin Brancovan, his wife, and their 11 children. The east wall of the exonarthex is entirely occupied by a large Last Judgement. The carved wooden iconostasis is of exceptionally high quality. The paraklesion over the refectory is rectangular in plan and surmounted by a turret over the naos, with an open exonarthex. Its mural paintings and iconostasis are original. The Monastery suffered badly in the Turko-Austrian and Turko-Russian wars of 1716-18 and 1787-89 respectively, all the buildings lying outside the enclosure being destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other buildings constructed at the same period included the prince's residence, on the south side of the enceinte, ranges of two-storey monks' cells, kitchens, and other monastic offices. It is a two-storey rectangular building with important architectural features. The entrance was originally in the centre of the western wall of the enclosure, where the paraklesion was located, but this was shortly afterwards converted to a refectory, access being provided beneath the bell tower on the south wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church of Bolnica, which is a subgroup of the main monastery, was founded by Princess Maria, wife of Constantin Brancovan. It has an unusual mural in its exonarthex, on the subject of the life of the good monk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Angels at the former skite of Tigania was founded by the Horezu community in the first decade of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other contemporary foundations by members of the princely family include the skites of the Holy Apostles and St Stephen and the foisor of Dionysus Balaceşcu. These contain contemporary votive paintings and other liturgical elements of high quality.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 1690 by Prince Constantine Brancovan, the monastery of Horezu, in Walachia, is a masterpiece of the 'Brancovan' style. It is known for its architectural purity and balance, the richness of its sculptural detail, the treatment of its religious compositions, its votive portraits and its painted decorative works. The school of mural and icon painting established at the monastery in the 18th century was famous throughout the Balkan region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastery of Horezu</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>706</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Sighişoara, which lies in the heart of Transylvania, developed on a plateau, dominated by a hill overlooking a bend in the river Tirnava.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 13th century, German craftsmen and merchants, known as Saxons, were ordered by the Hungarian sovereigns to colonize Transylvania and protect the border of the Carpathians against the steppe peoples. They settled on a hill, called the City Hill, which has revealed traces of occupation going back to the Palaeolithic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following incursions by the Tatars in 1241, the fortified settlement on City Hill was reinforced with walls, guarded by towers, which were extended to surround the entire plateau at the end of the 14th century. The town, which was known in 1280 as Castrum Sex, developed commercial activities thanks to the powerful guilds of craftsmen. Each guild was responsible for the construction of a tower and its defence. The importance of the town was recognized in 1367 when it obtained the title of Civitas and became the second national political entity of Transylvania (the scaun of Sch&amp;auml;ssburg, the original Germanic name for Sighişoara).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under pressure from the Turks between 1421 and 1526, the fortified city raised its walls. At the same time, a settlement grew around the Church of the Saint Anthony hospital (existence attested by documents in 1461), situated at the foot of the plateau. The core of the Lower Town, protected by walls with defensive gates, gradually expanded to the east and west, and now stretches to both banks of the Tirnava.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the XVIIth century, the town of Sighişoara suffered from a succession of tragic events. The population was reduced by almost half as a result of two plague epidemics. In 1676, a fire destroyed three-quarters of the town (although the buildings on City Hill survived), but it was rebuilt over the old foundations. The Lower Town was also damaged by two fires (1736 and 1788) and floods (1771), and the entire town was shaken by an earthquake in 1838.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1840, the merchant guilds lost the monopoly granted to them in the 13th century, and they disappeared. Although Sighişoara remained somewhat on the fringe of economic development in the 19th century, it was able to safeguard its historic centre from extensive transformations. However, occasional interventions led to the loss of a few towers and a section of the wall. In 1866, when Hungary transferred the constitution of the Komitat (district) to Transylvania, Sighişoara/Sch&amp;auml;ssburg became the capital of the Tirgu Mares/Neumarkt district, and the Dominican monastery was pulled down to make way for the new town hall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, the upper part of Sighişoara continued to function as an administrative and cultural centre. The commercial and craft activities were moved to the Lower Town which lost its fortifications in a subsequent expansion phase.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/902</http_url><id_number>902</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_902.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; Sighisoara is an outstanding testimony to the culture of the Transylvanian Saxons, a culture that is coming to a close after 850 years and will continue to exist only through its architectural and urban monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; Sighisoara is an outstanding example of a small fortified city in the border region between the Latin-oriented culture of central Europe and the Byzantine-Orthodox culture of south-eastern Europe. The apparently unstoppable process of emigration by the Saxons, the social stratum which had formed and upheld the cultural traditions of the region, threatens the survival of their architectural heritage as well.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>46.2177777800</latitude><location>Mureş County, Region of Transylvania</location><longitude>24.7922222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sighişoara, an example of a small fortified city in the border region between the Latin-oriented culture of central Europe and the Byzantine-Orthodox culture of south-eastern Europe, is outstanding testimony to the fast-disappearing culture of the Transylvanian Saxons.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, which lies in the heart of Transylvania, developed on a plateau, and is dominated by a hill overlooking a bend in the river Tirnava. In the 13th century, German craftsmen and merchants, known as Saxons, were ordered by the Hungarian sovereigns to colonize Transylvania and protect the border of the Carpathians against the steppe peoples. They settled on a hill, called the City Hill, which has revealed traces of occupation going back to the Palaeolithic period. Following incursions by the Tatars in 1241, the fortified settlement was reinforced with walls, guarded by towers, later extended to surround the entire plateau. The town, known in 1280 as Castrum Sex, developed commercial activities thanks to the powerful guilds of craftsmen. Each guild was responsible for the construction of a tower and its defence. The importance of the town was recognized in 1367 when it obtained the title 'Civitas' and became the second national political entity of Transylvania. Under pressure from the Turks between 1421 and 1526, the city heightened its walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Sighişoara is composed of a fortified site spread over a steeply sloping plateau and dominated by City Hill, and the Lower Town with its woody slopes lying below. These two sectors form an indissociable group corresponding to the historic boundaries of the medieval town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from 19th-century settlements, the historic centre of Sighişoara has kept its original medieval urban fabric with its detailed allotment of building plots, with some variations depending on the successive development phases of the site, as well as its network of narrow streets lined with closely aligned rows of houses. The Citadel is composed of three roads running lengthways, cut by passages at right angles. The houses, most of them the simple homes of craftsmen of two or three storeys, were built from stone or brick, covered in coloured roughcast, and topped by a high tiled roof. They have a distinctive plan, with a narrow facade along the street, an L- or U-shaped layout, dwelling tower, linked rooms, etc. The houses with compact layouts, probably the oldest ones, are characterized by a lateral vaulted entrance gallery. This entrance gallery is sometimes shared by two adjoining houses because of the small plots of land. Many of the houses still have a barrel-vaulted basement, workshops on the ground floor with a wooden ceiling or brick vault, and the living rooms on the upper floors. A few facades have a more aristocratic architectural style of Baroque inspiration.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A group of houses between Citadel Lane and Hermann Oberth Square stand out because of the way the storeys have been arranged to fit the configuration of the sloping ground. A wall, 93&amp;nbsp;m long and with interval towers, encloses the Citadel plateau. The different phases of construction from the 12th to the 16th centuries can be clearly identified. It rises to a height of 8-10&amp;nbsp;m between the Ropemakers' Tower and the Butchers' Tower, the best-preserved section. Nine towers of the original 14 still stand and can be distinguished by their shapes. The imposing Clock Tower plays a special role as the symbol of the town, for it was placed under the responsibility of the city council, which held its assemblies there until 1556. Situated in the middle of the southern fortification wall, it dominates the three squares of the historic centre and protects the stairway connecting the upper town and the lower town. It now houses a museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Notable among the monuments in the historic centre of Sighişoara is the Church of St Nicholas, an edifice typical of the Gothic architecture of Transylvania. Perched on the hill, it can be reached by a ramp staircase of 175 steps. It has been protected by a wooden roof since 1642. The decorative sculpture on the facade reflects Central European influences. The Church of St Mary belonging to the Dominican monastery, demolished in 1886, is a 13th-century Gothic monument of the hall type with bare facades. The Dominican monastery and the Coopers' Tower in the south-west of the Citadel, and the Locksmiths' Tower and Church of the Franciscan convent in the north, made way respectively for the huge neo-Renaissance style City Hall (1886-88) and the Roman Catholic Church (1894).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded by German craftsmen and merchants known as the Saxons of Transylvania, Sighişoara is a fine example of a small, fortified medieval town which played an important strategic and commercial role on the fringes of central Europe for several centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Sighişoara</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1055</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The region of Maramures, situated in the north of Transylvania, was formed over time by the fusion of very old geographic and socio-political entities called "countries," including those of Maramures, Chioar, and Lapus where the churches nominated for inscription on the World Heritage List are located. These "countries" are united by their geographic environment, composed of mountains once covered by forests and numerous rivers, but also by their history and spiritual life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Middle Ages, the rural social structures were founded on community-type villages grouped in each valley, under the general leadership of the voivode of Maramures. The churches of the region were placed under the jurisdiction of the Orthodox monastery of Peri. The region of Maramures, known by the name of terra Maramoroisiensi (1324) and districtus Maramoroisiensi (1326), enjoyed a certain degree of political autonomy before coming under the authority of the Hungarian sovereigns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It became a comitat (county) in 1385 and was then incorporated into the Principality of Transylvania (1538), which was annexed by the Hapsburgs in 1711. The period between the end of the 17th century and that of the 18th century was particularly rich in political and cultural events for Maramures, where Byzantine traditions intermingled with Western contributions (Uniate Church, Reformation, and Counter- Reformation). Most of the wooden churches of the region were rebuilt after the destruction caused by the last great Tatar invasions in 1717.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/904</http_url><id_number>904</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_904.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Maramures wooden churches are outstanding examples of vernacular religious wooden architecture resulting from the interchange of Orthodox religious traditions with Gothic influences in a specific vernacular interpretation of timber construction traditions, showing a high level of artistic maturity and craft skills.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>47.8208333300</latitude><location>Districts of  Bârsana,  Budesti, Desesti, Ieud, Sisesti, Poienile Izei, Târgu-Lapus; Maramureş County, Region of Transylvania</location><longitude>24.0558333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Maramureş churches are outstanding examples of vernacular religious wooden architecture resulting from the interchange of Orthodox religious traditions with Gothic influences in a specific vernacular interpretation of timber construction traditions, showing a high level of artistic maturity and craft skills.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region of Maramureş, situated in the north of Transylvania, was formed over time by the fusion of very old geographical and socio-political entities called 'countries'. These 'countries' are united by their geographical environment, composed of mountains once covered by forests and numerous rivers, but also by their history and spiritual life. In the Middle Ages, the rural social structures were founded on community-type villages grouped in each valley, under the general leadership of the Voivodship of Maramureş. The churches of the region were placed under the jurisdiction of the Orthodox monastery of Peri.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The eight churches of Maramureş are monuments based on traditional timber architecture, and stand on bases of stone blocks and pebble fillings. They are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Presentation of the Virgin at the Temple (B&amp;acirc;rsana), built in 1720, became a parish church in 1806. A two-level portico, connected by a staircase, was added to the western facade. Because of its plan, the church belongs to the tradition of the Maramureş region, but differs in its smaller size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of Saint Nicholas (Budeşti) was built in 1643 on the site of a 15th-century church. It is also distinguished by its size and the four pinnacles at the base of the spire, which indicates a link with the neighbouring region of Lapus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Paraskeva, built in 1770, reflects the artistic maturity of its builders. The external architectural elements are highlighted by decorative motifs incised or cut in the wood to create a homogeneous and valuable ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Nativity of the Virgin replaced the one destroyed by the Tatars in 1717. The structure of the inner space, especially the vaults over the naos and narthex, reveals the ingenuity of the builders. The wooden churches of Maramureş usually formed a complex with a cemetery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Archangels (Plopiş) situated in the 'country' of Chioar, shows certain analogies with the church in Şurdeşti, such as the flat roof slightly lowered over the sanctuary, the slender bell tower with four corner pinnacles, and certain elements of the sculpted decor outside. The decoration, painted in 1811 by Stefan, a native of the village, is preserved on the vaults.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Parasceve (Poienile Izei) is one of the oldest of the wooden churches of Maramureş (1604), and reveals two phases in the development of such buildings. The first can be seen in the lower part of the walls with a sanctuary based on a square plan, a typical feature of the oldest wooden buildings. In the 18th century, the walls were raised, the naos was covered by a semi-circular vault, and the interior was decorated with paintings. The portico was added during the first half of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Archangels (Rogoz), built in 1663, was moved from Suciu in Sus to Rogoz in 1883. It is characterized by a recessed heptagonal sanctuary, a polygonal pronaos, a southern entrance, and a large asymmetrical roof. It is also distinctive for its profusion of decorative sculpture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Archangels (Şurdeşti), built in 1767, synthesises all the features of the wooden churches of Maramureş at the height of their development with, in particular, a double canopy and superposed windows. The two-level portico and its tall bell tower date to the 19th century. In 1783, three shared the task of decorating the inside of the church.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These eight churches are outstanding examples of a range of architectural solutions from different periods and areas. They show the variety of designs and craftsmanship adopted in these narrow, high, timber constructions with their characteristic tall, slim clock towers at the western end of the building, either single- or double-roofed and covered by shingles. As such, they are a particular vernacular expression of the cultural landscape of this mountainous area of northern Romania.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wooden Churches of Maramureş</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1057</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The civilization of the Getes (Getae) and Dacians can be distinguished in the Thracian world long before Herodotus first referred to them in the 7th century BC. The Getes inhabited the Danube plain and the Dacians the central and western part of the region between the Carpathians and the Danube. Their close cultural and linguistic links are emphasized by several ancient authors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Theirs was a typical Iron Age culture, practising agriculture, stock-raising, fishing, and metal-working, as well as trade with the Greco-Roman world, shown by finds of luxury goods and coinage. When Greek colonies such as Histria, Tomis, Odessos, etc were established along the northern shores of the Black Sea in the 7th century BC, the Geto- Dacian rulers established close links with them and extended their protection. This cultural interchange had a profound effect on societies in the region. The other major cultural influence, adopted by the warrior aristocracy, came from the Scythians who inhabited the regions to the north and east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During their expansion that began in the 4th century Celtic peoples settled in modern Transylvania and established a hegemony over the region because of their superior weaponry. However, their influence waned from the mid 3rd century BC onwards. A new Geto-Dacian form of territorial organization appeared in the early 2nd century BC, at the same time as important technological developments (wheelmade pottery, iron ploughshares, use of stone for building). It was based on the dava, the central place of a tribal territory; these contained many sacred sites (temenoi) and other forms of cult centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The process whereby the earlier fragmented tribal structure became centralized is not understood, but there is abundant evidence that the Geto-Dacian civilization flourished from the 1st century BC onwards, thanks to the intelligence and pragmatism of its rulers and of its priests. A Hellenistic form of kingdom was evolved by Burebişta (82-44 BC), supported by a warrior aristocracy and with its heart in the Ora&amp;scaron;ţie Mountains around the sacred mountain Kogaionon where the sacred city was built, Sarmizegetusa Regia. It became master of the entire Black Sea coast, absorbing the Greek colonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the death of Burebişta his kingdom was divided up into smaller territories, but Sarmizegetusa retained its primacy; it became in effect the first (and only) true town in Dacia. The Dacian rulers became increasingly involved in the internal politics of the Roman Empire, and suffered accordingly from punitive expeditions. The lower Danube frontier (limes) was constantly the scene of cross-border raids and minor campaigns. This entered a new phase in AD 86, which marked the beginning of a series of Roman-Dacian wars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the spring of 101 the Roman Emperor Trajan, having secured his Rhine frontier, took the offensive against the Dacians. Decebalus unified the Dacian kingdoms and concentrated his forces in the Ora&amp;scaron;ţie Mountains, where he submitted to Trajan. An uneasy distribution of territory ensued, broken in 105 when Decebalus seized the Roman governor Longinus. This time he could not hold the Dacians together against the powerful Roman army. His capital and his fortresses were overwhelmed and Decebalus himself committed suicide to avoid capture. This campaign is graphically depicted in the reliefs running round Trajan's Column in Rome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dacia became a Roman Imperial province, and its fortresses were slighted. New Roman towns were created, but none of them on the site of the Dacian settlements, with the exception of Sarmizegetusa, which was given the resounding Roman name Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa. Dacia was to remain part of the Roman Empire until 274, when the Emperor Aurelian abandoned it in the face of irresistible pressure from the Goths.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/906</http_url><id_number>906</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_906.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Dacian fortresses represent the fusion of techniques and concepts of military architecture from inside and outside the classical world to create a unique style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Geto-Dacian kingdoms of the late 1st millennium BC attained an exceptionally high cultural and socio-economic level, and this is symbolized by this group of fortresses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The hill-fort and its evolved successor, the oppidum, were characteristic of the Late Iron Age in Europe, and the Dacian fortresses are outstanding examples of this type of defended site.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>45.6230555600</latitude><location>Counties of Alba and Hunedoara, Region of Transylvania</location><longitude>23.3119444400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Geto-Dacian kingdoms of the late 1st millennium BC attained an exceptionally high cultural and socio-economic level, and this is symbolized by this group of fortresses, which represent the fusion of techniques and concepts of military architecture from inside and outside the classical world to create a unique style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The civilization of the Getes and Dacians can be distinguished in the Thracian world long before Herodotus first referred to them in the 7th century BC. The Getes inhabited the Danube plain and the Dacians the central and western part of the region between the Carpathians and the Danube. It was a typical Iron Age culture, practising agriculture, stock-raising, fishing and metal-working, as well as trade with the Graeco-Roman world. When Greek colonies were established along the northern shores of the Black Sea, the Geto-Dacian rulers established close links with them and extended their protection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The system developed by the Dacians to defend their capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia, was composed of three distinct fortified elements: the oldest is represented by fortified sites on dominant physical features, which consisted of palisaded banks and ditches. The second group is that of fortresses. The final category is that of linear defences, which blocked access from certain routes and linked two or more fortresses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are three components of Sarmizegetusa, the capital of Dacia: the fortress, the sacred area, and the civilian quarter. The Grădiştea plateau is dominated by the fortress, which was the centre of secular and spiritual government. The sacred area is situated to the east of the fortress. Access is by means of a paved path on the west and a monumental stone stairway on the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Costeşti-Cetăţuie, a small plateau on a hill overlooking the left bank of the river Apa Oraşului, was terraced to form a strong fortress. Its fortifications were laid out in three concentric bands, erected in successive stages of the fortress's life. The ramparts are constructed from stone, wood and rammed earth, a different technique being used for each enceinte. A number of towers survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Costeşti-Blidaru is the strongest and most spectacular of the fortresses erected to defend Sarmizegetusa. It is rectilinear in plan and is located on the levelled summit of a small hill. There are two enclosures. The walls have corner bastions, through one of which access is gained to the interior, where there are the remains of a square building that would have housed the garrison. A second enclosure, also rectangular in plan, was added later, extending the fortress to the entire summit of the hill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Luncani Piatra Roşie fortress consists of two fortified enclosures on the eastern slope of a rocky massif. The earlier and smaller of the two has corner bastions. In the interior there is an apsidal timber-framed barrack block with two rooms. To the north and outside the defences there were two buildings on the site of an earlier sanctuary. The second enceinte dates from the late 1st century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Băniţa fortress was constructed on a steep conical hill in the Jiu valley. The only side on which the summit was accessible was on the north, and this was defended by a strong stone wall in murus dacicus style. The fortress itself was entered through a gate leading to a monumental limestone stairway with andesite balustrades. The plateau above has three terraces at different levels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Căp&amp;acirc;lna fortress was constructed at the summit of a steep hill which was terraced and surrounded by ramparts following the natural contours. There is an imposing square structure built using the &lt;em&gt;murus dacicus&lt;/em&gt; technique. The enceinte was entered by a fortified gateway on the south-east, close to the military building. There was originally another entrance in the north-east, but this was blocked between the construction of the fortress and the Roman conquest in AD 106.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built in the 1st centuries B.C. and A.D. under Dacian rule, these fortresses show an unusual fusion of military and religious architectural techniques and concepts from the classical world and the late European Iron Age. The six defensive works, the nucleus of the Dacian Kingdom, were conquered by the Romans at the beginning of the 2nd century A.D.; their extensive and well-preserved remains stand in spectacular natural surroundings and give a dramatic picture of a vigorous and innovative civilization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dacian Fortresses of the Orastie Mountains</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1059</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Moldavia became an independent state in the 14th century, achieving its apogee during the anti-Ottoman crusades of Stephen the Great (1457-1504) and Peter Rares (1527-38,1541-46). This also produced a cultural flowering, the most remarkable manifestation of which was the series of churches with painted exterior walls. A general christiantradition of decorating the exteriors of churches was adopted and extended in Moldavia to the extent that the entire external facade was covered with paintings. This had its own specific iconography, dominated by certain obligatory themes - the Church Hierarchy, the Last Judgment, the Tree of Jesse.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The monuments that are the subject of this nomination form a compact and coherent group in chronological terms, all being built in the 1530s and 154Os, during the reign of Peter Rares. They are all within a 60km radius of Suceava, the residence of the Moldavian princes of the period, and none appears to have been built after 1552.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/598</http_url><id_number>598</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_598.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ro</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.7783333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>25.7127777778</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In the European art of the period, the exterior mural painting of the northern Moldavian churches is a unique phenomenon in Byzantine art and a masterpiece of mural art. In terms of the art of Romania, this group of churches constitutes a specific phenomenon, from the point of view of architecture as well as painting. Their exterior painted walls constitute an exceptional aesthetic value, forming a perfect symbiosis between colour, architecture, and surrounding landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Moldavia became an independent state in the 14th century, achieving its apogee during the anti-Ottoman crusades of princes Stephen the Great and Peter Rares. This also produced a cultural flowering, and the most remarkable series of churches. A general Christian tradition of decorating the exteriors of churches was adopted and extended in Moldavia. This had its own specific iconography, dominated by certain obligatory themes: the Church Hierarchy, the Last Judgement, and the Tree of Jesse. These monuments form a compact and coherent group in chronological terms, all being built in the 1530s and 1540s, during the reign of Peter Rares. They are all within a 60&amp;nbsp;km radius of Suceava, the residence of the Moldavian princes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Rood, Patrauti, built in 1487 by Stephen the Great, was pillaged in 1653 and 1684 and restored by Prince Nicolas Mavrocordat in the early 18th century. It is a small three-apsed building consisting of a sanctuary, a naos crowned with a high drum, and a narthex. The monumental interior mural painting represents the Passion Cycle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the Church of St George of the former Voronet Monastery, also founded by Stephen the Great, the naos and sanctuary were painted between 1488 and 1496 and the narthex in 1552. It is a three-apse structure, with an exonarthex added in 1546. The interior murals represent the Passion Cycle. The walls and the vault of the exonarthex are covered by the 365 scenes of the Calendar of Saints. The exterior murals depict traditional scenes, and the famous Last Judgement, on the western wall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Beheading of St John the Baptist was built as the residence of the Governor of Suceava, Luca Arbore. It was decorated at the order of his granddaughter in 1541 and became the village church when the family died out. The Arbore family is represented in a votive tablet on the wall of the naos and by funerary portraits in the narthex. The high quality of the interior paintings continues on the exterior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The three-apsed Church of St George, formerly the Metropolitan Church of Moldavia until the late 17th century, is now the catholicon of the Monastery of St John of Suceava. The interior paintings, although somewhat darkened, have exceptional plastic qualities. The exterior paintings of 1534 only survive on the west and south facades, and depict the four traditional themes. They are exceptional by virtue of their monumental composition, elegant silhouettes, harmonious colours and perfect Cyrillic inscriptions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Nicholas and the Catholicon of the Monastery of Probota was built by Prince Peter Rares in 1531 as a family mausoleum. All the paintings are contemporary with the church with the exception of those in the sanctuary, repainted in the 19th century. The exterior mural paintings, in poor condition, show evidence of the hand of a master in their outstanding composition and remarkable use of colours.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Assumption of the Virgin of the former Monastery of Humor dates back to before 1415, but the present structure was built in 1530 by the great Logothete Theodore Bulberg and the wife, Anastasia, of Peter Rares. It exhibits certain architectural variations from the traditional three-apsed monastery church, such as the lack of a drum over the narthex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Annunciation of the Monastery of Moldovita was rebuilt by Alexander the Good, but the present structure is earlier. It is very similar in form and decoration to the Humor church, and is believed that the same master may have been responsible for both churches.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These eight churches of northern Moldavia, built from the late 15th century to the late 16th century, their external walls covered in fresco paintings, are masterpieces inspired by Byzantine art. They are authentic and particularly well preserved. Far from being mere wall decorations, the paintings form a systematic covering on all the facades and represent complete cycles of religious themes.Their exceptional composition, the elegance of the characters, and the harmony of the colors blend perfectly with the surrounding countryside. The interior and exterior walls of the Church of the Suceviţa Monastery are entirely decorated with mural paintings of the 16th century, and this church is the only one to show a representation of the ladder of St John Climacus.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Churches of Moldavia</site><states>Romania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1728</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/544</http_url><id_number>544</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_544.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>62.0713888900</latitude><location>Karelian Autonomous S.S.R., Medvezhjegorskij Region</location><longitude>35.2275000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kizhi Pogost is an outstanding example of an architectural ensemble typical of medieval and post-medieval orthodox settlements in sparsely populated regions where evangelists had to cope with far-flung Christian communities and a harsh climate. The &lt;em&gt;pogost&lt;/em&gt; (enclosure) and the buildings grouped together to form the site museum on the southern part of Kizhi are exceptional examples of the traditional wooden architecture of Karelia and more generally of that of northern Russia and the Finnish-Scandinavian region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kizhi is located in the heart of an unreal landscape where the sky, reflected in the limpid waters of Lake Onega, seems to hold suspended in the pristine air hundreds of small islands. In summer they seem to sparkle in the sun. Long used as a landmark by sailors navigating through the White Sea, it appears to visitors arriving nowadays via hydrofoil from Petrozavodsk, the capital of the Karelian Republic 68&amp;nbsp;km to the south, as a glistening three-faceted jewel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;pogost&lt;/em&gt; is on a narrow strip of land on the southern tip of the large island of Kizhi. It includes two 18th-century wooden churches and an octagonal bell tower, also of wood, which was built in 1862. These amazing structures, in which the science of carpentry created a bold visionary architecture, perpetuate a very ancient model of parish space that developed when the Orthodox Church began to spread to the northernmost reaches of the Russian world where small villages were widely scattered over an immense area. It was therefore necessary that the church, the graveyard and the buildings needed for the far-flung communities' religious life be grouped together in one place. The Kizhi pogost dates from the Middle Ages. Chronicles from the 16th century are the first to explicitly mention the existence of two wooden churches there. Destroyed by lightning in 1693, they were rebuilt on the same site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the wooden polygonal enclosure, standing on either side of the rudimentary bell tower built by the carpenter Sysoj Osipov, are the two churches, the larger of the two, the summer church, on the north and the winter church on the south. The Church of the Transfiguration was used during the summer, when the faithful journeyed from the outermost regions of the parish to attend services. A dendrochronogical study of the materials sets its construction date after 1713-14. The octagon which defines the composition of the cruciform church is extended by oblong bays facing the four cardinal points. The nave, flanked with side aisles, is preceded on the west by a projecting narthex reached via two staircases. The height of the Church of the Transfiguration, whose central cupola culminates at 37&amp;nbsp;m, is a masterpiece of a multi-storey, multi-cupola, single-block structure, such as had already appeared in the high Middle Ages at Saint Sophia of Novgorod. Here, over a central volume covered with three octagonal frames, the architect placed &lt;em&gt;bochkas&lt;/em&gt; (roofs whose peak is shaped like a horizontal cylinder with the upper surface extended into a pointed ridge) topped with 22 bulbous cupolas. Inside, under the so-called 'heaven' - a superb vault shaped like a truncated pyramid - there is a gilded wood iconostasis holding 102 icons from the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Intercession (Winter Church), is a simpler structure. Built in 1764, it is of the 'octagonal prism on a cube' type. The crown of eight cupolas encircling the 27&amp;nbsp;m high central onion dome, and which covers the central parallelepiped space, gives it a more static appearance. To the east a five-sided small apse contains the altar. To the west is a long nave accessible by a single stairway&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The &lt;em&gt;pogost&lt;/em&gt; of Kizhi (i.e. the Kizhi enclosure) is located on one of the many islands in Lake Onega, in Karelia. Two 18th-century wooden churches, and an octagonal clock tower, also in wood and built in 1862, can be seen there. These unusual constructions, in which carpenters created a bold visionary architecture, perpetuate an ancient model of parish space and are in harmony with the surrounding landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kizhi Pogost</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>639</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545</http_url><id_number>545</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_545.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.7458300000</latitude><location>City of Moscow</location><longitude>37.6297200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 13th century to the founding of St Petersburg, the Moscow Kremlin was directly and tangibly associated with every major event in Russian history. The Kremlin contains within its walls a unique series of masterpieces of architecture and the plastic arts - religious monuments of exceptional beauty such as the Church of the Annunciation, Cathedral of the Dormition, Church of the Archangel and the bell tower of Ivan Veliki, and palaces such as the Great Palace of the Kremlin, which comprises within its walls the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin and the Teremnoi Palace. On Red Square is Saint Basil the Blessed, still a major edifice of Orthodox art. Russian architecture was clearly affected many times in its history by influences emanating from the Kremlin. A particular example is the Italian Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kremlin of Moscow, which according to chronicles dates from 1156, contains an ensemble of monuments of outstanding quality. Ever since the establishment of the Principality of Moscow in 1263 and the transfer to Moscow of the seat of Vladimir's Metropolitan in 1328, this was the centre of both temporal and spiritual power. Some of these original buildings border Cathedral Square, others, such as the Nativity of the Virgin (1393), were incorporated into the Great Palace when it was rebuilt. The nucleus expanded northward with the palace of the Patriarchs and the Church of the Twelve Apostles, erected in the 17th century, and especially with the Arsenal of Peter the Great which fills the north-west angle of the enceinte. The triangular palace of the Senate (today the seat of the Council of Ministers) was built by Kazakov for Empress Catherine II in the north-east sector between the Arsenal and the monasteries of the Miracle and of the Ascension, two splendid structures that were razed in 1932. In the south-east sector Kazakov built another smaller palace for the empress, known as the Nicholas palace, and also destroyed in 1932.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Red Square is closely associated with the Kremlin, lying beneath its east wall. At its south end is the famous Cathedral of St Basil the Blessed, one of the most beautiful monuments of Orthodox art. It was originally one of a pair of churches, the other being the Cathedral of Kazan, erected in 1633 in the vast open area bordering the 'Goum' by Prince Pozarsky to commemorate the victory over the Poles. It disappeared in the early 1930s along with several convents in the neighbouring area (Saviour-behind-the-Images, St Nicholas, Epiphany).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With its triangular enceinte pierced by five gates and reinforced with 29 towers, the Kremlin preserves the memory of the wooden fortifications erected by Yuri Dolgoruki around 1156 on the hill at the confluence of the Moskova and Nieglinnaya rivers (the Alexander Garden now covers the latter). By its layout and its history of transformations (in the 14th century Dimitri Donskoi had an enceinte of logs built, then the first stone wall), it is the prototype of the Kremlin, the citadel at the centre of old Russian towns, such as Pskov, Tula, Kazan or Smolensk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The influence of the Kremlin style was felt when Rudolfo Fioravanti built the Cathedral of the Dormition (1475-79), and grew stronger with the Granovitaya Palata (Hall of Facets, 1487-91) by Marco Ruffo and Pietro Antonio Solario as well as in the towers of the fortified enceinte, built during the same period by Solario using principles established by Milanese engineers (the Nikolskaya and the Spasskaya both date from 1491). The Renaissance expression was even clearer in the classic capitals and shells of the Church of the Archangel reconstructed from 1505 to 1509 by Alevisio Novi.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inextricably linked to all the most important historical and political events in Russia since the 13th century, the Kremlin (built between the 14th and 17th centuries by outstanding Russian and foreign architects) was the residence of the Great Prince and also a religious centre. At the foot of its ramparts, on Red Square, St Basil's Basilica is one of the most beautiful Russian Orthodox monuments.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>640</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Novgorod, the earliest documentary reference to which dates from the 10th century, lay on the trade route linking Central Asia with northern Europe (the Baltic and Scandinavian countries). The urban aristocracy that governed the city-republic through a People's Assembly (or Vece) invited a prince from the Swedish (Varangian) dynasty of the Rurikides to reign over them. In the Russian world, only the cities of Novgorod and Pskov had this sort of organization, which was similar to that of the Hanseatic cities, with which Novgorod had close trading contacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The see of an Orthodox archbishop, Novgorod (like Pskov) was one of the oldest and most important centres of Russian art and, more generally, of Russian culture. The most ancient Russian Old Church Slavonic manuscripts (11th century) were written at Novgorod, including an autonomous historiography (as early as the 12th century) and, in particular, the first complete translation into Slavonic of the Old and New Testaments (late 15th century). Novgorod and Pskov were jointly the birthplace of Russian stone architecture and the first national schools of painting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was only after the conquest of the two republics (1478, in the case of Novgorod) by the Muscovite rulers that the present Russian capital acquired cultural supremacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The proposal submitted concerns not only the old monuments of the town proper, but also several monuments in outlying districts. In Novgorod itself, the proposal includes the district of St. Sophia (the Kremlin with its 15th-century fortifications, reinforced in the 17th century: the church of St. Sophia from the mid- 11th century: and other monuments from the 12th to the 19th centuries), monuments in the commercial district (including many of the oldest churches in the town, such as the Church of the Transfiguration, decorated with frescoes at the end of the 14th century by Theophanes the Greek, who was responsible for reviving medieval Russian painting and was the teacher of Andrei Rublev); and four religious monuments (12th and 13th centuries) outside the old town (including the famous church of Neredica).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/604</http_url><id_number>604</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_604.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>58.5333300000</latitude><location></location><longitude>31.2833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Novgorod was one of the major centres of Russian culture and spirituality: its monuments and the treasures they house bear living witness to this. As an outstanding cultural centre, birthplace of the national style of stone architecture, and one of the oldest national schools of painting, the town of Novgorod influenced the development of Russian art as a whole throughout the Middle Ages. The broad range of monuments conserved in Novgorod makes it a veritable 'conservatory' of Russian architecture of the Middle Ages and later periods (11th-19th centuries). These monuments alone suffice to illustrate the development of Russian architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Novgorod, the earliest documentary reference to which dates from the 10th century, lay on the trade route linking Central Asia with northern Europe (Baltic and Scandinavian countries). The urban aristocracy that governed the city-republic through a People's Assembly (Vece) invited a prince from the Swedish (Varangian) dynasty of the Rurikids to reign over them. In the Russian world, only the cities of Novgorod and Pskov had this sort of organization, which was similar to that of the Hanseatic cities, with which Novgorod had close trading contacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The See of an Orthodox archbishop, Novgorod (like Pskov) was one of the oldest and most important centres of Russian art and, more generally, of Russian culture. The most ancient Russian Old Church Slavonic manuscripts (11th century) were written at Novgorod, including an autonomous historiography (as early as the 12th century) and, in particular, the first complete translation into Slavonic of the Old and New Testaments (late 15th century). Novgorod and Pskov were jointly the birthplace of Russian stone architecture and the first national schools of painting.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was only after the conquest of the two republics (1478, in the case of Novgorod) by the Muscovite rulers that the present Russian capital acquired cultural supremacy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Novgorod itself, there is the district of St Sophia, which includes: the Kremlin with its 15th-century fortifications, reinforced in the 17th century: the church of St Sophia from the mid-11th century, and other monuments from the 12th to 19th centuries, monuments in the commercial district (including many of the oldest churches in the town, such as the Church of the Transfiguration, decorated with frescoes at the end of the 14th century by Theophanes the Greek, who was responsible for reviving medieval Russian painting and was the teacher of Andrei Rublev); and four religious monuments (12th and 13th centuries) outside the old town (including the famous church of Neredica).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the ancient trade route between Central Asia and northern Europe, Novgorod was Russia's first capital in the 9th century. Surrounded by churches and monasteries, it was a centre for Orthodox spirituality as well as Russian architecture. Its medieval monuments and the 14th-century frescoes of Theophanes the Greek (Andrei Rublev's teacher) illustrate the development of its remarkable architecture and cultural creativity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Monuments of Novgorod and Surroundings</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>716</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The six islands of the Solovetskii archipelago are in the western part of the White Sea, 290 km from Arkhangelsk. They cover in total 300 sq km, Solovetskii itself accounting for 219 sq km, and the others 47.1, 19, 1.2, 1.25, and 1.1 sq km respectively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Human occupation began on the islands as early as the Mesolithic period (5th millennium BC), when the climatic conditions were more favourable than at the present day. The main prehistoric settlement period was in the 3rd millennium BC, when villages, sacred sites, and irrigation systems were built on Big Zayatskii and Anzer Islands. On the former there is a compact group of religious and funerary monuments, including 18 stone labyrinths, over 600 stone burial cairns, and several stone alignments and circles. One of the labyrinths, over 22 m in diameter, is the largest known in the world. Anzer Island has only four labyrinths and 38 cairns, disposed in three irregular rows along the sea shore. The area is of great importance, since research on archaeological discoveries have made it possible to trace climatic history through changes of vegetation and variations in shorelines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the warmer drier climatic episode around 1000 BC a modified version of the traditional way of life survived among the Sami and Karelia peoples throughout the Middle Ages. The Solovetskii Monastery was founded by three monks from the Kirillo- Belozersk and Valaam Monasteries in the 1430s. It expanded in subsequent centuries to cover not only the main islands of the archipelago, but also large stretches of land on the neighbouring mainland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1478 the monastery came under the protection of the Novgorod State, passing subsequently to Moscow. There was a major economic reorganization in the mid-16th century, inspired by Father Superior Philip Kolichev, who built roads, founded a dairy farm, joined up series of small lakes to provide abundant fresh water, and created new industries, such as brickmaking and ceramics. He also inspired the erection of some of the major ecclesiastical monuments on the islands. A stone fortress was built in 1582-94, and in the 17th century Solovetskii became the economic, religious, military, and cultural centre of the whole region. It was used as a place of exile and imprisonment for state criminals, but it also attracted many pilgrims.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After successfully surviving a siege by Government troops in 1668-76 when the monastery revolted against the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon (a unique phenomenon in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church), the monastery continued to thrive in the 18th and 19th centuries, when many timber buildings were rebuilt in stone. The military function disappeared in 17 14 with the construction of a new fortress at the mouth of the Northern Dvina, but the Solovetskii fortress continued in use as a prison. Craft activities expanded into other fields, such as icon painting, wood carving, engraving, and lithography. The detached monasteries on the smaller islands became important trading outposts and trade generally increased with Russian cities, leading to improvements to the harbour and the construction of warehouses. The Makayev monastery was converted to a botanical garden, supplying hothouse fruits to Russian cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This came to an abrupt end with the Revolution, when the monastery was abolished, being replaced by the &amp;quot;Solovky&amp;quot; State Farm. That, too, was abolished in 1923, when the islands became special camps, housing political and other prisoners in wooden huts (most of which have been preserved). From 1939 to 1957 the islands were used by the Russian Navy for training purposes. In 1967 the Museum Preserve was created, and in 1990 the monastery was reinstated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The heart of the complex is the monastery itself, on Solovetskii Island. It is in three parts, the central square with its complex of monumental buildings, and the northern and southern courtyards devoted to domestic and craft activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The central square is flanked by the Church of the Assumption, in Novgorod style with its refectory and cellarage (1552-57), the Saviour Transfiguration Cathedral ( 1558-66), the Bell Tower ( 1776-77), the Church of St Nicholas (183 l-33), and the Holy Trinity, Zosimus and Sabbath Cathedral (1859). The north courtyard complex includes high quality craft buildings, including the icon workshop (16 15), the tailors' and cobblers' workshops (1642). 16th and 17th century store-rooms, the 17th-19th century Father Superior's lodgings, and a 17th century leather-dressing cellar. In the south courtyard area are a late 16th century drying barn, an early 17th century mill, a 17th- 19th century wash-house, and a 19th century bath-house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Solovetskii Monastery Fortress was built in 1582-94 from boulders. It is five-sided, with a tower at each corner and covers over 5 ha. The walls are 7 m thick at the base.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery village includes chapels built to commemorate several Tsars, hostels for pilgrims, a dry-dock, a hydroelectric power station (19 lo- 12). and industrial installations of various kinds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are a number of detached monasteries - four on Solovetskii Island (all 19th century), the early 17th century Trinity monastery on Anzer Island, a 16th century complex, including a stone harbour, on Big Zayatskii Island, and the St Sergius Monastery on Big Muksalma Island, founded in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/632</http_url><id_number>632</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_632.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>65.0833333300</latitude><location>Arkhangelsky region, Solovetsky district.</location><longitude>35.6666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Solovetsky complex is an outstanding example of a monastic settlement in the inhospitable environment of northern Europe, which admirably illustrates the faith, tenacity and enterprise of late medieval religious communities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The six islands of the Solovetsky Archipelago are in the western part of the White Sea, 290&amp;nbsp;km from Arkhangelsky. Human occupation began on the islands as early as the Mesolithic period, when the climatic conditions were more favourable than at the present day. The main prehistoric settlement period was in the 3rd millennium BC, when villages, sacred sites, and irrigation systems were built on Big Zayatsky and Anzer Islands. On the former there is a compact group of religious and funerary monuments, including 18 stone labyrinths, over 600 stone burial cairns, and several stone alignments and circles. Anzer Island has only four labyrinths and 38 cairns, disposed in three irregular rows along the sea shore. The area is of great importance to trace climatic history through changes of vegetation and variations in shorelines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Solovetsky Monastery was founded by three monks from the Kirillo-Belozersk and Valaam Monasteries in the 1430s. It expanded in subsequent centuries to cover not only the main islands of the archipelago, but also large stretches of land on the mainland. In 1478 it came under the protection of Novgorod State, passing subsequently to Moscow. There was a major economic reorganization in the mid-16th century, inspired by Father Superior Philip Kolichev, who built roads, founded a dairy farm, joined up series of small lakes to provide abundant fresh water, and created new industries, such as brickmaking and ceramics. He also inspired the erection of some of the major ecclesiastical monuments on the islands. A stone fortress was built in 1582-94, and Solovetsky became the economic, religious, military and cultural centre of the whole region. It was used as a place of exile and imprisonment for state criminals, but it also attracted many pilgrims. After surviving a siege by government troops in 1668-76 when the monastery revolted against the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon, the monastery continued to thrive, when many timber buildings were rebuilt in stone. The military function disappeared in 1714 with the construction of a fortress at the mouth of the Northern Dvina, but the Solovetsky fortress continued in use as a prison. Craft activities expanded into other fields (icon painting, wood carving, engraving, lithography). The detached monasteries on the smaller islands became trading outposts and trade generally increased with Russian cities, leading to improvements to the harbour and the construction of warehouses. The Makayev monastery became a botanical garden, supplying hothouse fruits to Russian cities. This ended abruptly at the Revolution, when the monastery was abolished and replaced by the 'Solovky' State Farm, in turn abolished in 1923, when the islands became camps for political and other prisoners. From 1939 to 1957 the islands were used by the navy for training. In 1967 the museum was created, and in 1990 the monastery was reinstated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The heart of the complex is the monastery itself, on Solovetsky Island. It is in three parts, the central square with its complex of monumental buildings, and the northern and southern courtyards devoted to domestic and craft activities. The central square is flanked by the Church of the Assumption, in Novgorod style with its refectory and cellarage, the Saviour Transfiguration Cathedral, the Bell Tower (1776-77), the Church of St Nicholas (1831-33), and the Holy Trinity, Zosimus and Sabbath Cathedral (1859). The north courtyard complex includes high-quality craft buildings, including the icon workshop (1615), the tailors' and cobblers' workshops (1642), storerooms, the Father Superior's lodgings, and a 17th-century leather-dressing cellar. In the south courtyard area are a drying barn, a mill, a wash-house and a bath-house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Solovetsky Monastery Fortress was built in 1582-94 from boulders. It is five-sided, with a tower at each corner. The walls are 7&amp;nbsp;m thick at the base. The monastery village includes chapels built to commemorate several tsars, hostels for pilgrims, a dry dock, a hydroelectric power station, and industrial installations of various kinds. There are a number of detached monasteries: four on Solovetsky Island, the early 17th-century Trinity monastery on Anzer Island, a 16th-century complex, including a stone harbour, on Big Zayatsky Island, and the St Sergius Monastery on Big Muksalma Island, founded in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Solovetsky archipelago comprises six islands in the western part of the White Sea, covering about 300 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; . They have been inhabited since the 5th century B.C. and important traces of a human presence from as far back as the 5th millennium B.C. can be found there. The archipelago has been the site of fervent monastic activity since the 15th century, and there are several churches dating from the 16th to the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural and Historic Ensemble of the Solovetsky Islands</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>750</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;1. Vladimir&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient city of Vladimir, founded in 1108 by the Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomach, contains an important group of religious and secular monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of the Assumption (1158) was intended by Vladimir Monomach's son Andrei Bogolyubskii to be the religious centre of all Russia. It was built in the town Kremlin and is a single-domed structure constructed on six piers: the three naves are surmounted by a delicate drum and a helmet dome. It is 17.7 m wide by 22 m long and 32.3 m high overall. The facade is divided into five sections by embedded columns and is notable for its carved reliefs. The interior decoration is important in Russian art. Most of the 12th century frescoes were destroyed by Mongols in 1238, but new mural paintings were added in 1408 by the master painters Andrei Rublev and Daniil Chernii, in particular the famous &amp;quot;Last Judgment.&amp;quot; The iconostasis is a fine Baroque example of 1774.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Golden Gate (1164) forms part of the 12th century defences, now demolished. It is a cubic tower with a church dedicated to the Deposition of the Holy Robe on top.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Princely Castle at Bogolyubovo (1165) contains the remains of the 12th century Royal Palace, in the form of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin and the Staircase Tower of Andrei Bogolyubskii. The cathedral is a 17th century building on the site of the original structure. There is a tent-roofed bell-tower of the 17th century. The Church of the Intercession (1165) on the Nerl River is located at the point of the original river gate of Vladimir. It has a single dome supported on four piers with a helmet dome at the crossing and reliefs on the upper part of the exterior walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of St Demetrius (1194-97) is a Royal church, built to the order of Grand Prince Vsevolod III. It is cubic in form, with three internal naves and a helmet dome. The exterior is noteworthy for over a thousand stone carvings on the general theme of King David. 12th century frescoes survive in the western part of the interior.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;2. Suzdal&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Suzdal, which lies some 25 km north of Vladimir on the bank of the Kamenka River, was the site of a settlement in the 9th and 10th centuries AD which became a fortress in the 11th century. A civil settlement (posad) developed around it, housing craftsmen and shopkeepers, and monasteries were attracted to the area in the 13th and 14th centuries. Despite some regularization in 1788, the street pattern remains much as it was in the earlier period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kremlin (fortress) is surrounded by earthen ramparts. Within, dominating the whole town, stands the Cathedral of the Nativity, built in the 13th century and reconstructed in the 16th century, with its five-domed top and 13th century Golden Doors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Important monuments in the posad include several cubic churches of the 16th and 17th centuries with tent roofs, such as that of the Convent of the Deposition of the Holy Robe and the Refectory Church of the Assumption, a number of 18th century churches, often in pairs, such as those of the Convent of the Intercession, and several monasteries. The most important of the last-named is the Monastery of Our Saviour and St Euthymius, founded in 1352, with its Cathedral of the Transfiguration built in the 16th century but in the 12th century tradition of Vladimir.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;3. Kideksha&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the right bank of the Nerl River, at Kideksha, 5 km to the east of Suzdal, is the Church of St Boris and St Gleb. It is of great architectural importance, since it was the first church in Russia to be built in white limestone, the style that came to characterize above all else the 12th century architecture of Vladimir. It is small (15.5 m square) with three apses on its eastern side. It is plain, with little decoration, though remains of medieval frescoes were revealed in 1947.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/633</http_url><id_number>633</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_633.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>56.1500000000</latitude><location>Vladimir region</location><longitude>40.4166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;These two artistic centres in central Russia hold an important place in the country's architectural history. There are a number of magnificent 12th- and 13th-century public and religious buildings, above all the masterpieces of the Collegiate Church of St Demetrios and the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient city of Vladimir, founded in 1108 by the Kiev Prince Vladimir Monomach, contains an important group of religious and secular monuments. The Cathedral of the Assumption (1158) was intended by Vladimir Monomach's son Andrei Bogolyubskii to be the religious centre of all Russia. It was built in the town Kremlin and is a single-domed structure constructed on six piers: the three naves are surmounted by a delicate drum and a helmet dome. It is 17.7&amp;nbsp;m wide by 22&amp;nbsp;m long and 32.3&amp;nbsp;m high overall. The facade is divided into five sections by embedded columns and is notable for its carved reliefs. The interior decoration is important in Russian art. Most of the 12th-century frescoes were destroyed by Mongols in 1238, but new mural paintings were added in 1408 by the master painters Andrei Rublev and Daniil Chernii, in particular the famous &lt;em&gt;Last Judgement&lt;/em&gt; . The iconostasis is a fine Baroque example of 1774.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Golden Gate (1164) forms part of the 12th-century defences, now demolished. It is a cubic tower with a church dedicated to the Deposition of the Holy Robe on top. The Princely Castle at Bogolyubovo (1165) contains the remains of the 12th-century Royal Palace, in the form of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin and the Staircase Tower of Andrei Bogolyubskii. The cathedral is a 17th-century building on the site of the original structure. There is a tent-roofed bell tower of the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Intercession (1165) on the Nerl River is located at the point of the original river gate of Vladimir. It has a single dome supported on four piers with a helmet dome at the crossing and reliefs on the upper part of the exterior walls. The Cathedral of St Demetrius (1194-97) is a royal church, built to the order of Grand Prince Vsevolod III. It is cubic in form, with three internal naves and a helmet dome. The exterior is noteworthy for over 1,000 stone carvings on the general theme of King David.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Suzdal, which lies some 25&amp;nbsp;km north of Vladimir on the bank of the Kamenka River, was the site of a settlement in the 9th and 10th centuries, which became a fortress in the 11th century. A civil settlement (&lt;em&gt;posad&lt;/em&gt; ) developed around it, housing craftsmen and shopkeepers, and monasteries were attracted to the area in the 13th and 14th centuries. Despite some regularization in 1788, the street pattern remains much as it was in the earlier period. The Kremlin (fortress) is surrounded by earthen ramparts. Within, dominating the whole town stands the Cathedral of the Nativity, built in the 13th century and reconstructed in the 16th century, with its five-domed top and 13th-century Golden Doors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Important monuments in the &lt;em&gt;posad&lt;/em&gt; include several cubic churches of the 16th and 17th centuries with tent roofs, such as that of the Convent of the Deposition of the Holy Robe and the Refectory Church of the Assumption, a number of 18th-century churches, often in pairs, such as those of the Convent of the Intercession, and several monasteries. The most important of the latter is the Monastery of Our Saviour and St Euthymius, founded in 1352, with its Cathedral of the Transfiguration built in the 16th century but in the 12th-century tradition of Vladimir.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the right bank of the Nerl River at Kideksha, 5&amp;nbsp;km east of Suzdal, is the Church of St Boris and St Gleb. It is of great architectural importance, as it was the first church in Russia to be built from white limestone, the style that came to characterize above all else the 12th-century architecture of Vladimir. It is small with three apses on its eastern side. It is plain, with little decoration, although remains of medieval frescoes were revealed in 1947.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The buildings in Vladimir and Suzdal (especially the latter) have been the centre of a major cultural tourism effort for several decades and a good deal of restoration has been carried out. It is difficult to evaluate the quality and extent of this restoration from the dossiers, but personal observation shows that it has respected the traditional techniques and materials.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These two artistic centres in central Russia hold an important place in the country's architectural history. There are a number of magnificent 12th- and 13th-century public and religious buildings, above all the masterpieces of the Collegiate Church of St Demetrios and the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>752</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Ascension was built in 1532 by Prince Vasili III to commemorate the birth of the prince who was to become Tsar Ivan IV &amp;quot;the Terrible&amp;quot;. The contemporary chronicle of Mkon describes it as &amp;quot;that church highly remarkable for its height, beauty, and lightness and was no church like this one in Russia before&amp;quot; . It was consecratedw ith great pomp on 3 September1 532b y the Metropolitan Dionissi, the Bishops of Kolomenskoye and Zaraisk, and the whole of the synod in the presence of Grand Prince Vasili, Grand Princess Yelena, Tsarevich Ioarm, and the brothers of the Tsar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church is situated in the Kolomenskoye estate, first recorded in 1339, when it belonged to Ivan KaIita, Grand Prince of Moscow. By the 16th century it had become a fortified stronghold. The palace complex was added later, in the 17th century, and it continued in use as an Imperial residence and estate until the 1917 Revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/634</http_url><id_number>634</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_634.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.6555600000</latitude><location>Moscow, the South District</location><longitude>37.6738900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Ascension is of great town-planning importance. It dominates the surrounding architectural and natural structures and unites all the elements of the estate. It is also a unique architectural and artistic monument as one of the earliest tent-roofed churches in Russia and as such the progenitor of subsequent architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church was built in 1532 by Prince Vasili III to commemorate the birth of the prince who was to become Tsar Ivan IV 'the Terrible'. It was consecrated with great pomp on 3 September 1532 by the Metropolitan Dionissi, the Bishops of Kolomenskoye and Zaraisk, and the whole of the synod in the presence of Grand Prince Vasili, Grand Princess Yelena, Tsarevich Ioann and the brothers of the tsar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church is situated in the Kolomenskoye estate, first recorded in 1339, when it belonged to Ivan KaIita, Grand Prince of Moscow. By the 16th century it had become a fortified stronghold. The palace complex was added later, in the 17th century, and it continued in use as an imperial residence and estate until the 1917 Revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ground plan of the church is in the form of a Greek equal-armed cross, with &lt;em&gt;raskrepovkas&lt;/em&gt; (small protrusions) in the facade on either side. It is unusual in that it has no apse. It is constructed on a high basement &lt;em&gt;podklet&lt;/em&gt; , the second gallery of which is an open gallery surrounding the staircase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three wide stairways with porches lead to the gallery from the north, west, and south; they are covered with vaulted roofs. There are small chambers under the north and south porches, two of which have fluted columns of brick and white limestone. Under the west porch there is the entrance to the main room of the basement; the semi-circular portal preserves the original white limestone decor of half-columns on fluted bases. The massive vertical pillar rising from the basement is in three sections. The lower part is a cube (&lt;em&gt;chetvik&lt;/em&gt; ) with several protruding entrances (&lt;em&gt;pritvors&lt;/em&gt; ); it serves as the base of an octagon (&lt;em&gt;vosmerik&lt;/em&gt; ) with wails that carry smoothly up to the octagonal tent roof, which is crowned by a cupola on a drum. The principal element of the facades - the pointed pediments above the arches of the basement, the strong comer &lt;em&gt;lopatki&lt;/em&gt; (flat vertical protrusions on the walls) with decorative arrows between the carved network of faceted beads over the tent roof - were intended to lead the eye upwards to the cupola and its cross.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interior of the church is small, as the walls are 3-4&amp;nbsp;m thick, but it is open to the top of the roof, 41&amp;nbsp;m above. The comers are decorated with pilasters which repeat, with some variations, the decoration of the exterior. Eight arches spring from the pilasters, and the octagonal drum that they support make a smooth transition to the soft outline of the tent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sloping of the tent is achieved through corbelling of the courses of brick. The tent is 20&amp;nbsp;m high; this is the first use of the traditional wooden tented roof for a stone structure. With its overall height of 62&amp;nbsp;m and the very thick walls, the whole structure retains the elegance of its silhouette and the dynamics of its composition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original iconostasis has not survived. It was replaced at the beginning of the 19th century by that from the Monastery of the Ascension of the Moscow Kremlin. The 16th-century 'Tsar's Gates', all that survives of the original iconostasis, are now in the Kolomenskoye Museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The so-called Italian (Alevisovsky) small brick, introduced by Italian architects at the end of the 15th century, was used for building the church. Carved details are in white limestone from the Moscow suburb of Myachkovo.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Ascension was built in 1532 on the imperial estate of Kolomenskoye, near Moscow, to celebrate the birth of the prince who was to become Tsar Ivan IV ('the Terrible'). One of the earliest examples of a traditional wooden tent-roofed church on a stone and brick substructure, it had a great influence on the development of Russian ecclesiastical architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Church of the Ascension, Kolomenskoye</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>754</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Trinity-Sergius Monastery was founded in the 1330s in the forest to the north of Moscow by the monk Sergius, the son of a boyar from Rostov the Great. The creation of the Monastery and the neighbouring settlements is well documented in two early lives of Sergius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1355 he introduced rules for monastic life in the community, which required the construction of buildings - refectory, kitchen, bakery, etc. specialized This resulted in a well defined layout being adopted, with the monks' cells arranged around a rectangular open space with the church and refectory in its centre. The whole complex, with its outbuildings, was enclosed within a wooden palisade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sergius achieved great prestige as the spiritual adviser of Dmitri Donskoi, Great Prince of Moscow. Despite Dmitri's decisive defeat of the Tatars at the battle of Kulikovo in 1380, however, Tatar raids continued for another century, and in 1408 the Monastery was destroyed by fire. It was quickly rebuilt on its earlier plan by Nikon, Sergiusls successor, with Royal support. The new church, again built in wood, was consecrated in 1412.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From this time onwards the Monastery began to grow in wealth, as a feudal landowner, and influence. It established many daughter houses in different parts of Russia. Sergius was canonized in 1422 and declared the patron saint of the country. This event coincided with the erection of the first stonebuilding at the Monastery, the new Trinity Cathedral, which still stands. This became especially important to the Royal house, who were baptized and held thanksgiving services there. The Cathedral was embellished with masterpieces by the famous Russian artists Andrei Rublev and Daniil Chernyi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The location of the Monastery on a strategically important road led to its inclusion in the defensive system around Moscow with the construction of fortifications in 1540-60. The original wooden palisade was replaced by stone walls some 1.5 km long, with 12 towers. The area of the Monastery was extended at this time, and new buildings were erected, including accommodation for the Tsar, a small church over the tomb of Nikon, an infirmary and cellarer's chambers, and, most important of all, the large Cathedral of the Assumption (1559-85). The villages and settlements around the Monastery expanded to house the many workers involved in the new works.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the political upheavals of the early 17th century the Monastery withstood a legendary 16-month siege, as a result of which it received many rich endowments and donations. Some of this money was used to strengthen the already formidable defences, which were to prove their worth at the end of the century, when the young Tsar Peter (the Great) twice took refuge there. With Peter's consolidation of power, a number of new buildings in Baroque style were added to the Monastery, including the refectory chamber with the church of St Sergius, a stone palace for the Tsar (Chertogi), the Church over the Gates, and the Chapel over the Well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1744 Empress Elisaveta Petrovna awarded the highest title to the Monastery, that of Lavra, reinforcing its paramountcy in the Russian Church. At the same time, the Orthodox Metropolitan of Moscow became also the Holy Archimandrite of the Lavra. Following a devastating fire in 1746, when most of the wooden buildings and structures were destroyed, a major reconstruction campaign was launched, during which the appearance of many of the buildings was changed to a more monumental style and new elements were added, including the Church of the Virgin of Smolensk (17451, the Kalichia (Pilgrim) Tower (1788), and a five-storey belfry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the later 18th century the policy of secularization of church property led to the lands of the Monastery being expropriated by the State. The settlements around the Monastery became the town of Sergiev Posad in 1782, and it was rebuilt on a new plan orientated on the Monastery after a fire. The building of a highway from Moscow to Sergiev Posad in 1845 and a railway in 1868 increased the flow of visitors and pilgrims to the Monastery, and this in turn brought economic prosperity to the town. The Moscow Ecclesiastical Academy and Seminary was transferred to the Monastery in 1814.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the Revolution of 1917, the Monastery was closed, the monks being allowed to move to a nearby Gethsemanean cell. The artistic and historical treasures were nationalized and entrusted to a State commission, the repair and restoration of the monuments being the responsibility of another commission. At the present time the Ecclesiastical Academy and Seminary and the Trinity-Sergius Monastery are continuing their activities within the Lavra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/657</http_url><id_number>657</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_657.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>56.3103500000</latitude><location>Moscow region, town Sergiev-Posad (ex Zagorsk)</location><longitude>38.1312000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra in Sergiev Posad is an outstanding example of 14th- to 18th-century Russian architecture. Many of these buildings were models for later buildings in Russia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery, founded in the 1330s, is located on a strategically important road, and became part of the defensive system around Moscow with the construction of fortifications in 1540-60. After a fire in 1746, when most of the wooden buildings and structures were destroyed, a major reconstruction campaign was launched. During the later 18th century, the policy of secularization of church property led to the lands of the monastery being expropriated. The settlements around the monastery became the town of Sergiev Posad in 1782. The building of a highway from Moscow to Sergiev Posad in 1845 and a railway in 1868 increased the flow of visitors and pilgrims, and this in turn brought economic prosperity. The Moscow Ecclesiastical Academy and Seminary was transferred there in 1814; the ensemble are continuing their activities, but following the Revolution of 1917, it was closed and the artistic and historical treasures were nationalized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Trinity Cathedral is a four-pillar single-domed church with three apses. Its interior is decorated with frescoes by Chernyi and Rublev, including its masterpiece: the icon of The Trinity. It has a gilded dome, carried out on the orders of Ivan the Terrible in 1556 to celebrate the seizure of Kazan. The Nikon annex is a single-domed and single-apse church with a square plan, built from brick faced with white limestone. The Tent of Serapion is a rectangular building, which adjoins the south side of the Trinity Cathedral and is symmetrical with the Nikon Annex. It was built in 1559 and houses the burials of three church dignitaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palace of the Metropolitan, built against the southern wall of the monastery, has the appearance of a small Baroque palace, with its red-painted facade. There is a portico in the centre, supporting a wide balcony with an elegant wrought-iron balustrade. The interior apartments are luxuriously decorated. The Refectory with the Church of St Sergius is spanned by a single vault. The high, pillar-less church of St Sergius, richly decorated, has three apses and a single dome. The facades are painted in blue, red and green squares and embellished with embedded columns with ornate capitals and a cornice with medallions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Holy Spirit (Dukhovskaya), located in the centre of the monastery, is one of the oldest monuments in the complex. It is a four-pillared church with three apses and a single dome built from white limestone in conventional form. The interior walls have the earliest examples of glazed tiles for decoration. The Cathedral of the Assumption is a towering structure echoing the Cathedral of the Assumption in the Moscow Kremlin. The walls of the six-pillar building are divided by prominent pilasters and the facade has a band of blind arcading. There are two tiers of narrow windows. The interior is light and spacious, the walls being decorated with frescoes and a masterpiece of Simon Ushakov. The Belfry is the highest building in the complex, situated on the northern side of the central square. It is a brick structure, clad in stucco, with decorative elements (columns, cartouches, etc.) in white limestone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Virgin of Smolensk has three limestone balustrades and two staircases on either side of the main door; decorative double pilasters support four curvilinear pediments. The interior is light and spacious, but the original wall decoration has not been preserved. The Palace of the Tsar (Chertogi) has the facades painted in a chequerboard design, similar to those of the refectory. The layout of the richly decorated interior conforms to the regularity demanded by mid-18th century architectural standards. The monks' cells, two-storey stone buildings, were built up against in the fortress walls in the 16th and 17th centuries. Several blocks of these have been preserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortress, stone walls and corner towers form an irregular rectangle with three levels of defences: the lowest being isolated casemates, a vaulted gallery, and an open machicolated gallery. The towers were originally floored internally with wood, but this has been replaced with stone vaulting. The religious buildings outside the walls are: the Piatnitskaya Church and the Vvedenskaya Church (1547), the Chapel over the Piatnitskii Well (late 17th century), and the Krasnogorskaya Chapel (1770).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This is a fine example of a working Orthodox monastery, with military features that are typical of the 15th to the 18th century, the period during which it developed. The main church of the Lavra, the Cathedral of the Assumption (echoing the Kremlin Cathedral of the same name), contains the tomb of Boris Godunov. Among the treasures of the Lavra is the famous icon, &lt;em&gt;The Trinity&lt;/em&gt; , by Andrei Rublev.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Architectural Ensemble of the Trinity Sergius Lavra in Sergiev Posad</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>778</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Pechoro-Ilychsky Nature Reserve was established by RSFSR Soviet of People's Commissars Decree on 4 May 1930 and was accepted as a biosphere reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme in 1984. Russian Federation Decree No. 377 of23 April 1994 established Yugyd Va National Park under the Federal Forestry Service of Russia in the Komi Republic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 17 reservations but there is insufficient data to precisely describe their establishment. No definition of the term 'reservation' is given. Salbia and Vangeriusky Reservations were both established according to the Komi Council of Ministers Decree No.90 on 29 March 1984. Kharota-Jagineisky, Maldynsky, Shchugorsky, Niart-Siuiu, Vode-Shor, Kozhim, Podchermsky, Syninskyand Bolshesyninsky reservations were all established by the Komi Council of Ministers Decree No .193 on 26 September 1989. There are 33 nature monuments and three state forestry farms, the latter are owned by the Forestry Department and could be used for wood production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pechoro Ilychsky Nature Reserve, ButTerzone and Yugyd-Va National Park were inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1995.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/719</http_url><id_number>719</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_719.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>63.6258333333</latitude><location>Komi Republic</location><longitude>58.9525000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the north-western region of the Komi Republic, on the western slopes of the Northern Urals, the Komi Forest is dominated by lowlands in the west that rise to form the mountains in the east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The eastern area of the forest is dominated by the Northern Ural mountains, which are oriented in a north-south direction. They are characterized by mountain-glacier formations, of which the southernmost glaciers occur within the Telpossky massif. The dissolution of limestone along the foothills has formed a karst landscape with subterranean caves, craters and river beds that are seasonally flooded. Weathering in the Ilych, Podcherema, Shchugora and Bolshaya Syn basins has given rise to columns and residual mountain structures. These are protected as Natural Monuments. Many of these features are remnant reef structures, the oldest of which date back to the Ordovician period. The undulating terrain to the west comprises marshes, lowlands and several hills which also give way to mountains. The eastern mountainous and western lowland regions are linked by the Uniya and upper reaches of the Ilych river basins. The south-central part of the Pechoro-Ilychsky Reserve lies on the Pripechova lowlands, a plain of sand and morainic loam at the foot of the North Urals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation of the lowlands comprises marshes and flood plain islands. Boreal forest extends from the marshes to the foothills of the Urals and is superseded by subalpine scrub woodlands, meadows, tundra and bedrock. Boreal forest predominantly comprises pine and larch, the latter found in higher areas. Ground cover consists of cowberry, bilberry and reindeer mosses. Extensive spruce, fir and pine forests are found in the valleys. The Virgin Komi Forests is the only place in Europe where the Siberian pine grows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area to the west comprises marshes and flood-plain islands. Low-altitude wetter areas such as bogs support sphagnum moss with cranberry, bilberry and cloudberry. The flood-plain island terraces are dominated by willow, rowan, blackcurrant and bird cherry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna includes both European and Asiatic species with some 43 mammal, 204 bird and 16 fish species recorded. Threatened mammal species include wolf, otter, beaver, sable, wolverine and lynx. Mammals include hare, squirrel, flying squirrel, beaver (reintroduced), grey wolf, fox, brown bear, weasel, otter, pine marten, sable, wolverine, lynx and elk. Musk rat has been introduced to the area. Bird species include capercaillie, black grouse, willow grouse, hazel grouse, black woodpecker, three-toed woodpecker, nutcracker and red-flanked bluetail. A number of waterfowl species, including golden eye, goosander, wigeon, teal and bean goose, breed in the area. Fish species include salmon, grayling and whitefish and almost all rivers in the designated site provide salmon spawning grounds&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prior to Russians settling in the area during the 17th century, the residents included the Pechera and Zyriane groups of the Komi people, the Ostiaki group of the Khanty people and the Voguly group of the Mansi people, of which the latter group were driven out of the Urals. The 10th- and 11th-century chronicles name the Chiud, Merya, Ves and Pechera peoples as the main inhabitants. The hills of this region have traces of Palaeolithic camp sites and fossil remains and an ancient sanctuary of the Mansi people has also been found. Present settlements within the Uniya basin include those of the Komi people and the Old Believers, a religious sect that was proscribed by the Russian authorities in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Virgin Komi Forests cover 3.28 million ha of tundra and mountain tundra in the Urals, as well as one of the most extensive areas of virgin boreal forest remaining in Europe. This vast area of conifers, aspens, birches, peat bogs, rivers and natural lakes has been monitored and studied for over 50 years. It provides valuable evidence of the natural processes affecting biodiversity in the taiga.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Virgin Komi Forests</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>850</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/754</http_url><id_number>754</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_754.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed Lake Baikal as the most outstanding example of a freshwater ecosystem on the basis of natrual criteria (vii), (viii), (ix) and (x). It is the oldest and deepest of the world&amp;acute;s lakes containing nearly 20% of the world&amp;acute;s unfrozen freshwater reserve. The lake contains an outstanding variety of endemic flora and fauna, which is of exceptional value to evolutionary science. It is also surrounded by a system of protected areas that have high scenic and other natural values. The Committee took note of the confirmation of the revised boundaries of the site, which correspond to the core areas defined in the Baikal Law (excluding the five urban developed areas). It also noted that the special Lake Baikal Law is now in its second reading in the Duma. Finally, it noted concern over a number of integrity issues including pollution, which should be brought to the attention of the Russian authorities.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.1736111100</latitude><location>Irkutsk and Chita regions, Republic of Buryatia</location><longitude>107.6625000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lake Baikal in south-east Siberia, the deepest lake in the world at 1,700&amp;nbsp;m, contains 20% of all fresh running water on the planet, making it the single largest reservoir. The lake contains an outstanding variety of endemic flora and fauna, of exceptional value to evolutionary science. It is also surrounded by a system of protected areas that have high scenic and other natural values. The basin supports a variety of plant and animal species, a number being endemic; the most notable of which is the Baikal seal, a uniquely freshwater species. The great variety of plants in the basin is determined by its climatic asymmetry: the western part is occupied by light coniferous forests and mountain steppes; in the eastern part pine forests predominate; and the north is covered by deciduous forests. The formation of the geological structures in the basin took place during the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras and there are a number of significant geological features. Various tectonic forces are still ongoing, as evidenced in recent thermal vents in the depths of the lake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lake itself is the centrepiece of the site and its largely unseen underwater features are the core of its value to both science and conservation. Baikal is one of the most biodiverse lakes on Earth, with 1,340 species of animal (745 endemic) and 570 species of plant (150 endemic). In the forests surrounding the lake there are an additional 10 threatened species along with the full complement of typical boreal species. The evolution of aquatic life that has taken place over this long period has resulted in an exceptionally unique and endemic fauna and flora. As the 'Gal&amp;aacute;pagos of Russia', the lake is of exceptional value to evolutionary science.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape surrounding the lake basin, with its mountains, boreal forests, tundra, lakes, islands and steppes, is exceptionally picturesque. The Baikal region has some 1,200 historical, archaeological and cultural monuments of which 1,000 have state protection. A number of these are considered sacred. There is also a mix of distinctive cultures in the region and an interesting human history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, there are serious threats to the biotic communities at Lake Baikal and there is a danger that its unique ecosystem properties could be lost. Various steps are being taken to address these issues of integrity with strong support from all levels of government and the Russian public.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in south-east Siberia, the 3.15-million-ha Lake Baikal is the oldest (25 million years) and deepest (1,700 m) lake in the world. It contains 20% of the world's total unfrozen freshwater reserve. Known as the 'Galapagos of Russia', its age and isolation have produced one of the world's richest and most unusual freshwater faunas, which is of exceptional value to evolutionary science.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lake Baikal</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>889</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/765</http_url><id_number>765</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_765.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee inscribed the Volcanoes of Kamchatka as one of the most outstanding examples of the volcanic regions in the world on the basis of natural criteria (vii), (viii) and (ix). The site contains a high density of active volcanoes, a variety of different types and a wide range of volcanic features. The Peninsula location between a large continental landmass and the Pacific Ocean also exhibits unique characteristics with major concentrations of wildlife.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii)&lt;/em&gt;: The addition of Kluchevskoy Nature Park as the sixth component of the site further adds to the overall coverage of the range of Kamchatka's natural features. The addition to the site clearly meets criterion (viii) in its own right as an outstanding example of geological processes and landforms and therefore contributes in a very significant way to the expanded site as a whole meeting criterion (viii).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix) :&lt;/em&gt; The expanded site is also biologically analogous to six islands and its geographic location between a large continental landmass and the Pacific Ocean has given it unique characteristics. Natural processes continue with on-going volcanic activity and colonisation. Kluchevskoy Nature Park contributes significantly to the expanded site as a whole meeting criterion (ix).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii):&lt;/em&gt; The Kamchatka Volcanoes is a landscape of exceptional natural beauty with its large symmetrical volcanoes, lakes, wild rivers and spectacular coastline. It also contains superlative natural phenomena in the form of salmon spawning areas and major concentrations of wildlife (e.g. seabird colonies) along the coastal zone of the Bering Sea. Kluchevskoy Nature Park contributes very significantly to the site as a whole meeting criterion (vii).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; The Kamchatka Volcanoes contain an especially diverse range of palearctic flora (including a number of nationally threatened species and at least 16 endemics), and bird species such as the Stellar’s Sea Eagle (50% of world population), white tailed eagle, gyr falcon and peregrine falcon, which are attracted to the availability of spawning salmon. The rivers inside and adjacent to the site contain the world’s greatest known diversity of salmonid fish. All 11 species coexist in several of Kamchatka’s rivers.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>56.3333333300</latitude><location></location><longitude>158.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site comprises six distinct locations on the Kamchatka Peninsula, in the Russian Far East, in the central mountainous spine of the peninsula (Bystrinsky Nature Park), and coastal locations facing east towards the Bering Sea (Koronotsky Zapovednik, Nalychevo Nature Park and the contiguous Southern Kamchatka Nature Park and Southern Kamchatka State Nature Reserve). Kluchevskoy Nature Park was added in 2001 as the sixth component of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The property represents the most pristine parts of the Kamchatka Peninsula and a remarkable collection of volcanic areas, characteristic of the 'Pacific Volcanic Ring'. This is the surface expression of the subduction of the Pacific Ocean Continental Plate under the Eurasia Plate at rates of 10 cm annually. The addition of Kluchevskoy Nature Park, an outstanding example of geological processes and landforms, further adds to the range of natural features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;More than 300 volcanoes are found in Kamchatka, 29 being currently active, including caldera, strata-volcano, somma-volcano and mixed types, the largest included in the World Heritage site being Kronotskaya Sopka (3,528 m). In addition there is a multitude of thermal and mineral springs, geysers and other phenomena of active vulcanism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Surrounded by sea, the peninsula enjoys a moist and relatively mild climate leading to a lush vegetation cover. With only modest history of human exploitation, the vegetation is in largely pristine condition, and includes mountain valley taiga forest of birch, larch and spruce; extensive stone-birch forest; riparian forest on alluvial soil of poplars, aspen, alder and willow; peat wetland and extensive coastal wetlands up to 50 km wide; and subalpine shrub and mountain tundra. The region also contains an especially diverse range of Palaearctic flora (including a number of nationally threatened species and at least 16 endemics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The faunal complement is relatively low in diversity, with the Kamchatka Peninsula exhibiting some of the biogeographic qualities of an island. Nevertheless, a number of species are abundant, including bears, snow ram, northern deer, sable and wolverine, and there is a high level of endemism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Noteworthy birds include Stellar's sea eagle (50% of world population), white-tailed eagle, golden eagle, gyrfalcon and peregrine falcon. There are numerous seabird colonies and 50% of the global population of Aleutian tern nest on the peninsula. Almost all rivers, noted for being exceptionally unpolluted, serve as salmon spawning grounds, a key food-chain species for predatory birds and mammals. All 11 species of salmonid fish coexist in several of Kamchatka's rivers.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2001</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This is one of the most outstanding volcanic regions in the world, with a high density of active volcanoes, a variety of types, and a wide range of related features. The six sites included in the serial designation group together the majority of volcanic features of the Kamchatka peninsula. The interplay of active volcanoes and glaciers forms a dynamic landscape of great beauty. The sites contain great species diversity, including the world's largest known variety of salmonoid fish and exceptional concentrations of sea otter, brown bear and Stellar's sea eagle.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Volcanoes of Kamchatka</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>902</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/768</http_url><id_number>768</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_768.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (x)&lt;/em&gt;: The Altai region represents an important and original centre of biodiversity of montane plant and animal species in northern Asia, a number of which are rare and endemic.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.4666666700</latitude><location>450 km southwest of Novosibirsk, in the Altai Republic</location><longitude>86.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is in the Altai Mountains in southern Siberia in the territory of the Altai Republic, comprising the high mountainous areas of Altai, the headwaters of the Katun and Chulyshman rivers and Lake Teletskoye. The World Heritage site consists of three separate areas: Altaisky Zapovednik and a buffer zone around Lake Teletskoye; Katunsky Zapovednik and a buffer zone around Mount Belukha; and the Ukok Quiet Zone on the Ukok Plateau. Two of the areas are located along the borders with China and Mongolia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This extensive mountainous area is the watershed between central Asia and the Arctic Ocean and includes the headwaters of the Katun and Baya rivers. The confluence of these two rivers, beyond the boundary of the nominated site, forms the River Ob at 5,410 km, the fifth-longest river in the world, which flows north into the Arctic Ocean. Typical relief features of mountain peaks include the 4,605 m Mount Belukha, cirques and trough valleys with lake basins, morainal hills and ridges. The origins of the mountains can in general be traced back to the Caledonian-Hercyninan period, although rocks of the Precambrian, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras are found. The single most important factor in the landscape has been the influence of glaciation, with five glacial periods in evidence. Of 1,499 glaciers in the Altai region, many are within the nominated property, in the south Altai group and the central Altai group. The multitude of lakes is also a particular feature of the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Altaisky Zapovednik and the Buffer Zone around Lake Teletskoye in the eastern part of the Altai is composed of a mountainous taiga, a glacial zone, mountain meadows, and high-altitude tundra and steppes. More than 1,400 vascular plants are found in the Zapovednik and of these 17% are endemic species. The area supports a diverse fauna, including 72 mammal species and 310 bird species. Snow leopard and argali mountain sheep are also found within the Zapovednik. Lake Teletskoye is the largest body of freshwater in south-western Siberia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Katunsky Zapovednik and the buffer zone around Mount Belukha are located in the southern part of the Altai, featuring a wide altitudinal variation and associated ecosystems, including mountain taiga, alpine meadows, extensive glacial zones, high mountain tundra and steppe areas. The region contains many important relic and endemic species. The Ukok Quiet Zone is located in the south-east of the Altai Republic, on a high mountain plateau dominated by hills and steppe landscapes with marsh, streams and lakes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region has a rich cultural heritage. The first humans appeared in the region almost 1 million years ago, as evidenced by Palaeolithic settlements in the region of Gorno-Altaisk. The Golden Mountains area was part of emerging and collapsing tribal unions, khanates, and the empires of the Scythians, Turks, Uigurs, Yenissey Kirgiz, Kidans, Mongols and Oitrats. From the mid-18th century, the Altai region became part of the Russian Empire. The area is sparsely populated with local populations of Russians and Altaisky, a Turkish-speaking people, mainly involved in traditional pastoralism, low-intensity agriculture, hunting and gathering. These people have co-existed with nature for millennia and have a strong affinity with the natural environment. Indeed, one reviewer has commented that the region's important biodiversity is probably not due purely to natural factors but to the millennia of grazing. The Ukok Quiet Zone and Mount Belukha have particular cultural and religious values for local people.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Altai mountains in southern Siberia form the major mountain range in the western Siberia biogeographic region and provide the source of its greatest rivers – the Ob and the Irtysh. Three separate areas are inscribed: Altaisky Zapovednik and a buffer zone around Lake Teletskoye; Katunsky Zapovednik and a buffer zone around Mount Belukha; and the Ukok Quiet Zone on the Ukok plateau. The total area covers 1,611,457 ha. The region represents the most complete sequence of altitudinal vegetation zones in central Siberia, from steppe, forest-steppe, mixed forest, subalpine vegetation to alpine vegetation. The site is also an important habitat for endangered animal species such as the snow leopard.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Golden Mountains of Altai</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>907</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/900</http_url><id_number>900</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_900.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Western Caucasus has a remarkable diversity of geology, ecosystems and species. It is of global significance as a centre of plant diversity. Along with the Virgin Komi World Heritage site, it is the only large mountain area in Europe that has not experienced significant human impact, containing extensive tracts of undisturbed mountain forests unique on the European scale.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>44.0000000000</latitude><location>Krasnodar Region</location><longitude>40.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site is at the far western end of the Greater Caucasus Mountains within Krasnodar Kray and the republics of Adygea and Karachevo-Cherkessia. It includes a number of units. The largest of these is the Caucasus (Kavkazskiy) state biosphere reserve, together with its 1 km wide buffer zone which runs along much of the perimeter of the reserve except in Karachevo-Cherkessia Republic and where the reserve abuts Georgia (Abkhazia). The second main component of the site comprises the three elements of the most strictly protected zone of Sochi National Park (all in Krasnodar Kray).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remainder of the site comprises four small areas in Adygea Republic: Bolshoy Thach nature park; the nature monuments of Buiny Ridge, the headwaters of the River Tsitsa and the Pshecha and Pshechashcha rivers. The region is mountainous, ranging in altitude from 250 m to peaks over 3,000 m, of which the highest is Akaragvarta (3,360 m). The geology is very diverse, including sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks from the full span of eras from the Precambrian to the Palaeozoic; it is also very complex, reflecting the origin of the Caucasus Mountains. The north part of the site is characterized by karst limestone massifs with many caves, including 130 in the Lagonaki massif alone. Over the majority of the site the landscape has a typical glaciated relief, with high peaks, 60 remnant glaciers, moraines, and over 130 high-altitude lakes. The main rivers on the north side are the Bol'shaya Laba and Belaya, which feed into the Kuban; on the south side the rivers are shorter, flowing into the Black Sea. There are numerous waterfalls, up to 250 m in height.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flora of the area is characterized by clear zonation, both vertically and from west to east. The western part has oak-hornbeam and beech and beech-fir forests; the higher central parts have fir-spruce forests with birch and maple at high altitudes; and the eastern parts have both fir-spruce and pine-cedar forests. Above the timberline at around 2,500 m are endemic rhododendron thickets as well as subalpine and alpine meadows. In total, 1,580 vascular plant species have been recorded on the site. Of the forest plant species, about one-fifth is relict or endemic. Some 160 of the vascular plant species are considered as threatened with extinction in the Russian Federation, Adygea Republic and Krasnodar Kray. There are over 700 species of fungi, including 12 that are nationally threatened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna is also rich, with 384 vertebrate species, and 60 mammal species, including wolf, bear, lynx, wild boar, Caucasian deer, tur, chamois, and reintroduced European bison which are globally endangered. Signs of snow leopard area are occasionally seen (globally endangered). There are 246 species of bird, including many endemic, of which 24 are nationally threatened and 24 globally threatened. There is also a high species richness of amphibians, reptiles and fish, with many rare species. About 2,500 insect species have been recorded from a projected total of 5,000.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the last glaciation, ecological succession has taken place across the nominated site, resulting in a great diversity of ecosystems. The forests are remarkable on the European scale for their lack of human disturbance, i.e. natural ecological processes have continued over the millennia. Vegetation dynamics and timberline have not been influenced by the grazing of domestic animals; an unusual situation on a global scale. There are important populations of both ungulates and wolves, providing opportunities for studying both competitive interactions between grazing animals and predator/prey interactions. Given the size and untouched nature of the site, it should be considered for inscription under this criterion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Caucasus is one of the global centres of plant diversity. The site includes around a third of the 6,000 plant species of the Greater Caucasus, including Tertiary relicts and Mediterranean and Asiatic Turano-Iranian elements. About a third of the high mountain species and about a fifth of the forest species are endemic. The fauna is also very rich. The site is the place of origin and reintroduction of the mountain subspecies of the European bison, and acts as a reservoir for its expansion through the region. There are stable populations of many other large mammals. The avifauna is rich, and includes many endemic species. There are also high levels of species richness and endemicity in the lower orders. Apart from the Virgin Komi Forests of the Urals, the Western Caucasus is probably the only large mountain area in Europe that has not experienced significant human impacts. Its subalpine and alpine pastures have only been grazed by wild animals. Its extensive tracts of undisturbed mountain forests, extending from the lowlands to the subalpine zone, are unique in Europe. The forests include very large specimens.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Western Caucasus, extending over 275,000 ha of the extreme western end of the Caucasus mountains and located 50 km north-east of the Black Sea, is one of the few large mountain areas of Europe that has not experienced significant human impact. Its subalpine and alpine pastures have only been grazed by wild animals, and its extensive tracts of undisturbed mountain forests, extending from the lowlands to the subalpine zone, are unique in Europe. The site has a great diversity of ecosystems, with important endemic plants and wildlife, and is the place of origin and reintroduction of the mountain subspecies of the European bison.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Western Caucasus</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1052</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first human occupation in the Kazan area goes back to the 7th and 8th millennia BCE; there are traces of the Bronze Age (2nd to 1st millennia, late Kazan area settlement), early Iron Age (8th to 6th centuries BCE, Ananin culture), and early medieval period (4th-5th centuries CE, Azelin culture). From the 10th to 13th centuries Kazan was a pre-Mongol Bulgar town. Today's Kremlin hill consisted then of a fortified trading settlement surrounded by moats, embankments, and a stockade. A stone fortress was built in the 12th century and the town developed as an outpost on the northern border of Volga Bulgaria. The so-called Old Town extended eastward, on the site of the former Kazan Monastery of Our Lady. The fortress was demolished on the instructions of the Mongols in the 13th century. A citadel was then built as the seat of the Prince of Kazan, including the town's administrative and religious institutions. By the first half of the 15th century, the town had become the capital of the Muslim Principality of Bulgaria, with administrative, military, and trading functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Seat of the Kazan Khanate (1438-1552)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 15th century the state came under the rule of a dynasty of the Golden Horde Khans of the Ulug- Mukhammed branch. The former stone fortress was restored and extended to what is now the site of Kremlin and the territory was brought under organized control. By the mid 16th century the site had become a strong fortress built in wood and stone, with the Khan's Palace in the citadel and the Khan's Mosque with the tombs and necropolis of the Kazan Khans (possibly a site of pilgrimage). The Prince's Palace was rebuilt as the Khan's Court, while retaining its basic layout, and it also served as a treasury and depository of records and manuscripts. The Court dominated the townscape of Kazan and was surrounded by several walls at different levels, numerous pavilions, galleries, the Khan's Mosque, and other public buildings. The Western Gate was its most imposing structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Seat of the annexed Volga Land (Kazan Kingdom, 1552-1708)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1552, Russian forces took Kazan by storm; as a result of Ivan the Terrible's Volga campaign, the town became the new Christian capital of the Volga Land. The new Russian Kremlin was similar to the Tatar fortress, keeping its old urban layout, its relation with the context, the location of towers, and its basic internal plan. The watchtower of the earlier Tazik moat survived and was converted into the belltower of the new Annunciation Cathedral. In the 16th and 17th centuries there were no large-scale constructions in the Kremlin; the surviving Tatar buildings were reused and the mosques were gradually converted into Christian churches. The Kremlin underwent some changes, reflecting its new status as a Orthodox Christian centre with two monasteries (the Saviour-Transfiguration and the Trinity) and as a military stronghold. The Khan's Court was converted into an arsenal and new administrative quarters were built in the southern part of the fortress, in the Tsar's Palace chambers. Throughout these times Kazan retained its commemorative function, reflected in the saint's tomb near the Transfiguration Cathedral, the churches of St Nicholas Ratny and Nikita Selunskii, the chapel of the Vernicle, and the Holy (Tainitskii) Spring.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Seat of the first Kazan Province (1708 to late 18th century)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the early 18th century Kazan became the capital of Kazan Province, including vast territories of the Volga and Ural lands. As a result Kazan was again rebuilt. The administrative centre of the former Kazan Kingdom, located in the south, was returned to the northern part, where it had been at the time of the Tatars. The Chief Commandant's House, occupying the former Khan's Palace area, became the new focus of the fortress, suggesting the dominance of the secular power. It was reinforced by the mass of the Annunciation Cathedral and its bell-tower, overshadowing the Saviour-Transfiguration Monastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Centre of the second Kazan Province (late 18th century to 1920s)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban layout of the Kremlin was made more regular and some old streets from the Khanate Kazan were eliminated. The functions remained essentially the same as before. The street connecting the Spasskaya and Tainitskaya driveway towers along the north south axis was straightened, separating the fortress area into two distinct functional zones: (1) the eastern zone, including the Governor General's Palace, the Public Offices, the Consistory, the Annunciation Cathedral, and the Bishop's House and (2) the western zone, including the Cannon Foundry, Cadets' School, and Saviour- Transfiguration Monastery complexes. The loss of military significance and the emphasis on administration made the fortress merely an inner court of the provincial administration. This is seen particularly in the orientation of all the main elevations towards the city. Small-scale administrative buildings in different styles were added to the ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Centre of the Tatar Autonomous Republic, 1922-92&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Stalinist persecution most of the Kremlin's churches were demolished. This exacerbated the degradation of the ensemble, which lost many of its former compositional dominants - the belfries of the Annunciation and Saviour- Transfiguration Cathedrals, the church of Cyprian and Justinia, the Saviour-Transfiguration Monastery complex, the dome of Bishop's House, and the domes of the Annunciation Cathedral. Walls and towers have been renovated since the 1950s and the Annunciation Cathedral and Syuyumbeki's Tower since 1980. The Kremlin retained its status as a centre of state power and as garrison.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Centre of the Republic of Tatarstan (since 1992)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 22 September 1994 the Kremlin was established as the Historical, Architectural, and Artistic Museum "Kazan Kremlin," opening a new era for the historic ensemble. The garrison was removed and a museum function was introduced. The rehabilitation has emphasized the former fortress appearance and the commemorative and religious functions, which had been lost for a time. The renovation of the Cadets' School has been started and a project has been launched to rebuild the historic mosque of Kul-Sharif on the site of the destroyed main mosque of the Khanate period Kazan. The building should rehabilitate the lost townplanning integrity of the Kremlin ensemble, enrich the townscape, and symbolize the peaceful coexistence of the two main religions of Tatarstan, Islam and Christianity. The minarets of the new mosque should bring together the Kremlin's crumbling composition, and become the new dominant of the complex. Reconstruction work has started on the complex of the former Cannon Foundry in order to establish a museum. Some upper floors of the unsightly northern building will be pulled down and the elevations will be renovated in the form of the 18th and 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/980</http_url><id_number>980</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_980.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Kazan Kremlin complex represents exceptional testimony of historical continuity and cultural diversity over a long period of time, resulting in an important interchange of values generated by the different cultures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The historic citadel represents an exceptional testimony of the Khanate period and is the only surviving Tatar fortress with traces of the original town-planning conception.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The site and its key monuments represent an outstanding example of a synthesis of Tatar and Russian influences in architecture, integrating different cultures (Bulgar, Golden Horde, Tatar, Italian, and Russian), as well as showing the impact of Islam and Christianity.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>55.7911111100</latitude><location>City of Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan</location><longitude>49.0950000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The complex of the Kazan Kremlin and its key monuments represents exceptional testimony of historical continuity and cultural diversity over a long period, resulting in an important interchange of values generated by the different cultures. It is exceptional testimony of the khanate and is the only surviving Tatar fortress with traces of the original town-planning conception. It is, furthermore, an outstanding example of a synthesis of Tatar and Russian influences in architecture, integrating different cultures (Bulgar, Golden Horde, Tatar, Italian and Russian), as well as showing the impact of Islam and Christianity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kremlin Hill was a fortified trading settlement surrounded by moats, embankments, and a stockade. A stone fortress was built in the 12th century and the town developed as an outpost on the northern border of Volga Bulgaria. It was demolished by the Mongols and a citadel was built as the seat of the Prince of Kazan. By the 15th century, the town had become the capital of the Muslim Principality of Bulgaria, with administrative, military, and trading functions. The inner space of the Kremlin is a medieval fortress containing buildings dating from the 16th-19th centuries&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortifications, in stone and brick, were built in stages. In 1556-62 the masters of Pskov, headed by Postnik Yakovlev and Ivan Shiryai, generally replicated the earlier Tatar fortifications. There were originally 13 fortress towers, but some were pulled down in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Governor's Palace complex, on the site of the Kazan Khan's palace, was built in 1845-48 to the design of the architect of the Church of Christ the Saviour and the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow. It comprises the brick two-storey main block and a low semicircle of outhouses. The symmetrical facade has motifs of late Russian Classicism, also found in the interior decoration. The 17th century Palace Church was refurbished and rededicated to the Descent of the Holy Spirit in 1852. Syuyumbeki's Tower is the architectural symbol of the city: its name goes back to a Tatar tsarina, wife of the last two khans of Kazan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Annunciation Cathedral complex evolved from the 16th century as the centre of the Orthodox Church administration. The cathedral is the largest construction of the Kremlin, built in 1561-62 as a five-dome, six-pillar, three-apse church with two chapels connected by a porch. In the 1930s the bell tower, the west porch and the domes were pulled down. The Bishop's House was built in 1829.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Public Offices complex, including the three-storey Guard House, is situated in the south-eastern part of the Kremlin and has evolved historically as an administrative centre. The facades were rebuilt in the 1840s. The facades have sparse ornamentation, large windows, and a low-pitched roof. Comprehensive renovation work was carried out in 1998.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Saviour-Transfiguration Monastery complex is situated next to the Spasskaya Tower, and the construction started in 1557. It was the centre of missionary work and the burial grounds for prelates, respected citizens, and nobility of Kazan. The cathedral in the centre of the area was built in 1595-1601 and demolished in the 1920s. The church of St Nicholas the Thaumaturgist and its refectory was rebuilt in 1815. The ground floor is in white stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cadets' School complex, built in the 19th century on the site of a mosque and a monastery, consists of two schools and the former barracks. It was originally two storeys high but a third floor was added in the Soviet period. The Riding School was erected in the 1880s, with a suspended ceiling.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Artillery Cannon Foundry was built on the site of a military depot and the building of the khan's guards. The main building was rebuilt to correspond with the new orientation of the Great Street, following the 1768 plan. The cannon works was one of the largest in Russia: it was constructed to the design of the engineer B&amp;eacute;tancourt. From 1825 to 1837 the former arsenal and foundry were refurbished as a school.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built on an ancient site, the Kazan Kremlin dates from the Muslim period of the Golden Horde and the Kazan Khanate. It was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in 1552 and became the Christian See of the Volga Land. The only surviving Tatar fortress in Russia and an important place of pilgrimage, the Kazan Kremlin consists of an outstanding group of historic buildings dating from the 16th to 19th centuries, integrating remains of earlier structures of the 10th to 16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic and Architectural Complex of the Kazan Kremlin</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1144</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monastery was founded in 1398 by St Ferrapont, a friend and associate of St Kirill Belozerskii. It achieved renown thanks to St Kirill's pupil, St Martinian Belozerskii, who was hegumen (abbot) of the Troitse-Sergiev Monastery in 1447-55.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Together with Kirillo-Belozersk Monastery, it became the favoured place of worship and of endowment for many members of the Russian feudal aristocracy, such as Andrei and Mikhail Mozhayskiye, and rulers, like Vassili III and Ivan IV. At the turn of the 15th century it produced many notable leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church who played leading parts in the country's life, such as Archbishops Rostovskii and Yaroslavskii Ioassaf (Obolensky), Bishops Permskii and Vologodskii Filofei, and Bishop Suzdalskii Ferrapont. It was also the place of exile of leading churchmen who had fought for the priority of the church, such as Metropolitan Spiridon-Savva and Patriarch Nikon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began on the brick ensemble of the Monastery in 1490 with the erection of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin by master builders from Rostov. During the century that followed, the monumental church of the Annunciation, the Treasury Chamber, and ancillary buildings were added. It recovered from the Lithuanian incursions of the 16th century and during the following century the Gate Church, the Church of St Martinian, and the bell-tower were added.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 16th century was the period of the monastery's greatest prosperity. Princes and tsars came to worship there and Ivan IV granted it special privileges and charters. Securing the relics of Martinian and his subsequent canonization made it a place of pilgrimage and attracted many gifts and endowments. The Monastery became the richest landowner in the Lake Beloye region, owning some sixty villages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery was formally abolished by decree of the Synod in 1798. In the 19th century a diminished area of the complex was enclosed by a brick wall. It reopened as a convent for nuns in 1904, but this was closed in 1924. It currently serves as the museum of the frescoes of Dionisy, opened in the first half of the 20th century, but greatly enlarged and improved since 1975.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/982</http_url><id_number>982</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_982.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The wall paintings of Dionisy in the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin at Ferapontov Monastery are the highest expression of Russian mural art in the 15th-16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The complex of Ferapontov Monastery is the purest and most complete example of an Orthodox monastic community from the 15th-17th centuries, a crucial period in the cultural and spiritual development of Russia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>59.9500000000</latitude><location>Vologda region</location><longitude>38.5666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The wall paintings of Dionisii in the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin at Ferrapontov Monastery are the highest expression of Russian mural art in the 15th-16th centuries. The Monastery itself is the purest and most complete example of an Orthodox monastic community from the 15th-17th centuries, a crucial period in the cultural and spiritual development of Russia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery was founded in 1398 by St Ferrapont, a friend and associate of St Kirill Belozerskii. It achieved renown thanks to St Kirill's pupil, St Martinian Belozerskii, who was hegumen (abbot) of the Troitse-Sergiev Monastery in 1447-55. Together with Kirillo-Belozersk Monastery, it became the favoured place of worship and of endowment for many members of the Russian feudal aristocracy and rulers. At the turn of the 15th century, it produced many notable leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church who played leading parts in the country's life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began on the brick ensemble of the monastery in 1490 with the erection of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin by master builders from Rostov, followed by the Church of the Annunciation, the Treasury Chamber, and ancillary buildings. In the 17th century the Gate Church, the Church of St Martinian and the bell tower were added. Princes and tsars came to worship there and Ivan IV granted it special privileges and charters. Securing the relics of Martinian and his subsequent canonization made it a place of pilgrimage and attracted many gifts and endowments. It became the richest landowner in the Lake Beloye region, owning some 60 villages, to be formally abolished by the Synod in 1798. In the 19th century a diminished area of the complex was enclosed by a brick wall. It reopened as a convent for nuns in 1904, but this was closed in 1924. It currently serves as the museum of the frescoes of Dionisii, opened in the first half of the 20th century, but greatly enlarged and improved since 1975.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are six major elements in the complex of the Ferrapontov Monastery:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin (1490), the nucleus of the monastery, is a three-aisled structure surmounted by a dome, its slender proportions emphasized by vertical rows of pilasters. The upper parts of the facades are decorated with rows of balusters and ceramic plaques with floral ornamentation, while the lower portions bear fantastic masks and floral ornament reminiscent of the white limestone carvings of the Vladimir churches. The interior is divided by two rows of four stout pillars and the drum is supported by vaulting. The entire surface of the interior is covered by the mural paintings of Dionisii Mudrii (the Wise), arranged in rows that vary in size with the architectural elements of the building. There are also paintings on the exterior, in the central part of the western wall and in the lower part of the southern wall, above the grave of St Martinian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Annunciation (1530-31) and refectory was donated by the Great Prince Vassilii II to commemorate the birth of his heir, the future Ivan IV. It is the earliest example in northern Russia of a church surmounted by a bell tower. The two-storey Treasury Chamber is the oldest brick civil building in northern Russia. It was used for storing the monastery's documents and other treasures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Martinian (1641), characteristic of 17th-century Russian church architecture, was built above the grave of St Martinian, up against the southern wall of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin. In form it is a simple cube with an eight-faceted 'tent' or spire and a slender drum. It is lit from above, directing the daylight on the grave of the second founder of the monastery.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The small Gate Churches of the Epiphany and St Ferrapont (1650) are built around the double Holy Gates, and their structure is unusual. Their spires surmount the centre of the gate building and are supported on its walls rather than those of the churches themselves. The bell tower (1680s) crowns the building linking the refectory and the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin. It contains 17 bells and the spire contains a clock mechanism from 1638, the oldest in Russia.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ferapontov Monastery, in the Vologda region in northern Russia, is an exceptionally well-preserved and complete example of a Russian Orthodox monastic complex of the 15th-17th centuries, a period of great significance in the development of the unified Russian state and its culture. The architecture of the monastery is outstanding in its inventiveness and purity. The interior is graced by the magnificent wall paintings of Dionisy, the greatest Russian artist of the end of the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ensemble of the Ferapontov Monastery</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1146</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1023</http_url><id_number>1023</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1023.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; The Wrangel Island Reserve is a self-contained island ecosystem and there is ample evidence that it has undergone a long evolutionary process uninterrupted by the glaciation that swept most other parts of the Arctic during the Quaternary period. The number and type of endemic plant species, the diversity within plant communities, the rapid succession and mosaic of tundra types, the presence of relatively recent mammoth tusks and skulls, the range of terrain types and geological formations in the small geographic space are all visible evidence of Wrangel’s rich natural history and its unique evolutionary status within the Arctic. Furthermore, the process is continuing as can be observed in, for example, the unusually high densities and distinct behaviours of the Wrangel lemming populations in comparison with other Arctic populations or in the physical adaptations of the Wrangel Island reindeers, where they may now have evolved into a separate population from their mainland cousins. Species interaction strategies are highly-honed and on display throughout the island, especially near Snowy owl nests which act as protectorates for other species and beacons for migratory species and around fox dens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; The Wrangel Island Reserve has the highest level of biodiversity in the high Arctic. The island is the breeding habitat of Asia’s only Snow goose population which is slowly making a recovery from catastrophically low levels. The marine environment is an increasingly important feeding ground for the Gray whale migrating from Mexico (some from another World Heritage site, the Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino). The islands have the largest sea-bird colonies on the Chukchi Sea, are the northernmost nesting grounds for over 100 migratory bird species including several that are endangered such as the Peregrine falcon, have significant populations of resident tundra bird species interspersed with migratory Arctic and non-Arctic species and have the world’s highest density of ancestral polar bear dens. Wrangel Island boasts the largest population of Pacific walrus with up to 100,000 animals congregating at any given time at one of the island’s important coastal rookeries. Since Wrangel Island contains a high diversity of habitats and climates and conditions vary considerably from one location to another, total reproductive failure of a species in any given year is practically unheard of. Given the relatively small size of the area, this is very unusual in the high Arctic.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>71.1888888900</latitude><location>Chukot Autonomous Area</location><longitude>-179.7152778000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located well above the Arctic Circle, the site includes the mountainous Wrangel Island (7,608 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), Herald Island (11 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and surrounding waters. Wrangel was not glaciated during the Quaternary Ice Age, resulting in exceptionally high levels of biodiversity for this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Wrangel Island Reserve has the highest level of biodiversity in the high Arctic. The island is the breeding habitat of Asia's only snow goose population, which is slowly making a recovery from catastrophically low levels. The marine environment is an increasingly important feeding ground for the gray whale migrating from Mexico (some from another World Heritage site, the Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino). The islands have the largest seabird colonies on the Chukchi Sea, are the northernmost nesting grounds for over 100 migratory bird species including several that are endangered such as the peregrine falcon, have significant populations of resident tundra bird species interspersed with migratory Arctic and non-Arctic species and have the world's highest density of ancestral polar bear dens. Wrangel Island boasts the largest population of Pacific walrus with up to 100,000 animals congregating at any given time at one of the island's important coastal rookeries. As Wrangel Island contains a high diversity of habitats and climates and conditions vary considerably from one location to another, total reproductive failure of a species in any given year is practically unheard of. Given the relatively small size of the area, this is very unusual in the high Arctic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Currently, 417 species and subspecies of vascular plant have been identified on the island, double that of any other Arctic tundra territory of comparable size and more than any other Arctic island. Some species are derivative of widespread continental forms, others are the result of recent hybridization, 23 are endemic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The number and type of endemic plant species, the diversity within plant communities, the rapid succession and mosaic of tundra types, the presence of relatively recent mammoth tusks and skulls, the range of terrain types and geological formations in the small geographical space, are all visible evidence of Wrangel's rich natural history and its unique evolutionary status within the Arctic. Furthermore, the process is continuing as can be observed in, for example, the unusually high densities and distinct behaviours of the Wrangel lemming populations in comparison with other Arctic populations; or in the physical adaptations of the island reindeers, where they may now have evolved into a separate population from their mainland cousins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Evidence of a Neolithic camp inhabited by palaeo-Eskimo hunters of an ancient Eskimo culture of approximately 3,400 years ago are found in Krassin Bay on the south coast of Wrangel Island. Some of their prey species are known from the remains of woolly mammoth &lt;em&gt;Mammuthus primigenius&lt;/em&gt; and bones and tusks of the pygmy woolly mammoth &lt;em&gt;Mammuth primigenius wrangelensis&lt;/em&gt;, which lived on the island only some 7,000-3,700 years ago - 6,000 years later than the official extinction date. There were also furry rhinoceros &lt;em&gt;Coelodonta antiguitatus&lt;/em&gt;, primeval bison &lt;em&gt;Bison priscus&lt;/em&gt; and Prjewalski's horse &lt;em&gt;Equus caballus przevalskii&lt;/em&gt;, remains of which are abundant on the island's plains. Herald Island was first seen in 1849; Wrangel Island was discovered by an American whaler in 1867 and named after the Russian navigator and explorer Ferdinand von Wrangel, who had searched for the island after learning of it from mainland natives and seeing northward-migrating birds. Russian settlement began in 1926, followed by military installations at Zvezdnyi on Somnitel'naya Bay, and reindeer herder settlements, later abandoned, but with many artefacts still well preserved.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located well above the Arctic Circle, the site includes the mountainous Wrangel Island (7,608 km2), Herald Island (11 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and surrounding waters. Wrangel was not glaciated during the Quaternary Ice Age, resulting in exceptionally high levels of biodiversity for this region. The island boasts the world’s largest population of Pacific walrus and the highest density of ancestral polar bear dens. It is a major feeding ground for the grey whale migrating from Mexico and the northernmost nesting ground for 100 migratory bird species, many endangered. Currently, 417 species and subspecies of vascular plants have been identified on the island, double that of any other Arctic tundra territory of comparable size and more than any other Arctic island. Some species are derivative of widespread continental forms, others are the result of recent hybridization, and 23 are endemic.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Natural System of Wrangel Island Reserve</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1194</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of Derbent is understood to have been inhabited since some 5,000 years. There was a fortress structure already in the 7th or 8th centuries BCE. In the 1st century BCE, the place was part of a new state formed in the area of Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The subsequent periods related to the nominated property can be summarised as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Sasanian Empire from 5th to 7th centuries CE;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Arab Capliphate from 7th to 10th centuries;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Mongol rule from 13th to 14th centuries;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Timurid Empire from 14th to 15th centuries;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Shirvan Khan from 1437;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Turkish-Persian conflicts during the 16th century;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Safavid Empire from the 17th to 18th century;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Derbent Khanate from 1747;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Russia from 1813.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Persians (Sasanians) conquered the site at the end of the 4th century CE. The current fortification and the town originate from the 6th century CE, when they were built as an important part of the Sasanian northern limes, the frontier against the nomadic people in the north. From this time and until the 19th century, Derbent remained an important military post. From the 7th century, it was ruled by the Arabs, taken over by the Mongols in the 13th century, and by the Timurids in the 14th century. The Persians took it back in the early 17th century (the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas, whose capital was in Isfahan). In the 18th century, the Persians and Russians fought over Derbent, and finally the Russian sovereignty was recognized by the Persian Shah in the early 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over some 15 centuries, the fortification system was in military use. It was regularly maintained and repaired, and additions were built according to needs. In 1820, the south wall was demolished and an active building started in the lower part of the city. The upper part, with its 11-12,000 inhabitants, remained more or less intact. In the second half of the 19th century, the economy was in decline, but the city recovered at the end of the century, when the Vladicaucasus railway established a connection with Baku (1900). At the moment, the city is again facing some problems, and looks for new resources such as tourism.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1070</http_url><id_number>1070</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1070.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The site of the ancient city of Derbent has been crucial for the control of the north-south passage on the west side of the Caspian Sea since the 1st millennium BCE. The defence structures that were built by the Sasanians in the 5th century CE were in continuous use by the succeeding Persian, Arabic, Mongol, and Timurid governments for some 15 centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The ancient city of Derbent and its defence structures are the most significant section of the strategic defence systems designed and built in the Sasanian empire along their northern limes, and maintained during the successive governments until the Russian occupation in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.0529722200</latitude><location>Dagestan, Eastern Caucasus, Western coast of Caspian Sea</location><longitude>48.2971944400</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ancient city of Derbent has been crucial for the control of the north-south passage on the western side of the Caspian Sea since the 1st millennium BC. The defences built by the Sassanians in the 5th century AD, which were the most significant section of the strategic defence systems on their northern frontier, and were in continuous use by the Persian, Arabic, Mongol and Timurid governments for some 15 centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Derbent is situated on the western shores of the Caspian Sea, in the narrowest place between the sea and the slopes of the Tabasaran Mountains (part of the Larger Caucasus). The city has an important strategic location as it forms a natural pass (the Caspian Gates) between the Caucasian foothills and the sea. For many centuries, it was thus in the position to control the traffic between Europe and the Middle East. As a result of this geographical particularity, the city developed between two parallel defence walls, stretching from the sea to the mountains. Over the centuries, the city has been given different names, all connected to the word 'gate' (&lt;em&gt;dar band&lt;/em&gt; is Persian for 'lock gate'). The fortification was originally built during the Sassanian Empire, and continuously repaired or improved until the 19th century, as long as its military function lasted. The fortification consists of the defence walls, the citadel, and the historic town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Defence Walls, the most outstanding feature of Derbent, rise some 3.6&amp;nbsp;km from the Caspian Sea up to the citadel on the mountain. There are two parallel walls (north and south) 300-400&amp;nbsp;m from each other. The city was built between these walls. The wall then continues over the mountains 40&amp;nbsp;km to the west (mountain wall), as well as extending into the sea (500&amp;nbsp;m), to protect the harbour. The north wall still exists to its full length; much of the south wall was demolished in the 19th century. The earliest parts are in unbaked brick, but the main part of the structure (6th century AD) is in solid ashlar with lime mortar, and a rubble core. Some of the later construction used smaller stones. The stones are laid face and header side alternately for better binding. The thickness of the walls varies from 230&amp;nbsp;cm to 380&amp;nbsp;cm; the height is about 12&amp;nbsp;m. A total of 73 defence towers were built at regular intervals. The north wall has 46 towers at about 70&amp;nbsp;m intervals. There are several gates, which are of architectural interest in their design. Originally, most gates date from the 6th or 7th centuries, but some have been rebuilt or changed later. There used to be 14 gates, and 9 still remain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The citadel is situated up on the mountain; its walls are provided by small defence towers, the most interesting of which is in the south-west corner, a square tower that serves as a link to the mountain wall. On three sides, the citadel is defended by steep slopes. Inside there are a number of historic buildings, most in ruins. Along the southern wall is the Khan's Palace, which was an elaborate building with courtyards, now partly in ruins. In the citadel, there are also the remains of a 5th-century Christian church, subsequently built over when Zoroastrianism and then Islam were introduced. Djuma-mesjid is one of the earliest mosques in the former Soviet Union, built in the 8th century, rebuilt in the 14th and 17th centuries. The &lt;em&gt;madrasa&lt;/em&gt; in front of the mosque is from the 15th century. Together with an administrative building, the mosque and &lt;em&gt;madrasa&lt;/em&gt; form a closed courtyard. The citadel also has bath buildings and several underground water tanks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Historic Town of Derben was articulated in two main parts, and there were also some transversal walls (dating from the 10th to 18th centuries). The western part, on the mountain slope just under the citadel, formed the residential section. The eastern part, close to the sea, was used for merchants, craftsmen, storage buildings, barracks and depots. Close to the seafront, there was another fort built in the 18th century for the Shah's Palace (now demolished). In the second half of the 19th century, Derbent lost its defensive function; most of the southern wall was demolished, and the modern town developed in the lower part of the walled area, along the seafront. Nevertheless, most of the historic town core has been preserved, although with some minor changes. The old city was divided in separate quarters, and the street pattern referred to the gates. The streets are narrow and tortuous. The town still contains interesting courtyard houses, as well as some public stone buildings: mosques, baths, &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; , and the remains of a caravanserai.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress Buildings of Derbent were part of the northern lines of the Sasanian Persian Empire, which extended east and west of the Caspian Sea. The fortification was built in stone. It consisted of two parallel walls that formed a barrier from the seashore up to the mountain. The town of Derbent was built between these two walls, and has retained part of its medieval fabric. The site continued to be of great strategic importance until the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress Buildings of Derbent</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1247</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Novodevichy Convent was founded by Grand Duke Vasily III in the 1520s to mark the liberation of Smolensk and returning it to the Russian State in 1514. The Convent was dedicated to the Icon of the Mother God of Smolensk &amp;lsquo;Hodigitria', the highest shrine of Russian orthodoxy. The Cathedral of the Convent was built in the honour of this Icon. The Convent also became one of the most respected and rich nunneries, joined by women of tsarist and boyar families. It was called Novodevichy (&amp;lsquo;The Virgin Hodigitria New Maiden') to differ from the Ascension Convent, Voznesensky Starodevichy (&amp;lsquo;Old Maiden'), in the Moscow Kremlin. There were other associations between these two ensembles. Novodevichy was used as an alternative residence for tsarist family. The cathedral of Novodevichy and the cathedrals of the Kremlin were the two sites used as burial places for the ruling dynasty in the 16th and 17th centuries. The location of the convent at the crossing of the river on the access road to Moscow contributed to give Novodevichy an important defence function as well. This historical road, furthermore, became an important element in the development of planning of the city. Such symbolic and physical relationship with Kremlin also gave an impact to the spatial arrangement of Novodevichy itself, eg in the position of the Bell Tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The end of the 16th century was active for the Convent related with the coronation of Boris Godunov, and his sister Tsarina Irina taking monastic votes. This is the period for the construction of the surrounding stone walls with towers. Toward the end of the 17th century, there was another period, which resulted in the construction of new buildings. During this period, Princess Sofia Alekseevna assisted her brother Fedor to govern the country. After his death she continued to govern for seven more years. During this time, she kept her residence in Novodevichy. The walls and towers were now rebuilt, partly using the old masonry, and decorated with elaborate crowns in red brick, reflecting the &amp;lsquo;Moscow baroque' style. The earlier buildings were also adapted to the same style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Necropolis of the Convent was initiated in the 16th century. The cathedral served as burial place for women of the tsarist and ruling families. The cemetery around the cathedral was used for nobility and honourable citizens. In 1898-1904, a new cemetery was established outside the south wall, a burial place of the most eminent Russian intellectuals, and political and military figures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the October Revolution, in 1922, the Convent was closed, and it became the &amp;lsquo;Museum of emancipation of woman'. It was later reorganised as the historical and art museum of &amp;lsquo;The Novodevichy Convent'. At present this is affiliated to the State Historical Museum of Kremlin. The collections of Novodevichy contain a large number of precious objects and paintings, as well as an important library, related to the life of the tsarist dynasties and the history of the country, thus becoming a complement to the Kremlin. Since 1980 Novodevich Convent is a residence of a Metropolitan, and in 1994 a nunnery has again been introduced there.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1097</http_url><id_number>1097</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1097.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i):&lt;/em&gt; The Novodevichy Convent is the most outstanding example of the so-called &amp;lsquo;Moscow Baroque&amp;rsquo;, which became a fashionable style in the region of Moscow. Apart form its fine architecture and decorative details, the site is characterised by its town-planning values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Novodevichy Convent is an outstanding example of an exceptionally well preserved monastic complex, representing particularly the &amp;lsquo;Moscow baroque&amp;rsquo; style in the architecture of the late 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The Novodevichy Convent ensemble integrates the political and cultural nature of the existing World Heritage site of Moscow Kremlin. It is itself closely related to Russian Orthodoxy, as well as with the Russian history especially in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>55.7261111100</latitude><location>City of Moscow</location><longitude>37.5550833300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Novodevichy Convent is an outstanding example of an exceptionally well-preserved monastic complex, representing the Moscow Baroque style in the architecture of the late 17th century Apart from its fine architecture and decorative details, the site is characterized by its high town-planning values.The ensemble integrates the political and cultural nature of the existing World Heritage site of Moscow Kremlin. It is itself closely related to Russian Orthodoxy, as well as with Russian history, especially in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The convent is situated in the south-western part of the historic town of Moscow, close to the Moscow River. The Convent territory is enclosed within walls and surrounded by a park, which forms the buffer zone. The park is limited by the urban fabric of the city on the north and east sides. On the west side, it is limited by the Moscow River, and on the south side there is an urban freeway. The north-west shore of the lake offers picturesque panoramas that are important for the perception of the ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The convent was founded by Grand Duke Vasily III in the 1520s to mark the liberation of Smolensk and its return to the Russian State in 1514. It was dedicated to the Icon of the Mother God of Smolensk 'Hodigitria', the highest shrine of Russian orthodoxy. The Convent is surrounded by a high masonry wall with 12 towers. The entrances are from the north (town side) and the south. The Smolensky Cathedral, oriented west-east, is situated in the centre of the axes between the two entrance gates. The layout of the convent territory is an irregular rectangle stretching from the west to east. The ensemble of the convent is surrounded by a fortress wall with 12 towers. Originating from the 16th century, the dominating aspect of the ensemble was given by the 'Moscow Baroque' style in the 17th century. The layout of the convent can be referred to two axes. The east-west axis is formed by the Church of the Assumption and the Bell Tower. The north-south axis is defined by the two entrance gates. The North Gate is linked with the Church of Transfiguration, and the South Gate with the Church of the Holy Virgin. The Refectory and the Church of St Amvrosi are close to the South Gate. The Bell Tower (1683-90) is 72&amp;nbsp;m high in five tiers. It is built from red brick in Moscow Baroque style, using white-stone decorative elements. The convent has a number of residential and service buildings, many along the walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The unusual disposition of the belfry on the far end of the east-west axis, near the eastern boundary, stresses its organic link with the surrounding streets, and especially to the Moscow Kremlin. This aspect is stressed in the visual links and spatial orientation of its urban layout. Smolensky Cathedral, the main focal point of the convent, is situated at the crossing of the two axes of the site, and is dedicated to the Mother of God of Smolensk (1524-25, paintings of 16th century and iconostas of 17th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was the first stone building of the ensemble, possibly designed by an Italian architect, and built from brick masonry with stone details. The building has three aisles ending in three apses; it is surrounded by two-tier galleries and crowned by five cupolas. The outer walls are plastered white and articulated vertically into sections each of which ends up with a semicircle on the roof line. The interior is covered by a system of cross-vaulting and domes on light drums. The interior walls, pillars and vaults are covered with mural paintings on a tempera base. The main theme of the paintings is 'Akaphist's text praising the Virgin', made in a style tending towards classical ancient Russian style. The wooden-framed iconostasis, decorated in gold-coated carvings, typical of Moscow Baroque, has icons of the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Amvrosiy Mediolanskiy with the Old Refectory and the Irininskiye chambers (late 16th to 17th centuries) comprise three main volumes made in brick. This complex, in one and two storeys, is fairly simple in its general architectural expression. The church facade has typical decorative details of the 17th century. The Church of the Assumption of the Virgin and Refectory (1685-87) is built from brick in Moscow Baroque style. It is mainly in one storey with a low roof line, except for a tower part which is crowned with a small onion-dome cupola. It has three entrance porches projecting from the building. The interior has painted decorations and an iconostasis that dates from the 17th to 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Novodevichy Convent, in south-western Moscow, built in the 16th and 17th centuries in the so-called Moscow Baroque style, was part of a chain of monastic ensembles that were integrated into the defence system of the city. The convent was directly associated with the political, cultural and religious history of Russia, and closely linked to the Moscow Kremlin. It was used by women of the Tsar&amp;rsquo;s family and the aristocracy. Members of the Tsar&amp;rsquo;s family and entourage were also buried in its cemetery. The convent provides an example of the highest accomplishments of Russian architecture with rich interiors and an important collection of paintings and artefacts.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ensemble of the Novodevichy Convent</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1275</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Yaroslavl, in 2010, will celebrate its 1000th anniversary from its foundation. Initially, there was a small wooden fortress. In the 12th century, two monasteries were built next to this: Spassky monastery on Kotorosl, and Petrovsky monastery on the Volga, and the place became an outpost of Christianity. In the 13th century, it belonged to the territory of Rostov (a town with an important bishop's residence, &amp;lsquo;Kremlin'). From this time, Yaroslavl started developing and it became the centre of a grand duchy. In 1463, Yaroslavl Grand Duchy joined the powerful Moscow state.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;After several fires, the original wooden town was gradually rebuilt in stone starting from the 16th century. Yaroslavl grew in importance becoming the second city in the state. Through the Volga river, it was in trading contacts with Persia and India as well as with Ottoman Turks. Moscow also developed its contacts with Western European trading centres. As a result, foreign trade companies and craftsmen started arriving to establish businesses. The 17th century is considered the golden age of Yaroslavl, and for example some 50 new churches were built in stone.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1711 and 1762, there were several fires, which damaged the city's trading position, though its development continued. In 1769, a new town plan was adopted, revised in 1778. This plan was radial in its centre part, and based on a rectangular grid towards the west. Even though following the new guidelines imposed by the Empress, the town plan took into account the existing situation, and kept parts of the street network and historic building stock, where the most significant historical structures (churches, mediaeval towers) were used as visual and compositional dominants of a new plan.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The construction activities continued well into the 19th century, when some of the old fabric was renovated in a more formal manner in the downtown area. At the end of the 19th century, Yaroslavl once again experienced a fast growing period. This time, a number of industries were brought into the city. The number of inhabitants increased from 52,000 in 1887 to 109,000 in 1913. At this time, also a number of new functions were introduced, including hotels, restaurants, banks and offices.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the 20th century, Yaroslavl has gone through problematic times like most other cities in Russia. The 1920s and 1930s, as well as 1960s and 1970s, have been periods with many losses particularly in religious ensembles. Also Yaroslavl had changes but fortunately much less than elsewhere. The development took place on the outskirts of the city, and relatively few new constructions came into the old centre. In the 1990s, Yaroslavl has once again started developing, but this time with full consciousness of its cultural inheritance. The churches and monasteries are being rehabilitated and opened again for worshipers. At the present, the municipal area of Yaroslavl has some 600,000 inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1170</http_url><id_number>1170</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1170.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The historic town of Yaroslavl with its 17th century churches and its Neo-classical radial urban plan and civic architecture is an outstanding example of the interchange of cultural and architectural influences between Western Europe and Russian Empire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt;Yaroslavl is an outstanding example of the town-planning reform ordered by Empress Catherine The Great in the whole of Russia, implemented between 1763 and 1830.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>57.6527800000</latitude><location>Yaroslavl Oblast</location><longitude>39.8761100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Yaroslavl with its 17th-century churches and its neoclassical radial urban plan and civic architecture is an outstanding example of the interchange of cultural and architectural influences between Western Europe and the Russian Empire, coupled with the town-planning reform ordered by Empress Catherine the Great in the whole of Russia, implemented between 1763 and 1830.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yaroslavl is situated on the Volga at its confluence with the Kotorosl River. The origins of the city go back to the early 11th century, when there was a small wooden fortress. From the 13th century it belonged to the territory of Rostov and Yaroslavl started developing: in 1463, Yaroslavl Grand Duchy joined the powerful Moscow state. After several fires, the original wooden town was gradually rebuilt in stone, starting from the 16th century. It acquired its present-day form and structure mainly as a result of the major urban reform in 1763, ordered by Catherine the Great for the whole country. Some of the existing streets and structures were retained in this renewal process, which lasted from 1770 to the 1830s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site consists of the historic centre of the city, the Slobody, forming roughly a half circle with radial streets from the centre. It is essentially neoclassical in style, with harmonious and uniform streetscapes. Most residential and public buildings are two to three storeys high along wide streets and urban squares. There is a large number of churches with onion cupolas, and monastic ensembles, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries and having valuable mural paintings and iconostases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spassky Monastery is one of the oldest monasteries found in the Upper Volga region. It was built on the site of a pagan temple in the late 12th century. The oldest surviving buildings date from the 16th century (Cathedral of Transfiguration, Refectory, Holy Gate, Bell Tower).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Epiphany has five cupolas, and its red-brick facades are decorated with polychrome tiles; the interior was painted in 1692-93. Other churches include the Church of St Nicholas Nadein, the Church of the Nativity, with a unique bell tower, and the Church of Elijah the Prophet, which became the focus of the classicist radial town plan of Yaroslavl.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One block away from the Volga, a main avenue runs parallel to the river, crossing the Soviet (Iliinskaya) square, which forms the focal point of the historic town. The centre area is surrounded by a boulevard forming a semicircle, Ushinsky Street, built in the 17th century immediately behind the city's defences. The boulevard crosses Volkov square, the starting point for the road to Uglich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the embankment of Volga, there are a number of significant neoclassical buildings, e.g. the metropolitan's residence (originally built in the 1680s), Church of Saints Elijah and Tychen, Volga Tower (a defence tower from 1685), Volga Gate (early 19th-century elevations), Ensemble of the former Governor-General's house, Deduylin house, Ensemble of the Nativity (17th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The focal point of the Soviet Square ensemble, built in the mid-17th to 18th centuries, is the Church of Elijah the Prophet with its rich decorations and wall paintings. The buildings of the Government Offices include some of the first construction according to the 1770 town plan built in early classical style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Volkov Square originated as a place for small traders. In the early 19th century, a theatre was built here (first in timber, then in stone); this was replaced by a new structure in 1911, still in the neoclassical style. On the square there is also one of the remaining defence towers, St Blase Tower, built from stone after a fire in the 17th century. Ushinsky Street has a number of interesting buildings in classical style. Some of these buildings have been rebuilt or renovated towards the end of the 19th century, thus representing a variety of styles, from classicism to Rococo and neoclassical.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated at the confluence of the Volga and Kotorosl Rivers some 250 km north-east of Moscow, the historic city of Yaroslavl developed into a major commercial centre from the 11th century. It is renowned for its numerous 17th-century churches and is an outstanding example of the urban planning reform Empress Catherine the Great ordered for the whole of Russia in 1763. While keeping some of its significant historic structures, the town was renovated in the neoclassical style on a radial urban master plan. It has also kept elements from the 16th century in the Spassky Monastery, one of the oldest in the Upper Volga region, built on the site of a pagan temple in the late 12th century but reconstructed over time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historical Centre of the City of Yaroslavl</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1347</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1234</http_url><id_number>1234</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1234.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>69.0469444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>94.1580555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site coincides with the area of the Putoransky State Nature Reserve, and is located in the central part of the Putorana Plateau in northern Central Siberia. It is situated about 100 km north of the Arctic Circle. The part of the plateau inscribed on the World Heritage List harbours a complete set of subarctic and arctic ecosystems in an isolated mountain range, including pristine taiga, forest tundra, tundra and arctic desert systems, as well as untouched cold-water lake and river systems. A major reindeer migration route crosses the property, which represents an exceptional, large-scale and increasingly rare natural phenomenon.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Putorana Plateau</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1644</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/540</http_url><id_number>540</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_540.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.9500000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>30.3183300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The building of the capital of Peter the Great, symbol of Russia, began in the 18th century, thanks to the colossal forced labour of Russian soldiers, Swedish and Ottoman prisoners of war, and Finnish and Estonian workers and labourers. The metamorphosis of an inhospitable coastal area into a superb city where palaces, churches and convents, and also two-storey stone houses fit in to the urban designs of the Frenchman Alexandre Leblond, was completed in less than 20 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A network of canals, streets and quais was gradually built up, beginning in the reign of Peter the Great. Similarly in the 18th century, under the empresses Anna Ivanovna, Elisabeth Petrovna and Catherine II the Great, the urban landscape of St Petersburg took on its monumental splendour. An array of foreign architects, including Rastrelli, Rinaldi, Quarenghi, Cameron and Vallin de la Mothe, rivalled one another with audaciousness and splendour with the capital's huge palaces and convents and in imperial and princely suburban residences - Petrodvorets, Lomonosov, Tsarskoie Selo (Pushkin), Pavlovsk, Gatchina, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Again under Paul I (who ordered the construction of the Michailovska Palace) and especially in the 19th century under Alexander I, the impetus given by the city's founder continued with astonishing monumental works: palaces and theatres by Carlo Rossi; the remarkable Arts Square by the same architect; the collegiate church of Notre Dame of Kazan by Voronikhin; St Isaac Cathedral by Auguste de Montferrand, assisted by Vassili Stassov, Abram Melnikov, and Alexandre and Andrei Michailov, are some of the great masterpieces of the period. In the history of urbanism St Petersburg is no doubt the only example of a vast project that retained all its logic despite the rapid succession of styles reputed to be irreconcilable: everything opposed the unrestricted Baroque style of the collegial church of the Resurrection begun by Bartolomeo Rastrelli in 1748 and completed by Vassili Stassov in 1835 and the refined neoclassicism of Tauride Palace; at Palace Square the exuberant architecture of the Winter Palace, where Rastrelli gave free reign to his imagination, provides the background to the irreproachable Alexander Column, built from 1830 to 1834 by Auguste de Montferrand. From the disparity of styles, an impression of timeless grandeur comes to life in this distended historic centre where the greatness of the monuments is on a scale with a landscape free of any background, open to the sea, perpetually swept by sea breezes and criss-crossed by canals running beneath, it is said, more than 400 bridges. The multicoloured, sparkling capital of the Baltic, St Petersburg reconciles the lively colours of plaster and stucco, the reflection of marble, granite and porphyry, and the brilliance of gilt decorations, with the green of the parks, and the unreal blue of the waters of the Neva, the opposing principles of the architects who succeeded one another at the site from 1703 to the modern era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ensembles designed in St Petersburg and the surrounding area by several international architects exerted great influence in the 18th and 19th centuries on the development of architecture and monumental arts in Russia and Finland. The site links outstanding examples of Baroque imperial residences with the architectural ensemble of St Petersburg, the Baroque and neoclassical capital par excellence. St Petersburg was, moreover, directly associated with events of universal significance.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 'Venice of the North', with its numerous canals and more than 400 bridges, is the result of a vast urban project begun in 1703 under Peter the Great. Later known as Leningrad (in the former USSR), the city is closely associated with the October Revolution. Its architectural heritage reconciles the very different Baroque and pure neoclassical styles, as can be seen in the Admiralty, the Winter Palace, the Marble Palace and the Hermitage.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1958</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/981</http_url><id_number>981</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_981.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.9788888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>49.0563888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property lies on the shores of the Volga River, south of its confluence with the River Kama, and south of the capital of Tatarstan, Kazan. It contains evidence of the medieval city of Bolgar, an early settlement of the civilization of Volga-Bolgars, which existed between the 7th and 15th centuries AD, and was the first capital of the Golden Horde in the 13th century. Bolgar represents the historical cultural exchanges and transformations of Eurasia over several centuries that played a pivotal role in the formation of civilizations, customs and cultural traditions. The property provides remarkable evidence of historic continuity and cultural diversity. It is a symbolic reminder of the acceptance of Islam by the Volga-Bolgars in AD 922 and remains a sacred pilgrimage destination to the Tatar Muslims.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bolgar Historical and Archaeological Complex</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2009</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1299</http_url><id_number>1299</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1299.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>60.6666666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>127.0000000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Lena Pillars Nature Park is marked by spectacular rock pillars that reach a height of approximately 100 m along the banks of the Lena River in the central part of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia). They were produced by the region’s extreme continental climate with an annual temperature range of almost 100 degrees Celsius (from –60 °C in winter to +40 °C in summer). The pillars form rocky buttresses isolated from each other by deep and steep gullies developed by frost shattering directed along intervening joints. Penetration of water from the surface has facilitated cryogenic processes (freeze-thaw action), which have widened gullies between pillars leading to their isolation. Fluvial processes are also critical to the pillars. The site also contains a wealth of Cambrian fossil remains of numerous species, some of them unique.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lena Pillars Nature Park</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2116</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1525</http_url><id_number>1525</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1525.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.7702777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>48.6527777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Assumption Cathedral is located in the town-island of Sviyazhsk and is part of the monastery of the same name. Situated at the confluence of the Volga, the Sviyaga and the Shchuka rivers, at the crossroads of the Silk and Volga routes, Sviyazhsk was founded by Ivan the Terrible in 1551. It was from this outpost that he initiated the conquest of the Kazan Khanate. The Assumption Monastery illustrates in its location and architectural composition the political and missionary programme developed by Tsar Ivan IV to extend the Moscow state. The cathedral’s frescoes are among the rarest examples of Eastern Orthodox mural paintings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Assumption Cathedral and Monastery of the town-island of Sviyazhsk</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2168</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/766</http_url><id_number>766</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_766.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ru</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.6833333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>136.6611111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2018</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sikhote-Alin mountain range contains one of the richest and most unusual temperate forests of the world. In this mixed zone between taiga and subtropics, southern species such as the tiger and Himalayan bear cohabit with northern species such as the brown bear and lynx. After its extension in 2018, the property includes the Bikin River Valley, located about 100 km to the north of the existing site. It encompasses the South-Okhotsk dark coniferous forests and the East-Asian coniferous broadleaf forests. The fauna includes species of the taiga alongside southern Manchurian species. It includes notable mammals such as the Amur Tiger, Siberian Musk Deer, Wolverine and Sable.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central Sikhote-Alin</site><states>Russian Federation</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2211</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Known as Liamuiga (Fertile Island) to the native Amerindians, St Kitts was the first Caribbean island to be permanently settled by both the English (in 1623) and the French (1625), who shared it between 1627 and 1713, when it came under sole English control through the Treaty of Utrecht, at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. Known as the "Mother Island," it provided the model and the springboard for English and French colonization in the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;African slaves were brought in from the earliest years of European settlement, and it was on St Kitts and the other early colonies that the plantation system, based on sugar production and slavery, had its roots. Some syncretic forms that combine elements of the cultures of Europe, Africa, and - to a lesser extent - Native America, can be traced to St Kitts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The military use of Brimstone Hill began in 1690, when the British mounted cannon on the north-west side to drive the French from Fort Charles, just below the hill. It became a place of refuge in the event of invasion, as, for example, when the French invaded in 1706.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1782 the Fortress was besieged by the French, to whom it was surrendered after holding out for a month. However, in the same year the British won a resounding naval victory over the French at the Battle of the Saints, thereby establishing British naval superiority. The Treaty of Versailles in 1783 (which granted independence to the thirteen colonies in North America) restored the island to the British and a period of intensive reconstruction and investment began. Because of its reconstructed and very formidable defences, St Kitts became known as the "Gibraltar of the Caribbean." It successfully drove off an attack by the French navy in 1806. From this time onwards the British navy was able to ensure the security of its island colonies in the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortress was abandoned as a result of British defence cuts in 1853. The wooden buildings were auctioned and dismantled and masonry buildings were plundered for their cut stone; natural vegetation progressively took over.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/910</http_url><id_number>910</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_910.jpg</image_url><iso_code>kn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): Brimstone Hill is an outstanding British fortress, built by slave labour to exact standards during a peak period of European colonial expansion in the Caribbean. Criterion (iv): Because of its strategic layout and construction, Brimstone Hill Fortress is an exceptional and well preserved example of 17th and 18th century British military architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>17.3469400000</latitude><location>Parish of St Thomas, St Christopher &#xd;
&#xd;
(St Kitts)</location><longitude>-62.8372200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Brimstone Hill Fortress is of historical, cultural and architectural significance, a monument to the ingenuity of the British military engineers who designed it and supervised its construction and to the skill, strength and endurance of the African slaves who built and maintained it. In some of its architectural features, notably the Citadel, are expressed elements of different stages of fortress design; it is an embodiment of European imperialism, and the emergence of a distinctive Caribbean culture. It is indicative of the competition for power and wealth at a crucial stage in world history, and it provides a medium by and through which the geology, ecology and history of the Caribbean can be understood. As managed by a competent local organization on behalf of the people of a young nation, the majority of whose citizens are descended from former slaves, it is a symbol of a colonized African people and of the integrity of Caribbean culture, and as such it can be an inspiration to other young nations in a post-colonial era.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Known as Liamuiga (Fertile Island) to the native Amerindians, Saint Kitts was the first Caribbean island to be permanently settled by both the English (in 1623) and the French (1625), who shared it between 1627 and 1713, when it came under sole English control through the Treaty of Utrecht. Known as the 'Mother Island', it provided the model and springboard for English and French colonization in the Caribbean. African slaves were brought in from the earliest years of European settlement, and it was on Saint Kitts and the other early colonies that the plantation system, based on sugar production and slavery, had its roots.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of its reconstructed and very formidable defences, Saint Kitts became known as the 'Gibraltar of the Caribbean'. It successfully drove off an attack by the French Navy in 1806. From that time onwards the British Navy was able to ensure the security of its island colonies in the Caribbean. The fortress was abandoned as a result of British defence cuts in 1853. The wooden buildings were auctioned and dismantled and masonry buildings were plundered for their cut stone; natural vegetation progressively took over.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Brimstone Hill is a twin-peaked upthrust of volcanic rock 230&amp;nbsp;m high, clad with limestone over much of its surface. It is covered with scrub, with patches of bare rock in places; the more sheltered areas and ravines are covered with large trees and dense undergrowth. The fortress was constructed to protect part of the coast of the island settled by the English against attack from the sea, and also to provide a place of refuge in case of invasion, until the Royal Navy could secure the surrounding waters and force the surrender of the invading land army. As such it is strategically distinct from the Spanish fortresses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The principal structures, on different levels on the upper third of the hill, were in dressed stone (basalt) blocks, with a rubble core. The local limestone was used as a decorative element for quoins and for facing round doorways and embrasures. On entering the fortress, the first structure is the Barrier Redoubt, with defensive walls and a small casemate that served as a guardroom and powder magazine. Next comes the North-West Work, which incorporates the stout Magazine Bastion with its associated water catchments and cistern. This in linked by a curtain wall to the South-East Work, the main feature of which is the Orillon Bastion, the counterpart to the Magazine Bastion. A prominent feature here is the bombproof Ordnance Storehouse. The hospital was located within this bastion, but only its foundations survive. Outside the wall is a small cemetery with tombstones. Behind the defensive line is the massive Prince of Wales Bastion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is an impressive row of colonnaded basements of the Infantry Officers' Quarters nearby. This faces the Grand Water Catchment System, consisting of paved catchments, three underground water cisterns, and an open tank. No more than some ruined walls of the Artillery Officers' Quarters survive, but the kitchen has been restored. In the Commissariat Yard, the Warrant Officers' Quarters and the Commissariat Storehouse have been reconstructed. The system of walls known as the North-East Work has several barrack blocks behind it, but they are still unrestored. The heart of the fortress is Fort George, the massive masonry structure on one of the twin peaks that dominate the complex, still in an excellent state of repair. It is the earliest surviving British example of the type of fortification known as the 'polygonal system', and one of the finest examples known anywhere in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park is an outstanding, well-preserved example of 17th- and 18th-century military architecture in a Caribbean context. Designed by the British and built by African slave labour, the fortress is testimony to European colonial expansion, the African slave trade and the emergence of new societies in the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park</site><states>Saint Kitts and Nevis</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1063</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1161</http_url><id_number>1161</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1161.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lc</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; The Pitons Management Area contains the greater part of a collapsed stratovolcano contained within the volcanic system, known to geologists as the Soufriere Volcanic Centre. Prominent within the volcanic landscape are two eroded remnants of lava domes, Gros Piton and Petit Piton. The Pitons occur with a variety of other volcanic features including cumulo-domes, explosion craters, pyroclastic deposits (pumice and ash), and lava flows. Collectively, these fully illustrate the volcanic history of an andesitic composite volcano associated with crustal plate subduction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vii):&lt;/em&gt; The Pitons Management Area derives its primary visual impact and aesthetic qualities from the Pitons, two adjacent forest-clad volcanic lava domes rising abruptly from the sea to heights greater than 700m. The Pitons predominate over the St Lucian landscape, being visible from virtually every part of the island and providing a distinctive landmark for seafarers.The combination of the Pitons against the backdrop of green tropical vegetation and a varying topography combined with a marine foreground gives the area its superlative beauty.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>13.8070833300</latitude><location>near the town of Soufriere, southwestern region of St Lucia</location><longitude>-61.0703611100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Dominating the mountainous landscape of St Lucia are the Pitons, two steep-sided volcanic spires rising side by side from the sea. Gros Piton (770&amp;nbsp;m) is 3&amp;nbsp;km in diameter at its base, and Petit Piton (743&amp;nbsp;m) is 1&amp;nbsp;km in diameter and linked to the former by the Piton Mitan ridge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pitons are part of a volcanic complex, known to geologists as the Soufriere Volcanic Centre which is the remnant of one (or more) huge collapsed stratovolcano. The volcanic complex overlies a tectonic plate subduction (underthrusting) zone which stretches 700&amp;nbsp;km along Lesser Antilles, forming a volcanic arc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pitons are the eroded cores of two lava domes formed on the flanks of the stratovolcano. Today they tower above a caldera-like formation, produced by a gigantic gravity slide or structural collapse which formed the Qualibou Depression, 7&amp;nbsp;km in diameter. Near the centre of the depression are the Sulphur Springs, an active, high temperature geothermal field with sulphurous fumaroles and hot springs. The Pitons occur with a variety of other volcanic features including cumulo-domes, explosion craters, pyroclastic deposits (pumice and ash) and lava flows. Collectively, these fully illustrate the volcanic history of an andesitic composite volcano associated with crustal plate subduction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Marine Management Area is a coastal strip 11&amp;nbsp;km long and about 1&amp;nbsp;km wide. It comprises a steeply sloping continental shelf with fringing and patch reefs, boulders and sandy plains. The coral reefs, which cover almost 60% of the marine area, are healthy and diverse. A survey to a depth of 20&amp;nbsp;m revealed 168 species of finfish, 60 species of cnidaria, including corals, molluscs, sponges, echinoderms, arthropods and annelid worms. Hawksbill turtles are seen inshore, and whale sharks and pilot whales offshore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dominant terrestrial vegetation is tropical moist forest grading to subtropical wet forest with small areas of dry forest near the coast and on steep slopes, and areas of wet elfin woodland on the summits. On the Pitons especially, small undisturbed natural forests remain, preserved by the steepness of the land. At least 148 plant species have been recorded on Gros Piton and 97 on Petit Piton. Among these are several endemic or rare plants, including eight rare species of tree. Some bird species, including 5 endemics, are known from Gros Piton, along with indigenous rodents, opossum, bats, reptiles and amphibians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is a multiple-use management where agriculture, artisan fishing, human settlement (1,500 residents) and tourism (four large hotel developments) are allowed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are four distinctions of the PMA which it proposes are of universal value&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 2,909-ha site near the town of Soufriere includes the Pitons, two volcanic spires rising side by side from the sea (770 m and 743 m high respectively), linked by the Piton Mitan ridge. The volcanic complex includes a geothermal field with sulphurous fumeroles and hot springs. Coral reefs cover almost 60% of the site&amp;rsquo;s marine area. A survey has revealed 168 species of finfish, 60 species of cnidaria, including corals, eight molluscs, 14 sponges, 11 echinoderms, 15 arthropods and eight annelid worms. The dominant terrestrial vegetation is tropical moist forest grading to subtropical wet forest, with small areas of dry forest and wet elfin woodland on the summits. At least 148 plant species have been recorded on Gros Piton, 97 on Petit Piton and the intervening ridge, among them eight rare tree species. The Gros Piton is home to some 27 bird species (five of them endemic), three indigenous rodents, one opossum, three bats, eight reptiles and three amphibians.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pitons Management Area</site><states>Saint Lucia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1341</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Legend tells that the first community was formed here during the late Roman Empire by Saint Marino. The first document regarding the city dates from the beginning of the 6th century and is about a small monastery at the top of Mount Titano. In 885 A.D. there was a lay community, and around 951 A.D. the first parish was formed. There are no visible remains of this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-13th century San Marino had its own legal authority and a first document testifying its independence is dated 1296. Statutes in 1295-1302 mention bodies and institutions which are still maintained in the political system today. By this time the basic structure of the nucleus of the city was already in place: in the southwest ends the First Tower (Rocca or Guaita) at the top of the mountain, then a small area surrounded by the first city wall, and further north the church and a built-up area to the west of this. The separate area of Borgo Maggiore at the foot of the Mount Titano had also started to develop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Later in the 13th century and in the 14th century a second city wall was built around a much larger area, including the church and the built-up quarter to the north. Parts of this wall still exist, though heavily restored. This period also saw the construction of the two other defensive towers further south on the edge of Mount Titano - the Second Tower (Cesta or Fratta) and the Third Tower (Montale) - as well as the walls to the Fratta Tower. Outside the city wall, the important complex of the Saint Francis' Convent was built in the 1360s, with the oldest existing church in the republic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around the mid-15th century, the third circle of defensive walls with three new gates was built. This meant quite an enlargement to the west and today marks the border of the historic centre. The walls were reinforced in the 16th century, and two bastions were built in 1549 and 1559. In 1463 San Marino obtained several territories previously under the control of Rimini and since then the borders of the Republic have remained unchanged.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century the Convent of the Capuchin Fathers was built outside the walls to the south, and along the street of Contrada Omerelli, the Convent of Saint Chiara and the majority of the palaces of the most important noble families. This shows the growing importance and wealth of the nobility in this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An engraving of 1663 and a cadastral map of 1884 show the basic structure of the streets and some scattered buildings along these in the area west of the walls. However, this area was mainly built out in the 20th century and then extended to the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two major additions of the 19th century are the neoclassical basilica (begun in 1825) replacing the ancient church, and the new Palazzo Pubblico (1884-1894) in a neo-gothic style. This shows the reorganization and modernization of the State, but still resting on the medieval traditions, following the recognition of its sovereignty and liberty by the Kingdom of Italy in 1862. A first general census was held in 1865.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1916 a Parliamentary Commission for the Conservation of Antiquities and Art Objects was established, and in 1919 a law for the protection of monuments was passed. The same year the Cesta Tower collapsed. Subsequently the Sammarinese engineer Gino Zani published an extensive report on the restoration of the fortifications, carried out a study based on archival documents and published a book showing the presumed original form of the buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1925-1940 Zani restored the three towers and the walls as well as many buildings, among those the fa&amp;ccedil;ade of Saint Francis' Church, the Titano Theatre, and some palaces. He also realized the Piazza Sant'Agata, an extension of the Hospital of the Misericordia and the new Via Donna Felicissima. In 1935 he produced a planning scheme for the entire historic centre, but this was only partly implemented. A building in modern style is the Cassa de Risparmio bank.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1935 Zani also drafted a town planning scheme for the extension of the south-eastern areas outside the city wall (in the buffer zone) with a new entry to the historic centre. In the second half of the 20th century the number of tourists drastically increased and different structures were built to accommodate this, such as the cableway Borgo Maggiore-San Marino, and parking places around the city. A strong commercial character has been established and a great many shop windows opened. New approaching roads on high retaining walls have been constructed and in the areas outside the historic centre some new buildings by famous architects have been built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The conservation history therefore began with the Commission for the Conservation of Monuments, Antiquities and Art Objects in 1916 and the legislation in 1919. It was characterized by historical restorations up until the Second World War and a strong wish to strengthen the medieval character of the city. Today the historic centre is continuously undergoing restoration activities.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1245</http_url><id_number>1245</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1245.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sm</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.9327777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>12.4519444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;San Marino Historic Centre and Mount Titano covers 55 ha, including Mount Titano and the historic centre of the city which dates back to the foundation of the republic as a city-state in the 13th century. San Marino is inscribed as a testimony to the continuity of a free republic since the Middle Ages. The inscribed city centre includes fortification towers, walls, gates and bastions, as well as a neo-classical basilica of the 19th century, 14th and 16th century convents, and the Palazzo Publico of the 19th century, as well as the 18th century Titano Theatre. The property represents an historical centre still inhabited and preserving all its institutional functions. Thanks to its position on top of Mount Titano, it was not affected by the urban transformations that have occurred from the advent of the industrial era to today.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>San Marino Historic Centre and Mount Titano</site><states>San Marino</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1535</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Most of the monuments and inscriptions of the archaeological site of Al-Hijr date from the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. But the inscriptions in Lihyanite script and some recently discovered archaeological vestiges are evidence for human settlement as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One-third of the tombs, which are amongst the largest, are clearly dated to between 0-75 CE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At its apogee and for around two centuries, the Nabataean kingdom extended over southern Syria, the Negev and Hedjaz. To the west it came up against the ambitions of the Roman world, and it remained essentially a continental power. It controlled vast arid and semi-arid expanses, and drew its wealth from the development of oasis agriculture and the caravan trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Nabataeans are well known for their role in the commerce of incense, spices and aromatic plants during late Antiquity and the pre-Islamic period. They then controlled the land routes between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea and Mediterranean. Land routes were important as navigation remained difficult, particularly in the Red Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hegra was a major staging post on the main north-south caravan route. A secondary route linked it to the port of Egra Kome, according to a Greek-language source. Two recently discovered Nabataean sites on the shores of the Red Sea could in fact be this port.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hedjaz region was integrated into the Roman province of Arabia in 106 CE. A monumental Roman epigraph of 175-177 CE was recently discovered at Al- Hijr. The region then formed part of Roman history, and then Byzantine history, until the 7th century. In 356, the city of Hegra is again mentioned, as being led by a mayor of local origin, but it seems to have been very modest in size at that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Arab traveller Al-Maqdasi indicated, in the 10th century CE, that Al-Hijr was a small oasis whose activities centred on its wells and on its many peasants. However, there is no other testimony to lasting settlement of the site between the 4th and the 19th century CE. It may be that it was only sporadically and infrequently occupied over this long period, a hypothesis that is strengthened by the lack of damage to the tombs right up to the recent past. Seasonal use was probably made of Al- Hjir by shepherds, traders or pilgrims, but this did not lead to the transformation of the tombs into shelters as was the case at Petra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 14th century, the celebrated traveller Ibn Battuta admiringly described the Nabataean tombs of Al-Hijr, cut into the red stone. He did not mention any human activity at the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1876-1877, Charles Doughty wrote in his book Travels in Arabia Deserta, that peasants from Tayma had put back into use the wells and the ancient agricultural lands of the oasis. Traces of plantation and reuse of the wells have also been found for the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was at the start of the 20th century that changes of some significance appeared, with the construction of the railway and railway station. Some archaeological elements were damaged and the exploitation of the quarries changed the shape of some sandstone outcrops, particularly at Jabal al-Mahjar in the north of the site, and at Qasr al-Sani in the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the early descriptions from some European travellers in the late 19th century, such as Charles Doughty mentioned above, the first genuine study missions were carried out by the Dominican fathers A. Jaussen and R. Savignac, in 1907, 1909 and 1910. They then provided the first archaeological and epigraphic descriptions of the north-west of the Arabian Peninsula and Madain Salih in particular. Their Mission archéologique en Arabie is still a standard work on the subject. Several journeys were made by Westerners for archaeological and historic reasons between the First World War and the 1960s, providing descriptions of the site and its vestiges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since that period, excavation and preservation missions have been carried out under the supervision of the Department of Antiquities of Saudi Arabia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 1960s and at the start of the 1970s, a programme was carried out in the Madain Salih region to encourage the sedentarisation of the Bedouins. Under this scheme, ancient wells were reused with a modern pumping system that damaged their ancient infrastructures. At the outset, this programme involved the reuse of the zones cultivated in the 19th century. However, the official identification of the archaeological site of Madain Salih, in 1972, resulted in the displacement of the agricultural activities towards the north, outside the site. Moreover, technical changes tended towards a more intensive agriculture based on freshly-dug wells.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monumental tombs have not been subjected to subsequent reuse of material, or major pillage over the long course of history, and they have been preserved up to the contemporary period. In the 1980s, excavation campaigns led to cleaning operations inside the tombs and the removal of burial vestiges. Today it is very difficult to find any such vestiges in their original state at Al-Hijr.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since 2001, a cooperation agreement has been in force between France (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Centre national de la recherche scientifique-CNRS) and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Ministry of Antiquities and Museums, King Saud University Riyadh) for the study of the Al-Hijr site. It favours non-destructive methods: aerial photography, geophysical analysis, architectural study, systematic inventory, etc. The agreement was renewed in 2006.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293</http_url><id_number>1293</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1293.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>26.7836111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>37.9550000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Archaeological Site of Al-Hijr (Madâin Sâlih) is the first World Heritage property to be inscribed in Saudi Arabia. Formerly known as Hegra it is the largest conserved site of the civilization of the Nabataeans south of Petra in Jordan. It features well-preserved monumental tombs with decorated facades dating from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD. The site also features some 50 inscriptions of the pre-Nabataean period and some cave drawings. Al-Hijr bears a unique testimony to Nabataean civilization. With its 111 monumental tombs, 94 of which are decorated, and water wells, the site is an outstanding example of the Nabataeans’ architectural accomplishment and hydraulic expertise.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)</site><states>Saudi Arabia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1524</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The presence of humans in the Wadi Hanifah area dates back some 80,000 years, as evidenced by Acheulean and Mousterian remains. Conditions were less favourable than in the Fertile Crescent; they initially attracted hunters and later nomads. Stone artefacts and rock carvings have been discovered in western Najd.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remains of a village site with drystone walls thought to date from the 5th millennium BCE have been discovered just north of Riyadh. Agricultural settlement seems to have developed in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE; the domestication of the camel dates from the same period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In antiquity Arabia played a role as an active caravan trade-route between the Indian Ocean, the Fertile Crescent, and the Mediterranean; the Incense Route passed through Arabia. Settlements developed during the 1st millennium BCE. It seems that there was cultivation at the Wadi Hanifah, but direct archaeological evidence is still limited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The end of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity caused a decline in the centres of trade and settlement in central Arabia. The areas of wells and former oases became places of refuge for the nomads and their flocks and herds. Central Arabia at this time was dominated by the Yemenite Himyarite tribes. In the 5th century CE the Christian Banu Hanifah tribe resumed the agricultural colonization of the heart of the peninsula, in the Tasm region. They submitted to Islam after their defeat in 634 at the hands of the army of the Caliph Ibn al-Walid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 6th and 7th centuries, however, the Banu Hanifah tribe appears to have rebelled against the Umayyad Caliphate. They did not submit to the Abbasid central power there until the mid-9th century. From the 9th to the 10th century there was a slow process of agricultural development of the oases in the central region of Arabia. The Arab traveller Ibn Battuta recorded the presence of the Banu Hanifah tribe in the valley that bore their name In the 14th century. Population levels, however, stagnated or decreased in this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 15th century brought more favourable climatic conditions, lending a new impetus to the oases and settlements with the arrival of newcomers from the coastal regions. Ad-Dir'iyah seems to have been created in this period and its development reached an initial apogee in the 16th century. It was a centre of trade and its power extended throughout the region. However, in the 17th century and at the start of the 18th century the pre-eminent town of the Najd was &amp;lsquo;Uyanynah.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the start of the 16th century the Sharif of Makkah (Mecca) recognized the Ottoman Caliphate, which was seeking to take control of the Arabian peninsula. This was a time of sharp confrontation with the West, as the Portuguese occupied sites in the Indian Ocean. The Sharif attacked the oases and nomads of the Najd for the first time in 1578.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The power of the Banu Hanifah families was gradually challenged by the secular development of the settlement of the oases of Inner Arabia. By the start of the 17th century there were only three oases left under their control, including ad-Dir'iyah. Two rival tribal groups then emerged and a power struggle developed between the Al Muqrin and the Al Watban. The organization of the oases reflected this antagonism, with separation within districts and villages. The Al Watban held control at ad- Dir'iyah initially, but in 1720 Saud Bin Mohammed from the rival Al Muqrin community assumed the chieftainship and drove his rivals out of the town, and in this way became the founder of the House of Saud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century successive imams (heads of the House of Saud) fortified the oasis along the high ground on either side of the Wadi Hanifah. This was a period marked by urban development and the construction of the citadel of at-Turaif.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sheikh Mohammad Bin Abdul Wahhab, who hailed from the Najd where a form of paganism was maintained in social life, advocated a Reform based on the Sunnah, the orthodox Muslim tradition. The oneness of God, the impossibility of comparing God with anything else, and the heresy of any mediation were reasserted. This religious movement was fully recognized by the second imam, Mohammed Bin Saud, who established it in 1745 as the moral and legal basis of his state. Ad-Dir'iyah then became the centre for propagating the Reform. The town was an important educational centre, with many Qur'anic schools drawing students from the whole of the peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Saudi dynasty at the same time undertook the conquest of the other towns and oases of the Najd, which it completely controlled by 1785. In the 1790s it dominated the east of the Arabian peninsula, and its influence extended to the west as far as the foothills of the Hijaz mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the second half of the 18th century and at the start of the 19th century, ad-Dir'iyah was the headquarters of a powerful Islamic administration, which boasted renowned judges and imams. Delegations and interest groups came to petition the Imam. It had some thirty Qur'anic schools, and it was also the political and military centre of the power of the House of Saud. At its apogee the army could assemble up to 100,000 men. The urban ensemble linked with the oasis was developed, particularly the Salwa palaces in the citadel of at-Turaif, the heart of the power base. However, according to Western travellers the population of ad- Dir'iyah did not exceed 13,000 at the start of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The success of the Sunnah Reform and the expanding military power of the House of Saud was inevitably a cause of concern for the Ottoman Caliphate. Tensions and confrontations were frequent over a period of some thirty years. The House of Saud initially emerged triumphant, imposing its influence on Central Hijaz and Mecca (1803) and thus controlling the pilgrimage. This was the apogee of the first dynasty of the House of Saud.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ottoman counter-offensive was organized from Egypt. The Ottomans reconquered the Hijaz (1813) and then began a campaign in the heart of the Arabian peninsula. Ibrahim Pasha invaded the Najd at the head of a powerful and cosmopolitan army (1816-18). The campaign culminated in the siege and conquest of ad- Dir'iyah. The town was then sacked on two occasions, in 1818-19 and in 1821. The House of Saud and the Wahhabis were subjected to repression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Imam Turki re-established the power of the House of Saud in 1824, forcing the departure of the Ottomans He founded a second dynasty and chose Riyadh as the new capital. The previous seat of power in the at-Turaif district, largely in ruins following the war, was abandoned. The few western visitors in the mid-19th century testified to a town in ruins. The local population returned to live in the oasis, where farming activities continued.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At-Turaif remained abandoned until the mid-20th century, when some two hundred families moved back into the eastern quarter near the oasis, building houses of mud brick (adobe) on the remains of the old town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Department of Antiquities bought the whole site in 1982 and expropriated its inhabitants. The city of Riyadh has grown considerably and now reaches the gates of the ad-Dir'iyah oasis. The region has also seen the development of road infrastructures. Today there are three main urban sectors in Ad-Dir'iyah. Urban development is taking place almost entirely outside the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1329</http_url><id_number>1329</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1329.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.7341333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>46.5724666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property was the first capital of the Saudi Dynasty, in the heart of the Arabian Penisula, north-west of Riyadh. Founded in the 15th century, it bears witness to the Najdi architectural style, which is specific to the centre of the Arabian peninsula. In the 18th and early 19th century, its political and religious role increased, and the citadel at at-Turaif became the centre of the temporal power of the House of Saud and the spread of the S&lt;span&gt;alafiyya &lt;/span&gt;reform inside the Muslim religion. The property includes the remains of many palaces and an urban ensemble built on the edge of the ad-Dir’iyah oasis.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah</site><states>Saudi Arabia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1659</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1361</http_url><id_number>1361</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1361.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>21.4838888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>39.1875000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Historic Jeddah is situated on the eastern shore of the Red Sea. From the 7th century AD it was established as a major port for Indian Ocean trade routes, channelling goods to Mecca. It was also the gateway for Muslim pilgrims to Mecca who arrived by sea. These twin roles saw the city develop into a thriving multicultural centre, characterized by a distinctive architectural tradition, including tower houses built in the late 19th century by the city’s mercantile elites, and combining Red Sea coastal coral building traditions with influences and crafts from along the trade routes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Makkah</site><states>Saudi Arabia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1968</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1472</http_url><id_number>1472</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1472.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.0105555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>40.9130555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property includes two components situated in a desert landscape: Jabel Umm Sinman at Jubbah and the Jabal al-Manjor and Raat at Shuwaymis. A lake once situated at the foot of the Umm Sinman hill range that has now disappeared used to be a source of fresh water for people and animals in the southern part of the Great Narfoud Desert. The ancestors of today’s Arab populations have left traces of their passages in numerous petroglyphs and inscriptions on the rock face. Jabal al-Manjor and Raat form the rocky escarpment of a &lt;em&gt;wadi&lt;/em&gt; now covered in sand. They show numerous representations of human and animal figures covering 10,000 years of history.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Art in the Hail Region of Saudi Arabia</site><states>Saudi Arabia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2033</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1563</http_url><id_number>1563</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1563.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sa</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.4021666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>49.6305694444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the eastern Arabian Peninsula, the Al-Ahsa Oasis is a serial property comprising gardens, canals, springs, wells and a drainage lake, as well as historical buildings, urban fabric and archaeological sites. They represent traces of continued human settlement in the Gulf region from the Neolithic to the present, as can be seen from remaining historic fortresses, mosques, wells, canals and other water management systems. With its 2.5 million date palms, it is the largest oasis in the world. Al-Ahsa is also a unique geocultural landscape and an exceptional example of human interaction with the environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Al-Ahsa Oasis, an Evolving Cultural Landscape</site><states>Saudi Arabia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2228</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2000-2006 P 1984-1988</danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;14 April 1971 by Decree No. 71-411. Nearby area (3ha) was first classified as a nature reserve by Decree No. 62-065 of 26 February 1962. Enlarged in 1975 by Decree No. 75-1222 (from 13,000ha to 16,000ha). Listed as a Ramsar site in 1980 and accepted as a World Heritage site in 1981.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/25</http_url><id_number>25</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_25.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.5000000000</latitude><location>Delta of the River Senegal</location><longitude>-16.1666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;As freezing autumn winds begin to whistle into Europe from the north, a host of migratory birds are thinking of more hospitable climates to the south and start on their long annual excursion. After braving the obstacles of southern Europe, where every bush seems to hide a hunter with a shotgun, navigating the featureless Mediterranean Sea, and transversing the arid Sahara, the birds arrive at their first oasis: Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located in the delta of the Senegal River, near Senegal's border with Mauritania, Djoudj covers some 16,000&amp;nbsp;ha of river channels, backwaters, streams, ponds and a large lake (which covers about a quarter of the sanctuary). In addition, the waters also hold populations of crocodile and African manatee, and the forests and grasslands hold species typical of the Sahelian zone of Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is in a vast basin of impermeable halomorphic soils forming saline flats in the Senegal River Delta between the main channel to the north, the Djoudj bayou and the Gorom, or bayou to the south. This delta, of which Djoudj is a small part, has been subject to flooding and to the development of dyke systems for many years, the latest in 1963. These dykes have allowed the retention of fresh water in the Djoudj basin longer than normal, which benefits the water birds. Salinity varies, from almost fresh during the winter inundations to brackish as the water levels fall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation reflects low rainfall. The Sahelien type savannah is dominated by spiny bushes, acacias, tamarisk and&lt;em&gt; Balanites aegvptiaca&lt;/em&gt; . During the rains, dense populations of Typha and water-lily species appear in the flooded zones. Halophytic plants cover much of the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park was mainly established as the area is so important for birds, supporting 3&amp;nbsp;million waterfowl, and is one of the main West African sanctuaries for Palaearctic migrants. It is one of the first fresh water sources they reach after crossing 200&amp;nbsp;km of the Sahara. From September to April, an estimated 3&amp;nbsp;million migrants pass through, including garganey, shoveler, ruff, pintail and black-tailed godwit. Thousands of flamingo nest here regularly as well as 5,000 white pelican, white-faced tree duck, fulvus tree duck, spur-winged goose, purple heron, night heron, various egrets, spoonbill, African darter, common cormorant and Sudan bustard. Mammals include warthog and West African manatee, and several species of crocodile and gazelle have been successfully reintroduced into the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;But this wildlife haven is threatened from many sides. Agricultural chemicals are finding their way into the once-pristine waters of the Senegal River thus disturbing delicate links in the food chain, and a dam is being built which will disturb the annual wet-dry cycles that have brought life to Djoudj. A study sponsored by the World Heritage Committee has reported on the measures required to ameliorate the effects of the dam through an inexpensive series of dikes and sluice-gates and a carefully timed release of the life-bringing waters. It is hoped that the World Heritage status of Djoudj will help convince the government of Senegal to take the necessary measures.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the Senegal River delta, the Djoudj Sanctuary is a wetland of 16,000 ha, comprising a large lake surrounded by streams, ponds and backwaters. It forms a living but fragile sanctuary for some 1.5 million birds, such as the white pelican, the purple heron, the African spoonbill, the great egret and the cormorant.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Djoudj National Bird Sanctuary</site><states>Senegal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>28</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/26</http_url><id_number>26</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_26.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.6672200000</latitude><location>Cape Verde Region</location><longitude>-17.4008300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Island of Gor&amp;eacute;e is a memorial to the African diaspora. It continues to serve as a reminder of human exploitation and as a sanctuary for reconciliation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gor&amp;eacute;e is a small (18&amp;nbsp;ha) land mass located off the coast of Senegal, opposite Dakar. From the 15th to the 19th centuries, it was the largest slave-trading centre on the African coast. An estimated 20&amp;nbsp;million Africans passed through the Island between the mid-1500s and the mid-1800s. Ruled in succession by the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French, its architecture is characterized by the contrast between the grim slave-quarters and the elegant houses of the slave traders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The House of Slaves was built in 1776 by the Dutch, the last surviving slave house in Gor&amp;eacute;e; the earliest date back to 1536 and were built by Portuguese, the first Europeans to set foot on the Island in 1444. Cells, each 2.60&amp;nbsp;m by 2.60&amp;nbsp;m, were reserved for men and contained up to 15 to 20 people, seated with their backs against the wall, chained around the neck and arms. In the middle of the chain, there was a big iron ball which the slave had to carry between his two hands and two legs. They were released only once a day to satisfy their needs, generally within this house. The hygienic conditions were so revolting that the first pest epidemic which ravaged the island in 1779 originated here.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A small house contained between 150 and 200 slaves, who had to wait for very long periods - up to three months - before being carried away on board ship. Their departure to the Americas also depended on the buyers, and family separation was total. There were special cells where children were stored and in these the mortality rate was obviously the highest in the house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The young girls were separated from the women because they were more expensive. All the houses situated on the edge of Gor&amp;eacute;e - even the actual presbytery - were former slave houses. Some slave traders had sexual relations with the young slave girls and when they got pregnant they were released in Gor&amp;eacute;e or in Saint-Louis. It was thus in the young girls' interest to give themselves to the slave traders in order to gain freedom. It was for these young girls the only way to salvation. The mixed-race girls in Gor&amp;eacute;e, commonly called 'Signare', a deformation of the Portuguese word &lt;em&gt;senhoras&lt;/em&gt;, formed the aristocracy in Gor&amp;eacute;e, like the Creoles in the French West Indies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was a cell where they kept the temporarily unfit, because a man's value was based on his weight: the minimum weight for men was fixed at 60&amp;nbsp;kg. If they weighed less than this these men were placed in cells to be fattened with locally grown beans, very starchy, known in Senegal as &lt;em&gt;niebe&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This sloping corridor is today known as the gate of 'the trip from which no one returned', because once the slaves left through this gate leading into the sea, it was their farewell to Africa. Just outside this gate, there was a wharf of palm wood, which served as a loading dock, and some of the slaves obviously awaited the loading to try to escape by plunging into the sea. They could not go far as they were either shot by the guards or devoured by the sharks, attracted because the sick and injured were thrown into the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Leaning over the balcony on this staircase, the buyers and the European slave traders were able to observe the slaves and to discuss the muscular value of each, because each African ethnic group had its quoted value and specialization. The upper part of the building served as a residence for European traders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The conservation of the Island of Gor&amp;eacute;e has as its objective the rehabilitation of the heritage and socio-economic revitalization. The preservation of the architectural heritage is linked to the protection of the natural environment (coastal areas) and the improvement of the infrastructure (water, sewers, refuse disposal, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The island of Gor&amp;eacute;e lies off the coast of Senegal, opposite Dakar. From the 15th to the 19th century, it was the largest slave-trading centre on the African coast. Ruled in succession by the Portuguese, Dutch, English and French, its architecture is characterized by the contrast between the grim slave-quarters and the elegant houses of the slave traders. Today it continues to serve as a reminder of human exploitation and as a sanctuary for reconciliation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Island of Gorée</site><states>Senegal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>29</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2007</danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Created as a Hunting Reserve in 1926, Forest Reserve in 1951 and a Fauna Reserve on 19 April 1953 and enlarged by Decrees of 1962, 1965, 1968 and 1969. Accepted as Biosphere Reserve and inscribed on the Unesco World Heritage List in 1981.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/153</http_url><id_number>153</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_153.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.0666700000</latitude><location>Eastern Senegal and Upper Casamance regions</location><longitude>-12.7166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Niokolo-Koba National Park covers 913,000&amp;nbsp;ha of the Guinea savannah of Senegal, with significant areas of bush land and gallery forest along both banks of the upper Gambia River. The area is rich in wildlife, with over 70 species of mammal, 329 bird, 36 reptile, 20 amphibian and vast numbers of invertebrates. The lions are a special attraction, reputed to be Africa's largest; Derby's eland, an endangered species, is the world's largest antelope. Other endangered species include chimpanzees, leopards and elephants. With around 1&amp;nbsp;million hectares, Niokolo-Koba certainly has sufficient size to demonstrate the key aspects of the functioning Guinea savannah ecosystem, and to ensure the survival of the endangered species contained therein. The park is a relatively flat region, with small lines of hills reaching about 200&amp;nbsp;m, separated by wide floodplains which become inundated during the rains. The park is crossed by the River Gambia and its two tributaries, the Niokolo Koba and the Koulountou.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation varies from a southern Sudanian type to Guinean with savannah predominant, more luxuriant vegetation along the course of the rivers and a varying cover of trees and bushes. This vegetation changes its character according to topography and soils. In the valleys and plains there are vast areas of &lt;em&gt;Vetiveria&lt;/em&gt; and herbaceous savannahs. Seasonally flooded grassland is typically composed of &lt;em&gt;Paspalum arbiculare&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Echinochloa&lt;/em&gt; . Dry forest is made up of Sudanian species. There are also areas of bamboo. In ravines and gallery forests species indicative of a south Guinean climate are present, with lianes very abundant. On the edges of rivers semi-aquatic species, occur and annuals, which disappear when the water level rises, are found in the periodically flooded sands. Ponds are bordered by either dry forests or herbaceous savannahs, depending on humidity and soil compaction. Occasionally the centre of a marsh is occupied by thick thorn bushes of &lt;em&gt;Mimosa pigra&lt;/em&gt; . Carnivores include leopard, lion and hunting dog. There are also buffalo roan, giant eland, Guinea baboon, green and patas monkey, bay colobus, all three African crocodiles and dwarf crododile, four tortoise species, and hippopotamus which is present in all three large watercourses. The park is the last refuge in Senegal for giraffe and elephant. About 150 chimpanzees live in the gallery forest of the park and on Mont Assirik (the north-western limit of their distribution). Birds include Denham's bustard, ground hornbill, violet turaco, spur-winged goose, white-faced tree duck, martial eagle and bateleur.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in a well-watered area along the banks of the Gambia river, the gallery forests and savannahs of Niokolo-Koba National Park have a very rich fauna, among them Derby elands (largest of the antelopes), chimpanzees, lions, leopards and a large population of elephants, as well as many birds, reptiles and amphibians.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Niokolo-Koba National Park</site><states>Senegal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>171</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Island of Saint-Louis was not inhabited before the arrival of the Europeans. The region belonged to the kingdom of Walo and was subject to exploration by Portuguese, Venetians, and Dutch from the 15th century onwards. There were a number of initiatives, particularly in the 17th century, when some settlements were established in the region. In 1633 the French decided to establish the first chartered company in Senegal, the Cap-Vert Company. The island at the mouth of Senegal River was selected in 1659 when, after some unsuccessful attempts, the Frenchman Louis Caullier chose this site for the fortification of the company. Several other companies followed the Cap-Vert Company, and the English occupied Saint-Louis on three occasions, in 1693, in 1779, and from 1809 to 1817.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Initially unhealthy and inhospitable, the island also lacked building materials, until it was discovered that the plentiful masses of oysters could serve for lime production and road construction. Gradually the settlement of Saint-Louis developed its commercial activities, trading rubber, leather, gold, ivory, and cereals as well as dealing in slaves. To these were added the need for education and building of schools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 19th century the settlement had some 8000 inhabitants. In 1828 an urban master plan established the street pattern and regulated the development of the town, starting from the old fortification as the basic reference. The real development of the town, however, took place from 1854, when Louis Faidherbe was nominated governor. Thus from 1854 to 1865 Saint-Louis was urbanized. It was nominated the capital of Senegal in 1872 and reached its apogee in 1895 when it was nominated the capital of West Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In this period Saint-Louis became the leading urban centre in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the centre for the diffusion of cultural and artistic activities. The first museum of the industry, ethnography, and history of West Africa was opened in Saint-Louis on 15 March 1864. In this period the schools and other public institutions and services, as well as the first Senegalese military battalion, and a Muslim court of justice, were established.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The period of peace in the colony contributed to the development of economic and commercial activities, thus favouring the expansion and influence of the town. However, in 1902 Saint-Louis lost its status as the capital of West Africa and in 1957 it ceased being the capital of Senegal. This meant the departure of the French garrison with the military and their families and the closure of a number of offices and shops; the last to close were the customs in 1963. The French population was drastically reduced. At the same time, however, the overall population continued to grow, being 55,600 in 1960, 90,000 in 1976, and 150,000 in 1997.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town has developed both on the Langue de Barbarie (the ridge against the Ocean) and in Sor on the continent. There has also been overpopulation in the old town, where some older structures been at risk of collapse. An new urban master plan was prepared in 1983 in order to regulate the situation, and also to provide for the protection of the historic areas. At present the city has revived its economy (based on fishing and agriculture) and tourism (international festivals, exhibitions, sports, etc.). The University of Gaston Berger was opened in 1992. A new airport was recently inaugurated in Saint-Louis to facilitate access. The growth of the city is giving the authorities the same concerns as any other large African city, including illegal occupation of land and environmental problems.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/956</http_url><id_number>956</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_956.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.0277800000</latitude><location>Region of Saint-Louis</location><longitude>-16.5044400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Island of Saint-Louis, a former capital of West Africa, is an outstanding example of a colonial city, characterized by its particular natural setting, which illustrates the development of colonial government in this region and the important exchange of values and influences on the development of education and culture, architecture, craftsmanship, and services in a large part of West Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Island of Saint-Louis was not inhabited before the arrival of the Europeans. The region belonged to the kingdom of Walo and was explored by Portuguese, Venetians and Dutch from the 15th century onwards. There were a number of initiatives, particularly in the 17th century, when some settlements were established in the region. In 1633 the French decided to establish the first chartered company in Senegal, the Cap-Vert Company. The island at the mouth of the Senegal River was selected in 1659 when, after some unsuccessful attempts, the Frenchman Louis Caullier chose this site for the fortification of the company. Several other companies followed the Cap-Vert Company; the English occupied Saint-Louis on three occasions, in 1693, in 1779, and from 1809 to 1817. Initially unhealthy and inhospitable, the island also lacked building materials, until it was discovered that the plentiful masses of oysters could serve for lime production and road construction. Gradually the settlement developed its commercial activities, trading rubber, leather, gold, ivory and cereals as well as slaves. To these were added the need for education and building of schools. In 1854 Louis Faidherbe was nominated governor, and Saint-Louis was nominated the capital of Senegal and the capital of West Africa. In this period Saint-Louis became the leading urban centre in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the centre for the diffusion of cultural and artistic activities. This time of peace in the colony contributed to the development of economic and commercial activities, thus favouring the expansion and influence of the town. However, in 1902 Saint-Louis lost its status as capital of West Africa and in 1957 it ceased being capital of Senegal. This meant the departure of the French garrison and their families and the closure of offices and shops. The French population was drastically reduced. At present the city has revived its economy (based on fishing and agriculture) and tourism.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Island of Saint-Louis is articulated in three parts: the North quarter, the South quarter, and the Place Faidherbe and the Government Palace in the centre. The entire settlement is situated in a magnificent lagoon formed by the two arms of the Senegal River, which separate it from the maritime part of the town and from the Sor quarter on the continent. The bridge of Moustapha Malick Gaye (formerly Servatius) links the island to a ridge of land in the west, the Langue de Barbarie, which protects it from the ocean. The Faidherbe Bridge, inaugurated in 1897, links the town to the mainland and the area of Sor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban fabric of the old town is based on the orthogonal grid plan of 1828, which established the street pattern and regulated the development starting from the old fortification as the basic reference. The island is encased by a system of quays, which are a reference to all streets in the east-west direction. The urban layout gives the town its particular character and specificity. From the architectural and aesthetic point of view the quality of the two- or three-storeyed colonial buildings is distinguished in the form of wooden balconies with wrought-iron grilles, roofs with red tiles, and the doors and windows with wooden shutters. The main historic buildings include the ancient fort the Governor's Palace, which marks the centre of the island, the place where the first settlement was established. This ensemble has been modified to a great extent over the centuries, particularly in the interior, but it still conserves the exterior, although with some additions. The cathedral, situated next to the Governor's Palace, was built with the voluntary contribution of the citizens, completed in 1828. The military barracks (Rognat Nord and Rognat Sud) were constructed in 1837 in the centre of the town, on Place Faidherbe. Together with the Governor's Palace, they form a classical composition in axis with the Servatius Bridge. The Regional Assembly for the River has existed since 1825, first in a more modest form. It was extended to house a primary school in 1839, and after 1873 it was used for the colonial archives. Subsequently it has provided the premises for various public authorities. A rather large complex, it is articulated with pilasters and balconies and is in a good state of repair. Other buildings include the Civic Hospital built in 1822, and the Great Mosque of the North, built starting in 1838.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded as a French colonial settlement in the 17th century, Saint-Louis was urbanised in the mid-19th century. It was the capital of Senegal from 1872 to 1957 and played an important cultural and economic role in the whole of West Africa. The location of the town on an island at the mouth of the Senegal River, its regular town plan, the system of quays, and the characteristic colonial architecture give Saint-Louis its distinctive appearance and identity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Island of Saint-Louis</site><states>Senegal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1561</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1359</http_url><id_number>1359</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1359.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>13.8352777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>-16.4986111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Fishing and shellfish gathering have sustained human life in the 5,000 km2 property, which is formed by the arms of three rivers. The site comprises brackish channels encompassing over 200 islands and islets, mangrove forest, an Atlantic marine environment, and dry forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is marked by 218 shellfish mounds, some of them several hundreds metres long, produced by its human inhabitants over the ages. Burial sites on 28 of the mounds take the form of tumuli where remarkable artefacts have been found. They are important for our understanding of cultures from the various periods of the delta's occupation and testify to the history of human settlement along the coast of West Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Saloum Delta</site><states>Senegal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1754</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1407</http_url><id_number>1407</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1407.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.5933333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>-12.8458333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site, located in south-east Senegal, includes three geographical areas: the Bassari–Salémata area, the Bedik–Bandafassi area and the Fula–Dindéfello area, each with its specific morphological traits. The Bassari, Fula and Bedik peoples settled from the 11th to the 19th centuries and developed specific cultures and habitats symbiotic with their surrounding natural environment. The Bassari landscape is marked by terraces and rice paddies, interspersed with villages, hamlets and archaeological sites. The Bedik villages are formed by dense groups of huts with steep thatched roofs. Their inhabitants’ cultural expressions are characterized by original traits of agro-pastoral, social, ritual and spiritual practices, which represent an original response to environmental constraints and human pressures. The site is a well-preserved multicultural landscape housing original and still vibrant local cultures.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bassari Country: Bassari, Fula and Bedik Cultural Landscapes</site><states>Senegal</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1832</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/96</http_url><id_number>96</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_96.jpg</image_url><iso_code>rs</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.1188900000</latitude><location>Vicinity of Novi Pazar, Raška District, Republic of Serbia</location><longitude>20.4227800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The buildings of Stari Ras are an impressive group of medieval monuments consisting of fortresses, churches and monasteries. The monastery at Sopoćani is a reminder of the contacts between Western civilization and the Byzantine world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located at the confluence of the Raska and lbar, on the outskirts of Stari Ras, the ancient town of Ras became in 1159, with its accession to the Serb dynasty of Nemangic, the first Serb State capital. Situated on a hill at the border between the small kingdom of Raska and the Byzantine Empire, this old Balkan city drew its strength from its location at an important crossroads, influenced by its contacts with both Eastern and Western influences. Its many monuments make up a single architectural complex that testifies to the time when the capital of the Serb State became located at Stari Ras until the early years of the 14th century, when King Milutin transferred the capital to Skopje. These buildings, mostly built between the 9th and 11th centuries, in their plan and in their decoration and architectural interest, are characteristic of the Raska School:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Fortress of Gradine, which from its rock has since the 9th century dominated the small town of Trgoviste, has an irregular layout, which made it possible to resist repeated Byzantine and Bulgarian attacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of St Peter, built in the 9th century on the foundations of an Illyrian cemetery and an early Christian basilica, is an example of early Christian architecture. As the religious centre of Serbia over several centuries, this sanctuary exhibits a circular central plan with four radiating apses, capped by a cupola resting on four massive pillars. It is the seat of the Bishop of Raska, and is decorated with frescoes, mainly 13th-century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Djurdjevi Stupovi, founded by the famous Serb leader Stephan Nemanja, is an example of Romanesque and Byzantine architecture. Surrounded by a strong defensive wall, now partly ruined, is one of the best-known monasteries in Serbia. The plan of its church of St George, built in 1171 and reconstructed in the 13th century by King Dragutin, belongs to the architectural school of Raska.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Sopoćani, on the road to Andrijivica, was built in 1260 by King Uros I as the resting place for the ashes of his parents and his own tomb in its vault. This building, surmounted by a cupola and extended to the west between 1336 and 1345 by the Emperor Dusan, is noteworthy for its exceptional frescoes. Those in the narthex, out of which two projecting vaults open, provide invaluable historical evidence about the family of the founder of the monastery. The plastic quality of these compositions, mostly from the 13th century, testifies to the vitality of Byzantine art at a time when Constantinople was in the hands of the Crusaders.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the outskirts of Stari Ras, the first capital of Serbia, there is an impressive group of medieval monuments consisting of fortresses, churches and monasteries. The monastery at Sopoćani is a reminder of the contacts between Western civilization and the Byzantine world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stari Ras and Sopoćani</site><states>Serbia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>104</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/389</http_url><id_number>389</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_389.jpg</image_url><iso_code>rs</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.4861100000</latitude><location>Village of Studenica, Commune of Kraljevo, Raška District, Republic of Serbia</location><longitude>20.5366700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Studenica is the high point of Serbian history. The monastery contains the remains of the first Serbian kings, the remains, the shroud and the coffin of Stefan Prvovencani. This is where St Sava Nemanjic, the founder's youngest son, wrote the first literary work in the Serbian language and founded the Serbian Orthodox Church, which was separate from that of Byzantium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery is a veritable museum of 13th-century Byzantine painting (frescoes in the naos and the sanctuary of the Virgin Mary in 1208-9; frescoes of the southern chapel, in the same church, 1233-34; frescoes of St Nicholas, &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1230) and 14th-century Byzantine painting (King's Church frescoes, just after 1314). Moreover, the monastery contains important and significant painted ensembles from the so-called post-Byzantine period and more than 100 precious objects in its treasury.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monastery was built in the middle of a large clearing crossed by the Studenica River. It is surrounded by a circular wall roughly 115&amp;nbsp;m in diameter. Beyond the farmland are superb forests where broadleaved trees (oak, lime, elm, ash, beech and wild pear) and conifers (black and silver pines) grow on the slopes of three massifs which are 80% wooded. Here, in 1183, Stefan Nemanja founded the Great Joupan. He wanted to build a funerary church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After abdicating in 1196 and withdrawing to become a monk on Mount Athos in 1197, his sons carried out his wish. The Church of the Virgin Mary was completed by Prince Vukan and his brothers who, in 1208-9, had it decorated with the paintings of Greek artists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Studenica was the necropolis of the Nemanjic dynasty and over the centuries it developed into one of the focal points of Serbian history. The monastery grew larger within its walls, and refectories and the monks' living quarters were installed along the curve of the circular wall. As foundations increased, more sanctuaries were created in the central area. Some small constructions were clustered together to the south of the original church: St Nicholas (from &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1240), St John and in the early 14th century, St Anne and St Joachim, the famous King's Church, completed in 1314. At the same time votive chapels, oratories and hermitages were built in the mountains outside the walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two principal monuments of Studenica, the Church of the Virgin Mary and the King's Church, are both in a very satisfactory state of conservation. This is true of the brickwork and the wall construction in marble of the main church. The upper courses of this marble, which was drawn from nearby quarries, has acquired a beautiful golden patina, but the wonderful precision of the Romanesque sculptors responsible for the west and south gates and the great east window has not been obliterated by time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The King's Church houses the most beautiful murals painted by Michael and Eutychios. Not long after 1314 they painted a cycle of the Life of the Virgin Mary which is among the leading works of Byzantine art. After having worked at the Peribleptos of Ohrid and painting a series of Serbian churches (those of the Virgin of Lievisa, of Zica, of Staro Nagoricino, of Gracanica, etc.) for King Milutin, these painters found the most perfect expression of their style in Studenica: density of forms and volumetric rendering of faces combined with astounding execution which, in terms of perfection, is very close to that of icons, with highlighting in bright colours, shadows and light executed &lt;em&gt;a secco&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The primitive Church of the Virgin Mary served as a model for the churches of Rascie, which constitute a special branch of the great Orthodox family. This royal funeral church was imitated in Banjska, Decani and the Holy Archangels of Prizren. The murals of the naos and the sanctuary, made in 1208-9, are among the first examples of the 'monumental' style that emerged in various different regions after the capturing of Constantinople in 1205 by the Crusaders. These paintings, which are characterized by a new concept of space and a new expressiveness, are an essential milestone in the history not only of Byzantine art, but also of Western art. Cimabue, Duccio and Giotto were also part of this current.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Studenica Monastery was established in the late 12th century by Stevan Nemanja, founder of the medieval Serb state, shortly after his abdication. It is the largest and richest of Serbia’s Orthodox monasteries. Its two principal monuments, the Church of the Virgin and the Church of the King, both built of white marble, enshrine priceless collections of 13th- and 14th-century Byzantine painting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Studenica Monastery</site><states>Serbia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>449</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2006</danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Dečani&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Dečani monastic church is the endowment and mausoleum of Serbian King Stefan Dečanski. The original founding charter from 1330 has been preserved. The construction lasted 8 years (1327-1335), and the master builder was Fra Vita, a Franciscan from Kotor. Stefan Dečanski died before the construction was completed, and was buried here. Supervision of the construction works was continued by his son Du&amp;scaron;an. The church interior was decorated at the same time, including the icons for the main iconostasis and the church furniture. The wooden throne of Hegoumenos was made around 1335, and the carved wooden sarcophagus of King Stefan Dečanski around 1340.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The writer Grigorije Camblak, author of The Life of Stefan Dečanski, was the head (hegoumenos) of the Monastery at the beginning of the 15th century. Great artistic enthusiasm was brought to life in the monastery during the second half of the 16th century. This is when the painter monk Longin spent here two decades. He created some fifteen icons with depictions of the Great Feast and hermits, but his masterpiece is the icon of Stefan Dečanski with scenes from the life of this sainted king.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the close of the 17th century, the Turks plundered the monastery, but made no serious damage. During the 19th century, the monastery was restored, and new iconostases were placed on the parekklesions (side chapels) of St. Demetrius and St. Nicholas. At present, the property is used for liturgical purposes, as an Orthodox monastery with all the corresponding functions, and as a cultural and historical monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Serbian Medieval Monuments&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The flowering of ecclesiastical culture in the area during the 13th century, was fostered by King Milutin (1282- 1321) who as King of Serbia made Serbia the dominant power in the Balkans. Milutin was the most generous monastic benefactor of the dynasty, building as many as forty churches not only in Serbia but also in Jerusalem, Constantinople, Rome, Salonika, Macedonia, and on Mount Athos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Slightly earlier, the first Nevanjič King Stefan (1166 - 1196), had founded Studenica Monastery, which became the necropolis of the dynasty. (It was inscribed in 1986 on the World Heritage List). And in 1219, the patriarch of Nicea had allowed the establishment of an independent Serbian archbishopric. State and Church joined together to develop a strong identity for Serbia - the first archbishop was from the ruling family. In 1346 an independent Serbian Patriarchate was established by King Dusan, with Peč becoming its centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under Dusan's successor, Serbia became split into several states none of whom could offer resistance to the Turks. In 1389 at the Battle of Kosovo the Serbs lost a critical battle against the Turks, and many Serbs and the centre of their power moved north. In 1459 the capture of the Serbian capital by the Turks bought to an end the medieval Serbian State.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1557 with the permission of the Turks, the Patriarchate of Peć was restored. It then once again played a dominant role as a spiritual centre together with the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Monasteries of Mount Athos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some time before 1756, after Turkish re-conquest, the Church of the Virgin of Ljevi&amp;scaron;a was turned into a mosque and substantial readjustments were made.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Patriarchate was again abolished in 1766 when it became part of the Kingdom of Montenegro, and in 1912 was annexed to the Cetinje metropolity. After the liberation of Prizren from the Turks, the Church of the Virgin of Ljevi&amp;scaron;a once again became a Christian place of workshop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1918 the Serbian church was restored with the foundation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians. In spite of heavy conflict in the Balkan region in the past decades, Peć and Gračanica churches have kept alive their monastic function and remain spiritual centres. Gračanica and Peć Patriarchate monasteries were not damaged during the war in Kosovo, largely because of respect of local communities of all ethnic origins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The function of the Church of the Virgin of Ljevi&amp;scaron;a was disrupted after violence in March 2004. When sufficient safety is ensured, it is intended that the church will once again function as a place of worship.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724</http_url><id_number>724</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_724.jpg</image_url><iso_code>rs</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.6611111111</latitude><location>Autonomous province of Kosovo</location><longitude>20.2655555555</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2006</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The four edifices of the site reflect the high points of the Byzantine-Romanesque ecclesiastical culture, with its distinct style of wall painting, which developed in the Balkans between the 13th and 17th centuries. The Dečani Monastery was built in the mid-14th century for the Serbian king Stefan Dečanski and is also his mausoleum. The Patriarchate of Peć Monastery is a group of four domed churches featuring series of wall paintings. The 13th-century frescoes of the Church of Holy Apostles are painted in a unique, monumental style. Early 14th-century frescoes in the church of the Holy Virgin of Ljevisa represent the appearance of the new so-called Palaiologian Renaissance style, combining the influences of the eastern Orthodox Byzantine and the Western Romanesque traditions. The style played a decisive role in subsequent Balkan art.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medieval Monuments in Kosovo</site><states>Serbia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>856</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Gamzigrad fortified palace was built by the Roman Emperor Caius Valerius Galerius Maximianus, the successor of Diocletian in the Second Tetrarchy, at the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century CE. This was substantiated by the discovery of a sculpted head in the Emperor's likeness during excavation of the baths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tetrarchy form of governance required the Emperor to abdicate after twenty years of rule and, having celebrated the vicennallia, to retire. Galerius followed the model of his ideological father, Diocletian, and made plans for the construction of a palace, surrounded by ramparts, in the area of his origin where he intended to spend the rest of his life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Galerius was not able to devote himself to the construction of the fortress-palace until after his victory over the Persian king Narses in 297. With the title of Caesar and as the adopted son and heir of Diocletian, he began the work in his place of origin in Dacia Ripensis, today Eastern Serbia. He named the fortress Romuliana after his Dacian mother Romula. A fragment of an archivolt found in the excavations bears the inscription Felix Romuliana circled with a laurel wreath. The inner fortifications of the compound, the palace in the north-western part, and the small temple were erected in this first stage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the death of Constantius Chlorus in 306, Galerius became the most powerful man in the Roman Empire. Viewed from that lofty position, the fortress appeared to be too humble. Work then under way was abandoned to concentrate on a more monumental fortress encompassing the buildings already erected. A huge temple dedicated to Jupiter was erected in the south part of the compound. The new phase is characterised by even greater lavishness of decoration full of symbolic meaning, executed in various materials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the hill to the east of the fortified palace, Galerius built mausoleums for himself and for his mother flanked by consecrational monuments in the shape of tumuli. The latter are connected with the apotheosis - the symbolic elevation to the status of god.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As Caesar, Galerius was identified with Hercules and later, when he had been raised to the status of Augustus, with Jupiter. Connecting rulers with the divine hierarchy was one of the characteristics of tetrarchy. As a divine personification Galerius wanted to provide for his mother a place among the gods, and through the act of apotheosis he secured divine immortality for Romula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The tetrapylon which marked a crossroads was erected above the intersection of the Roman road leading to Romuliana and the road to the memorial complex to mark the intersection of earthly and heavenly roads.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main role in the construction of all the buildings was played by the V Macedonian Legion which followed Galerius in the battles he fought in the East and which served as construction labour in periods of peace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Emperor's death in 311 life in the palace went on, but without royal ceremonies. The palace and other buildings were redecorated and put to other uses. This quiet decline continued until the end of the 5th century when the throne hall was converted into a three-aisle Christian basilica. At the time, along the eastern facade of the palace, another building was put up with an atrium in the centre and an apse with a small marble basin, probably a font. Several towers of the defensive bulwark were turned into craft shops manufacturing items needed by the new inhabitants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At this time Romuliana was an important village community where a court official might have resided. Around the mid 5th century the compound sustained heavy damage and was burned, probably following the invasion of the Huns. In the second half of the 5th and the 6th century Romuliana was reconstructed, but it never regained its former splendour. The new buildings were inferior both in size and in the manner of construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian some extensive construction was undertaken. In this period considerable architectural and spatial changes were carried out. A monumental three-aisle basilica with a four-leaf font was erected in the palace compound, overshadowing the existing building with its exceptionally beautiful mosaics. The east gateway was abandoned and the west gate became the main entrance. Architectural decorative sculptural elements from the palace and temples of Galerius were reused as building material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 7th century, owing to frequent raids by the Avars and the Slavs, the site was abandoned. The remains of the former palace were reoccupied, as late as the beginning of the 9th century, when a small medieval settlement developed in the eastern part of the compound.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1253</http_url><id_number>1253</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1253.jpg</image_url><iso_code>rs</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.8993055556</latitude><location>Eastern Serbia</location><longitude>22.1861111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Late Roman fortified palace compound and memorial complex of Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius, in the east of Serbia, was commissioned by Emperor Caius Valerius Galerius Maximianus, in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. It was known as Felix Romuliana, named after the emperor&amp;rsquo;s mother. The site consists of fortifications, the palace in the north-western part of the complex, basilicas, temples, hot baths, memorial complex, and a tetrapylon. The group of buildings is also unique in its intertwining of ceremonial and memorial functions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gamzigrad-Romuliana, Palace of Galerius</site><states>Serbia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1430</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;17 February 1976 as a strict nature reserve under the Protection and Preservation of Wild Life Ordinance, 1970 (BlOT). Designated as a special reserve by Designation of Special Reserve (Aldabra) Order, 1981. Accepted as a World Heritage site in 1982.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/185</http_url><id_number>185</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_185.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sc</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-9.4166666670</latitude><location></location><longitude>46.4166666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The least-disturbed large island in the Indian Ocean, Aldabra is of outstanding scientific interest. It is the only place in the world where a reptile is the dominant herbivore; some 150,000 giant tortoises (more than on the Gal&amp;aacute;pagos Islands) feed on tie grasses and shrubbery, including plants that have evolved to take advantage of tortoise grazing patterns. The tortoises are the last survivors of a life form once found on many Indian Ocean islands; slow-moving and vulnerable, the giant land tortoises on all other Indian Ocean islands have been driven to extinction by human exploitation, leaving Aldabra as their only remaining stronghold. The island's isolation has allowed the evolution of a distinct fauna, with two endemic birds (Aldabra arush warbler and Aldabra drongo) and another 11 birds that have distinct subspecies (showing evolution in action); among the most interesting is the Aldabran white-throated rail, the last representative of the western Indian Ocean flightless birds - all others have gone the way of the dodo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aldabra is a classic coral atoll which has been built up from the seabed. It consists of four main islands of coral limestone separated by narrow passes and enclosing a large shallow lagoon. Most of the land surface consists of ancient coral reef (about 125,000 years old) now raised above sea level, the rest being even older reef limestones. The lagoon contains many smaller islands and the entire atoll is surrounded by an outer reef. Geomorphological processes have produced a varied topography, generally rugged, which supports a variety of habitats with a relatively rich biota for an oceanic island, and a high degree of endemism. Over much of the surface of the islands, weathering has led to dissection of the limestones into holes and pits, although at the eastern end the surface is more continuous on upraised lagoonal sediments. Along the coast are undercut limestone cliffs, with a perched beach and sand dunes on the southern (windward) coast. Marine habitats range from coral reefs to mangrove mudflats with minimal human impact. Tidal range is more than 3&amp;nbsp;m, which can lead to strong channel currents.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terrestrial flora is exceptionally rich for a small coral island, with 273 species of flowering plant and fern. Much of the land is covered with dense &lt;em&gt;Pemohis acidula&lt;/em&gt; thicket and other shrubs. There are 19 endemic species, a further 22 species are shared only with neighbouring islands. Many of these plants are considered to be threatened. Mangroves surround the lagoon, and inshore waters also support seagrass meadows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This island group is one of the few areas of the world where reptiles dominate the terrestrial fauna, with the largest world population of giant tortoise, which appears to be self-sustaining. Green turtle breed here, with approximately 1,000 females laying annually. There are 13 species of terrestrial bird including the last representative of the western Indian Ocean flightless birds - Aldabran rail with two endemic Aldabran forms. The Aldabra warbler has not been seen for several years and might be naturally extinct. Previously restricted to 10&amp;nbsp;ha of coastal tall scrub, this was considered possibly the most endangered bird in the world, as only five birds have been seen since its discovery in 1968. Aldabran drongo and some endemic subspecies are also found. There is a population of about 8,000 birds of this flightless race, which does not seem seriously threatened by the feral cats. The islands are important breeding grounds for thousands of seabirds, including several thousand each of red-tailed tropic bird and white-tailed tropic bird, hundreds of masked booby, several thousand red-footed booby, some Abbott's booby, and thousands each of greater frigate bird and lesser frigate bird. There are also thousands of nesting terns. The only endemic mammal is a flying fox. So far about 1,000 species of insect have been recorded, many' of them new and endemic forms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is no permanent settlement. The resident population is composed of Foundation employees and visiting scientists.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The atoll is comprised of four large coral islands which enclose a shallow lagoon; the group of islands is itself surrounded by a coral reef. Due to difficulties of access and the atoll's isolation, Aldabra has been protected from human influence and thus retains some 152,000 giant tortoises, the world's largest population of this reptile.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aldabra Atoll</site><states>Seychelles</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>205</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;18 April 1966 as a Nature Reserve under the Wild Birds Protection (Nature Reserves) Regulation S. I. 27/1696. Further protection under the National Parks and Nature Conservancy Act (Cap. 159) S.I. No. 57 of 1979, Praslin National Park (Designation) Order of 1979, and the Cocooode-mer Management Decree 1978.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/261</http_url><id_number>261</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_261.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sc</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-4.3291700000</latitude><location>Praslin Island</location><longitude>55.7375000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai is a valley in the heart of Praslin National Park, an area which was untouched until the 1930s and still retains primeval palm forest in a near-natural state. This palm forest includes the endemic species coca de mer, of outstanding universal value as the bearer of the largest nut in the world. There has also been a rich body of legend which has developed around the species; the nut has religious significance. in the 19th century the British General Gordon produced detailed 'proof' that the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai was the Garden of Eden and that &lt;em&gt;coca de mer&lt;/em&gt; was the tree of knowledge. In addition, the other five species of endemic palm are also found in the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai, the only place in the Seychelles where they are all found together. In addition there is the endemic black parrot, which is totally dependent on the existence of the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai and the surrounding palm forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are four main vegetation types on the island of Praslin, three occurring in the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai area: lowland forest, dominated by large timber trees once covered large areas of the island but, following human settlement, this has been replaced with well developed secondary forest with the endemic palm, cinnamon, &lt;em&gt;Dodonaea viscosa&lt;/em&gt; , mango, &lt;em&gt;Sideroxylon ferrugineum&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Randia lancifolia&lt;/em&gt; . Intermediate palm forest, unique to the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai, with the endemic palms, coco de mer; eroded land, following burning as well as soil erosion, previously of intermediate and lowland forest, has been recolonized by, or planted with &lt;em&gt;Randia lancifolia&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Chrysobalanus icaco&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;borsigiana&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Dodonaea&lt;/em&gt; sp. and &lt;em&gt;Dillenia ferruginea&lt;/em&gt; . This is the only area in the Seychelles where all six endemic palm species occur together. A further 28 endemic species of plant have been recorded, including the vine, once thought extinct and then believed to exist only on Curieuse Island. Tatamaka and Calice du Pape have been planted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most noteworthy species is the endemic black parrot, restricted to Praslin Island and dependent on the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai and surrounding palm forest. Other birds include Seychelles kestril, the bulbul, blue pigeon, sunbird and cave-nesting swiftlet. Reptiles include the endemic chameleon, Seychelles house snake, green and bronze geckos, skinks, Seychelles wolf snake and blind snake. Six species of caecilian (related to frogs but looking more like large worms) occur in the deep beds of moist humus, but these are rarely found even by scientists. The stream contains freshwater crab, the big freshwater prawn, shrimp and the only endemic species of freshwater fish, the gourgeon. Two endemic snails occur: the brown and the blackfish snail.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a densely populated island, the survival of the Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai in itself is a remarkable achievement; of course, it is far too small to survive on its own in any natural way, and its present status is due to some replanting of coca de mer. While the site is therefore not self-sustaining, it is still the only place which contains the ecosystem components required for the continuity of the species being conserved. The Vall&amp;eacute;e de Mai occupies the lower parts of a valley towards the head of a stream, but does not include the whole water catchments (although this lies within the Praslin National Park); this does not affect the visual impact of the site, but activities on the slopes above the valley could adversely affect the site itself.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a granitic island, the Seychelles is a 'microcontinent' that has had quite a different history from the other volcanic or coralline islands in the Indian Ocean; therefore, it has a large number of endemics and no comparison can be made with other islands in the Indian Ocean.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the heart of the small island of Praslin, the reserve has the vestiges of a natural palm forest preserved in almost its original state. The famous &lt;em&gt;coco de mer&lt;/em&gt;, from a palm-tree once believed to grow in the depths of the sea, is the largest seed in the plant kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vallée de Mai Nature Reserve</site><states>Seychelles</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>291</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1483</http_url><id_number>1483</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1483.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sg</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>1.3152777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>103.8161111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated at the heart of the city of Singapore, the site demonstrates the evolution of a British tropical colonial botanic garden that has become a modern world-class scientific institution used for both conservation and education. The cultural landscape includes a rich variety of historic features, plantings and buildings that demonstrate the development of the garden since its creation in 1859. It has been an important centre for science, research and plant conservation, notably in connection with the cultivation of rubber plantations, in Southeast Asia since 1875.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Singapore Botanic Gardens</site><states>Singapore</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2044</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Banska Stiavnica is the oldest mining town in Slovakia; its town seal of 1275 is the earliest known bearing a mining emblem. It lies on the steep slopes of the Glanzenberg and Paradajz mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ore deposits were probably being exploited as early as the Late Bronze Age (10th-8th centuries BC), and again in the Iron Age (3rd-2nd centuries BC). They were certainly being worked in the Great Moravian Period (9th century AD), and this activity continued in the Middle Ages: a document of 1156 refers to it as the &amp;quot;land of miners&amp;quot; (terra banensium), when miners from the Tirol settled in the area. Banska Stiavnica was granted town and mining privileges by Adalbert IV in the first half of the 13th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 15th century saw the beginning of a period of immense prosperity for the area: defences were built round the town, the parish church was rebuilt and fortified, and many new residences were built. These were originally detached structures, but in the 16th century they were either converted into Renaissance &amp;quot;palaces&amp;quot; or combined to form rows or terraces. Trinity Square, at the heart of the town, was a planned development of this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, a slow decline began at the end of the 15th century because of problems of water in the mines and a slump in precious metal prices, exacerbated by political strife. Nonetheless, technological progress continued, and in 1627 Banskd Stiavnica saw the first use of gunpowder in mining, an important breakthrough. Paradoxically, this contributed to the economic decline by rapidly exhausting the surface ore deposits. However, much important work in the field of the application of water power in deep mining and ancillary processes was carried out, particularly in the 18th century. l this included the invention of a dam-and-weir system for ore dressing that quickly became used throughout the world. During this period, which saw an upturn in mining profitability and Banskd Stiavnica becoming the most important centre for precious metal mining in the Habsburg Empire, many leading engineers and metallurgists from all over Europe were working in the town. Banskd Stiavnica was also a European centre of mining education from the late 16th century; the Mining Academy founded in 1762-64 was the principal one in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. With the cessation of mining operations at the end of the 19th century, the town retained this pre-eminence in education until the Academy was transferred to Sopron (and later Miskolc) in Hungary after World War I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/618</http_url><id_number>618</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_618.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.4611100000</latitude><location>Town and District of Banská Štiavnica, Region of Banská Bystrica</location><longitude>18.9000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The town of Bansk&amp;aacute; &amp;Scaron;tiavnica and the technical monuments in its vicinity represent a unique symbiosis of the technical landscape and the urban environment resulting from its mineral wealth and the consequent prosperity that this engendered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bansk&amp;aacute; &amp;Scaron;tiavnica is the oldest mining town in Slovakia; its town seal of 1275 is the earliest known bearing a mining emblem. It lies on the steep slopes of the Glanzenberg and Paradajz mountains. The ore deposits were probably already being exploited in the late Bronze Age, and again in the Iron Age. They were certainly being worked in the Great Moravian period (9th century AD), and this activity continued in the Middle Ages: a document of 1156 refers to it as the 'land of miners' (&lt;em&gt;terra banensium&lt;/em&gt; ), when miners from the Tirol settled in the area. Bansk&amp;aacute; &amp;Scaron;tiavnica was granted town and mining privileges by Adalbert IV in the first half of the 13th century. The 15th century saw the beginning of a time of immense prosperity for the area: defences were built round the town, the parish church was rebuilt and fortified, and many new residences were built. These were originally detached structures, but in the 16th century they were either converted into Renaissance 'palaces' or combined to form rows or terraces. Trinity Square, at the heart of the town, was a planned development of this period. However, a slow decline began at the end of the 15th century because of problems of water in the mines and a slump in precious-metal prices, exacerbated by political strife. Nonetheless, technological progress continued, and in 1627 Bansk&amp;aacute; &amp;Scaron;tiavnica saw the first use of gunpowder in mining, an important breakthrough. Paradoxically, this contributed to the economic decline by rapidly exhausting the surface ore deposits. However, much important work in the field of the application of water power in deep mining and ancillary processes was carried out, particularly in the 18th century: this included the invention of a dam-and-weir system for ore dressing that quickly became used throughout the world. During this period, which saw an upturn in mining profitability and Bansk&amp;aacute; &amp;Scaron;tiavnica becoming the most important centre for precious-metal mining in the Habsburg Empire, many leading engineers and metallurgists from all over Europe were working in the town. Bansk&amp;aacute; &amp;Scaron;tiavnica was also a European centre of mining education from the late 16th century; the Mining Academy founded in 1762-64 was the principal one in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. With the cessation of mining operations at the end of the 19th century, the town retained this pre-eminence in education until the Academy was transferred to Sopron (and later Miskolc) in Hungary after the First World War.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of the town is a compact unit that has developed in an organic manner. Among the major monuments, dating from the High Gothic to Baroque and later periods, are the Renaissance Old and New Castles, built to resist the Turkish invaders, Town Hall (16th-18th centuries), churches of St Catherine (late Gothic), the Blessed Virgin Mary (neoclassical), and Blackfriars, dome of the Evangelical Church, buildings of the Mining Academy (1892-1912), and the Baroque Calvary complex on Scharfenberg hill. The town is rich in burgher houses, the earliest dating back to the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The whole surrounding area contains important remains of early mining and metallurgical operations. There are no fewer than 30 reservoirs, the oldest of which, Velk&amp;agrave; Vodarenska, was built before 1510. There is an elaborate series of dams, the longest 774.7&amp;nbsp;m long and collecting channels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Remains of mining operations include the Voznick&amp;agrave; drainage gallery, at 1.65&amp;nbsp;km the longest in the world when it was completed in 1878. The Bieber drainage gallery, begun in the 14th century, is the oldest known, and the earliest references to the Weiden and Terezia shafts date from 1519 and 1571 respectively. There are also several large opencast ore pits. The shaft building and machine room of the Mayer shaft (begun in 1805) still survive. The silver-lead smelting plant, originating in the first half of the 17th century and modernized in 1872, is still extant, as is one of the buildings of the first factory in the world for producing machine-made wire cable. The mining museum contains many items of equipment from the area.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Over the centuries, the town of Banská Štiavnica was visited by many outstanding engineers and scientists who contributed to its fame. The old medieval mining centre grew into a town with Renaissance palaces, 16th-century churches, elegant squares and castles. The urban centre blends into the surrounding landscape, which contains vital relics of the mining and metallurgical activities of the past.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of Banská Štiavnica and the Technical Monuments in its Vicinity</site><states>Slovakia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>734</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There was an Early Slav settlement on the site from the Burgwall (walled settlement) period (10th to 12th centuries AD). The first documentary record dates from 1376, and in a document of 1469 reference is made to five named streets. In 1675 there were only four homesteads and five residences of servants of the nearby Likava manor, of which Vlkolinec always seems to have been a fief. A decree of 1630 suggests that the name derives from the important charge laid upon the villagers to maintain the wolf-pits (vlk = wolf) in good order. The present settlement consists almost entirely of buildings from the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/622</http_url><id_number>622</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_622.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.0391666667</latitude><location>Ružomberok District, Zilina Region</location><longitude>19.2783333333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vlkolinec is a remarkably intact unitary settlement of a characteristic central European type with log-built architecture, which is often found in mountainous areas. The layout of the town has remained virtually unchanged and the architectural style has been fully retained. There are 45 unaltered buildings in the ensemble, retaining many early constructional features. It is the best preserved and most comprehensive set of traditional vernacular buildings in the Slovak Republic. It has preserved its ancient appearance with remarkable fidelity: although it is now in its 19th-century guise, Vlkolinec is essentially the same as it has been for a much longer period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was an early Slav settlement on the site from the Burgwall (walled settlement) period (10th-12th centuries AD). The first documentary record dates from 1376, and in a document of 1469 reference is made to five named streets. In 1675 there were only four homesteads and five residences of servants of the nearby Likava manor, of which Vlkolinec always seems to have been a fief. A decree of 1630 suggests that the name derives from the important charge laid upon the villagers to maintain the wolf-pits in good order. The present settlement consists almost entirely of buildings from the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The characteristic houses of Vlkolinec are situated on the street frontages of narrow holdings, with stables, smaller outbuildings, and barns ranged behind them. The main street, which is on a comparatively steep slope, forks in the centre of the village. Parts of the northern end of the village were destroyed by fire in the Second World War and have not been rebuilt. A canalized stream flows through the village. The houses are of the traditional central Slovak timber-built (Blockbau) type. This consists of log walls on stone footings, the walls being coated with clay and whitewashed or painted blue. Over 50% of them have three rooms; some are smaller and others double. The roofs are pitched and semi-hipped, and were originally covered with wooden shingles. They are entered from elongated yards shared with several other houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 47 traditional farmhouses of this type and a shop and schoolhouse from the end of the 19th century. The Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary dates from 1875, but the belfry was built in 1770.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One especially interesting feature of the settlement is the fact that the parcels of land that surround it retain the elongated strip shape characteristic of medieval land allotment over most of feudal Europe. Outside these lie the areas of common land and forest which are also essential elements of the feudal landscape (although these have been substantially altered in later centuries through forestry and pasturage).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Vlkolínec, situated in the centre of Slovakia, is a remarkably intact settlement of 45 buildings with the traditional features of a central European village. It is the region’s most complete group of these kinds of traditional log houses, often found in mountainous areas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vlkolínec</site><states>Slovakia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>740</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There is evidence of human settlement at the site of Bardejov as early as the Palaeolithic period, and Bronze Age materials have been found in the centre of the present town. There was certainly Iron Age settlement in the area, in contact with the Roman Empire, and information is emerging of early medieval occupation, to be expected in view of the location of Bardejov on a major trade route across the Carpathians.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first documentary reference to Bardejov, in an account of a journey on the main route from Old Hungary to Poland, dates from 1241, by which time the settlement appears to have been in existence for some time. Thereafter references to the town, in various forms of its name, become frequent. It is known to have belonged to the kings of Old Hungary from the 11th century to the beginning of the 12th century, when it was donated to a Polish Cistercian monastic community. Around this time Germans from Pre&amp;scaron;ov settled in Bardejov, as a result of which the Cistercians in due course left the town and it reverted to the Hungarian state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The importance of Bardejov's position on the main trade route into Poland from Hungary led to its being made the site of a customs office, to levy tolls on materials being exported. The Hungarian king Karol R&amp;oacute;bert encouraged the development of the town, with an eye to acquisition of Polish lands, granting it the right to hold an annual market on 1 September, the feast day of St Egidius, patron saint of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 14th century Ludovit I ordered the citizens to fortify the town. The entire defensive circuit was completed, with three gates on the main routes and bastions at strategic points. There was a second phase of fortification between 1420 and 1474, when more towers were added, along with other features that incorporated contemporary military architectural principles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the walls, there were many improvements. The church of St Egidius was reconstructed and expanded progressively, a system for water distribution was installed, and large houses were built by the increasingly prosperous merchants. There was a growth of significant crafts, most importantly that of linen production, for which monopoly rights were granted in 1455. The early 16th century saw more development: the town hall was rebuilt and a school was built alongside the church. The final phase of fortification took place in the early 16th century, with the modernization of the bastions and digging of a water-filled moat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unrest within the Old Hungarian kingdom during the first half of the 16th century saw Bardejov entering into a period of recession, especially in its craft industries. This was to continue into the 18th century, when a number of fires took place, that of 1686 being particularly disastrous. Plague and cholera epidemics further ravaged the town during this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the first quarter of the 18th century the situation began to improve. In 1530 the large German element had secured the right to restrict settlement by Slovaks and Poles, and the Jewish inhabitants were expelled. This policy came to an end and Slovaks and Hassidic Jews came into Bardejov in large numbers. By the end of the century the population of the town had regained the level of the 16th century. The burghers' houses were rebuilt or modified in keeping with current architectural fashion, a Jewish quarter with a synagogue, slaughterhouse, and ritual baths developed in the north-western suburbs, and new churches and bridges were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite further fires in the last quarter of the 19th century, the town continued to thrive, thanks to major industrialization projects in the region. However, it declined again following the establishment of the first Czechoslovak Republic and became a backward farming region. World War II saw a worsening in the economic situation, though little damage from bombardment. However, since that time it has benefited from its designation as a town conservation reserve in 1950, and from the recreational facilities offered by neighbouring Bardejovsk&amp;eacute; K&amp;uacute;pele (Bardejov Spa) and the Čergov and Ondavsk&amp;eacute; vrchy Mountains.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/973</http_url><id_number>973</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_973.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sk</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The fortified town of Bardejov provides exceptionally well preserved evidence of the economic and social structure of trading towns in medieval Central Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The plan, buildings, and fortifications of Bardejov illustrate the urban complex that developed in Central Europe in the Middle Ages at major points along the great trade routes of the period&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.2927777778</latitude><location>Town and District of Bardejov, Prešov Region</location><longitude>21.2755555556</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified town of Bardejov provides exceptionally well-preserved evidence of the economic and social structure of trading towns in medieval Central Europe. The plan, buildings and fortifications of the town illustrate the typical urban complex that developed in Central Europe in the Middle Ages at major points along the great trade routes of the period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bardejov is situated on a floodplain terrace of the Topl'a River, in north-eastern Slovakia in the hills of the Beskyd Mountains. There is evidence of human settlement there as early as the Palaeolithic period, but there was certainly Iron Age settlement in the area, in contact with the Roman Empire. Information is emerging of early medieval occupation, to be expected in view of its location of Bardejov on a major trade route across the Carpathians. The importance of this position on the main trade route into Poland from Hungary led to its being made the site of a customs office, to levy tolls on materials being exported. In the mid-14th century Ludovit I ordered the citizens to fortify the town. The entire defensive circuit was completed, with three gates on the main routes and bastions at strategic points. There was a second phase of fortification between 1420 and 1474. On the western side is the Moat Gate, one of the three entrances through the fortifications, which was demolished in 1906. The stretch of walls between here and the Upper Gate (built on the site of the fortified medieval customs station) has three strong medieval forts, the four-storey School Bastion, the three-storey Monastery Bastion, and the four-storey Powder Bastion; its wooden bridge was replaced by the present stone structure in 1770.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The layout of the town is an irregular chequerboard, based on three parallel streets, intersected by four narrower ones; there are also roads encircling the defences on the interior and exterior. In the town centre is the rectangular main square, closed on three sides by 46 burgher houses with typical narrow frontages. On the fourth side is the parish church of St Egidius, together with the town school.The church was reconstructed and expanded progressively, a system for water distribution was installed, and large houses were built by the increasingly prosperous merchants. Among the churches pride of place goes to the parish church of St Egidius, originally a Gothic three-aisled basilica with a polygonal sanctuary, sacristy and tower. The monastery Church of St John the Baptist was built by the Augustinians around 1380 and the monastery buildings from the early 15th century onwards. Bardejov also has a Protestant church in classical style, built when part of the walls in the northern part of the town was removed, and an Orthodox church in eclectic style outside the line of the fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Town Hall was built in 1505-9, the first building in Slovakia with Renaissance stone moulding. The public buildings include the late Gothic Humanistic Grammar School, built on the site of a medieval school, modified in Renaissance style and again in classical style. The municipal wine house of the early 15th century was a storehouse for wines from the vicinity of the town and from the Tokai region. The burghers' houses on their deep narrow plots have undergone many modifications as the result of repeated fires. This type of building was introduced by German traders from Silesia in the early 13th century. The Renaissance saw the addition of ornate facades to the two-storey merchants' houses, converting them into luxurious houses. The most significant Jewish element in Bardejov is the Great Synagogue, built in 1725-47. The complex also contains ritual baths, a kosher slaughterhouse and a meeting building, now a school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the first quarter of the 18th century, Slovaks and Hassidic Jews came into Bardejov in large numbers. The burghers' houses were rebuilt or modified in keeping with current architectural fashion, a Jewish quarter with a synagogue, slaughterhouse, and ritual baths developed in the north-western suburbs, and new churches and bridges were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the establishment of the first Czechoslovak Republic the town became a backward farming region. The Second World War saw a worsening in the economic situation. However, since that time it has benefited from its designation as a town conservation reserve in 1950.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Bardejov is a small but exceptionally complete and well-preserved example of a fortified medieval town, which typifies the urbanisation in this region. Among other remarkable features, it also contains a small Jewish quarter around a fine 18th-century synagogue.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bardejov Town Conservation Reserve</site><states>Slovakia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1137</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The boundaries of the Eastern and Western Carpathians were in direct contact with two essential European religious and political cultures, Western Roman and Byzantine. The set of nominated properties illustrate the coexistence of different religious faiths within a relatively small territory in the mountainous area of the present Slovak Republic. Christianity was adopted in this area in the early Middle Ages. Once the Protestant Reform started to spread along Europe, complicated military, political and religious situations in the Habsburg's monarchy led the emperor Leopold I, in 1681, to admit some non-Catholic Christian churches into the then Upper Hungary. This permission was regulated by "Articles" (originating the common name of Articled churches) that established some restrictions; among them that there could be only two churches in each administrative unit and one in free royal, mining or border cities. Articled churches always had to be erected outside the city centres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Central and Eastern parts of the Carpathians mountains had also been reached by the influence of the Byzantine (and later Russian) Empire, what explains the presence of Greek Orthodox communities, related to specific Slavonic ethnicities. These communities built "tserkwas" or churches according to the Greek Orthodox tradition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nomination dossier provides information on the history of each building included in the serial nomination. The following paragraphs summarize the main historical information.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Hervartov, Saint Francis Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest historical proof of existence of the Hervartov village is from the year 1340. The exact date when the wooden church was built is not known. According to the saved remains of the original Gothic altar, which was probably in place in the second half of the 15th century - the altars of St. Catherine, Virgin Mary and St. Barbara are from the years 1460-1480. This assumption is supported by the fact that the architecture and overall conception of the interior of Hervartov's wooden church, such as its stencilled geometric painting in the presbytery, may be associated to some extent with several churches on the Polish side of the Carpathian Mountains. - Trvdosin, All Saints Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tvrdosin (Twrdossin) already had a church and a rectory in 1395; however, the first written evidence of the existence of the independent rectory is two years later. This, however, does not certify the existence of the contemporary wooden church. The church was probably built as late as the second half of the 15th century, either by alteration of the older church, or as a new sacred building. From this period, there is a fairly well preserved part of the original Gothic altar, probably made for the new church. In 1559, partial subordination to the nearby manor, Orava Castle, is mentioned, as well as the church building serving rites by priests in both practices. The Reformation met favourable conditions in Tvrdosin, and the wooden church passed for a short time to Protestants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Kezmarok, the Articled Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kezmarok, as many other towns in the vicinity, became the centre of reformation in Upper Hungary from the first half of the 16th century. The people of the city had a special liking for reformation teachings thanks to numerous German relatives having many contacts in their motherland. It was Emericus Thokoly, native of Kezmarok, who headed the anti-Habsburgs uprising, that hastened the convocation of the Soprony's assembly in 1681 and permitted construction of new houses of God for the Protestant Church of the Ausburg confessions and reformed (so-called Helvetic) church. The first Articled Church was perhaps just a small house of worship built by protestant churchgoers from Kezmarok in 1687-88. As its space was insufficient for both German and Slovak communities and was obviously built as a temporary building, delegated burghers travelled to the north of Europe and raised money for its reconstruction. Only after Rakoczy's uprising and a partial easement of the anti-reformation tension in April 1717, the existing building was dismantled and a new, much bigger church was built. Works were the responsibility of master carpenter George Muttermann. Shortly, even in the same year, a new wooden rustic church, using high-quality yew and pinewood, was completed. As one of few buildings, the church was plastered on the exterior. The church was adjacent to an older walled inn that was used to serve as a sacristy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Lestiny, the Articled Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was the Zmeskals family who encouraged the people of Lestin village to become sympathisers of the Protestantism. At the time, Thurzos, the aristocratic family, were owners of the Orava castle, and almost all Orava belonged to votaries of reformation. The church was built by local carpenters in the years 1688-89 as a simple wooden rustic structure without tower and bells. The church was reconstructed in the 1770s, when the rustic exterior was covered with slab shuttering. In 1775, the churchgoers changed the damaged slabs of the internal shuttering and an unknown artist added a new decorative motif to an earlier ornamental nave painting of the end of 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Hronsek, the Articled Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reformation in central Slovakia already had many sympathisers and devotees by the middle of 16th century. In particular, the influence of the neighbouring mining towns and the frequent contacts between German traders and craftsmen and local residents, helped them to disseminate and accept new reformation ideas. That is why it is unsurprising that by that time, Hronsek's aristocracy, and consequently their liege people as well, professed the Protestant's religion. Though the Soprony assembly permitted the construction of the new church in Hronsek in 1681, churchgoers continued to meet for worship at the Renaissance Rothov's manor house for a long time. The foundation stone for a new church was laid on 23 October 1725, at the time when the number of churchgoers had increased and the ecclesiastical community was better off. Worshippers built this church within a year and a day and already, on 31 October 1726, the church was solemnly consecrated. As a fairly exceptional wood-framed building in Slovakia, it shows evidence of foreign architectural influence. Master builders remained anonymous. Probably they were called to Hronsek by eminent aristocrats from the community. It is possible that they came from Germany where the use of wooden framed construction was wide spread.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Bodruzal, St. Nicholas Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wooden St. Nicholas "tserkwa" (church) had already been built by worshippers in 1658 and in spite of the fact that in former times it was repaired on several occasions, it is one of the oldest and best-preserved churches of the Eastern rite in Slovakia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Ladomirova, St. Michael Archangel Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St. Michael tserkwa (church) belongs to the so-called Lemkov's group of the eastern Carpathian wooden churches of the eastern rite (Greek Orthodox Church). The horizontal segmentation of the spacious nave reveals the conjunction of different geometric formations of roof level, a substantial height zoning and a Baroque form of a multi-staged roofing over a single room. This confirms the thesis that Lemkov's group did not create an independent form of east-Carpathian wooden churches, but that it is a particular variant of the Boykowsky's church, with considerable influence from western sacral building. Already in the year 1600, the existence was mentioned of a church and rectory in parish Ladomirova.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Ruska Bystra, St. Nicholas Church&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wooden church in Ruska Bystra was built by worshippers in the first half of 18th century, in approximately 1720-1730. As it is considered to be the result of folk sacral civil engineering, there is no knowledge of an exact date of its origin or the name of the master builder or the master carpenter. During the canonical visit of Bishop Michael Emanuel Olsavsky from Mukacevo on 25th June 1750, the church was mentioned as "in a good condition".&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1273</http_url><id_number>1273</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1273.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>49.3361111111</latitude><location>Prešov, Žilina, Banská Bystrica and Košice Regions</location><longitude>19.5583333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Wooden Churches of the Slovak part of Carpathian Mountain Area&amp;nbsp;inscribed on the World Heritage List consist of two Roman Catholic, three Protestant and three Greek Orthodox churches built between the 16th and 18th centuries. The property presents good examples of a rich local tradition of religious architecture, marked by the meeting of Latin and Byzantine cultures. The edifices exhibit some typological variations in their floor plans, interior spaces and external appearance due to their respective religious practices. They bear testimony to the development of major architectural and artistic trends during the period of construction and to their interpretation and adaptation to a specific geographical and cultural context. Interiors are decorated with paintings on the walls and ceilings and other works of art that enrich the cultural significance of the properties.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Wooden Churches of the Slovak part of the Carpathian Mountain Area</site><states>Slovakia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1491</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Spi&amp;scaron;sky Hrad&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spi&amp;scaron;sky Hrad (castle) stands on a dramatic site, a hill rising out of the plain of western Slovakia. The earliest occupation on the site dates back to as early as the Neolithic period (5th millennium BC), and it was subsequently occupied in the Bronze Age and in the 1st century AD, when a fortified settlement was built there, serving as the political and administrative centre of the contemporary P&amp;uacute;chov people. It was also fortified during the Great Moravian Period (9th century AD).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of the present castle began in the early 12th century, but the original structure collapsed, having been built on a geological fault. The present castle was built in the first half of the 13th century, as a defence against Tatar incursions from the east. The Romanesque palace was completed in 1249 and the keep in 1270. Following severe damage from the armies of Matthias Cak in the early 14th century it was rebuilt in the Gothic style and extended by the addition of a large settlement with its own access gate. Additions were made in the 15th century, and major emergency repairs had to be carried out in the 17th and 18th centuries. It served as a garrison until 1780 when it was abandoned after a disastrous fire and left to subside into ruins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Spi&amp;scaron;ske Podhradie was founded as a settlement in the 12th century, at the base of the castle mound, which was already fortified at that time, but it quickly became independent of the castle. The first church, destroyed in a Tatar raid, was rebuilt in Romanesque style in 1258-73, probably by the same Italian masons who constructed the first castle. It was granted town privileges in 1321 and became an important textile centre for its large Saxon community during the 15th century, when much of the town was reconstructed and fortified, but it fell into economic decline after the Reformation. The street pattern was laid out formally in the 14th century and extended in the 15th century. Following a fire in the 16th century most of the houses were rebuilt in Renaissance style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spi&amp;scaron;ska Rapitula began as a small fortified settlement in the 12th century overlooking Spi&amp;scaron;ske Podhradie, of which it now forms part. It was the site of the residence of the Provost of the castle, in the no longer extant St Martin's monastery, and later became a capitulary. This was destroyed in by Tatars in 1241-3, but the pilgrim's chapel, in rotunda form and dedicated to the Virgin, survived until the 18th century and the monastery until the 15th century. Building of the cathedral began in 1285 as a three-aisled Romanesque basilica with a chancel at the west end and a double spire. The Provost's residence was completed in 1281 and further religious buildings were added. Frequent raids by marauding Bulgars and others led to its being fortified in the 14th century. The cathedral was rebuilt in the later 14th century. In 1776 it became the residence of the Bishop and four years later a seminary was established. In 1819 the first teacher training centre in Hungary was founded there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zebra is one of the earliest Slovak settlements in the region. In the later feudal period it formed part of the castle domain, with a manor in the village. The Church of the Holy Spirit was largely built after 1275.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Levoča&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site was an important military training ground during the Great Moravian period (9th century). The remains of various built structures in the present town indicate the presence of a community in the 11th and 12th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The development of the town of Levoča was linked with an early German colonisation, which increased considerably in the mid-13th century following the Mongol devastations of 1241. The town is mentioned for the first time in a document of 1249 for its frontier role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A privilege was granted to the Saxons of the Spi&amp;scaron; region by the King of Hungary, Stephen V, in 1271. Spi&amp;scaron; and Levoča were the main centres of the Saxon presence; Levoča became the administrative capital by the Law of 1271 (Communitas Saxonum de Scepus). Since it was raised to the status of a Free City, all its inhabitants, whether Saxons or not, were given important undertakings: individual freedom, the right to freely exploit the land and the subsoil, personal property rights, etc. They also had the right to govern themselves. The Charter does not mention the right to fortify, but the construction of fortifications is attested by a document of 1319.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A second law, that of 1380 (Zipser Willk&amp;uuml;r), confirmed these prerogatives and extended them, especially with regard to religion. In exchange, attachment to the Kingdom of Hungary was reasserted and the duties and taxes due to the sovereign were revised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A &amp;lsquo;Union of the twenty-four towns of Spi&amp;scaron;' was created in the 14th century, forming a province of the Kingdom; however, the capital, Levoča, did not form part of that union but retained the status of an independent Royal town. At this period, it developed a rational urban planning layout inside the fortifications (see Description).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A pilgrimage developed at the start of the 14th century, between the town and the Mari&amp;aacute;nska Chapel, located on a nearby hill overlooking the town. The pilgrimage has taken place regularly up to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located on a major inter-regional route between Poland, Silesia, Moravia, and Hungary, the region developed and prospered. Levoča became an important centre of trade at the end of the Middle Ages, a role that was facilitated by its Free City status, its rational town planning layout, and the presence inside its walls of numerous merchants and craftsmen. The Charter of 1321 conferred on the town a very advantageous bonded entrep&amp;ocirc;t status which enabled it to play the role of a staging town for European trade. Regular trade was carried out with Cracow, Wrocław, Debrecen, and more distantly with the Germanic territories, Austria, and the Balkans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Guilds of craftsmen were present from the Middle Ages onwards, and there were more than thirty such guilds in the Renaissance period. Its tailors, tinsmiths, masons, stone masons, and button makers were highly reputed and participated in national and international trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1412, part of the province of Spi&amp;scaron; was ceded to Poland, and Levoča lost a significant part of its administrative and legal role at the head of a district reduced to eleven towns. At the end of the 15th century Levoča lost its position as regional capital, which returned to the Castle of Spi&amp;scaron;sky Hrad; however the town retained its special status and was directly dependent on the King of Hungary. The Charters that he granted in 1419 and 1492 exempted the town's merchants from commercial duties and from toll charges throughout the Kingdom. Levoča remained an important town for trade, a staging post between different regions and cultures. The great merchant dynasties, such as the Thurzos and the Rholls, were present in Europe. Heavily involved in the mines of Slovakia, the Thurzos had at the end of the 15th century an agreement with the Fuggers of Augsburg for the control of copper in the Kingdom of Hungary. Conversely, several major Polish, Silesian, and Austrian trading houses had agencies in Levoča. The town was also the venue for large merchant fairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 15th and 16th centuries were a period of reinforcement of the town's defensive system and of closer packing for its urban planning scheme, with the construction of many stone houses. The cadastral system made it compulsory to follow urban frontage lines and dimensions for the facades. The architectural elements of the Renaissance then took effect in the new buildings and in the many renovations, as the town suffered fires in 1550, 1561, and 1599. The reconstruction of the Town Hall and the creation of arcaded streets are representative of this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bolstered by its economic and cultural power, and boasting renovated urban fortifications and a town planning scheme of high quality, Levoča continued to grow. It attracted in particular the nobles and religious institutions in charge of the administration of the District of Spi&amp;scaron;, which in practice regained a proportion of its regional institutional power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Renaissance in Central and Eastern Europe, Levoča played an important regional cultural role, particularly through a highly regarded municipal school in the early 15th century. Its many pupils went on to study at various European universities, particularly at Cracow. A library was built in 1517, a bookshop opened in 1557, and a printing house, the first in Slovakia, in 1625.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Counter-Reformation, Levoča simultaneously had a high school run by the Evangelicals and a Roman Catholic gymnasium. In the 16th century Levoča was the birthplace of Jan Henckel, a humanist of European renown; it was also home to other cultural and scientific luminaries; a pharmacy was established there. Several notable musicians were born or resided there, with particular connections with the Evangelical Church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Levoča was a leading Central and East European centre for sculpture and painting which flourished in the Late Gothic period. Many artists converged on the rich merchant city. The apogee of this movement is represented by the works of Master Paul. Initially he made a series of altars for St Jacob's parish church (see Description); from 1530 onwards, he established a sculpture workshop at Levoča which became renowned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Artistic traditions, particularly painting and sculpture, were maintained in the town in the 17th and 18th centuries. Levoča became a centre for Baroque art in Central Europe, its products being widely distributed in Slovakia and Hungary. The town was a centre for foreign artists from Sweden, Poland, and Bohemia, whilst its own artists were sent to St Petersburg and Vienna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town's commercial, cultural, and artistic activities continued in the 18th and 19th centuries. It had a regional scientific society, and a theatre opened its doors in 1827. However, several periods of economic stagnation caused a decline in the town's commercial position. It remained untouched by the Industrial Revolution at the end of the 19th century because it was not served by a railway. It then went into rapid decline, and this was not checked by its return to the role of regional capital of the Spi&amp;scaron; Region in 1922, following the creation of Czechoslovakia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From an urban planning viewpoint, the 18th century was notable for religious restorations in the Baroque style, while the fortification system suffered decay. At the start of the 19th century various public building works were undertaken: the Evangelical Church and the District Hall followed by the reconstruction of the bell tower of the parish church. Work was also carried out in the town: cobblestones were laid in the streets and public lighting was installed. Part of the fortifications was destroyed and replaced by barracks at the end of the century. In 1911, the Gymnazialny Church was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Interior restoration work was undertaken in the early 1950s on St Jacob's Church, on the works of Master Paul in particular. They were carried out by the Kotrba family group of craftsmen who specialised in painting, stone and, wood sculpture, polychromy, and gilding, and the family continued to monitor this work for several decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other renovation work was, however, necessary - in 1989 on the St Nicholas altar and in 2003-2004 on the Nativity altar&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/620</http_url><id_number>620</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_620.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.9994444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>20.7675000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The area forms a unique urban-architectural and natural landscape unit of high artistic and aesthetic value. The castle is a characteristic ensemble, representing cultural, social, and artistic developments, and is at the same time comparatively intact. The military, political, ecclesiastical, and social elements are closely linked with the surrounding landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spi&amp;scaron;sk&amp;yacute; Hrad (castle) stands on a dramatic site, a hill rising out of the plain of western Slovakia. The earliest occupation on the site dates back to as early as the Neolithic period, and it was subsequently occupied in the Bronze Age. Construction of the present castle began in the early 12th century, but the original structure collapsed, having been built on a geological fault. The present castle was built in the first half of the 13th century as a defence against Tatar incursions from the east. The Romanesque palace was completed in 1249 and the keep in 1270. It is one of the largest castles in Eastern Europe and important for its Romanesque and Gothic elements, which make it comparable with contemporary castles in France and the British Isles rather than those of Central and Eastern Europe. It consists of the upper keep and its courtyard, two inner baileys with internal fortified access gates, the outer bailey, with the main entrance gate and remains of the garrison's quarters, and the large barbican area, now largely ruined. Excavations in front of the castle have revealed the remains of the earlier moated circular fort, a ritual building of the P&amp;ugrave;chov culture, the foundations of the Captain's house, and the remains of a circular tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Spi&amp;scaron;sk&amp;eacute; Podhradie was founded as a settlement, at the base of the castle mound, which was already fortified at that time, but quickly it became independent of the castle. The first church, destroyed in a Tatar raid, was rebuilt in Romanesque style in 1258-73, probably by the same Italian masons who constructed the first castle. It was granted town privileges and became an important textile centre for its large Saxon community during the 15th century, when much of the town was reconstructed and fortified, but it fell into economic decline after the Reformation. The street pattern was laid out formally in the 14th century and extended in the 15th century. Following a fire, most of the houses were rebuilt in Renaissance style. The central point of the town is the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, surrounded by town houses. A number of stone two-storey houses still survive, embedded in the fabric of later (largely Renaissance) structures. The town square assumed its present form in the 15th century, round the church. A block of Baroque houses, along with the church and monastery of the Order of Brothers of Mercy, has closed the south-east side of the central square.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spi&amp;scaron;sk&amp;agrave; Kapitula, a unique fortified ecclesiastical ensemble, began as a small fortified settlement overlooking Spi&amp;scaron;sk&amp;eacute; Podhradie. The complex of buildings there is based on the Cathedral of St Martin, where building began in 1285 as a three-aisled Romanesque basilica with a chancel at the west end and a double spire. It owes its present form to successive remodellings and additions in the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque styles. The Bishop's Palace is largely Baroque, with some excellent interior decorations, like many of the religious buildings in the group. The oval ground plan of the centre of the town is due to its having been fortified in the 14th century. The various religious buildings had defensive functions in this early period. New monastery buildings were erected when the provost's residence was rebuilt and the whole area fortified. The earlier central fortifications were removed in the 18th century. It was the site of the residence of the provost of the castle, in the no longer extant St Martin's monastery, and later became a capitulary. This was destroyed by Tatars, but the pilgrim's chapel, in rotunda form and dedicated to the Virgin, survived until the 18th century and the monastery until the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zehra is one of the earliest Slovak settlements in the region. In the later feudal period it formed part of the castle domain, with a manor in the village. The Church of the Holy Spirit was largely built after 1275: its medieval wall paintings are especially noteworthy.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2009</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Spi&amp;scaron;sk&amp;yacute; Hrad has one of the largest ensembles of 13th and 14th century military, political and religious buildings in eastern Europe, and its Romanesque and Gothic architecture has remained remarkably intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The extended site features the addition of the historic town-centre of Levoča founded in the 13th and 14th centuries within fortifications. Most of the site has been preserved and it includes the 14th century church of St James with its ten alters of the 15th and 16th centuries, a remarkable collection of polychrome works in the Late Gothic style, including an 18.6 metre high alterpiece by completed around 1510 by Master Paul.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Levoča, Spišský Hrad and the Associated Cultural Monuments</site><states>Slovakia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1537</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;1980. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/390</http_url><id_number>390</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_390.jpg</image_url><iso_code>si</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>45.6666700000</latitude><location>Villages of Škocjan pri Divaci, Matavun and Betanja, Communes of Divaca and Sežana, Region of Obalno-kraška</location><longitude>14.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The &amp;Scaron;kocjan Caves lie in the north-east section of Kraski Landscape Park. The protected area extends over 200&amp;nbsp;ha and includes four deep and picturesque chasms, Sokolak in the south, Globocak in the west, Sapen dol and Lisicina in the north. They are components of the cave system and are alike floristically. The site also includes the Mahorcic cave which has several underground lakes and five cascades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The system of subterranean passages, fashioned by the Reka River, constitutes a dramatic example of large-scale karst drainage. An underground system of passages runs from the Reka's source to Timavo on the Gulf of Trieste in Italy. In places the surfaces of the galleries at several levels have collapsed and give the appearance of deep chasms. The river enters the &amp;Scaron;kocjan grotto in an underground passage 350&amp;nbsp;m long, reappearing in the bottom of a 150&amp;nbsp;m deep and 300&amp;nbsp;m long chasm, before disappearing into a passage 2&amp;nbsp;km long. There are five galleries and a canal. A gallery of stalactites and stalagmites leads to the surface. In total there are 25 cascades along the river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archeological excavations have revealed that the site has been occupied for more than 10,000 years. Archaeological finds point to continuous settlement from the middle Stone Age to the Iron Age, when a fort was constructed where &amp;Scaron;kocjan stands today. The Romans erected another fortification in the same place, and during the Middle Ages a fortified rural settlement was established. Documentary references exist since the time of Posidinuis (135-50 BC). It has frequently been written about, with important descriptive works appearing in 1599 and 1689.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A mixture of habitats is represented corresponding to the floras of Central Europe, the Mediterranean, Submediterranean, Ilyrian and Alpine, all of which are present side by side in the Great Valley. The rare endemic &lt;em&gt;Campanula justiniana&lt;/em&gt; grows here at its type locality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The system of grottos is rich in speleofauna. The underground galleries hold five species of wintering bat in large numbers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ever since the first scientific studies were carried out in the 19th century, the grotto system has been considered important karst phenomena in Europe and all organizations responsible for it have maintained it intact. The caves were first explored by Svetina in 1839, who descended 100&amp;nbsp;m into the Reka. Speleological research began in 1851 (and continues to date), research on the water system in 1893 and in 1894 the famous speleologist Martel published the work &lt;em&gt;Les abimes&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The total population of 400 is present in three villages (&amp;Scaron;kocjan pri Divaci, Matavan and Betanja) within this area.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This exceptional system of limestone caves comprises collapsed dolines, some 6 km of underground passages with a total depth of more than 200 m, many waterfalls and one of the largest known underground chambers. The site, located in the Kras region (literally meaning Karst), is one of the most famous in the world for the study of karstic phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Škocjan Caves</site><states>Slovenia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>450</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2013</danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/854</http_url><id_number>854</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_854.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; East Rennell, as a stepping stone in the migration and evolution of species in the western Pacific, is an important site for the science of island biogeography. Combined with the strong climate effects of frequent cyclones, East Rennell is a true natural laboratory for scientific study.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-11.6833300000</latitude><location>Southernmost of the Solomon Islands, Rennell and Bellona Province</location><longitude>160.3333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of East Rennell is located on the southern third of Rennell Island which is the southernmost island in the Solomon Island group. Rennell is the largest raised coral atoll in the world. The island is subject to relatively frequent hurricanes which are a major factor affecting the island. Rennell was formed by the uplift of corals which formed on an undersea ridge and then were subject to faulting. The landform is a typical jagged and eroded limestone karst rising to 200&amp;nbsp;m. A major feature of the island is Lake Tegano which was the former lagoon on the atoll. The lake is the largest in the insular Pacific. It is brackish and contains many rugged limestone islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rennell is mostly covered with dense forest with a canopy averaging 20&amp;nbsp;m in height. The three main vegetation types are low scrub forest on the karst ridge, tall forest in the interior and beach flora along Lake Tegano. The lake's flora is dominated by 312 species of diatoms and algae, a small number of which are endemic. There are 10 endemic plants on the island and its flora contains elements from the more impoverished Pacific islands to the east and the much richer Melanesian flora to the west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wildlife includes 11 species of bat, one of which is endemic, and 43 bird species, four of which are endemic. An endemic banded sea snake lives in Lake Tegano. The invertebrate life is rich, with 27 species of land snails and 731 insect species. Approximately 800 people of Polynesian origin live in four villages within the area. Subsistence agriculture, fishing and hunting are the bases of the economy. The local people rely on forest products for most construction materials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The distinguishing features of the site that are not duplicated elsewhere are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Rennell is the world's largest raised coral atoll;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Lake Tegano is the largest lake in the insular Pacific and contains a number of endemic species;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the forests are largely undisturbed by humans and display a number of adaptations to the effects of the frequent cyclonic storms;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;for its size Rennell Island has a high number of endemic species, particularly birds;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;within the Pacific, most oceanic islands have been much modified by human activity. On Rennell, these impacts have been relatively light and invasive predators such as rats and alien land snails, which have decimated the fauna of other islands, are absent.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;East Rennell has a number of marine, coastal and forest values that are better displayed in other Pacific locations. The fact, however, that the atoll combines them in one place and in a relatively undisturbed state, makes the island a special place in the Papuan biogeographic province.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;East Rennell makes up the southern third of Rennell Island, the southernmost island in the Solomon Island group in the western Pacific. Rennell, 86 km long x 15 km wide, is the largest raised coral atoll in the world. The site includes approximately 37,000 ha and a marine area extending 3 nautical miles to sea. A major feature of the island is Lake Tegano, which was the former lagoon on the atoll. The lake, the largest in the insular Pacific (15,500 ha), is brackish and contains many rugged limestone islands and endemic species. Rennell is mostly covered with dense forest, with a canopy averaging 20 m in height. Combined with the strong climatic effects of frequent cyclones, the site is a true natural laboratory for scientific study. The site is under customary land ownership and management.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>East Rennell</site><states>Solomon Islands</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1005</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/914</http_url><id_number>914</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_914.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The St Lucia site consists of thirteen contiguous protected areas with a total size of 234,566 hectares. The site is the largest estuarine system in Africa and includes the southernmost extension of coral reefs on the continent. The site contains a combination of on-going fluvial, marine and aeolian processes that have resulted in a variety of landforms and ecosystems. Features include wide submarine canyons, sandy beaches, forested dune cordon and a mosaic of wetlands, grasslands, forests, lakes and savanna. The variety of morphology as well as major flood and storm events contribute to ongoing evolutionary processes in the area. Natural phenomena include: shifts from low to hyper-saline states in the Park’s lakes; large numbers of nesting turtles on the beaches; the migration of whales, dolphins and whale-sharks off-shore; and huge numbers of waterfowl including large breeding colonies of pelicans, storks, herons and terns. The Park’s location between sub-tropical and tropical Africa as well as its coastal setting has resulted in exceptional biodiversity including some 521 bird species.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-27.8388900000</latitude><location>KwaZulu-Natal</location><longitude>32.5500000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ongoing fluvial, marine and aeolian processes in the site have produced a variety of landforms, including coral reefs, long sandy beaches, coastal dunes, lake systems, swamps, and extensive reed and papyrus wetlands. The interplay of the park's environmental heterogeneity with major floods and coastal storms and a transitional geographic location between subtropical and tropical Africa has resulted in exceptional species diversity and ongoing speciation. The mosaic of landforms and habitat types creates breathtaking scenic vistas. The site contains critical habitats for a range of species from Africa's marine, wetland and savannah environments.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>iSimangaliso Wetland Park</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1067</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The fossils of the Sterkfontein Valley caves depict South Africa's landscape and fauna 3.5 million years ago. Some of the most important specimens of australopithecines (Australopithecus (Paranthropus) robustus and Australopithecus (Plesianthropus) africanus), collateral ancestors of modern man, have been discovered in this area. Sterkfontein geologically revealed the earliest record of hominid in southern Africa (close to 3.5 million years ago). It is also historically the earliest discovery of an adult australopithecine in 1936, by Robert Broom, the richest source of fossils of this species and the oldest stone tools recovered (2 to 1.5 million years BP). Specimens of Homo habilis have also been found in the breccias of Sterkfontein caves. They are key elements in determining the origin and the evolution of mankind. Their belonging to the lineage that gave birth to Homo sapiens sapiens (modern man) was demonstrated by proving that their cranial capacity, their diet, and their upright posture were all indicative of a kinship to modern man. Stone and bone tools, dating to around 2 to 1.5 million years BP, have been brought to light at Sterkfontein, Kromdraai, and Swartkrans which support this hypothesis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Evidence for the controlled use of fire has been observed in the Swartkrans cave (1.8 to 1 million years BP), another specific trait of human behaviour. The antiquity of these fossils and their relative position as primates with indisputable hominid traits proclaimed Africa as the cradle of humanity.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/915</http_url><id_number>915</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_915.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-24.1586100000</latitude><location>Gauteng, Limpopo and North-west provinces</location><longitude>29.1769400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sterkfontein area contains an exceptionally large and scientifically significant group of sites which throw light on the earliest ancestors of humanity. They constitute a vast reserve of scientific data of universal scope and considerable potential, linked to the history of the most ancient periods of humanity. They bear exceptional testimony to some of the most important Australopithecine specimens dating back more than 3.5&amp;nbsp;million years; this throws unique light on the origins and then the evolution of humankind through the hominization process.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape comprises a number of fossil-bearing cave deposits which are considered to be of outstanding universal value, because they encapsulate a superbly preserved record of the fauna, including an invaluable record of the stages in the emergence and evolution of humanity, over the past 3.5&amp;nbsp;million years. This makes it, without doubt, one of the world's most important sites for human evolutionary studies and researches. The site is located on a hill to the south of the Rietspruit river valley 45&amp;nbsp;km west of Johannesburg and 5&amp;nbsp;km north of the closest urban centre. The palaeontological and palaeoanthropological sites are a series of caves found in the dolomite band and its associated breccias which run through the entire area, creating a hilly terrain. The area is covered mainly by grass, with more dense vegetation along the rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the sites were discovered as a result of lime-mining activities, now discontinued. Sterkfontein is located on a hill to the south of the Rietspruit River valley. Of the nine included in the area, only three (Drimolen, Coopers B, Gondolin) have so far revealed hominid remains; Wonder Cave, Gladysvale, Bolt's Farm, Minnaar's Caves, Plover's Lake and Haasgat have only produced faunal remains but they possess a strong potential for revealing hominid remains. The fossils of the Sterkfontein valley caves depict South Africa's landscape and fauna 3.5&amp;nbsp;million years ago. Some of the most important specimens of australopithecines, collateral ancestors of modern man, have been discovered in this area. Sterkfontein geologically revealed the earliest record of hominids in southern Africa (close to 3.5&amp;nbsp;million years ago).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Taung Skull Fossil Site consists of archaeological, palaeontological, historic and mining sites that are important in heritage terms. Makapan Valley consists of palaeontological, archaeological and historic sites. The components of the Taung Skull Fossil Site includes archaeological sites whose importance is widely recognized. It is primarily the palaeontological and palaeo-anthropological component which has made the Taung Skull Fossil Site so celebrated. This applies not only to the scientific world but also to the cultural world which is fascinated by the origin and history of humankind, in view of the fact, which is now indisputable, that Africa is the cradle of humankind. The components of Makapan Valley: this ensemble, of acknowledged richness, consists of palaeontological, archaeological and historic sites. The whole of this zone contains essential elements that define the origin and evolution of humankind. Thus, as a result of exploration and scientific analysis:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;geological strata have revealed the first traces of hominids in southern Africa;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;stone and bone tools, dating back 2-1.5million years, have been uncovered, particularly at the time of the discovery in 1936 of the first adult &lt;em&gt;Australopithecus&lt;/em&gt; ;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;fossil elements have enabled the identification of several specimens of early hominids, linked to the Homo genus, a collateral ancestor of modern man (&lt;em&gt;Homo sapiens sapiens&lt;/em&gt; ), more particularly specimens of Paranthropus: &lt;em&gt;Australopithecus africanus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Australopithecus robustus&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;evidence of the domestication of fire, another specific characteristic of human behaviour, has been detected, for the period extending from 1.8million to 1million years ago.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Taung Skull Fossil Site, part of the extension to the site inscribed in 1999, is the place where in 1924 the celebrated Taung Skull &amp;ndash; a specimen of the species Australopithecus africanus &amp;ndash; was found. Makapan Valley, also in the site, features in its many archaeological caves traces of human occupation and evolution dating back some 3.3 million years. The area contains essential elements that define the origin and evolution of humanity. Fossils found there have enabled the identification of several specimens of early hominids, more particularly of Paranthropus, dating back between 4.5 million and 2.5 million years, as well as evidence of the domestication of fire 1.8 million to 1 million years ago.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fossil Hominid Sites of South Africa</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1069</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;It is possible that Robben Island (often known simply as "The Island") was occupied by humans before the arrival of the Europeans, since it is the summit of a submerged mountain, linked by an undersea saddle to the coast of Table Bay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cape Peninsula, with Robben Island, fell halfway on sea voyages between Europe and the Orient. The first Europeans to land there were probably members of Vasco de Gama's fleet, who stopped there in 1498 in search of shelter and supplies. They were followed by a growing number of European ships in the next two centuries, since it offered food, drinkable water, and security from attack by the indigenous people of the Cape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Dutch East India Company (VOC) first became aware of the potential of the Cape of Good Hope in the mid 17th century, and in 1657 Jan van Riebeeck set up a colony there, formed of VOC officials and free burghers. They were joined in 1688 by French Huguenots following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. The colonists began a vigorous policy of enslavement of the indigenous peoples and brought them there from other parts of Africa; the population was also augmented with Muslims deported from the East Indies and elsewhere in the Orient.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The potential of Robben Island as a prison was quickly realized by van Riebeeck. First, slaves and prisoners of war were sent there, to cut stone and burn seashells for lime for building the settlement of Cape Town, and they were joined later by others - convicted VOC soldiers and sailors, disaffected Khoisan indigenous people from the mainland, and political and religious (Moslem) leaders from the East Indies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Cape was captured by the British from the Dutch in 1795 and again in 1806, they continued to use the Island as a prison, for military prisoners (mostly white), political prisoners, and criminals (mostly black). A tenth of the prisoners were women, but they were transferred in 1835 to a Cape Town prison. The Island prison was closed in 1846 and a General Infirmary was established, to receive chronically sick, insane, and lepers and relieve pressure on mainland hospitals. (However, the Island was still used on occasion by the British as a secure place of exile for important political prisoners.) The management of the General Infirmary and the care it provided for its patients (who were racially segregated from the 1860s) were of a low order, and the establishment on the mainland of specialized hospitals for the mentally disturbed and the chronically sick, catering for middle-class patients, resulted in Robben Island becoming the main leper colony in the Cape, with over a thousand inmates. This was finally to close in 1931.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Plans to turn the Island into a holiday resort foundered with the approach of World War II, and it was declared to be "reserved for military purposes" in 1936. It became the first point of defence against an attack on Table Bay, equipped with harbour facilities and heavy coastal artillery. After the war it continued in use for training, and in 1951 was taken over by the South African Marine Corps and then the South African Navy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1959 the Island was claimed by the Prisons Department as a maximum security prison for political prisoners sentenced by the Apartheid regime, as well as ordinary criminals, all of them black. The first criminals landed there in 1961, and in the next year they were followed by the first political prisoners. Many were to be sent there in the years that followed, mostly leaders of the African National Congress and Pan African Congress; the most celebrated of the prisoners on Robben Island was Nelson Mandela, who was incarcerated there for some twenty years. During the 1960s and early 1970s the isolation of the Island and the notoriously cruel regime of its staff made it the most feared prison in South Africa. The last political prisoners left the island in 1991 and the prison closed down finally in 1996, and since that time it has been developed as a museum.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/916</http_url><id_number>916</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_916.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The buildings of Robben Island bear eloquent testimony to its sombre history. Criterion (vi): Robben Island and its prison buildings symbolize the triumph of the human spirit, of freedom, and of democracy over oppression.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-33.8000000000</latitude><location>Western Cape Province</location><longitude>18.3666666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The buildings of Robben Island bear eloquent testimony to its sombre history, and at the same time symbolize the triumph of the human spirit, of freedom, and of democracy over oppression.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Robben Island is a low-lying rocky outcrop situated 9.3km north of the mainland. It has a Mediterranean climate, and is exposed to violent winter gales and tides that make its northern and western sides virtually uninhabitable. Settlement has concentrated on the southern and eastern coasts of the island. It is characterized by discontinuity, resulting from its episodic history. A determining factor has been the lack of drinking water. The earliest features of human occupation are the abandoned quarries for slate (on the south of the island) and limestone (in the centre), which date from the mid-17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Robben Island was possibly occupied by humans before the arrival of the Europeans, as it is the summit of a submerged mountain, linked by an undersea saddle to the coast of Table Bay. The Cape Peninsula, with Robben Island, fell halfway on sea voyages between Europe and the Orient. The first Europeans to land there were probably members of Vasco de Gama's fleet, who stopped there in 1498 in search of shelter and supplies. They were followed by a growing number of ships in the next two centuries, as it offered food, drinkable water, and security from attack by the indigenous people of the Cape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Dutch East India Company first became aware of the potential of the Cape of Good Hope in the mid-17th century, and in 1657 Jan van Riebeeck set up a colony there. They were joined in 1688 by French Huguenots. The colonists began a vigorous policy of enslavement of the indigenous peoples and brought them there from other parts of Africa; the population was also augmented with Muslims deported from the East Indies and elsewhere in the Orient. The potential of the island as a prison was realized by van Riebeeck. First, slaves and prisoners of war were sent there, to cut stone and burn seashells for lime for building the settlement of Cape Town. When the Cape was captured by the British from the Dutch in 1795 and 1806, they continued to use the island as a prison, for military prisoners (mostly white), political prisoners and criminals (mostly black). A tenth of the prisoners were women, but they were transferred in 1835 to a Cape Town prison. This is the nucleus of the existing administrative area, known as 'The Village'. Some of the buildings, such as the clubhouse (formerly the Medical Superintendent's House) of 1840 and the former Anglican parsonage have retained good contemporary detailing inside and outside. The Anglican Church, built with convict labour in 1841, is an early example of Cape Gothic style, plastered and painted white on the exterior. The island prison was closed in 1846 and a general infirmary was established, to receive chronically sick, insane and lepers and relieve pressure on mainland hospitals. The small lighthouse on Minto's Hill in the southern part of the island was built in 1864. Between the village and the harbour slightly to the north known as Murray's Bay there is the small Church of the Good Shepherd (generally known as the Lepers' Church), built by the lepers themselves in 1895 to the designs of the distinguished architect Sir Herbert Baker. Surrounding it are leper graves, now half hidden in the grass. Robben Island becoming the main leper colony in the Cape, with over 1,000 inmates. This was finally to close in 1931.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Plans to turn the island into a holiday resort foundered with the approach of the Second World War, and it was declared to be 'reserved for military purposes' in 1936. It became the first point of defence against an attack on Table Bay, equipped with harbour facilities and heavy coastal artillery. After the war it continued in use for training, and in 1951 was taken over by the South African Marine Corps and then the South African Navy. In 1959 the island was claimed by the Prisons Department as a maximum security prison for political prisoners sentenced by the Apartheid regime, as well as ordinary criminals, all of them black. The present harbour at Murray's Bay was built during the Second World War, along with extensive fortifications and other military structures. Construction of the maximum security prison of the apartheid period began in the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most celebrated of the prisoners on Robben Island was Nelson Mandela, who was incarcerated there for some 20 years. The last political prisoners left the island in 1991 and the prison closed down finally in 1996; since that time it has been developed as a museum.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Robben Island was used at various times between the 17th and 20th centuries as a prison, a hospital for socially unacceptable groups and a military base. Its buildings, particularly those of the late 20th century such as the maximum security prison for political prisoners, witness the triumph of democracy and freedom over oppression and racism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Robben Island</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1070</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1162</http_url><id_number>1162</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1162.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii): &lt;/em&gt;Vredefort Dome is the oldest, largest, and most deeply eroded complex meteorite impact structure in the world. It is the site of the world&amp;rsquo;s greatest single, known energy release event. It contains high quality and accessible geological (outcrop) sites which demonstrate a range of geological evidences of a complex meteorite impact structure. The rural and natural landscapes of the serial property help portray the magnitude of the ring structures resulting from the impact. The serial nomination is considered to be a representative sample of a complex meteorite impact structure. A comprehensive comparative analysis with other complex meteorite impact structures demonstrated that it is the only example on earth providing a full geological profile of an astrobleme below the crater floor, thereby enabling research into the genesis and development of an astrobleme immediately post impact.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-26.8600000000</latitude><location>Northwest and Free State provinces</location><longitude>27.2600000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Vredefort Dome, approximately 120&amp;nbsp;km south-west of Johannesburg, is a representative part of a larger meteorite impact structure (astrobleme). Dating back 2,023 million years, it is the oldest astrobleme found on Earth so far. With a radius of 190&amp;nbsp;km, it is also the largest and the most deeply eroded. Vredefort Dome bears witness to the world's greatest known single energy-release event, which caused devastating global change, including, according to some scientists, major evolutionary changes. It provides critical evidence of the Earth's geological history and is crucial to our understanding of the evolution of the planet. Despite this, geological activity on the Earth's surface has led to the disappearance of evidence from most impact sites and Vredefort is the only example to provide a full geological profile of an astrobleme below the crater floor, allowing research into the genesis and development of an astrobleme immediately post-impact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site contains high quality and accessible geological (outcrop) sites that demonstrate a range of geological evidences of a complex meteorite impact structure. The rural and natural landscapes of the serial property help to portray the magnitude of the ring structures resulting from the impact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Vredefort Dome, approximately 120 km south-west of Johannesburg, is a representative part of a larger meteorite impact structure, or astrobleme. Dating back 2,023 million years, it is the oldest astrobleme yet found on Earth. With a radius of 190 km, it is also the largest and the most deeply eroded. Vredefort Dome bears witness to the world&amp;rsquo;s greatest known single energy release event, which had devastating global effects including, according to some scientists, major evolutionary changes. It provides critical evidence of the Earth&amp;rsquo;s geological history and is crucial to understanding of the evolution of the planet. Despite the importance of impact sites to the planet&amp;rsquo;s history, geological activity on the Earth&amp;rsquo;s surface has led to the disappearance of evidence from most of them, and Vredefort is the only example to provide a full geological profile of an astrobleme below the crater floor.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vredefort Dome</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1342</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Khoi-Khoi people, ancestors of the Nama, once occupied lands across southern Namibia and most of the present-day Western and Northern Cape Provinces of South Africa. Over a century or more, those in the south were pushed north by the spread of European farms north from the Cape. This influx of refugees into the middle reaches of the Orange River in the 18th century led to turmoil in the area with predatory bands of brigands at large. In the 19th century, missionaries moved into the area. The mix of peoples together with the influence of outsiders led to a rapid dilution of traditional Khoi-Khoi culture. In the 1940s another group of people, the Boslius Basters were moved into the Richtersveld by the Apartheid regime: there they joined the Nama and after an initial uneasy relationship they have formed a partnership for land ownership in the Conservancy. Since 2003 the farmers have held the title to their lands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Khoi-Khoi and the San are considered to be the original indigenous inhabitants of southern Africa and thus custodians of ancient cultures. The Khoi-Khoi migrated with herds of sheep and cattle on a seasonal basis and lived in portable houses. Their legacy is, like the San, manifest in rock art. The earliest written records for the Khoi-Khoi were set down by explorers from Europe in the late 15th century, and from the late 17th century to the late 19th century many other missionaries and officials added to the record. During the 20th century the Khoi-Khoi have been written about extensively.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the time of the first description, the Khoi-Khoi lived in clans, each with their own territory. Early Dutch settlers in the Cape began to buy livestock from the Khoi-Khoi in order to supply meat for the Dutch fleet. This led to stock shortages amongst the Khoi-Khoi and resulted in conflicts between the Europeans and the local communities. Within only a few years of the establishment of Cape Town, the Khoi-Khoi began to migrate north and in order to fill the gap of cattle supplies, the settlers created a system of freehold farms. Environmental conditions did not permit intensive agriculture; and extensive agriculture, meant that vast areas of land were taken over by the colonists as the frontiers of the colony spread rapidly to the east and north, often out of official control. The Khoi-Khoi were forced into military or mission service, or became labourers on settler farms. Many also succumbed to newly introduced diseases. Within a few generations the Khoi-Khoi had all but disappeared from many parts of their ancient homeland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 20th century the existence of the Khoi-Khoi was denied under the Apartheid policy and they were subsumed into the coloured racial category. Since 1994 and liberation there has been a re-emergence of Khoi-Khoi identity and the emergence of the Nama, the last of the Khoi-Khoi to still practice traditional pastoralism. The Richtersveld, due to its remoteness, now remains the only place that reflects this way of life. Elsewhere, for instance in Namibia and other parts of South Africa, the Nama have mostly abandoned transhumance and the skills of traditional house building have almost disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Richtersveld Community Conservancy was established in 2002, evolving out of the Richtersveld Community Heritage Area that was set up in 2000 to protect both the environment and culture of the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1265</http_url><id_number>1265</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1265.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-28.6000000000</latitude><location>Northern Cape</location><longitude>17.2038888888</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 160,000 ha Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape of dramatic mountainous desert in north-western South Africa constitutes a cultural landscape communally owned and managed. This site sustains the semi-nomadic pastoral livelihood of the Nama people, reflecting seasonal patterns that may have persisted for as much as two millennia in southern Africa. It is the only area where the Nama still construct portable rush-mat houses (&lt;em&gt;haru om&lt;/em&gt; ) and includes seasonal migrations and grazing grounds, together with stock posts. The pastoralists collect medicinal and other plants and have a strong oral tradition associated with different places and attributes of the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1442</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1007</http_url><id_number>1007</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1007.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-34.3611111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>18.4750000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2015</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2004, the property is located at the south-western extremity of South Africa. It is one of the world’s great centres of terrestrial biodiversity. The extended property includes national parks, nature reserves, wilderness areas, State forests and mountain catchment areas. These elements add a significant number of endemic species associated with the &lt;em&gt;Fynbos&lt;/em&gt; vegetation, a fine-leaved sclerophyllic shrubland adapted to both a Mediterranean climate and periodic fires, which is unique to the Cape Floral Region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cape Floral Region Protected Areas</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2013</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Mapungubwe was the largest settlement in the subcontinent in the 13th century AD before it was abandoned. Various communities settled in the vicinity over the next 600 years. Legends and rumours about the place were passed on from generation to generation. Karel Moerschell, a local German farmer, knew about the gold by 1911, but it was not until the 1930s that the significance of Mapungubwe became more widely known.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 31 December 1932, a local informant, Mowena, led E.S.J. van Graan, and four others to Greefswald farm on Mapungubwe Hill where they saw stone walls and recovered gold and iron artefacts, pottery and glass beads. The finds, which received wide publicity in the media, were reported to the head of the Department of History at the University of Pretoria, Professor Leo Fouch&amp;eacute;. As a result of his intervention, the University negotiated with the owner of the property, E.E. Collins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a legal agreement the University took ownership of the gold and other artefacts and secured an option and contract for excavation rights. The University also successfully requested a postponement of prospecting, mining and related activities on Greefswald. In June 1933, Greefswald was bought by the Government and excavation rights were granted to the University of Pretoria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The University established an Archaeological Committee, which from 1933 to 1947 oversaw research and excavations. Rev. Neville Jones from Zimbabwe and J.F. Schofield were appointed to undertake the first fieldwork in 1934 and 1935 and they were advised by Professor C van Riet Lowe, Director of the Bureau of Archaeology. Their work focused on Mapungubwe Hill, the southern terrace and the midden there. They briefly surveyed other similar sites in the vicinity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1935-1940 six excavation seasons at K2 and Mapungubwe Hill were directed by Guy A. Gardner. The results of his work were published nearly 25 years later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Meyer (1998) describes the excavations on Greefswald between 1933 and 1940 as &amp;lsquo;rapid, large scale excavations resulting in the recovery of valuable artefacts'. Research was hampered by &amp;lsquo;the lack of professional archaeologists in South Africa, the lack of full-time supervision of the excavations by efficient, trained staff, the fact that adequate scientific methods for Iron Age research had not yet been developed and that the Iron Age in South Africa was virtually unknown to archaeologists. Consequently, many of the deposits on the sites were removed without the meticulous excavation and recording required. These problems inevitably resulted in a loss of irreplaceable deposits and eventually also of excavated materials [and] a lack of scientific data.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The next phase of archaeological investigation, in 1953- 1954 and in 1968-1970, under the direction initially of the Department of Anthropology, and then of Professor J F Eloff who was appointed as Head of the newly-formed Department of Archaeology at the University of Pretoria in 1970, was more systematic and focused mainly on the southern terrace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over the next 25 years from 1970 to 1995, the Department of Archaeology at the University of Pretoria recognised that their first priority was to establish a firm data base by testing, correcting and supplementing the earlier research, and concentrating on reconstructing the way of life of the site inhabitants. Between 1979 and 2002 reports have been published on the human and faunal remains, Chinese porcelain, gold objects, glass beads and radiocarbon dating.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition, sites on neighbouring farms have been investigated by students of the University of Pretoria during the 1970s and 1980s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greefswald has remained the property of the State since the 1930s. Management of the farm was taken over by the provincial Department of Nature Conservation in 1992, and control was transferred to SANParks in 1999.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The proposed boundaries of the world heritage site coincide with the boundaries of the proposed Vhembe- Dongala National Park - which is still in the process of formation. It is being inscribed sequentially - with three areas properties already gazetted. These are Den Staat, Geefswald and Reidal which are areas of &amp;lsquo;natural' landscape in which are many of the principal archaeological sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The aim is for SANParks eventually to acquire all the land within the proposed park or to have contractual agreement with the owners. This will allow the land to be taken out of agriculture and revert to &amp;lsquo;natural' landscape. A chart of the current progress with land negotiations is included in the nomination. Currently there are &amp;lsquo;in principle' agreements for 11 of the remaining 29 land units, but the timetable is missing. These are currently used for different purposes: some are being cultivated using irrigation agricultural techniques based on water extracted from the Limpopo river, some are managed as game reserves, and others are owned by the De Beers Corporation and are used to ensure water extraction, storage, and provision for that organization's diamond mining activities, which are estimated to have a maximum working life of twenty years.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1099</http_url><id_number>1099</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1099.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape contains evidence for an important interchange of human values that led to far-reaching cultural and social changes in Southern Africa between AD 900 and 1300.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The remains in the Mapungubwe cultural landscape are a remarkably complete testimony to the growth and subsequent decline of the Mapungubwe state which at its height was the largest kingdom in the African sub-continent.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The establishment of Mapungubwe as a powerful state trading through the East African ports with Arabia and India was a significant stage in the history of the African sub-continent.&lt;br /&gt; &lt;em&gt;Criterion (v)&lt;/em&gt; : The remains in the Mapungubwe cultural landscape graphically illustrate the impact of climate change and record the growth and then decline of the kingdom of Mapungubwe as a clear record of a culture that became vulnerable to irreversible change.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-22.1925000000</latitude><location>Northern Province</location><longitude>29.2388900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mapungubwe landscape contains evidence for an important interchange of human values that led to far-reaching cultural and social changes in Southern Africa between AD 900 and 1300. The establishment of Mapungubwe as a powerful state trading through the East African ports with Arabia and India was a significant stage in the history of the African subcontinent. The remains in the Mapungubwe area are a remarkably complete testimony to the growth and its subsequent decline of a state of which at its height was the largest kingdom in the southern African subcontinent. They also graphically illustrate the impact of climate change and record the growth and the decline of the kingdom of Mapungubwe: a record of a culture that became vulnerable to irreversible change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Mapungubwe kingdom had largely faded out of history by the mid-16th century. At the height of its powers, the centralized and hierarchical society encompassed at least 9,000 people and had huge wealth and influence gained from harvesting rich natural resource and trading these, via Indian Ocean ports, with Arabia, India and China. Sited at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers, which flooded to provide fertile alluvial soils, and with almost ideal climatic conditions, Mapungubwe had attracted Iron Age agriculturalists from the mid-1st millennium AD, and before that there is much evidence of hunter-gatherers. What transformed Mapungubwe from a small-scale, rural society into an influential city-state was the development of a social structure that encouraged population growth through comparatively intensive agriculture, and of a hierarchical system that produced specialization and a trading economy (ivory and gold). Mapungubwe's wealth and social structures are evident in the three palaces built during the three phases of its growth between 900 and its demise, brought on by a rapid change in the climate, a sort of mini Ice Age. The southern African power base shifted north to Great Zimbabwe. The overall site thus illustrates successive stages in the creation of the first indigenous kingdom in Southern Africa and its ultimate decline. The Mapungubwe is magnificent in landscape terms, with superb views in all directions, but the excavated remains are not very impressive. Specifically the site contains:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Remains of palaces, 1220-90 (Mapungubwe period): these reflect not only Mapungubwe's great wealth but also the social, religious and political hierarchy that developed as a result of population expansion based on successful intensive agriculture and international trade through East African coastal ports with India and China of gold and ivory in return for ceramics, glass beads and other luxury goods &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Archaeological remains testifying to Mapungubwe's growth, 900-1200: Zhizo sites represent the first pioneer farmers to settle near the rivers. The largest is Schroda on a plateau overlooking the Limpopo valley. A degree of hierarchy was emerging, but the settlements still reflected a very typical southern African pattern - houses encircling a large cattle enclosure. Large quantities of clay figurines of people and animals (domesticated sheep, goats, cattle and dogs) suggest some sort of centralised ritual ceremonies. After a century Schroda was abandoned and a new capital established by incoming people: Leopard's Kopje. There is also evidence of iron and copper working. After another century came the final phase of Mapungubwe with, it seems, the population moving to the bottom of the hill below the newly built palace.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Remains of early settlement: Stone Age and Iron Age, and rock art: the combination of a riverine environment and sandstone hills seems to have provided a focus for human settlement whenever climatic conditions have been favourable. Ancestors of the San Bushmen lived in the area for many millennia; Stone Age occupation is evident from 26 sites. Between AD 250 and 900, these hunter-gathers were gradually replaced or absorbed by Iron Age agriculturalists who, after 900, begun to form the foundations of the Mapungubwe state. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; 'Natural' landscape surrounding the built remains: this extensive landscape is today a backdrop for the site. The huge agricultural enterprise of the final phase at Mapungubwe has vanished and much of the core of the landscape has now been returned largely to its unimproved state with wild grazing game animals. Some farms still remain, growing citrus in irrigated fields. In the valley irrigation allows large-scale commercial farming and game ranching but some of this has been cleared and it is planned more will follow.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mapungubwe is set hard against the northern border of South Africa, joining Zimbabwe and Botswana. It is an open, expansive savannah landscape at the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe rivers. Mapungubwe developed into the largest kingdom in the sub-continent before it was abandoned in the 14th century. What survives are the almost untouched remains of the palace sites and also the entire settlement area dependent upon them, as well as two earlier capital sites, the whole presenting an unrivalled picture of the development of social and political structures over some 400 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2061</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1545</http_url><id_number>1545</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1545.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.6876111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>20.3745833333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ǂKhomani Cultural Landscape is located at the border with Botswana and Namibia in the northern part of the country, coinciding with the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (KGNP). The large expanse of sand contains evidence of human occupation from the Stone Age to the present and is associated with the culture of the formerly nomadic ǂKhomani San people and the strategies that allowed them to adapt to harsh desert conditions. They developed a specific ethnobotanical knowledge, cultural practices and a worldview related to the geographical features of their environment. The ǂKhomani Cultural Landscape bears testimony to the way of life that prevailed in the region and shaped the site over thousands of years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>ǂKhomani Cultural Landscape</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2133</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1575</http_url><id_number>1575</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1575.jpg</image_url><iso_code>za</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-25.9738888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>31.0138888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in north-eastern South Africa, the Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains comprises 40% of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, one of the world’s oldest geological structures. The property represents the best-preserved succession of volcanic and sedimentary rock dating back 3.6 to 3.25 billion years and forms a diverse repository of information on surface conditions, meteorite impacts, volcanism, continent-building processes and the environment of early life.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains</site><states>South Africa</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2240</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Fruela I, King of Asturias from 757 to 768, founded a basilica dedicated to the Saviour at a place then known as Ovetao, with a royal residence alongside, where his son Alfonso II was born. At about the same time a monastic community established itself in the same place and built a monastery dedicated to San Vicente.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new settlement was destroyed during the campaign of the Cordoban Emirate in 794-95; however, it was rebuilt by Alfonso II and served as his capital. During his long reign (791-842) Oviedo was provided with many new ecclesiastical and secular buildings; these included the rebuilt basilica and monastery, a second basilica dedicated to San Tirso, a church dedicated to the Virgin, palaces, and baths inside the walls and a third basilica, dedicated to San Juli&amp;aacute;n and Santa Basilisa extra muros.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two religious establishments on the southern side of the Naranco, Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a del Naranco and San Miguel, were built during the harsh reign of Ramiro I (842-50). It is not known why he chose to locate these some miles outside the capital of his predecessor. The contribution of Alfonso III, last and greatest of the Asturian kings (866-910), was the construction of a fortress to the north-east, outside the walls. Below the castle, in a quarter known from its location as Socastiello, was the Jewish quarter in late medieval times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was around this time that the remains of the Cordoban martyrs Eulogius and Leocricia were brought to Oviedo. A treasury was built at the Cathedral to house them, the C&amp;aacute;mara Santa (Holy Chamber), which was to become a place of pilgrimage in the later Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the death of Alfonso, the Royal court moved to Le&amp;oacute;n and Oviedo had a setback, since it lost its important royal connections. However, it continued to hold a high place in religious and ecclesiastical affairs, rivalling Santiago de Compostela as a place of pilgrimage. It also attracted a number of Frankish immigrants, to such an extent that two separate jurisdictions were set up, one for the Castilian and the other for the Frankish part of the population. This connection with south-western France continued throughout the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Oviedo was given its first legal regulations, the Fuero Charter, during the reign of Alfonso VI of Le&amp;oacute;n and Castille (1065-1105). These clearly excluded those citizens who paid allegiance to the Bishop of Oviedo and not to the Crown. The city was given the right to build new fortifications around its extended urban area by Alfonso IX (1188-1230). It quickly expanded beyond these limits, and communities of mendicant friars were established outside. During this time the influence of the religious foundations - the Cathedral and the monasteries of San Pelayo and Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a in particular - grew considerably, and much of the urban land was in their possession.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This medieval order came to an end with the disastrous fire on Christmas Day 1521. In the subsequent reconstruction the townsfolk freed themselves to a considerable extent from ecclesiastical overlordship. Secular public buildings were erected, such as the Town Hall, the Magistrates' Court (Audiencia), and the University, and the 17th and 18th centuries saw many fine bourgeois palaces and houses built.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/312</http_url><id_number>312</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_312.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3626200000</latitude><location>Province and Autonomous Community of Asturias</location><longitude>-5.8430300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The palaces and churches in the surroundings of Oviedo provide eminent testimony to the civilization of the small Christian Kingdom of Asturias during the splendour of the Emirate of Cordoba. Pre-Romanesque Asturian architecture represents a unique artistic achievement which is neither a metamorphosis of palaeo-Christian art nor a feature of Carolingian art. These churches, which are basilical in layout and entirely vaulted, and which make use of columns instead of piers, have very rich decors which contain Visigothic references, Arabic elements, and shapes that associate them with the great sanctuaries of Asia Minor. Asturian monuments have exerted a decisive influence on the development of medieval architecture on the Iberian peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the morrow of the Arab conquest of Spain, the reconstitution in the mountains of Asturias of the tiny Christian kingdom of Pelage is of historical and cultural importance which greatly overshadows its political significance. For a long time, the existence of this principality, an offshoot of the Visigothic kingdom, remained precarious and it is not without a certain prejudice that the battle of Covadonga (718) was portrayed as the first victory in a war against Islam which lasted eight centuries, drawing to a close as it did with the taking of Granada by the Catholic kings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the Kingdom of Asturias, although frequently threatened by Arab raids (Oviedo was captured in 789, then sacked again in 794), became a stronghold of Christianity in the 9th century and a special brand of architecture took root there, reaching its apogee under the reign of Ramir&amp;eacute; I (842-50) whom the narrative sources (chronicles of Albelda, Sebastian, and Silos) portray as a great builder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a del Naranco and San Miguel de Lillo, sanctuaries which are located in the immediate vicinity of the capital of the kingdom, Oviedo, on the slopes of Mont Naranco, both are traced back to the reign of Ramir&amp;eacute;. A third edifice, which is slightly more recent, makes use of the spatial, structural and decorative innovations of the Ramirian period: it is the church of Santa Cristina de Lena, 37&amp;nbsp;km south of Oviedo on the road to Le&amp;oacute;n.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a del Naranco is a former royal residence built on two levels. Excavations in 1930-34 revealed the existence of baths in one of the lower rooms. This rectangular Ramirian palace which was converted into a church between 905 and 1065, has exterior stairways at the north end and a balcony at the south end; it opens to the east and west via loggias which act as lookout points poised upon bays and open at all three sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Miguel de Lillo, which has been a church right from the very start, has only retained the first two admirably balanced bays of an ambitious building which bears a strong resemblance to the Naranco Palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Cristina de Lena, a harmonious but smaller version of these exceptional creations embodies the final phase of this incomparable Asturian architecture (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 850-66), if it is indeed true, as believed, that this was the chapel of the royal domain of Ordo&amp;ntilde;o I.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1998</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 9th century the flame of Christianity was kept alive in the Iberian peninsula in the tiny Kingdom of the Asturias. Here an innovative pre-Romanesque architectural style was created that was to play a significant role in the development of the religious architecture of the peninsula. Its highest achievements can be seen in the churches of Santa María del Naranco, San Miguel de Lillo, Santa Cristina de Lena, the Cámara Santa and San Julián de los Prados, in and around the ancient capital city of Oviedo. Associated with them is the remarkable contemporary hydraulic engineering structure known as La Foncalada.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monuments of Oviedo and the Kingdom of the Asturias</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>353</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of C&amp;oacute;rdoba is determined by two geographical features - the mountains of the Sierra Morena, with their mineral wealth, and the river Guadalquivir, which skirts and then cuts through them. As such it is a natural site for human settlement, for reasons of trade and defence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its early history is not known, but there was a flourishing Carthaginian township there in 206 BC, when it was captured by the Romans, who recognized its strategic and commercial importance and made it into the capital of the province of Hispania Inferior (Baetica). It was adorned with many fine public and private buildings and enclosed by imposing fortifications. Among its illustrious sons were the two Senecas and the poet Lucan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the onset of the barbarian invasions of the 6th century, Roman society on the Iberian Peninsula crumbled, and C&amp;oacute;rdoba fell to the Visigoths in 572. Despite the destruction wrought during this period, C&amp;oacute;rdoba retained its identity as a town throughout the Visigothic rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 711 the town was one of the first to fall to the Moorish conquerors, led by Tarik-ibn-Zayid, after his great victory at the Battle of Guadalete. When Abd-al-Rahman I was deposed as Caliph of Damascus in 756 he set up his court at C&amp;oacute;rdoba and laid the foundations for the most glorious period of the city's history. He began building the Great Mosque in 786, on the site of a Roman temple of Janus which had been converted into a church by the Visigoths, with the intention of creating a structure that outshone the mosque of Damascus. Work on it continued over the two succeeding centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time C&amp;oacute;rdoba became the centre of a great realm renowned for its artistic and intellectual predominance and its liberal toleration of other religions. At its height the city is said to have enclosed over 300 mosques and innumerable palaces and public buildings, rivalling the splendours of Constantinople, Damascus, and Baghdad. The Caliphate of C&amp;oacute;rdoba collapsed after the bitter civil war of 1009-31, and only the Great Mosque survived as a symbol of its achievements. With the accession of power by the Ahnoravid and, subsequently, the Ahuohad dynasties in the 12th century C&amp;oacute;rdoba recovered much of its former glory, however, as capital of Al-Andalus. Its intellectual supremacy was assured by great scholars such as Averroes (Abu Walid-ibn-Rusch) and Maimonides (Musa-ibn-Maymun).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1236 the city was captured by Ferdinand III the Saint, and C&amp;oacute;rdoba entered the Christian world again. The Great Mosque became the Cathedral and new defensive structures were raised, among them the Alcazar de Los Reyes Cristianos (Fortress of the Christian Rings) and the Terre Fortaleza de la Calahorra, as befitted its role as a frontier town under constant threat of attack from the Moors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the re-establishment f Christian rule over the whole of the Iberian peninsula C&amp;oacute;rdoba lost much of its political and intellectual importance. It did, however, preserve an important commercial role, because of the proximity of the copper mines of the Sierra Morena.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/313</http_url><id_number>313</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_313.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.8791944400</latitude><location>Province of Cordoba, Autonomous Community of Andalusia</location><longitude>-4.7797222220</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Centre of Cordoba now comprises the streets surrounding the monument and all the parcels of land opening on to these, together with all the blocks of houses around the mosque-cathedral. To the south this area extends to the further bank of the River GuadaIquivir (to include the Roman bridge and the Calahorra), to the east to the Calle San Fernando, to the north to the boundary of the commercial centre, and to the west to incorporate the AIc&amp;aacute;zar des los Reyes Cristianos and the San Basilio quarter. The city, by virtue of its extent and plan, its historical significance as a living expression of the different cultures that have existed there, and its relationship with the river, is a historical ensemble of extraordinary value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cordoba is defined by two geographical features: the mountains of the Sierra Morena, with their mineral wealth, and Guadalquivir, which skirts and then cuts through them. It was a flourishing Carthaginian township in 206 BC, when it was captured by the Romans, who recognized its strategic and commercial importance and made it the capital of Hispania Inferior, adorned with fine public and private buildings and enclosed by imposing fortifications. Among its illustrious sons were the two Senecas and the poet Lucan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the onset of the barbarian invasions of the 6th century, Roman society on the Iberian peninsula crumbled, and Cordoba fell to the Visigoths. In 756 the Caliph of Damascus set up his court at Cordoba and laid the foundations for the most glorious period of the city's history. He began building the Great Mosque, on the site of a Roman temple of Janus, which had been converted into a church by the Visigoths. Cordoba became the centre of a great realm renowned for its artistic and intellectual predominance and its liberal toleration of other religions, but the Caliphate collapsed after the bitter civil war of 1009-31, and only the Great Mosque survived as a symbol of its achievements. In 1236 the city was captured by Ferdinand III: the mosque became the cathedral and new defensive structures were raised, as befitted its role as a frontier town under constant threat of attack from the Moors. The historic centre, clustering round the mosque-cathedral, preserves much of its medieval urban fabric, with its characteristic narrow, winding streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its earlier Roman past is, however, also in evidence, as the sixteen-span bridge was originally thrown across the fast-flowing GuadaIquivir. The fine mosaics in the Alc&amp;aacute;zar, with its columns of the 1st century AD temple, and sections of the Roman wall. The gardens of the Alc&amp;aacute;zar formed part of the Moorish design for the area around the Mosque, and are good examples of Moorish Andalusian garden design, with effective use of water. The remains of the monumental CaliphaI Baths are nearby. During the Moorish period there were many small places of worship around the Great Mosque. Most of these have disappeared, but their minarets survive as the churches of Santiago and San Lorenzo and the Hermitage of Santa Clara. Another important monument from this period is the Almod&amp;oacute;var Gate. There are reminders of the important Jewish population of Moorish Cordoba in the quarter known as La Juder&amp;iacute;a, which best preserves the original street pattern, and the small Synagogue, converted for Christian use after the expulsion of the Jews in 1492.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Christian structures of the Alc&amp;aacute;zar date from the early 14th century, and were built as a royal residence: they show strong Mudejar influence in their design. The Torre de la Calahorra formed part of a medieval fortress, perhaps from the beginning of the Christian period. The church of San Jacinto (now the Palace of Congresses and Exhibitions) is in Florid Gothic style; the Chapel of San Bartolomeo, Moorish in origin, now is clearly Christian, in the Gothic-Mudejar style; San Francisco and San Nicol&amp;aacute;s, which date from the same period. Also important buildings are from the 16th century: the Seminary of San Pelagio, Puerta del Puente, Casa Solariega de los P&amp;agrave;ez de Castillo and Casa del Marqu&amp;eacute;s de la Fuensanta del Valle, which illustrate the religious, military and architectural styles. From the 18th century come the civic buildings: the Triunfos de San Rafael and Hospital del Cardenal Salazar.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1994</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Cordoba's period of greatest glory began in the 8th century after the Moorish conquest, when some 300 mosques and innumerable palaces and public buildings were built to rival the splendours of Constantinople, Damascus and Baghdad. In the 13th century, under Ferdinand III, the Saint, Cordoba's Great Mosque was turned into a cathedral and new defensive structures, particularly the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos and the Torre Fortaleza de la Calahorra, were erected.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Cordoba</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>355</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have shown that the hill where the Albayz&amp;iacute;n is now situated has been occupied continuously from as early as the Roman period. In the mid-8th century the region's governor Asap ben Abderrahman built a fortress where the Plaza de San Nicolas is now located (known as the Casbah until the Alhambra was built in the 13th century, when it became known as the Old Casbah). A new defensive enclosure was added by the Zirids in the 11th century, and around this a settlement grew up. The town prospered under the Nasrid dynasty and this was reflected by considerable development of the Albayz&amp;iacute;n in the mid-14th century; it became the quarter of Arab and Jewish craftsmen and traders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Reconquista was completed in 1492, the population of the Albayz&amp;iacute;n rose to 60,000. The emigration of most of the Moslem inhabitants and the baptism of those who remained, together with settlement by a substantial Christian population, had an effect on the development of the quarter, but without disfiguring the old Moorish town. The new late Gothic or early Plateresque churches and monasteries harmonized with the existing architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remarkable expansion of agriculture in the region in the 19th century gave a new impetus to the development of Granada. The lower quarters of the town were transformed and lost their artistic qualities. However, the Albayz&amp;iacute;n was spared this new urbanization owing to its hillside location. Today the town is divided into two distinct parts: on the one hand the modem lower town and on the other the medieval town on its two hills, the Alhambra and the Albayz&amp;iacute;n, which form a coherent whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/314</http_url><id_number>314</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_314.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.1766700000</latitude><location>Province of Granada, Autonomous Community of Andalusia</location><longitude>-3.5944400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Unique artistic creations, the Alhambra and the Generalife of Granada bear exceptional testimony to Muslim Spain of the 16th century. They form an exceptional example of royal Arab residences of the medieval period: neither destroyed nor changed by the alterations of radical restorations, the Alhambra and the Generalife appear to have escaped the vicissitudes of time. Despite the development that followed the Christian conquest, the Albayz&amp;iacute;n still bears witness to the medieval Moorish settlement, as its urban fabric, architecture and main characteristics (form, materials, colours), were not changed when it was adapted to the Christian way of life, to survive as a remarkable example of a Spanish-Moorish town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have shown that the hill where the Albayz&amp;iacute;n is now situated has been occupied continuously from as early as the Roman period. In the mid-8th century the region's governor built a fortress where the Plaza de San Nicol&amp;aacute;s is now located. After the disappearance of the Caliphate of Cordoba (1031), the ephemeral Zirid Emirate of Granada replaced it until 1090: the emirs devoted themselves to the embellishment of their capital, constructed on a site of exceptional beauty. A new defensive enclosure was added and around this a settlement grew up. The town prospered under the Nasrid dynasty and this was reflected by considerable development of the city, but Granada did not become of the important centres of Muslim Spain until much later - in 1238, when Muhammad ibn al Ahmar founded the present Alhambra.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The palace was essentially completed in the 14th century by Yusuf I and his son Mohammed V. It is organized around two rectangular courts, the patio de Los Arrayanes and the Patio de Los Lames, and includes a large number of rooms of a highly refined taste, with marble columns, stalactite cupolas, ornamental works in stucco, gaily coloured &lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; , precious wood inlayed and sculpted, and paintings on leather compete with the richness and the delicacy of the natural decor: the water, still and sparkling in immense basins, flows out into the basins of the fountains (the circular fountain of the Court of Lions), glides through narrow canals, and explodes into jets of water or falls in refreshing cascades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Reconquista was completed in 1492, the emigration of most of the Muslim inhabitants and the baptism of those who remained, together with settlement by a substantial Christian population, had an effect on the development of the quarter. The new late Gothic or early Plateresque churches and monasteries harmonized with the existing architecture. Both fortress and residence, the Alhambra (Arabic 'The Red') incorporates palaces, guard room, patios and gardens as well as workshops, shops, baths and mosque (independently of the church of Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a built in the 16th century on the site of the royal mosque). It is enclosed by a massive fortified wall with towers, extended to the south-west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century the lower quarters of the town were transformed and lost their artistic qualities. Much of the significance of the Albayz&amp;iacute;n lies in the medieval town plan with its narrow streets and small squares and in the relatively modest houses in Moorish and Andalusian style that line then. There are, however, some more imposing reminders of its past prosperity. Among them are the Casa de la Reina (the remains of an aristocratic residence), the Corral del Carb&amp;oacute;n (an ancient caravanserai), and the former hermitage, converted into the church of San Sebasti&amp;aacute;n. After the Reconquista, &lt;em&gt;Los Reyes Catolicos&lt;/em&gt; honoured Granada in many ways and endowed it with many religious monuments. Diego de Silo&amp;eacute;, who was trained in Toledo and was one of the initiators of the Plateresque style, became one of the most important architects working in Granada. Among his many masterpieces there is the Patio de la Chanciller&amp;iacute;a.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At a short distance to the east of the Alhambra, the enchantment is extended to the gardens of the Generalife, rural residence of the Emirs. The relationship between the architectural and the natural has been reversed here, where gardens and water predominate over the pavilions, summerhouses and living quarters. The massive boxwood trees, rose, carnation and gillyflower bushes, shrubs ranging from willow to cypress, comprise an absolute masterpiece of the art of horticulture by restoring the Koranic image of paradise to the believers.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1994</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Rising above the modern lower town, the Alhambra and the Albaycín, situated on two adjacent hills, form the medieval part of Granada. To the east of the Alhambra fortress and residence are the magnificent gardens of the Generalife, the former rural residence of the emirs who ruled this part of Spain in the 13th and 14th centuries. The residential district of the Albaycín is a rich repository of Moorish vernacular architecture, into which the traditional Andalusian architecture blends harmoniously.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín, Granada</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>357</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/318</http_url><id_number>318</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_318.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.5817500000</latitude><location>San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Province and Autonomous Community of Madrid</location><longitude>-4.1264166670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;An exemplary votive monument, the retreat of a mystic king, the Escurial was, during the closing years of the reign of Philip II, the paradoxical centre of the greatest political power of that period. This royal monastery dedicated to St Lawrence is a unique artistic achievement. There is nothing in the project, in the form or in the design of this monument, which is not exceptional. Although out of keeping with the national temperament, the Escurial exerted a considerable influence in Spain during almost half a century: the gigantic unfinished cathedral of the Asunci&amp;oacute;n of Valladolid was begun around 1580 by Herrera in the same severe style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the monastery and site of the Escurial in Madrid was the realization of an unusual vow by Philip II of Spain in repentance for having shelled the church San Lorenzo in 1577. This explains the gigantic expiatory monastery, the general plan of which reproduces the form of an inverted griddle, the instrument of the martyrdom of Saint Lawrence. The handle is represented by the Royal Palace, which projects on the eastern side, and four angle towers, 55&amp;nbsp;m high, represent the feet. The college, the convent and the cloister, all quadrangular in plan, are placed on either side of the central court (Patio de los Reyes) which precedes the church; it is constructed of a bluish granite from Guadarrama.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This ensemble was begun in 1563 by Juan Bautista de Toledo and completed in 1584 by Juan de Herrera. The treatment, deliberately austere, offers a vivid contrast to the traditional Spanish architecture of the Renaissance. Within the church, however, the Capilla Mayor was given a decor as rich as it was imposing: the retablo, 30&amp;nbsp;m high, the work of an Italian team under the orders of Herrera, unites coloured marbles, paintings, gilding and large bronze statues; in the lateral oratories, two renowned groups, modelled and cast in bronze by Pompeo and Leone Leoni, represent, on the side of the Gospel, Charles V with his family, and on the side of the Epistle, Philip II among his family, dressed in their magnificent attire and frozen in prayer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beneath the church is the sepulchral vault of the kings of Spain, whose principal crypt (Pantheon of the Kings) is an octagonal chamber faced with &lt;em&gt;pietra dura&lt;/em&gt; incorporating ornaments of gilded bronze.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built at the end of the 16th century on a plan in the form of a grill, the instrument of the martyrdom of St Lawrence, the Escurial Monastery stands in an exceptionally beautiful site in Castile. Its austere architecture, a break with previous styles, had a considerable influence on Spanish architecture for more than half a century. It was the retreat of a mystic king and became, in the last years of Philip II's reign, the centre of the greatest political power of the time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monastery and Site of the Escurial, Madrid</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>361</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Antoni Gaud&amp;iacute; was born in 1852 in Reus, a small town south of Barcelona, and he died in a street accident in 1926. The intellectual context towards the end of the 19th century in Catalonia was marked by the so-called &amp;lsquo;Modernisme', a movement that extended from ca 1880 to the First World War, parallel to currents such as Naturalism, Arts and Crafts, and Art Nouveau. It was motivated by return to traditions as an expression of national identity, as well as by the introduction of modern techniques and materials as part of progress. Modernisme in Catalonia differed from the other movements becoming particularly important for popular cultural identity. It found expression in literature and music, as well as in painting, sculpture, decorative arts and architecture. Catalonians were well aware of the ideas of Viollet-le- Duc, John Ruskin, Macintosh, and others. The best known architects include, apart from Gaud&amp;iacute;, who is difficult to classify, Llu&amp;iacute;s Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Montaner, whose principal designs in Barcelona are on the World Heritage List.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/320</http_url><id_number>320</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_320.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (i): &lt;/em&gt; The work of Antoni Gaud&amp;iacute; represents an exceptional and outstanding creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt; Gaud&amp;iacute;&amp;rsquo;s work exhibits an important interchange of values closely associated with the cultural and artistic currents of his time, as represented in el Modernisme of Catalonia. It anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv): &lt;/em&gt; Gaud&amp;iacute;&amp;rsquo;s work represents a series of outstanding examples of the building typology in the architecture of the early 20th century, residential as well as public, to the development of which he made a significant and creative contribution.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.4133800000</latitude><location></location><longitude>2.1529720000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The works of Antoni Gaud&amp;iacute; represent a series of outstanding examples of the building typology in the architecture of the early 20th century, residential as well as public, to the development of which he made a significant and creative contribution. It is, furthermore, an outstanding and well-preserved example of the ideal garden cities dreamed of by the urbanists of the end of the 19th century. It exhibits an important interchange of values closely associated with the cultural and artistic currents of his time, as represented in El Modernisme of Catalonia. It anticipated and influenced many of the forms and techniques that were relevant to the development of modern construction in the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gaud&amp;iacute; was born in 1852 in Reus, a small town south of Barcelona, and he died in a street accident in 1926. The intellectual context towards the end of the 19th century in Catalonia was marked by Modernisme, a movement that extended from around 1880 to the First World War, parallel to currents such as Naturalism, Arts and Crafts, and Art Nouveau. It was motivated by return to traditions as an expression of national identity, as well as by the introduction of modern techniques and materials. Modernisme differed from the other movements by becoming important for popular cultural identity. Gaud&amp;iacute;'s work represents the genius of the architect, expressing particular spatial qualities and plasticity in the undulating lines and harmonies of colours and materials in architectural surfaces and sculpted features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;His main undertaking is the church of Sagrada Familia, based on the Latin cross. The work had been started by architect Francesc de P. del Villar in 1882 in Gothic revival style. In 1883 Gaud&amp;igrave; made fundamental changes to the first project and continued the work until his death. The crypt was built in 1884-89 and the Nativity facade finished in 1905. The four fantastic bell towers were finished in 1925-30. The transept elevation of the Passion was started in 1960, and construction of the church still continues.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Casa Vicens, a suburban residence, was the first independent design by Gaud&amp;iacute;, built in 1883-88 and enlarged in 1925 by Serra Martinez in consultation with Gaud&amp;iacute;. The design combines mastery in brick and a variety of Valencia tile. Its wrought ironwork is remarkable. In the interior, there is a fine series of painted wall decorations. The luxury villa of El Capricho (1883), near Comillas, Santander Province, was commissioned by a rich industrialist. The architecture has similarities with the Casa Vicens, reflecting Catalan influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1884, Gaud&amp;iacute; designed the pavilions of the G&amp;uuml;ell estate, with porter's lodge and stables, in the suburban areas of Barcelona. Most spectacular is the imaginative dragon gate. The Parc G&amp;uuml;ell (1900-14), a garden-city of 60 lots, is an incontestable masterpiece, the final blossoming of 19th-century eclecticism. He was invited in 1887 to plan a new episcopal palace at Astorga. This granite building with its vaulted interiors reflects the medieval character of the nearby Gothic cathedral. Work on the college of the Teresianas had already started when Gaud&amp;iacute; was invited to take on the project. The building is severe and consisting of a single elongated rectangular block.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gaud&amp;iacute; was commissioned in 1902-4 to study the renovation and restoration of the Gothic cathedral of Palma de Mallorca, La Seu (1300-1600). Gaud&amp;iacute;'s project resulted in spatial and structural changes and the new design of various details especially around the main altar. He removed the large traditional choir structures, placing the elements on the sides, and opening up the central nave. In 1898 came a commission to design a church for the Col&amp;oacute;nia G&amp;uuml;ell, a community working in textile industry outside Barcelona. The work started in 1908, but was interrupted in 1914 with only the Crypt built. This unique structure was used by Gaud&amp;iacute; to experiment building in brick and stone, stretching the possibilities of traditional Catalan structures to their utter limits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The other buildings making up the World Heritage site are: Casa de Botines (1892), Casa Calvet (1898), the residential villa of Figueras, or Casa Bellesguard (1900) and Casa Batll&amp;oacute; (1904-7), an urban residence in Barcelona.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Seven properties built by the architect Antoni Gaud&amp;iacute; (1852&amp;ndash;1926) in or near Barcelona testify to Gaud&amp;iacute;&amp;rsquo;s exceptional creative contribution to the development of architecture and building technology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These monuments represent an eclectic, as well as a very personal, style which was given free reign in the design of gardens, sculpture and all decorative arts, as well as architecture. The seven buildings are: Parque G&amp;uuml;ell; Palacio G&amp;uuml;ell; Casa Mila; Casa Vicens; Gaud&amp;iacute;&amp;rsquo;s work on the Nativity fa&amp;ccedil;ade and Crypt of La Sagrada Familia; Casa Batll&amp;oacute;; Crypt in Colonia G&amp;uuml;ell.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Works of Antoni Gaudí </site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>364</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/347</http_url><id_number>347</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_347.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.8807600000</latitude><location>Province of A Coruña, Autonomous Community of Galicia</location><longitude>-8.5446800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Santiago de Compostela is associated with one of the major themes of medieval history. From the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea thousands of pilgrims carrying the scallop shell and the pilgrim's staff for centuries walked to the Galician sanctuary along the paths of Santiago, veritable roads of faith. Around its cathedral, a masterpiece of Romanesque art, Santiago de Compostela conserves a valuable historic centre worthy of one of Christianity's greatest holy cities. During the Romanesque and Baroque periods the sanctuary of Santiago exerted a decisive influence on the development of architecture and art, not only in Galicia but also in the north of the Iberian peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is an extraordinary ensemble of distinguished monuments grouped around the tomb of St James the Greater, the destination of all the roads of Christianity's greatest pilgrimage from the 11th to the 18th century. Santiago de Compostela, owing to its monumental integrity, enshrines both specific and universal values. To the irreplaceable uniqueness of Romanesque and Baroque masterpieces is added the transcendental aesthetic contribution which makes use of diachronic and disparate elements in the construction of an ideal city which is overflowing with history. The exemplary nature of this city of Christian pilgrimage which is enriched by the ideological connotations of the Reconquista is echoed by the great spiritual significance of one of the few places that are so deeply imbued with faith as to become sacred for the tile of humanity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the miraculously discovered spot where the bones of the Apostle had been buried, a basilica was erected in approximately 818 during the reign of Alfonso II, king of Asturias. The Galician tomb thereafter became the symbol of the resistance of Spanish Christians against Islam. At the battle of Clavijo (844) the victory over the forces of Abd ar Rahman II was attributed to Santiago. Taken and laid waste in 997 by Al Mansour, the city was rebuilt during the 11th century around the Apostle's tomb, which had not been violated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest monuments date back to this period - the main body of the cathedral, consecrated in 1211, with its admirable Romanesque structure (plan in the form of a Latin cross, choir and deambulatory and radiating chapels, interior space magnified by the great number of galleries) and its sculpted array (Puerta de las Plater&amp;iacute;as at the southern arm of the transept). Building continued throughout the 12th century and drew to a triumphal close in 1188 with the erection of the Portico de la Gloria in the main facade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The continuous embellishment process which characterizes the life of this edifice, to which were added Gothic chapels at the choir and transept, the cupola in 1448, the 16th-century cloister and finally the immense Churrigueresque casket of the Obradoiro (1738-50) is symbolic of the future of the entire medieval city, which has been profoundly transformed over the centuries yet respect for its monumental quality has always been maintained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the Plaza de Espa&amp;ntilde;a, one of the world's most beautiful urban areas, there is an intermingling of the Romanesque and Gothic forms in the Palace of Diego Gelm&amp;iacute;rez and San Jer&amp;oacute;nimo, of the Baroque facade of the Hospital Re&amp;aacute;l with its inset Plateresque portal by Enrique de Egas (1505-11) and the neoclassical theme of the Rajoy Palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Elsewhere in ensembles whose composition is less forceful, civil and religious architectural elements from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance are also integrated into a high-quality urban fabric where 17th- and 18th-century themes prevail.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This famous pilgrimage site in north-west Spain became a symbol in the Spanish Christians' struggle against Islam. Destroyed by the Muslims at the end of the 10th century, it was completely rebuilt in the following century. With its Romanesque, Gothic and Baroque buildings, the Old Town of Santiago is one of the world's most beautiful urban areas. The oldest monuments are grouped around the tomb of St James and the cathedral, which contains the remarkable P&amp;oacute;rtico de la Gloria.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Santiago de Compostela (Old Town)</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>395</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/379</http_url><id_number>379</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_379.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.8668888900</latitude><location>Province of Toledo, Autonomous Community of Castile-La Mancha</location><longitude>-4.0294166670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Toledo exerted considerable influence, both during the Visigothic period, when it was the capital of a kingdom which stretched all the way to the Narbonnese region, and during the Renaissance, when it became one of the most important artistic centres in Spain. The city bears exceptional testimony to several civilizations which have disappeared: Rome, with vestiges of the circus, the aqueduct and the sewer; the Visigoths, with the remains of the walls of King Wamba and the artefacts conserved in the Santa Cruz Museum. The Emirate of Cordoba built many Islamic monuments: the piers of the destroyed Ba&amp;ntilde;o de la Cava Bridge, Puerta Vieja de Bisagra, Las Torner&amp;iacute;as Mosque, Bib Mardum Mosque (a private oratory completed in 999), hammams in the Calle del Angel and Calle Pozo Amargo, etc. After the reconquest in 1085 remarkable Jewish religious monuments such as Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a la Blanca Synagogue (1180) and El Transito Synagogue (1366) were built at the same time as churches, either on the very location of earlier foundations (the cathedral, founded in the 6th century by San Eugenio, was converted into a mosque), or &lt;em&gt;ex nihilo&lt;/em&gt; (San Rom&amp;aacute;n, Santiago, San Pedro Martir, etc.). Furthermore, Toledo possesses a broad spectrum of structures from the medieval period: walls and fortified buildings, such as San Servando Castle, bridges, houses and entire streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Toledo also retains a series of outstanding examples of 15th- and 16th-century constructions: the church of San Juan de los Reyes and the cathedral, the San Juan Bautista and Santa Cruz hospitals, the Puerta Nueva de Bisagra, etc. Each of these monuments is a perfect example of a particular type of architecture of the Spanish golden age, whether religious, hospital or military. Moreover, Toledo witnessed the emergence, starting in the Middle Ages, of a Mudejar style which combined the structural and decorative elements of Visigothic and Muslim art, adapting them into successive styles: Santiago del Arrabal (13th century), the Taller del Moro and Puerta del Sol (14th century), wainscot of Santa Cruz Hospital and the chapter house of the cathedral (15th and 16th centuries), etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two millennia of history live within the walls of a city, finished by King Alfonso IV, which was successively a Roman &lt;em&gt;municipium&lt;/em&gt;, the capital of the Visigothic kingdom, a fortress of the Emirate of C&amp;oacute;rdoba, an outpost of the Christian kingdoms fighting the Moors, and the temporary seat of the supreme power under Charles V, who endowed it with the status of imperial and crowned city. The irreversible economic and political decadence of Toledo after 1561, when Phillip II chose Madrid as his capital once and for all, miraculously spared this museum-city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All of the civilizations which contributed to the grandeur of Toledo left there amazing masterpieces which expressed both the original beauty of a highly characteristic style and the paradoxical syncretism of the hybrid forms of the Mudejar style which sprang from the contact of heterogeneous civilizations in an environment where for a long time the existence of three major religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) was a leading feature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Toledo's Alc&amp;aacute;zar is an impressive building found at the highest point of the city. In the beginning, the Romans used it as a palace; the Christians reconstructed it, during the reign of King Alfonss VI; Alfonso X the Wise continued with the construction, which is the origin of the square floor plan and the battlement towers at its corners. Its facades differ according to period and style: the western facade is of Renaissance form, the eastern is medieval, the northern is Plateresque and the southern, erected by Juan of Herrera, is of Churrigueresque style; it also possesses a two-storey patio with Corinthian capitals. The Alc&amp;aacute;zar has been the victim of fires in several occasions (in 1170, a century later, in 1867 and in 1882). At the outbreak of the Civil War, the Military Academy was housed here and at the end of the conflict, it was completely destroyed. Later on it was completely reconstructed, and today it houses the army's offices and a museum.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Successively a Roman municipium, the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom, a fortress of the Emirate of Cordoba, an outpost of the Christian kingdoms fighting the Moors and, in the 16th century, the temporary seat of supreme power under Charles V, Toledo is the repository of more than 2,000 years of history. Its masterpieces are the product of heterogeneous civilizations in an environment where the existence of three major religions – Judaism, Christianity and Islam – was a major factor.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Toledo</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>435</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;25 March 1981. Inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/380</http_url><id_number>380</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_380.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.1262500000</latitude><location>Island of La Gomera, Province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands</location><longitude>-17.2372222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;La Gomera lies to the west of Tenerife, and is one of seven islands that make up the Canary Islands archipelago off the north-west coast of Africa in the Atlantic. The island is accessible by ferry from Tenerife. The park can be reached by road from the island's major towns and villages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 1812 Constitution abolished the estates of the nobility and transferred ownership and administration of the forests to the municipal governments. The forests were declared public property and appeared as such in the last Register of Public Property listing dated 1879. The park encompasses San Sebastian, Hermigua, Agulo, Vallehermoso, Valle Gran Rey and Alajero mountains. It consists of an eroded plateau and gently sloping central terrain whose steep sloping escarpments comprise uneven steps that extend as far as the park boundaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Gomera is the only island in the Canaries that has not experienced an eruption in recent times. Thus, ash and lava fields have been eroded away leaving mature soils formed from horizontal basalts cut by a series of ravines (&lt;em&gt;barrancos&lt;/em&gt; ). The local landscape is further characterized by volcanic dykes and domes (&lt;em&gt;roques&lt;/em&gt; ), examples of the latter being Agando, Ojila, La Zarcilla and Las Lajas in the south-eastern sector of the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park harbours one of the largest continuous areas of laurisilva (laurel) forest, a habitat that has almost disappeared from southern Europe and North Africa. Almost half of the remaining forest in the Canary Islands is included in the park. In spite of being biologically diverse, a large proportion of the flora (25%) and fauna (50%) is endemic, and many species are considered to be nationally threatened.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Principal vegetation types are influenced by altitude and geographical orientation, and lushness is maintained as a result of mist, condensed water vapour and the island's numerous streams and springs. The most important feature is the laurel forest which occupies about 70% of the park and is dominated by &lt;em&gt;Laurisilva canaria&lt;/em&gt; . Other predominant and native species found within this forest type include palo blanco, vi&amp;ntilde;atigo, til and the shrub layer. The western boundary consists of an extensive heath land with bog myrtle, heather, mosses and lichens. Rockrose and tabaiba spurge also occur here. Some 450 floral species have been recorded, of which 81 are endemic to the archipelago, 34 are endemic to the island, and eight are restricted to the national park. This type of subtropical vegetation resembles that found in southern Europe during the Tertiary period, but has largely disappeared from Europe due to climatic changes, and has been replaced by sclerophytic and xerophytic species. Its distribution is now limited to a few sites in Macronesia (eastern Atlantic island groups), and even here is largely in an altered and highly reduced state. In keeping with island ecosystems, the fauna is impoverished, but with a high degree of endemism. Mammals and herpetofauna are poorly represented; only four native species of bat occur. Two species of bird, white-tailed and dark-tailed laurel pigeon, are endemic to the Canaries and on La Gomera are largely restricted to the park. In all, 27 bird species and almost 960 invertebrate species have been identified and of these, about 100 are endemic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island was colonized by the Spanish in the 15th century, and became an important intermediate port between Europe and America in the 16th century. A notable cultural heritage is the whistle language, developed by the local people to communicate over long distances.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are no settlements within the park, but approximately 16,000 people live on the island, depending on agriculture, fishing and tourist activities for their income. Several settlements are located at the park boundary. Local people continue to use certain park areas that are traditionally associated with annual fiestas or pilgrimages. Other traditional uses, such as fuel collection and cattle raising, have been reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A genetic rescue programme for plants at risk of extinction was initiated in 1984, followed in 1991 by a plan to recuperate some of these species. A research programme was recently prepared and proposes to carry out a thorough inventory in those areas that have experienced some degradation, as well as conclude flora, fauna, hydrology and climatic studies already under way. External research projects must first be approved by the park's Board of Trustees.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Laurel forest covers some 70% of this park, situated in the middle of the island of La Gomera in the Canary Islands archipelago. The presence of springs and numerous streams assures a lush vegetation resembling that of the Tertiary, which, due to climatic changes, has largely disappeared from southern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Garajonay National Park</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>436</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/381</http_url><id_number>381</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_381.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.9652500000</latitude><location>Province of Salamanca, Autonomous Community of Castile-Leon</location><longitude>-5.6645000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;With the Plaza Mayor, Clerec&amp;iacute;a (Jesuit seminary), college of Calatrava, Colegio San Ambrosio and the churches of San Sebasti&amp;aacute;n and Santa Cruz de Canizares, the New Cathedral and San Esteban, Salamanca is one of the essential centres of a dynasty of architects, decorators and sculptors from Catalonia, the Churriguera. The Churrigueresque style also exerted considerable influence in the 18th century in the countries of Latin America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although founded later than those of Bologna, Paris and Oxford, the University of Salamanca had already established itself in 1250 as one of the best in Europe. It conserves an admirable architectural heritage which illustrates the diverse functions of the University institution in the Christian world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beginning with the Roman bridge that spans the R&amp;iacute;o Tormes south-west of the city, numerous witnesses to the 2,000-year history of ancient Salmantica still stand. Its monuments have an exemplary value: the Old Cathedral and San Marcos (12th century), the Salina and the Monterrey palaces (16th century), and above all the Plaza Mayor, the most sumptuous of the Baroque squares in Spain, begun in 1729.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the city owes its most essential features to the University. The remarkable group of buildings in the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque styles which, from the 15th to the 18th centuries, grew up around the institution that proclaimed itself 'Mother of Virtues, of Sciences and of the Arts' makes Salamanca, like Oxford and Cambridge, an exceptional example of an old university town in the Christian world. The cathedral school of Salamanca existed as far back as the late 12th century. It was transformed into a studium generale in the early 13th century and was granted its first royal privilege by Ferdinand III in April 1243. Taking Bologna as a model, the University was organized as an association of students (universitas studentium). During this first phase and until the 15th century, classes were held, as was the case elsewhere, in church buildings or in rooms rented by the University. The graduation ceremonies took place in a chapel of the Old Cathedral, a tradition that was continued until 1843. The oldest university building in Salamanca, now the Rectorate, is the old Hospital del Estudio, built in 1413. Its facade faces the Court of Schools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The buildings housing the University proper, Las Escuelas Mayores, are grouped around a central patio and were built between 1415 and 1433. A final touch was added in the 16th century: a sculpted facade of three registers, made possible through a gift from the Catholic monarchs. In 1533 construction began on the final element of the building programme. Situated on the south-west side of the Court of Schools, this was a building centred on a patio which held Las Escuelas Menores, where preparatory courses for the university programme itself were taught. The new building was designed with regard to the Hospital del Estudio, whose facade was remodelled. Salamanca provides one of the oldest examples of university facilities conceived as such rather than as colleges. However, the city also boasted a good many colleges, which were generally charitable institutions with close ties to the University. The first foundation, the Colegio de San Bartolom&amp;eacute;, in 1413; was inspired by the college San Clemente de Bologna. It served as a model for all the others with its lodging facilities and chapel. Now the seat of the Faculty of Letters, the buildings owe their present appearance to reconstruction during the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most beautiful example of the Renaissance colleges in Salamanca is the Colegio de los Irlandeses built in 1527-78 to house Irish students. Others ancient buildings are the Colegio de Hu&amp;eacute;rfanos; the Colegio San Pelayo; the Colegio Santa Catalina; the Colegio San Ildefonso. The superb Baroque colleges of the 18th century are: Colegio de la Ord&amp;eacute;n Militar de Calatrava, Colegio de San Ambrosio, and Colegio de l'Universitad Pontificia, with its marvellous patio, Salon des Actos and monumental stairway. The more austere Colegio de Anaya was one of the last monuments of this institution to be built in a style inherited from the Middle Ages, along with the Colegio de Santa Maria de Los Angeles, founded in 1780; the latter incorporates the late Gothic style facade of the earlier Colegio de San Mill&amp;aacute;n.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This ancient university town north-west of Madrid was first conquered by the Carthaginians in the 3rd century B.C. It then became a Roman settlement before being ruled by the Moors until the 11th century. The university, one of the oldest in Europe, reached its high point during Salamanca's golden age. The city's historic centre has important Romanesque, Gothic, Moorish, Renaissance and Baroque monuments. The Plaza Mayor, with its galleries and arcades, is particularly impressive.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Salamanca</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>439</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Property nominated for inscription&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Upper Town (Alta Vila) of Ibiza and its 16th Century Fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Upper Town of Ibiza is the oldest area. It emerges like an acropolis standing on a headland facing the sea. Its architecture and physiognomy have not been changed since the fortifications were built in the 16th century, based on the military precepts of the Renaissance. The defensive walls and bastions have incorporated, in a much larger area, those which existed before, thus making it possible to study the stratigraphy of successive fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ebysos (the town of Bes, an Egyptian god) was founded by the Carthaginians in 654 BC. Punic water tanks can still be seen, particularly in the area of El Soto. For 2000 years, the town and its fortified harbour were the centre of Mediterranean navigation. The local economy was based on the collection of salt from the pans, wool, and figs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After a period of alliance with Rome, the island came under the control of the Arabs in 902. The excavated ruins of a strong earthen wall, as well as the urban plan of the medina, an Arab town spread over a surface of 4ha intra muros, date to this period. The medina consists of narrow streets lined by dwelling houses with windows looking over an inner courtyard, and surrounded by walls on three sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1235, the town was dominated by Christians, who built the Catalan castle, visible from the inside of the present building, the medieval fortifications, and the 13th century Gothic cathedral which can still be admired.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1530 to 1540, Philip II drew up a strategic plan to defend communications between Spain and Italy. In 1584-85, new fortifications were erected with the help of two specialized Italian architects, Giovanni Battista Calvi and Jacobo Paleazzo Fratin. These fortifications were to serve as models for the harbour towns of the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Phoenician-Punic cemetery of Puig des Molins&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This large cemetery is situated in the south west of the Upper Town and covers a fully protected surface of several hectares. At the beginning of the 6th century BC, the ashes of the dead were placed in a natural grotto after cremation. Later, shafts and funerary chambers were dug, over a surface of 5ha and then 7ha. Monolithic sarcophagi were lowered through shafts into hypogea, family sepulchres. This cemetery was in use until the end of the Roman period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Phoenician Punic cemetery is the oldest to have been preserved, thus making it possible to study a wide variety of tombs, statues, and cult objects. It has been included in the urban perimeter and has added to the beauty of the site, with its terraces planted with olive trees to take advantage of the humidity of the underground chambers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Compared to the 1986 request for inscription, the perimeter of the cemetery has been added to that of the Upper Town in the 1998 request.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- The Phoenician-Punic Archaeological Site of Sa Caleta&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is the site of the first Phoenician occupation, near the salt-pans. It was abandoned around 590 BC in favour of the site of Ibiza. This settlement covered the 5ha of the peninsula before it was eroded by the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have unearthed walls of a thickness of 45-60cm. Scattered square-shaped buildings were linked by an irregular system of streets and triangular public areas, revealing an archaic form of urbanization. In the southern district, the substructures of a dwelling house can be visited; it is composed of a large rectangular room and seven other rooms, probably shops and kitchens. Bread was baked in 2m diameter ovens. The site was inhabited by a community of about 800 people, it had an egalitarian social structure, and an economy based on agriculture, metallurgy, salt, and fishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Properties located in the buffer zone&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Es Soto&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Punic water tanks, tombs that extend the cemetery of Puig des Molins, as well as an old Moslem cemetery and the ruins of a Christian chapel, were unearthed in this southern part of the headland, between the defensive walls of Dalt Vila and the sea. The inclusion of this zone of archaeological interest, which is fortunately in a good state of preservation, makes it possible to maintain a green space between the fortifications and the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Ses Feixes&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This area stretches along the coast, over a flat surface situated on the other side of the harbour, opposite the Upper Town. It displays a form of cultivation based on an ingenious irrigation system: the fields are divided into long, narrow rectangles by a network of canals which have a dual function of collecting water and irrigating the fields. This system permits an intensive but well balanced cultivation of arid and marshy soils. The proposal for inscription includes this site in the buffer zone as evidence of an agricultural organization that has both a technical and an aesthetic value.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Las Salinas&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Situated in the southern tip of the island, opposite the island of Formentera, this site is put forward as a cultural landscape. An age-old human activity has created a natural setting favourable to the maintenance of biodiversity. The collection of salt has always played a key role here. The area was laid out with a system of canals, dams, and dikes which formed wetland areas of great beauty and ecological interest, with a specific flora and fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/417</http_url><id_number>417</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_417.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ix):&lt;/em&gt; The evolution of Ibiza's shoreline is one of the best examples of the influence of &lt;em&gt;Posidonia&lt;/em&gt; on the interaction of coastal and marine ecosystems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x):&lt;/em&gt; The well-preserved &lt;em&gt;Posidonia&lt;/em&gt; , threatened in most Mediterranean locations, contains and supports a diversity of marine life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The intact 16th century fortifications of Ibiza bear unique witness to the military architecture and engineering and the aesthetics of the Renaissance. This Italian-Spanish model was very influential, especially in the construction and fortification of towns in the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Phoenician ruins of Sa Caleta and the Phoenician-Punic cemetery of Puig des Molins are exceptional evidence of urbanization and social life in the Phoenician colonies of the western Mediterranean. They constitute a unique resource, in terms of volume and importance, of material from the Phoenician and Carthaginian tombs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Upper Town of Ibiza is an excellent example of a fortified acropolis which preserves in an exceptional way in its walls and in its urban fabric successive imprints of the earliest Phoenicians settlements and the Arab and Catalan periods through to the Renaissance bastions. The long process of building the defensive walls has not destroyed the earlier phases or the street pattern, but has incorporated them in the ultimate phase.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.9111388900</latitude><location>Balearic Islands</location><longitude>1.4351944440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Upper Town of Ibiza is an excellent example of a fortified acropolis which preserves in an exceptional way in its walls and in its urban fabric successive imprints of the earliest Phoenicians settlements and the Arab and Catalan periods through to the Renaissance bastions. The long process of building the defensive walls has not destroyed the street pattern, but has incorporated them in the ultimate phase.The intact 16th-century fortifications of Ibiza bear unique witness to the military architecture and engineering and the aesthetics of the Renaissance. This Italian-Spanish model was very influential, especially in the construction and fortification of towns in the New World. The evolution of Ibiza's shoreline is one of the best examples of the influence of Posidonia on the interaction of coastal and marine ecosystems.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Upper Town is the oldest area, which emerges like an acropolis standing on a headland facing the sea. Its architecture and physiognomy have not been changed since the fortifications were built in the 16th century, based on the military precepts of the Renaissance. The defensive walls and bastions have incorporated those which existed before, thus making it possible to study the stratigraphy of all fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ebysos (the town of Bes, an Egyptian god) was founded by the Carthaginians in 654 BC. For 2,000 years, the town and its fortified harbour were the centre of Mediterranean navigation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The local economy was based on the collection of salt from the pans, wool, and figs. After a period of alliance with Rome, the island came under the control of the Arabs in AD&amp;nbsp;902. Excavations have revealed the ruins of a strong earthen wall, as well as the urban plan of the medina, which consists of narrow streets lined by dwelling houses with windows looking over an inner courtyard, and surrounded by walls on three sides. In 1235, the town was dominated by Christians, who built the Catalan castle, visible from the inside of the present building, the medieval fortifications, and the Gothic cathedral. From 1530 to 1540, Philip II drew up a strategic plan to defend communications between Spain and Italy. In 1584-85, new fortifications were erected with the help of specialized Italian architects: Giovanni Battista Calvi and Jacobo Paleazzo Fratin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Phoenician-Punic cemetery of Puig des Molins (in use until the end of the Roman period) is situated in the south-west of the Upper Town. At the beginning of the 6th century BC, the ashes of the dead were placed in a natural grotto after cremation. Later, shafts and funerary chambers were dug. Monolithic sarcophagi were lowered through shafts into hypogea (family sepulchres). It is the oldest to have been preserved, thus making it possible to study a wide variety of tombs, statues, and cult objects. It has been included in the urban perimeter and has added to the beauty of the site, with its terraces planted with olive trees to take advantage of the humidity of the underground chambers. The Phoenician-Punic Archaeological Site of Sa Caleta is near the salt-pans, and was abandoned around 590&amp;nbsp;BC in favour of the site of Ibiza, before it was eroded by the sea. Excavations have unearthed walls. Scattered square-shaped buildings were linked by an irregular system of streets and triangular public areas, revealing an archaic form of urbanization, inhabited by a community of about 800 people, which had an egalitarian social structure, and an economy based on agriculture, metallurgy, salt and fishing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are also properties located in the buffer zone: Punic water tanks, tombs that extend the cemetery of Puig des Molins, as well as an old Muslim cemetery and the ruins of a Christian chapel. Also there is Ses Feixes, an area stretches along the coast, situated on the other side of the harbour, opposite the Upper Town. It displays a form of cultivation based on an ingenious irrigation system: the fields are divided into long, narrow rectangles by a network of canals which have the dual function of collecting water and irrigating the fields. This system permits an intensive but well balanced cultivation of arid and marshy soils.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Finally there is Las Salinas, in the southern tip of the island, which is a cultural landscape. An age-old human activity has created a natural setting favourable to the maintenance of biodiversity. The collection of salt has always played a key role here, with a system of canals, dams and dykes which formed wetland areas of great beauty and ecological interest, with a specific flora and fauna.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ibiza provides an excellent example of the interaction between the marine and coastal ecosystems. The dense prairies of oceanic Posidonia (seagrass), an important endemic species found only in the Mediterranean basin, contain and support a diversity of marine life. Ibiza preserves considerable evidence of its long history. The archaeological sites at Sa Caleta (settlement) and Puig des Molins (necropolis) testify to the important role played by the island in the Mediterranean economy in protohistory, particularly during the Phoenician-Carthaginian period. The fortified Upper Town (Alta Vila) is an outstanding example of Renaissance military architecture; it had a profound influence on the development of fortifications in the Spanish settlements of the New World.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>481</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/518</http_url><id_number>518</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_518.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.3808300000</latitude><location>Vimbodí, Province of  Tarragona, Autonomous Community of Catalonia</location><longitude>1.0825000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a of Poblet presents a unique blend of architectural forms generally reserved for distinct applications. It has served as one of the largest and most complete of the Cistercian abbeys, as a massive military complex, and as a royal palace, residence and pantheon. It is a unique artistic achievement and one of the most perfect expressions of Cistercian style in the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. The abbey contains masterpieces from every period such as the great alabaster retablo by Damian Forment (1529).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Poblet presents a unique blend of architectural forms. First and foremost, it is a Cistercian abbey, one of the largest and most complete that exists. North of the church, laid out in the usual way, is a group of monastic buildings that include the great cloister with its fountain, chapter room, monk's dormitory, parlour and its annex, closed cloister, monk's room which is now a library, calefactory, refectory and kitchens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The former lay brothers' buildings are on the west and the infirmary to the north. The monastery is complete: it has its private buildings - gatehouse and guest house on the west, the abbot's residence on the south, the prior's lodgings on the north - and its work buildings - the kiln on the north-west side, an oil mill on the south. The spatial organization of common areas for the living is as clear as a textbook model; even the space reserved for the dead seems regulated in the same spirit, i.e. one cemetery for monks, one for lay brothers, and one for the laity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Poblet is also a fortress, impressive in its massive size. Lying midway between Tarragona and L&amp;eacute;rida, at the foot of the Sierra de Montsant, the old Cistercian monastery founded in 1150 by the monks of Fontfroide was transformed into a stronghold by Peter IV the Ceremonious, King of Aragon (1336-87) during the War of Castile. It was he who had the 608&amp;nbsp;m of interior walls built. These walls are an excellent example of 14th-century military architecture: crenellated battlements with walls 2&amp;nbsp;m thick and walkways, reinforced with high towers that are either square or polygonal, and its Royal Gate (1379-97) defended by machicolations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Poblet is, finally, a royal residence, directly associated with the history of the houses of Barcelona, Aragon and Castile. The monastery was founded by Raimond Beranger IV, the saintly Count of Barcelona, to colonize reconquered lands. Later it was considered a symbolic monument of the dynasty. Shortly after 1349 Peter IV decided to do more than fortify Poblet: in the abbey church he had Jaime Cascalls and Jorge de Deu, masters of royal works, build a sumptuous dynasty burial place, using a completely new principle: two enormous sarcophagi reposing on surbased arches, providing for communication between the choir and the deambulatory. The sarcophagi served as sepultures for several kings of the houses of Catalonia and Aragon, identified by their recumbent statues: Alfonso II the Chaste, John I and John II on the southern, epistle side, James I the Conqueror, Peter IV and Ferdinand I on the northern, Gospel side. Several queens are buried alongside their spouses. The royal pantheon extends through the arms of the transept with individual sepultures. Poblet was both the necropolis and the home of kings. In 1397, Martin I commissioned the architect Arnau Bagues to transform the former lay brothers' building into a palace. The project was never completed, but royal chambers, on the east side, later were reserved for royal visitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Spain can be traced in the additions made to Poblet. The King of Aragon, Alfonso IV the Magnanimous, had the Chapel of St George built in 1452 to commemorate the victory at Naples in 1442. The Golden Gate was completed on the occasion of a visit by the Catholic Kings and restored during the visit of Philip II. The symbolic value of Poblet in the cultural heritage of Spain was more recently marked by the visit of Alfonso XIII to the disused monastery in 1926 and by the return of his ashes to the royal pantheon in 1952.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This Cistercian abbey in Catalonia is one of the largest in Spain. At its centre is a 12th-century church. The austere, majestic monastery, which has a fortified royal residence and contains the pantheon of the kings of Catalonia and Aragon, is an impressive sight.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Poblet Monastery</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>605</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Both Ubeda and Baeza have ancient origins. With the Moorish conquest of the 8th century, they became fortresses, which quickly attracted fortified urban settlement with a characteristic layout of narrow irregular streets. Ubeda was the Iberian B&amp;eacute;tula, the Roman Ebdete, and the Arab Obdaz or Obdazza. It was conquered by Christian army of Ferdinand III in 1233-34, playing a role as a frontier fortress after the fall of Granada in 1492. Baeza was a minor settlement in the Roman times (Beatia or Biatia) but gained importance under the Arab rule. It was taken over by the Christians in 1226-27, and remained a place of invading armies. Both towns prospered for a brief period in the 16th century, and were partly renovated. In the Moorish period, until the 13th century, both cities had their Alc&amp;aacute;zar, the citadel that was also the residence of the governor. Outside the citadel, there developed an urban area, which was surrounded by defence walls. The street network developed organically, linking the citadel with the city gates. In the centre of the town there was the mosque, and next to it probably the market. Outside the town walls there were small settlements. In this period, both towns obtained the basic form which has since been retained.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the Reconquista in the 13th century, the rural areas were initially abandoned. The towns obtained some privileges that allowed them to develop a new urban oligarchy. The urban fabric remained fundamentally Islamic, but there were some works of renovation in the houses and repair of the defence walls. The Alc&amp;aacute;zar loses its function but remains as a plaza de armas. A new centre develops in the town itself. In Ubeda, the former mosque is transformed into a church with a market on its side. Similar process takes place around Plaza de S. Paolo in Baeza. Convents and monasteries are introduced often in Mud&amp;eacute;jar style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important development takes place from the mid 15th to the 16th century. The economy is improved due to the development of agricultural activities, the growing of olives and vines. The society remains highly hierarchic, and the economy is in the hands of a small minority of nobles and the church. There is no substantial change in the general urban fabric, but there are a number of interventions that give new features to both towns. The wall that separated the Alc&amp;aacute;zar from the town is now demolished, and there are new housing and new public buildings built in free areas near the former Alc&amp;aacute;zar, which develop into a second centre of activities. There is also new expansion outside the town walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 17th to the 19th century, the towns suffer of abandonment and agricultural production is drastically diminished. In the 19th century, the land properties of the church are confiscated and small farming gradually develops. In the 19th and 20th centuries, there is some transformation inside the old towns, but the main development continues outside.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/522</http_url><id_number>522</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_522.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The 16th-century examples of architectural and urban design in Úbeda and Baeza were instrumental in introducing the Renaissance ideas to Spain. Through the publications of Andréa Vandelvira, the principal project architect, these examples were also diffused to Latin America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The central areas of Úbeda and Baeza constitute outstanding early examples of Renaissance civic architecture and urban planning in Spain in the early 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.0113100000</latitude><location>Province of Jaen, Autonomous Community of Andalusia</location><longitude>-3.3712200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The examples of architectural and urban design in &amp;Uacute;beda and Baeza were instrumental in introducing to Spain of Italian Renaissance design criteria, but had their origins in the Islamic period. The exceptional feature of this cities lies on the fact that they have structured in a dual complementary and inseparable fashion. This duality makes them operate in many aspects as a single city, with their own affinities and features and differential shades of meaning characterizing their morphology and historical development until present times. The central areas of &amp;Uacute;beda and Baeza constitute outstanding early examples of Renaissance civic architecture and urban planning in Spain in the early 16th century, and achieved exceptional development characterized by the influence of humanism. This development of constructive solutions in the field of stereotypy made it possible to adopt complex architectural solutions, which have had an evidenced and relevant impact on the architecture of Spanish America, confirming, in this versatile way of dialogue with the American cultural world, their character of an open and universal project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two small towns, &amp;Uacute;beda and Baeza, some 10&amp;nbsp;km from each other, are located in southern Spain between the regions of Castile and Andalusia, on the northern slopes of the valley of the Guadalquivir River. Being on the frontier of the two regions, the towns have assumed a character of contrasts, which is reflected in the urban fabric that is of Arabic and Andalusian origin and more northern influences. In the 8th century Moorish conquest the towns became fortresses, which quickly attracted fortified urban settlement with a characteristic layout of narrow irregular streets. &amp;Uacute;beda was conquered by he Christian army of Ferdinand III in 1233-34, playing a role as a frontier fortress after the fall of Granada in 1492. Baeza, a minor settlement in the Roman times, was taken over by the Christians in 1226-27. Both towns prospered for a time in the 16th century, and have survived until the present day. They are an exceptional example of the distribution of urban functions, so that the sum of the monumental site of Baeza (public, ecclesiastic and educational) and of &amp;Uacute;beda (aristocratic and palaces) make up a complete Renaissance urban scheme of high architectural quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;Uacute;beda is almost square in form, with the site of the Alc&amp;aacute;zar in the south-east corner, which remained with no specific use. From here the streets spread towards the town gates. The medieval focus of the town was the mosque, transformed into the cathedral church, and the market in the centre of the urban area. There are still several medieval churches and convents, built in Gothic-Mudejar style. The renovation from the 16th to 19th centuries resulted from improved economy. Of this time the most important historic buildings include the Palace of Francisco de los Cobos, designed by Luis de Vega (now in municipal use); funerary chapel of El Salvador del Mundo; Palace of V&amp;aacute;zquez de Molina; Hospital Honrados Viejos; Palace of the D&amp;eacute;an Ortega (now a tourist hotel); P&amp;oacute;sito (now a police station); Palace of the Marqu&amp;eacute;s de Mancera (now a convent); C&amp;aacute;rcel del Obispo (Bishop's Prison, late 16th century, now a law court); and Church of Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Baeza the former Alc&amp;aacute;zar, facing south-west, has an oval form. In its general character the town resembles &amp;Uacute;beda, with its spontaneously grown urban layout and the winding narrow streets. The most representative buildings of Baeza are situated in an axis starting from the Plaza de Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a and running through the steep Cuesta de San Felipe down to the Ca&amp;ntilde;uelo Gate. The dominant reference point is the cathedral; in front of it are the Casas Consistoriales Altas, which is currently not in use. The Fountain of Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a occupies a prominent position in the small square facing the cathedral, and then comes the former Seminary of St Philip Neri (1598-1660), now used as administrative offices for the Junta de Andaluc&amp;iacute;a. Adjoining it is the Jabalquinto Palace of the late 15th century, currently not in use, and facing it is the Colegio de las Madres Filipenses, with the 13th-century Church of Santa Cruz beyond. The ensemble is completed at its lower end by the University, constructed in the second half of the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The urban morphology of the two small cities of Úbeda and Baeza in southern Spain dates back to the Moorish 9th century and to the Reconquista in the 13th century. An important development took place in the 16th century, when the cities were subject to renovation along the lines of the emerging Renaissance. This planning intervention was part of the introduction into Spain of new humanistic ideas from Italy, which went on to have a great influence on the architecture of Latin America.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>611</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Colonia Augusta Emerita was founded by Augustus in 25 BC at the end of his Spanish campaign. Its first inhabitants were time-expired veterans of the legions that made up his army. Three years later it became the capital of the new Roman province of Lusitania, and played an important role as the base for the conquest of the northwest of the Iberian peninsula. Its site was a classic one, where a major road crossed an important river (the Guadiana), and it quickly became a very important administrative, commercial, and communications centre. The town was a paradigm of Roman urbanization, with a checker board layout, public buildings, efficient drainage, and an elaborate water supply system, with an ordered hinterland of agricultural estates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Spain, and with it Emerita, benefited from the rule of the Spanish Emperors Trajan and Hadrian, who endowed it with splendid public buildings. The powHr and prosperity of Emerita were reinforced when it became the seat of the Vicarius of the whole Diocese of Spain following Diocletian's administrative reforms in the late 3rd century. Christianity was established there in the 3rd century, and it was quickly to become the see of an archbishop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It seems to have suffered little from the successive ba,rbarian invasions from 409 onwards, and in 422 became the capital of the Suebian kingdom. With the pacification of the peninsula by the Visigoths from 457 onwards it flourished as the capital of one of the six provinces, and enjoyed a special role as a cultural centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After its defeat at the hands of the Moors at Guadalete in 711, the remains of the Visigothic army took refuge in Merida, but surrendered peacefully after a siege lasting over a year. The town was always a centre of opposition to Moorish rule, to such an extent that in 834 Abderrahman II ordered the walls to be levelled and a fortress (Alcazaba) to be built to guard the Guadiana bridge. From that time on the town underwent progressive economic decline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Merida was recaptured by a Christian army in 1230, but by then its archbishopric had been relocated at Santiago. A brief revival under Los Reyes C.at6licos in the late 15th century came to an end when the town was drained of resources, both human and material, during the Portuguese and Catalan rebellions against Philip II. Its impoverished state was made worse by its sufferings during the War of the Spanish Succession in the early 18th century and the Peninsular War a century later, and a slow economic revival has only begun again in recent years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/664</http_url><id_number>664</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_664.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.9161100000</latitude><location>Province of Badajoz, Autonomous Community of Extremadura</location><longitude>-6.3377800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;M&amp;eacute;rida is symbolic of the process of Romanization in a land that had hitherto not been influenced by the urban phenomenon. It contains the substantial remains of a number of important elements of Roman town design, considered to be one of the finest surviving examples of its type; the aqueducts and other elements of Roman water management are also especially well preserved and complete.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Emerita was founded by Augustus in 25 BC at the end of his Spanish campaign. Its first inhabitants were time-expired veterans of the legions that made up his army. Three years later it became the capital of the new Roman province of Lusitania, and played an important role as the base for the conquest of the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Its site was a classic one, where a major road crossed an important river (the Quadiana), and it became a very important administrative, commercial, and communications centre. Emerita benefited from the rule of the Spanish Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Diocletian who endowed it with splendid public buildings. Christianity was established there in the 3rd century, and it was quickly to become the seat of an archbishop. With the pacification of the peninsula by the Visigoths from 457 onwards it flourished as the capital of one of the six provinces, and enjoyed a special role as cultural centre. In 711, the remains of the Visigothic army took refuge in M&amp;eacute;rida. The town was always a centre of opposition to Moorish rule, so in 834 Abderrahman II ordered to be built a fortress (Alcazaba) to guard the Guadiana bridge (25 BC). M&amp;eacute;rida was recaptured by a Christian army in 1230. A brief revival under Los Reyes Catolicos in the late 15th century saw the town drained of resources, both human and material, during the Portuguese and Catalan rebellions against Philip II.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main monuments in the World Heritage site are the Guadiana bridge (two sections of arches linked by a large pier with massive cutwaters, built from granite and concrete); the amphitheatre, for 15,000 spectators, part of the original layout of the town, which occupies two insulae and was inaugurated in 8 BC; the classic Vitruvian theatre, set into a low hill and inaugurated under M. Agrippa; the peripteral and hexastyle Temple of Diana ,probably from the early years of the 1st century AD and converted into a private residence in the 16th century; the alleged 'Arch of Trajan,' which may have been an entrance gate to the original town or, more likely, to the enceinte of the Temple of Diana; and the Circus, one of the largest in the Roman world, probably contemporaneous with the foundation of the colonia..&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other sites include two &lt;em&gt;columbarii&lt;/em&gt; (family tombs); the water supply system to Emerita, including three dams, well-preserved stretches of underground water channels and substantial remains of aqueducts (the Proserpina and Cornalvo dams, both still functioning, are the most remarkable surviving examples of Roman water management systems; the Basilica de Casa Herrera, a palaeo-Christian basilica with a double-apsidal nave and side aisles of a well known North African type; the Martyr Church of Santa Eulalia (substantial traces of the original church dedicated to Santa Eulalia, martyred under Diocletian; and the Alcazaba, which exhibits some characteristic Byzantine features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The massive walls, with their 25 bastions, enclose an almost square area. There are no permanent and contemporary buildings in the interior, but there are abundant traces of the Roman houses and streets that were removed to allow its construction.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The colony of Augusta Emerita, which became present-day M&amp;eacute;rida in Estremadura, was founded in 25 B.C. at the end of the Spanish Campaign and was the capital of Lusitania. The well-preserved remains of the old city include, in particular, a large bridge over the Guadiana, an amphitheatre, a theatre, a vast circus and an exceptional water-supply system. It is an excellent example of a provincial Roman capital during the empire and in the years afterwards.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>785</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of the sanctuary began at the end of the 13th century, when a Caceres shepherd, Gil Cordero, discovered close to the river Guadalupe a statue of the Virgin Mary that had been buried by Christians from Seville around 714 when they were fleeing before the Moorish invaders. The shepherd built a chapel near the river to house the statue. A few years later it became a church, which was enlarged in 1337 by command of Alfonso XI, who visited it on several occasions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This king invoked the protection of Our Lady of Guadalupe for the battle of Salado in 1340 and, following his victory, declared the church to be a Royal Sanctuary, founding a secular priory there. Shortly afterwards, he conferred the temporal overlordship on the prior and ordered the church to be further enlarged. Reverence for &amp;bull;the statue of the Virgin became widespread, but particularly in the kingdoms of Castille and Portugal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1389 the Order of Saint Jerome took over the sanctuary and with it the pastoral care and secular overlordship of the village. For 447 years under the Hieronyrnite Order the Monastery was the most important in Spain and one of the most famous in all Christendom. With the General Secularization of 1835 the Order passed responsibility for the sanctuary to the Archdiocese of Toledo, which handed it over to the Franciscan Order in 1908. The Royal Palace, built o:n &amp;bull;the instructions of Queen Isabella in 1487-91, was demolished in 1856. Pope Pius XII conferred the title of Minor Papal Basilica on the main church in 1955.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/665</http_url><id_number>665</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_665.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.4528500000</latitude><location>Province of Cáceres, Autonomous Community of Extremadura</location><longitude>-5.3275000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Monastery of Guadalupe, an ensemble of religious architecture spanning four centuries, symbolizes two significant events in world history that both occurred in the same year, 1492: the final expulsion of the Muslim power from the Iberian Peninsula and the discovery of America by Columbus. Its famous image of the Virgin also became the pre-eminent symbol of the Christianization of the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Monastery, the principal of the Order of St Jerome, played a very influential role in the history of Spain, being associated by the crown with important events, notably by the Catholic Kings (&lt;em&gt;Los Reyes Cat&amp;oacute;licos&lt;/em&gt; ) with the conquest of Granada and the discovery of America in 1492. The Monastery was, and remains a centre of pilgrimage. It was a cultural centre of the highest order: its hospitals and its medical school were renowned, as was its scriptorium and its library, containing a very rich collection of documents. Many famous artists were attracted to Guadalupe, including Juan de Sevilla, Francisco de Zurbar&amp;aacute;n, Vicente Carducho, and Luca Giordano. The harmony between the buildings and the works of art that it contains confers an outstanding value upon the ensemble. The site is one of great beauty, overlooking a valley surrounded by high mountains, notably the Villuercas, and containing abundant vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At at the end of the13th century a C&amp;aacute;ceres shepherd discovered close to the River Guadalupe a statue of the Virgin Mary that had been buried by Christians from Seville around 714 when fleeing before the Moorish invaders. The shepherd built a chapel to house the statue. A few years later it became a church, enlarged in 1337 by command of Alfonso XI, who visited it on several occasions. This king invoked the protection of Our Lady of Guadalupe for the battle of Salado in 1340 and, following his victory, declared the church a royal sanctuary, founding a secular priory there. For 447 years under the Hieronimite Order the monastery was the most important in Spain and one of the most famous in Christendom. In 1835 the order passed responsibility to the Archdiocese of Toledo, which handed it over to the Franciscan order in 1908.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of the monastery of Guadalupe comprises the following main buildings:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the main Gothic Church or Templo Major has a notable facade with its doors ornamented and finely wrought bronze plaques. The interior has three naves with fine ornamented vaulting, tombs and altars;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the Sacristy, built between 1638 and 1647, and exuberantly decorated, is best known for the series of paintings by Zurbar&amp;aacute;n on its walls;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the Chapel of Santa Catalina, constructed in the 15th century, links the Sacristy with the Reliquaries Chapel. It has an octagonal cupola lit by a lantern and contains outstanding 17th century tombs; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the Reliquaries Chapel is an octagonal-plan edifice built at the end of the16th century. The lower part houses many elaborate reliquaries and other works of art in its arcaded alcoves;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the Camar&amp;iacute;n de la Virgen is a small octagonal building of 1687-96, situated behind the presbytery of the basilica, in highly decorated Baroque style. In the upper storey, the 'Chamber of the Virgen' proper, the vaults a decorated in plaster and stucco and the walls covered with paintings, among them nine by Luca Giordano. It houses the famous statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe, on a magnificently ornamented throne;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the Mudejar cloister, built between 1389 and 1405, is situated to the north of the main church and is constructed in brick, in the Mudejar tradition, and painted in white and red. The small chapel in the centre dates from 1405, and there is an impressive portal of 1520-24 in Plateresque style;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the Gothic cloister dates from 1531-33 and has galleries on three sides; there are three tiers of arches. As it belongs to the hospice of the monastery it does not contain any important works of art;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; the New Church: one of the descendants of Columbus, with a special affection for the monastery, promoted the construction of this building in 1730-35, in modified Baroque style with three naves.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The monastery is an outstanding repository of four centuries of Spanish religious architecture. It symbolizes two significant events in world history that occurred in 1492: the Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula by the Catholic Kings and Christopher Columbus' arrival in the Americas. Its famous statue of the Virgin became a powerful symbol of the Christianization of much of the New World.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>786</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/685</http_url><id_number>685</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_685.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.9477000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Huelva and Sevilla, Autonomous Community of Andalusia</location><longitude>-6.3588610000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park and its buffer zones occupy the right bank of the Guadalquivir River at its estuary with the Atlantic. It is situated on quaternary deposits: mainly sand dunes and groups of shifting dunes, some of which move very rapidly. Major habitats consist of lagoons, marsh, fixed and mobile dune fields, scrub woodland and &lt;em&gt;maquis&lt;/em&gt;. The faunal inventory includes 8 species of fish, 10 amphibian, 19 reptile, 30 mammal and 360 bird. The park supports important resident populations of the following threatened species: Spanish lynx, Adalbert's eagle, marbled teal, and white-headed duck. Black vulture and red kites are also present, as are large breeding colonies of waterfowl, herons, egrets and waders. It is the most important wintering site for waterfowl in Spain, receiving hundreds of thousands of visitors annually, and is a major stop-over on the route to and from Africa for migrating Palaearctic migrants.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In general the state of conservation of the park is satisfactory, but it does face numerous threats including its increasing isolation by agricultural development, tourism, poaching, over-grazing and illegal exploitation of crayfish. Do&amp;ntilde;ana National Park has been a testing ground for conservation in Spain and has become very well known throughout Europe due to the controversies faced there and the innovative management approaches that have been taken. It is the only protected area that is not only a National Park but also a Ramsar site, a Biosphere Reserve as well as a European Community Special Protection Area. It is also known as the site which triggered the foundation of WWF in 1961.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Do&amp;ntilde;ana has a known history of over 700 years. It was the favourite hunting reserve of Spanish kings such as Philip IV, Philip V and Alfonso XIII. It was owned by the Duchess of Alba and formed the backdrop of her portrait by Goya. The palace of Do&amp;ntilde;ana remains as a testimony to this exalted past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All Mediterranean wetland sites including Do&amp;ntilde;ana have been exploited by humans since the beginning of civilization. Among the uses experienced in and around Do&amp;ntilde;ana have been drainage of marshes and conversion to agriculture, grazing, fisheries, mineral and salt exploitation, hunting, harvesting of wetland vegetation, forestry plantations, use of pesticides, urban development, road construction and tourism. Although it has been affected by a number of human activities that have reduced its integrity, Do&amp;ntilde;ana National Park is a resilient system and nature is still the dominant force. As the main threats have been averted and as restoration activities are under way, the future of the park seems assured. In the context of a crowded and long-inhabited continent, Do&amp;ntilde;ana is one of the few national parks in Europe that can match the international significance met by parks in other parts of the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Doñana National Park in Andalusia occupies the right bank of the Guadalquivir river at its estuary on the Atlantic Ocean. It is notable for the great diversity of its biotopes, especially lagoons, marshlands, fixed and mobile dunes, scrub woodland and maquis. It is home to five threatened bird species. It is one of the largest heronries in the Mediterranean region and is the wintering site for more than 500,000 water fowl each year.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Doñana National Park</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>810</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;When the Moors conquered Spain they took advantage of one of the best defensive sites on the Iberian peninsula, a limestone ridge between the Jucar and Huecar rivers, to build a fortress-town from which to control the vast area known as the Kura de Kunka (hispanicized into Cuenca), in the heart of the caliphate of C&amp;oacute;rdoba. It developed between the castle and the Alcazar, adapting itself to the topography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Alfonso VIII of Castille captured the town in 1177 and Cuenca entered a new phase of its history as a &amp;quot;Royal town&amp;quot; and an episcopal see. The Christian town was built over the Moorish one and began to spread down from the crest of the hill. lt became a manufacturing town and one of the nuclei of the Castilian economy as well as an administrative centre. During the 16th century Cuenca experienced a large increase in population, which tripled to some sixteen thousand by 1594. The intra muros area was gradually taken over by religious institutions, the wealthier citizens moving to the lower parts of the town and the common people to new suburban areas. This was the period of Cuenca's flowering, with a large textile industry and flourishing trade. The urban fabric stabilized itself at this time, not to change significantly until the present century: the fortified upper town, dominated by the towers of churches and convents, a closed and densely settled medieval urban space, the lower town open and ordered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the early 17th century saw the collapse of the textile industry and an economic crisis for the town, where the population had dropped dramatically to four thousand by 1646. Only the ecclesiastical element of the town survived relatively unscathed and continued to build: Cuenca became a monastic town and Baroque architecture began to appear in the townscape. There was a slow regeneration during the later 17th and 18th centuries, and a process of separation of function between different quarters of the town took place - ecclesiastical, administrative, artisanal, and mercantile. However, this regeneration had spent itself by the end of the 18th century and the town underwent a period of deterioration and dilapidation: ancient buildings either collapsed or were demolished because they were unsafe. The historic fortified enclosure was virtually abandoned by its wealthier residents and became a largely working class and monastic area. A rehabilitation plan of 1918 accomplished very little beyond the widening of some of the streets and restoration of some facades. It was not until around 1920 that the conscience of the citizens of Cuenca was awakened. Systematic conservation and rehabilitation planning was not to follow until the 19405.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/781</http_url><id_number>781</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_781.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (ii) and (v) considering that the site is of outstanding universal value as it is an exceptional example of the medieval fortress town that has preserved its original townscape remarkably intact along with many excellent examples of religious and secular architecture from the 12th to the 18th centuries. It is also exceptional because the walled town blends into and enhances the fine rural and natural landscape within which it is situated.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.0766200000</latitude><location>Province of Cuenca, Autonomous Community of Castile-La Mancha</location><longitude>-2.1317400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Old Town of Cuenca is an exceptional example of the medieval fortress town that has preserved its original townscape intact, along with many examples of religious and secular architecture from the 12th to 18th centuries. The walled town blends into and enhances the fine rural and natural landscape within which it is situated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cuenca is an ensemble, Islamic in origin, which reached its greatest splendour during the medieval and Renaissance centuries, when Cuenca had a leading place among the towns belonging to the Castilian crown. Cuenca is a 'fortress town' where the architecture conforms to the natural landscape, resulting in a cultural heritage of universal value. It may be considered a prototype of the 'landscape town'. The lack of space within the walls, along with the need to straddle the river valleys, has resulted an unusual development of the vernacular architecture, with exceptional groups on the cliffs overlooking the Hu&amp;eacute;car and the J&amp;uacute;car. When the Moors conquered Spain they took advantage of one of the best defensive sites on the lberian, to build a fortress-town from which to control the vast area of the Kura de Kunka, in the heart of the Caliphate of C&amp;oacute;rdoba. It developed between the castle and the Alc&amp;aacute;zar, adapting itself to the topography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Christian town was built over the Moorish one and began to spread down from the crest of the hill as a manufacturing town and one of the nuclei of the Castilian economy and an administrative centre. The intra muros area was gradually taken over by religious institutions, the wealthier citizens moving to the lower parts of the town and the common people to new suburban areas. This was the period of Cuenca's flowering, with a large textile industry and trade. The urban fabric stabilized itself at this time, not to change significantly until the present century: the fortified upper town is a closed and densely settled medieval urban space, the lower town open and ordered. The early 17th century saw the collapse of the textile industry and an economic crisis. Only the ecclesiastical element of the town survived relatively unscathed and continued to build: Cuenca became a monastic town and Baroque architecture began to appear in the townscape but the town underwent a period of deterioration: ancient buildings either collapsed or were demolished because they were unsafe. The historic fortified enclosure was virtually abandoned by its wealthier residents and became a largely working class and monastic area. A rehabilitation plan of 1918 accomplished very little beyond the widening of some of the streets and restoration of some facades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The upper town is the archetype of the fortress-town, and the part that gives Cuenca its individual character. The Castillo quarter is a small suburb just outside the walls, with vernacular houses. From here the fortified town proper is reached by a bridge. Some remains of the Moorish fortress still survive, among the large aristocratic houses, monasteries, and churches along San Pedro and Trabuco streets, from the medieval, Renaissance and Baroque periods. The 12th-century cathedral, built on the site of the former Great Mosque and the first Gothic cathedral in Spain with its Plateresque chapels, is located on the Plaza Mayor, which is also the site of the Town Hall and the Petras convent. Its churches and monastic ensembles are notable artistic features of Cuenca. Most were founded early in the town's history and underwent many transformations and additions over the centuries that followed. The private houses near the Episcopal Palace were built in the later medieval period on the spectacular steep bluffs overlooking the bend of the Hu&amp;eacute;car River. Most of them were rebuilt in the 16th century in their present narrow, high form, with two or three rooms on each of three or more floors. The importance of the upper town lies, however, not so much in its individual buildings, although many of these are of outstanding architectural and artistic quality, as in the townscape that they create when looked at as a group, on the fortified site dominating the river valleys. It is this which gives Cuenca its special character and quality. The working-class suburbs of San Ant&amp;oacute;n and Los Tiradores are medieval in origin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The transition zone represents the first movement outside the walled town by the moneyed classes and the ecclesiastical institutions in the late 14th century to the lower town, which has lost almost all its historical elements during 20th-century developments.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built by the Moors in a defensive position at the heart of the Caliphate of Cordoba, Cuenca is an unusually well-preserved medieval fortified city. Conquered by the Castilians in the 12th century, it became a royal town and bishopric endowed with important buildings, such as Spain's first Gothic cathedral, and the famous &lt;em&gt;casas colgadas&lt;/em&gt; (hanging houses), suspended from sheer cliffs overlooking the Huécar river. Taking full advantage of its location, the city towers above the magnificent countryside.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Walled Town of Cuenca</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>924</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1469 the decision was taken to build a new Lonja (exchange or market) in Valencia. It was not until 1482 that the City authorities Purchased houses on the site chosen for the building, but work began at the end of that year under the direction Of the architects Pedro (Pere) Compte, Juan lborra (Yvarra), and Johan Corbera. The main Sala de Contrataci&amp;oacute;n (Contract or Trading Hall) and the tower were completed in 1498, and derived its inspiration from the Lonja de Palma de Mallorca, built in 1426-48; the entire complex, including the Consulado (Consolat) and the garden, was not finished until 1533, under the direction of Domingo de Urteaga.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its original function was as a trading exchange for oil. It developed into the main maritime trading centre and the silk exchange, and housed the commercial institution known as the &amp;quot;Consolat de Mar,&amp;quot; which was founded in 1283, and the Taula de Convis i Deposits, a banking institution established in 1408 and named after the table (taula) over which its transactions took place. At the present time it is still a major trading exchange, now dealing primarily in agricultural products.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lonja is also the seat of the Cultural Academy of Valencia. As such it serves as the venue for many exhibitions and other cultural activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/782</http_url><id_number>782</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_782.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural criteria (i) and (iv), considering that the site is of outstanding universal value as it is a wholly exceptional example of a secular building in late Gothic style, which dramatically illustrates the power and wealth of one of the great Mediterranean mercantile cities.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.4744166700</latitude><location>Province and Autonomous Community of Valencia</location><longitude>-0.3784444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;La Lonja de la Seda de Valencia is an exceptional example of a secular building in late Gothic style, which dramatically illustrates the power and wealth of one of the great Mediterranean mercantile cities. It is aesthetically unique of its kind, because of its fine Gothic architecture and Renaissance decoration of the Mediterranean art of the 15th century. It is a typical representation of the commercial and financial past of the City of Valencia which has been used for the same purpose for five centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1469 the decision was taken to build a new Lonja (exchange or market) in Valencia. It was not until 1482 that the city authorities purchased houses on the site chosen for the building, but work began at the end of that year under the direction of the architects Pedro Compte, Juan lborra and Johan Corbera. The entire complex, including the Consulado and the garden, was not finished until 1533, under the direction of Domingo de Urteaga. Its original function was as a trading exchange for oil. It developed into the main maritime trading centre and the silk exchange, and housed the commercial institution known as the Consolat de Mar, which was founded in 1283, and the Taula de Convis i Deposits, a banking institution. At the present time it is still a major trading exchange, now dealing primarily in agricultural products.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The land occupied by the Lonja is rectangular in plan. About half of the total area is covered by the main Sala de Contrataci&amp;oacute;n; the Tower (including the Chapel), the Consulado, and the large garden complete the ensemble. The entire building is constructed in limestone from Masarrochos. The Sala de Contrataci&amp;oacute;n is a magnificent hall, in Flamboyant Gothic style like the rest of the ensemble. The lofty interior is divided into three main aisles by five rows of slender spiral pillars from which spring the elegant vaulting of the roof. The floor is of different coloured marbles from AIcublas. A Latin inscription in Gothic characters runs round the walls, which proclaims the principles upon which trade within the hall is based: honesty of its traders and justice of its syndics. It is lit by soaring Gothic windows, the external frames of which, like the doors, are exuberantly ornamented, notably by a series of grotesque gargoyles. In the centre of the main facade on the Plaza del Mercado is the imposing doorway, crowned by an image of the Virgen del Rosario, and above the royal arms of Aragon. The same architectonic scheme is repeated at the other end of the hall. This building, like the rest of the ensemble, is crenellated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Access to the Chapel (dedicated to the Conception of the Virgin), which forms the ground floor of the tower, is from the Sala de Contrataci&amp;oacute;n. It is square in plan, with vaulting springing from corner column clusters. Access to the upper floors of the tower is via a remarkable helical stone staircase. The room on the first floor was originally a prison for bankrupt traders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Consulado building rises to three storeys: it is now the seat of the Cultural Academy of Valencia and serves as the venue for many exhibitions and other cultural activities. It is a later form of Gothic and equally exuberant in the decoration of its facades, especially on the upper floor, where the windows have highly decorated sills and lintels and are crowned by portrait medallions. The interior is notable for the carved decoration, gilded and painted, in the chamber on the first floor, known as the Cambra Dourada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The environs of the Lonja retain close links with the history of the building and preserve its role. The large Market Hall, with its metal framing of 1914-28, is built on the site of the original market, whose activities were intimately associated with the Lonja.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Built between 1482 and 1533, this group of buildings was originally used for trading in silk (hence its name, the Silk Exchange) and it has always been a centre for commerce. It is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture. The grandiose Sala de Contratación (Contract or Trading Hall), in particular, illustrates the power and wealth of a major Mediterranean mercantile city in the 15th and 16th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>La Lonja de la Seda de Valencia</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>925</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The placer (alluvial) gold deposits of the Las M&amp;eacute;dulas region were being exploited on a small scale in the late Iron Age. Evidence for this is largely circumstantial, based on excavations of the defended sites (castros) of the region and the related cemeteries, with their wealth of golden objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula was the last to be conquered by the Romans, after the campaign of Augustus in 29-19 BC. The region remained under direct military control for at least a century after the conquest. The degree of Romanization was less than in other parts of the Iberian Peninsula. Some Roman urban centres were founded and a characteristic Roman road system built, but the indigenous population, though considerably reduced, continued to live on its tribal territories, around its typical defended hill-forts for a considerable period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, from the second half of the 1st century AD a new form of occupation becomes apparent New settlements on the Roman model were set up, with the objective of exploiting the rich mineral resources (notably gold, but also iron) of the region. At the same time, new techniques of extracting the gold were put into practice, on an infinitely larger scale than in the pre-Roman period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the Imperial Roman system, all mineral resources in Imperial provinces (as distinct from the older and more traditional Senatorial provinces) were vested directly in the Emperor, as part of his patrimonium, and was administered as part of the Imperial fiscus. The mining areas formed part of the province of Hispania Citerior, which included the north-western military regions of Asturia and Callaecia, and were declared to be Imperial estates. At first they were administered by the provincial governor, but following the reforms of Vespasian in the 70s of the 1st century AD, they were managed by an Imperial procurator Asturiae et Calhciae. Under him were the procuratores metallorum, responsible for individual operations or for groups of mines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Contrary to general belief, and unlike the situation in other Imperial gold-mining areas (such as Wales), the workers in the mines were free men, not slaves. They continued the mining tradition established in the pre-Roman period in the region. Their settlements can be found all over the region, alongside yet clearly distinguishable from those which housed the Imperial officials and their staffs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Engineering activities, such as the major hydraulic works of building dams and cutting channels and road construction, were the responsibility of the Roman army. This division of responsibilities and tasks can be seen in other Imperial estates, such as the Weald of south-eastern England, which was a major producer of iron.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The military presence was also maintained in the mountainous and turbulent mining regions to keep the peace and to ensure the safety of Imperial officials and their deliveries of gold to provincial capitals and over the sea to Rome. The Legio VII Gemina (from whence the modem city derives its name) was permanently stationed at Le&amp;oacute;n, and auxiliary units garrisoned forts of varying sizes in and around the mining areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sweeping changes took place in the Roman monetary system in the later 2nd century AD, when the gold aureus was devalued, with catastrophic results, not least for the Spanish mines. Caracalla (188-217) restored the aureus to its former place, and as a result the Spanish mines, which had been in crisis, reactivated their production. This may well also explain why Asturia and Callaecia were raised to the status of an independent province, Hispania Nova Citerior Antoniniana. However, both the new province and the resuscitation of the mines seem to have been short-lived, and the lack of later material in the archaeological record shows that gold production effectively came to an end in the opening decades of the 3rd century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/803</http_url><id_number>803</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_803.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), considering that the Las Médulas gold-mining area is an outstanding example of innovative Roman technology, in which all the elements of the ancient landscape, both industrial and domestic, have survived to an exceptional degree.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.4693900000</latitude><location>Province of Léon, Autonomous Community of Castile-Leon</location><longitude>-6.7707500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Las M&amp;eacute;dulas gold-mining area is an outstanding example of innovative Roman technology, in which all the elements of the ancient landscape, both industrial and domestic, have survived to an exceptional degree. It provides exceptional evidence of a tradition of working and the technological and scientific exploitation of nature in a vanished civilization, which resulted in significant use of applied hydraulics. What is visible today is a unique cultural landscape, shaped by drastic human intervention and natural processes, with in addition the introduction of non-native flora, which has survived since the Roman period without change.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The placer (alluvial) gold deposits of the Las M&amp;eacute;dulas region were being exploited on a small scale in the late Iron Age. Evidence for this is largely circumstantial, based on excavations of the defended sites (&lt;em&gt;castros&lt;/em&gt; ) of the region and the related cemeteries, with their wealth of golden objects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula was the last to be conquered by the Romans, after the campaign of Augustus in 29-19&amp;nbsp;BC. Some Roman urban centres were founded and a characteristic Roman road system built, but the indigenous population, although considerably reduced, continued to live on its tribal territories, around its typical defended hill forts for a considerable time. However, from the second half of the 1st century AD a new settlements on the Roman model were set up, with the objective of exploiting the rich mineral resources (notably gold, but also iron) of the region. At the same time, new techniques of extracting the gold were put into practice, on an infinitely larger scale than in the pre-Roman period. Under the Roman system, all mineral resources in imperial provinces were vested directly in the emperor. The mining areas formed part of the province of Hispania Citerior, which included the north-western military regions of Asturia and Callaeciae, and were declared to be imperial estates. Contrary to general belief and unlike the situation in other imperial gold-mining areas (such as Wales), the workers in the mines were free men, not slaves. Their settlements can be found all over the region, alongside yet clearly distinguishable from those which housed the imperial officials and their staffs. Engineering activities, such as the major hydraulic works of building dams and cutting channels and road construction, were the responsibility of the Roman army. The military presence was also maintained to keep the peace and to ensure the safety of imperial officials and their deliveries of gold to provincial capitals and over the sea to Rome. Sweeping changes took place in the Roman monetary system in the 2nd century AD: Caracalla restored the aureus to its former place, and as a result the Spanish mines reactivated their production.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Archaeological Zone of Las M&amp;eacute;dulas (ZAM) comprises the mines themselves and also large areas where the tailings resulting from the process were deposited. Within the area there are dams used to collect the vast amounts of water needed for the mining process and the intricate canals by means of which the water was conveyed to the mines. Human settlement is represented by villages, of both the indigenous inhabitants and the imperial administrative and support personnel (including army units). The area contains the route of one major Roman road and a large number of minor routes, used within the mining operations: water from springs, rain, and melting snow was collected in large reservoirs, which led by a system of well built gravity canals to the mines themselves, over long distances. Galleries were cut into the sterile strata many metres deep that overlay the layers of auriferous conglomerate. When the sluices of the dams were opened, enormous quantities of water flowed into the galleries, which were closed at their ends. The pressure thus built up caused the rock to explode and to be washed away by the water flow, forming enormous areas of tailings, several kilometres in length. The process is vividly apparent on the working face at the main Las M&amp;eacute;dulas site. The operating face of this spectacular form of mining slowly moved across the landscape. The system of water canals and conduits has been traced over large areas of the site, and measures at least 100&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 1st century A.D. the Roman Imperial authorities began to exploit the gold deposits of this region in north-west Spain, using a technique based on hydraulic power. After two centuries of working the deposits, the Romans withdrew, leaving a devastated landscape. Since there was no subsequent industrial activity, the dramatic traces of this remarkable ancient technology are visible everywhere as sheer faces in the mountainsides and the vast areas of tailings, now used for agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Las Médulas</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>949</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the mid-6th century the holy man Mill&amp;aacute;n settled at a site, now known as the Suso (&amp;lsquo;Upper" or "Above") Monastery, on the flanks of the Cogolla or Distercios hills, where he was joined by other eremitic monks to found the Cogolla Community. During the lifetime of the saint a small monastery was built on the hillside in Visigothic style. This was enlarged in the 7th century by the construction of a porch or hall up against the caves in which to receive pilgrims. The church was rebuilt in 929, during the reign of Garcia Sanchez of Navarre and Castille, in Mozarabic style as a royal donation. King Sancho Abarca and his wife, Doiia Urraca, attended its dedication in 984.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Codex AEmilianensis 60 was written in the Suso scriptorium in the 9th and 10th centuries. One of the monks added marginal notes in Castilian and Basque, along with a prayer in Castilian, to clarify passages in the Latin text. This is the first known example of written Spanish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the church was damaged by fire in the early 11th century it was restored by King Sancho the Great. At that time the porch was extended and used as a church, thereby changing the orientation of the sacred building. In the following century one of the caves abutting the nave of the church was converted into a chapel, to house the recumbent statue of San Mill&amp;amp; made by Mozarabic monks. It was in this monastery that Gonzalo de Berceo wrote the first poems in Castilian during the 13th century in one of the porticoes of the church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;King Garcia Sanchez of Najera ordered the building of the Yuso ("Lower" or "Below') Monastery in 1503, and work began the following year, starting with the church, which was built within sight of the older monastery. This was followed by the two cloisters, sacristy, chapter house, library, gallery, and rooms around the Patio de la Luna. The north wall of the church was rebuilt after collapsing in 1595. and in the century that followed the ensemble was extended with the addition of the facade of the church, tower, porter's lodge, main entrance, and abbot's chamber, to the plans of the architect Juan de Raon. Finally, the square in front of the monastery was completed in the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/805</http_url><id_number>805</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_805.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii), (iv) and (vi), considering that the Monasteries of Suso and Yuso at San Mill&amp;aacute;n de la Cogolla are exceptional testimony to the introduction and continuous survival of Christian monasticism, from the 6th century to the present day. The property is also of outstanding associative significance as the birthplace of the modern written and spoken Spanish language.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.3258600000</latitude><location>San Millán de la Cogolla, Province and Autonomous Community of La Rioja</location><longitude>-2.8649600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Spanish language was born in these monasteries, San Mill&amp;aacute;n Suso and Yuso, and they form an important part of the history of humanity. Because of the identification and inter-relationship of the two monasteries with elements of the Mozarabic, Visigothic, medieval, Renaissance and Baroque styles, the architecture and the natural landscape bring together highly significant periods in the history of Spain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-6th century the holy San Mill&amp;aacute;n settled at a site, now known as the Suso Monastery, on the flanks of the Cogolla or Distercios hills, where he was joined by other eremitic monks to found the Cogolla Community. During the lifetime of the saint a small monastery was built on the hillside in Visigothic style. This was enlarged in the 7th century by the construction of a porch or hall up against the caves, in which to receive pilgrims. The church was rebuilt in 929, during the reign of Garc&amp;iacute;a Sanchez of Navarre and Castille, in Mozarabic style and King Sancho Abarca and his wife, Do&amp;ntilde;a Urraca, attended its dedication in 984.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Codex Aemilianensis 60 was written in the Suso scriptorium in the 9th and 10th centuries by one of the monks, who added marginal notes in Castilian and Basque, along with a prayer in Castilian, to clarify passages in the Latin text: this is the first known example of written Spanish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the church was damaged by fire in the early 11th century it was restored by King Sancho the Great, with some modifications such as the orientation of the church and the building of a chapel to house the recumbent statue of San Mill&amp;aacute;n.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;King Garcia Sanchez of Najera ordered the building of the Suso Monastery in 1503, and work began the following year, starting with the church (built within sight of the older monastery), the two cloisters, sacristy, chapter house, library, gallery, and rooms. The north wall of the church was rebuilt alter collapsing in 1595, and in the century that followed the ensemble was extended with the addition of the facade of the church, tower, porter's lodge, main entrance, and abbot's chamber, to the plans of the architect Juan de Ra&amp;oacute;n. The monastery consists of a series of hermits' caves, a church, and an entrance porch or narthex. The caves, originally used by the monks, are cut into the southern slope of the mountain. They form the northern boundary of the church, consisting of twin aisles and five bays. Elements of Romanesque building of the Visigothic period are still clearly visible, including some striking capitals. The Mozarabic arches preserve the identity of the earlier structure. On the south facade there is a series of portals added during the reconstruction, one of which is named after Gonzalo de Berceo, as it was here that he composed his seminal poetry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations in advance of consolidation work on the west side of the church have revealed the foundations of a number of the other monastery buildings and the sites of the caves used by the original eremitic monks on the hillside above and around the church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main buildings of the Yuso Monastery, next to the modern village and below the Suso Monastery, cluster around a small cloister known as the Canons' Cloister (Patio de la Luna) and the main cloister, named after San Mill&amp;aacute;n. The latter is two-storeyed, the lower part being open and roofed with star-ribbed vaulting and the upper part closed (now housing the museum). To the west lie the imposing Monarch's Chamber and the great main staircase. The well proportioned church, reached through a fine Baroque portal to the north of the cloister, is rectangular in plan, with a central nave and three aisles and six bays separated by cylindrical columns; there is a lofty choir at the east end. This is separated from the nave by two screens, the outer in wrought iron and of superlative workmanship, and the inner an ornate Baroque masterpiece by Francisco Bisou (1767). On the east are the former chapter house (now the sacristy), an elegant Baroque chamber, with the impressive library of the monastery on its upper floor. Finally, the austere but well-proportioned refectory, with the more ornate Abbot's Chamber above, lie on the south side. Access to the monastery is through a monumental gate to a spacious courtyard and through an ornately decorated archway.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The monastic community founded by St Mill&amp;aacute;n in the mid-6th century became a place of pilgrimage. A fine Romanesque church built in honour of the holy man still stands at the site of Suso. It was here that the first literature was produced in Castilian, from which one of the most widely spoken languages in the world today is derived. In the early 16th century the community was housed in the fine new monastery of Yuso, below the older complex; it is still a thriving community today.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>951</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Iberian peninsula has a rich heritage of prehistoric rock art. A number of important sites from the Palaeolithic period are known from the region of eastern Spain, where the best examples are from the Solutrean culture (c 19,000-16,000 BC), derived from southern France.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until the advent of Neolithic sedentary communities based on agriculture that the characteristic art of the eastern side of the peninsula developed and flowered. The dating of this art has been the subject of many years of debate among prehistorians. It is now generally accepted that the art is not Palaeolithic, because of the culture that it depicts, but its precise attribution - whether it began in the Epipalaeolithic (from c 10,000 to 5000 BC) or in the full Neolithic that followed - is still not fully established.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nomination dossier proposes an elegant partial reconciliation of the two points of view: &amp;quot;It is the art of peoples whose cultural roots lay in the Epipalaeolithic, who continued to use primarily hunter-gatherer economic systems, and who gradually incorporated Neolithic elements into their cultural baggage.&amp;quot; This may interpreted as a bracket in time between c 8000 and 3500 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/874</http_url><id_number>874</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_874.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The corpus of late prehistoric mural paintings in the Mediterranean basin of eastern Spain is the largest group of rock-art sites anywhere in Europe, and provides an exceptional picture of human life in a seminal period of human cultural evolution.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.7899500000</latitude><location>Autonomous Communities of Andalusia, Aragón, Castille-La Mancha, Catalonia, Murcia and Valencia</location><longitude>-1.0333100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The corpus of late prehistoric mural paintings in the Mediterranean basin of eastern Spain is the largest group of rock-art sites anywhere in Europe, and provides an exceptional picture of human life in a seminal period of human cultural evolution. Its uniqueness, its documentary value, its integration into a landscape bears the imprint of man but is also of high ecological value, and its fragile and vulnerable nature. It is exclusive to the Mediterranean basin of the Iberian Peninsula because of the complexity of the cultural processes in this region in later prehistory, and to the factor related to conservation processes, such as the nature of the rock and specific environmental conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The eastern Spanish rock art is an exceptional historical document which, because of its range, provides rare evidence in artistic and documentary terms of the socio-economic realities of prehistory. The predominant colour used was red, in various shades, black to a lesser extent, and white used in some areas. The scenes represent the first narrations in European prehistory and cover a number of different areas. Hunting activities, most frequently represented, show hunting by groups, with details of animal traps and the tracking of wounded animals. Gathering activities, such as that of honey, the most common, is of exceptional historical material to beekeepers. The earliest depictions of combats and executions appear in the form of archers shooting at their victims. Scenes of domestic daily life show groups of people sitting and talking, people walking together, seated hunters, butchering of animals, etc. The representations of the human figure provide information on clothing and personal ornament, such as different hairstyles, bracelets, arm-rings and necklaces, and mark the beginnings of social inequality. Funerary rites are shown in the form of recumbent corpses and ritual scenes. Scenes illustrate the mythologies of these prehistoric societies: sorcerers in strange costumes are common, as are figures combining human characteristics with those of animals (deer, bulls, birds). Female figures are also common, and these seem to represent female deities because of their prominent positions in the scenes depicted and their larger size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Human modification of the landscape that was begun by the first Neolithic communities has less impact on these upland areas where the hunter-gatherer cultures that created the eastern Spanish art evolved. These lands are the last reserves of very interesting biological communities, such as a number of the most threatened European species of raptors, such as the royal eagle, the partridge eagle, and the peregrine falcon. Among the mammals the rarest species in Europe, the Iberian lynx, is still to be found in some places, also a large number of the animal most represented by prehistoric artists, the wild goat, are still in the area of rock-art sites. The existence side by side of living fauna and prehistoric art gives these areas the exceptional quality of a timeless landscape. The rock art in the over 700 sites have a number of regional variations, which are not always easy to distinguish:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; northern zone: single naturalistic zoomorphic figures and the rare stylized human figures;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Maestrazgo and Lower Ebro: dynamic hunting and combat scenes, containing human figures; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; mountain areas of Cuenca and Albarrac&amp;iacute;n: paintings in shelters and rocks in siliceous rocks;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; J&amp;uacute;car river cave and neighbouring mountain area: depiction of hunting scenes that are full of action; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Safor and La Marina regions (Valencia and Alicante): hunting and social scenes but no combat. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Segura River basin and neighbouring mountain areas: zoomorphism predominates;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Eastern Andalusia: this form of rock art is to be found in two areas of eastern Andalusia;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; Los V&amp;ecirc;lez region and the foothills of the Sierra Morena: mostly zoomorphic figures.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The late prehistoric rock-art sites of the Mediterranean seaboard of the Iberian peninsula form an exceptionally large group. Here the way of life during a critical phase of human development is vividly and graphically depicted in paintings whose style and subject matter are unique.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Art of the Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1026</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;There was possibly a trading settlement here, founded by Ionian Greeks, in the early 1st millennium BC. Recent research has proved that by the end of the 5th century BC the indigenous Iberians had created a settlement, called Kesse. It was seized and fortified by the Roman proconsul Scipio Africanus in 218 BC during the Second Punic War in order to cut off the flow of reinforcements from Carthage to Hannibal, then campaigning in Italy. Roman control over this part of the Iberian peninsula was strengthened when a Carthaginian fleet was destroyed in 217 BC at the mouth of the Ebro.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After serving as one of the bases for the Roman conquest of the entire peninsula, T&amp;aacute;rraco became the seat of Roman power. It supported Julius Caesar against Pompey and was rewarded with colonia status for its loyalty with the impressive title Colonia Iulia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco. It later became the capital of the imperial province of Hispania Citerior (Tarraconensis), which covered much of the Iberian peninsula, following the reorganization by Augustus in 27 BC. As such it was suitably endowed with imposing public buildings, as a demonstration of Roman power. It was visited by several Roman emperors, among them Augustus and Hadrian, and was the site of many councils bringing together officials and worthies from all the Iberian provinces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Christianity was early in reaching T&amp;aacute;rraco (according to legend brought by St Paul himself), and it became the see of a bishop. The prosperous city was ravaged by marauding Franks during the barbarian raids of the 250s, but it quickly recovered. The city came under Visigothic rule in the 5th century and continued in existence until 469, when Euric razed much of it to the ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It became part of the Moorish territories in 714, but its location on the frontier with the Christian world led to T&amp;aacute;rraco being the scene of many bloody conflicts in the following centuries. Twice recaptured for short periods, the largely ruinous and depopulated town did not return to the Christian realms until 1148, following the decisive defeat of the Moors at Tortosa by Raymond Berenguer IV. It was resettled by Normans, and became Catalan in 1220 after Alfonso the Warrior drove the Moors permanently out of Catalonia.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/875</http_url><id_number>875</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_875.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Roman remains of Tárraco are of exceptional importance in the development of Roman urban planning and design and served as the model for provincial capitals elsewhere in the Roman world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; Tárraco provides eloquent and unparalleled testimony to a significant stage in the history of the Mediterranean lands in antiquity.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.1147222200</latitude><location>Province of Tarragona, Autonomous Community of Catalonia,</location><longitude>1.2593055560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Roman remains of T&amp;aacute;rraco are of exceptional importance in the development of Roman urban planning and design and served as the model for provincial capitals elsewhere in the Roman world. T&amp;aacute;rraco provides eloquent testimony to a significant stage in the history of the Mediterranean lands in antiquity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was possibly a trading settlement here, founded by Ionian Greeks, in the early 1st millennium BC. However by the end of the 5th century BC the indigenous Iberians had created a settlement, called Kesse. It was seized and fortified by the Roman proconsul Scipio Africanus in 218 BC during the Second Punic War. The town of T&amp;aacute;rraco is the first and oldest Roman settlement on the Iberian Peninsula, and it became the capital of the Province of Hispania Citerior, during the reign of Augustus. As such it was suitably endowed with imposing public buildings, as a demonstration of Roman power. It was visited by several Roman emperors, among them Augustus and Hadrian, and was the site of many councils bringing together officials. The unique Roman plan of the town is exceptional, as it adapted to the configuration of the land by means of a series of artificial terraces, which are to be seen around the provincial forum as well as in the residential quarter. The town is rich in important buried architectural and archaeological remains, among them buildings that are completely preserved, as in the case of the group of vaults in the Calle M&amp;eacute;ndez N&amp;uacute;&amp;ntilde;ez.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The defensive system of walls of T&amp;aacute;rraco is one of the earliest examples of Roman military engineering on the Iberian Peninsula and the most important symbols of the town, defining its form from antiquity until the 19th century. They illustrate the construction technique known as &lt;em&gt;opus siliceum&lt;/em&gt; that was characteristic of Italy and was used in Etruria and Latium. Some sections of wall - with internal and external decoration, cyclopean gates, and defensive bastions such as the Minerva, Capiscol, and Archbishop's Towers -are in a good state of conservation. This large group of buildings determined the layout of the existing old town, where most of the architectural elements survive. It was a large complex spread over three terraces used for high-level political purposes and to bring the communities of Hispania Citerior into the Roman Empire, as shown by the iconography of sculptural and decorative finds. The architectural details and the use of imported materials are taken as evidence of its architects and craftsmen having been brought in from Rome. The work of these Italian specialists is also to be seen in the three Roman structures used for public performances. A number of quarries are known around the town from which stone was extracted to build the Roman structures. There are also several luxurious villas, including the Centcelles villa-mausoleum, a modest villa rustica built in the 2nd century AD and later enlarged, and the Dels Munts Villa, a large and luxurious establishment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman town was sited on a hill, with the seat of the provincial government, at its crest and on two terraces created below. Among the principal buildings are the ramparts built by Scipio; the imperial cult enclosure; the Provincial Forum, a colonnaded open space; the circus, built from Roman concrete (&lt;em&gt;opus caementicium&lt;/em&gt; ); the Colonial Forum at the centre of the town; the theatre, erected on the site of large cisterns and a harbour market; the amphitheatre, built during the reign of Trajan or Hadrian for some 14,000 spectators; the Visigothic basilica dedicated to the martyrs Fructuosus, Augurius and Eulogius; the Romanesque church with a traditional Latin cross form (most of the lower parts of this structure survive, and the decoration that has been studied indicates Cistercian connections); the palaeo-Christian cemetery associated with the cult of the three martyrs, over whose tomb a basilica was built (the Palaeo-Christian Museum on the site houses much of the material resulting from excavations); the aqueduct, built from &lt;em&gt;opus quadratum&lt;/em&gt; consisting of two courses of arches; the Tower of the Scipios (its attribution to the Scipios is very doubtful)l; and the Triumphal Arch of Ber&amp;aacute;, considered to be a territorial marker, indicating the boundary of the territory of T&amp;aacute;rraco.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tárraco (modern-day Tarragona) was a major administrative and mercantile city in Roman Spain and the centre of the Imperial cult for all the Iberian provinces. It was endowed with many fine buildings, and parts of these have been revealed in a series of exceptional excavations. Although most of the remains are fragmentary, many preserved beneath more recent buildings, they present a vivid picture of the grandeur of this Roman provincial capital.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Ensemble of Tárraco</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1027</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Henares river valley has been settled by humankind since the Neolithic period. Following the Roman colonization, this strategic site in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula inevitably led to the establishment of a Roman town, Complutum, some 1.5km from the present-day city centre. It was here that the child saints, Justus and Pastor, were martyred in AD 304, and their tomb outside the walls of the Roman town became a sanctuary round which the present historic centre developed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was an episcopal see during the Visigothic period, and became part of the Emirate of C&amp;oacute;rdoba when the Moors overran most of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th century. The town was relatively insignificant during the Moorish period. A fortress, known as Al-Qal'at (&amp;quot;The Castle&amp;quot;), was built during the 12th century some 4km upstream of the Roman town, and a small settlement grew up around it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After it was recaptured in 1118, the territory of Alcal&amp;aacute; was granted to the Archbishopric of Toledo. The city expanded under successive prelates and the medieval fortified settlement took shape. The core was the episcopal precinct, with the Archbishop's Palace at its centre. To the south was the Christian quarter, with its church, the Jewish quarter lay to the east, along the porticoed Calle Mayor, with the Arab quarter to the north. What is now the Plaza de Cervantes was an open area to the eastern edge of the town, the site of annual fairs and tournaments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the late 15th century the urban core expanded with the construction outside the walls of the Franciscan Convent of San Diego, which attracted settlement around it. Following an attack by the King of Navarre a new, stronger wall was built to enclose the areas of expansion to the south and east. The town prospered until 1496, when the Jews were expelled from Spain by Royal edict, taking with them their commercial activities. However, the urban fabric remained intact, making possible the creation of a new university city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was the brainchild of Cardinal Xim&amp;eacute;nez de Cisneros, who began by founding the Colegio de San Ildefonso. Unlike other university cities in Europe, such as Bologna, Oxford, Paris, and Salamanca, Alcal&amp;aacute; de Henares did not develop slowly, adapting itself to its urban surroundings. From the start it was conceived by Cisneros as an entity, which took over a partly abandoned medieval town and converted it into a city whose function was solely that of a university. This involved the creation of houses to lodge professors and students and the provision of services such as a sewer system and paved streets. The little Chapel of St Justus was rebuilt as a church and given the title of &amp;quot;Magistral&amp;quot; whereby its canons became Masters (Magistri) of the University. More centres of learning were added progressively: there were eventually to be twenty-five Colegios Menores (Lesser Colleges), whilst eight large monasteries were also colleges of the University. This model of &amp;quot;university colleges&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;university convents&amp;quot; was to be adopted widely in the New World, as well as elsewhere in Spain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the New Privileged Law of 1509 Cisneros created an effective legal framework for his vision. The primary objective of the university was to train administrators for the Church and for the Spanish Empire. The Complutense Polyglot Bible (1514-17) illustrates the type of work that began in Alcal&amp;aacute;: a masterpiece of typography, it took ten years to complete and established the bases of modern linguistic analysis as well as the accepted structure for dictionaries. This work was supported by that of Antonio de Nebrija, who was the author of the first European grammar of a Romance language (Gram&amp;aacute;tica de la Lengua Castellana), published in 1492, which was to be the model for similar grammars in many European and native American languages. The New Laws of the Indies were prepared in Alcal&amp;aacute; and published there in 1542, the work of the law faculties of the University.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the mid 17th century, however, saw the number of students, estimated to have been over 12,000 in the 16th century, begin to decline in favour of Madrid, where the Church had begun to establish university colleges and convents on the Alcal&amp;aacute; model. This process continued until 1836 when, following the disenfranchisement of church and university properties by Mendizabal, the University was transferred to Madrid, where it survives today under the title of the Complutense University of Madrid.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Alcal&amp;aacute; de Henares found itself as a result deprived of its raison d'&amp;ecirc;tre. The historic buildings of the University, and the urban fabric of the city itself, were at risk, but they were preserved by the actions of the citizens of Alcal&amp;aacute; themselves. In a unique act the Society of Joint Owners (Sociedad de Condue&amp;ntilde;os) purchased most of the University buildings and preserved them, in some cases unoccupied, to await the return of the University to the city. Others were converted for military use, retaining their principal features intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city began to expand with the arrival of the railway in 1856. It did not develop substantially, however, until the 1960s, when there was heavy domestic immigration from other parts of Spain to what was becoming an industrial centre. Fortunately, this development, largely unplanned and uncontrolled, did not affect the historic centre, still largely owned by the Society of Joint Owners or the army and further protected by being declared an Historic Area in 1968.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Calls for the return of the University began in 1970, when the Madrid institution had begun using &amp;quot;Complutense&amp;quot; in its title. In 1974 that university established a School of Economics in Alcal&amp;aacute;. It was not until three years later that the present University of Alcal&amp;aacute; de Henares was inaugurated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1985 a covenant was signed for the military buildings to be renovated and restored to their original use, and the seven buildings that comprised the original foundation of Cisneros were handed over by the Society of Joint Owners. Other historic buildings were purchased and integrated into the University or given associated cultural functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/876</http_url><id_number>876</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_876.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Alcalá de Henares was the first city to be designed and built solely as the seat of a university, and was to serve as the model for other centres of learning in Europe and the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The concept of the ideal city, the City of God (Civitas Dei), was first given material expression in Alcalá de Henares, from where it was widely diffused throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The contribution of Alcalá de Henares to the intellectual development of humankind finds expression in its materialization of the Civitas Dei, in the advances in linguistics that took place there, not least in the definition of the Spanish language, and through the work of its great son, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra and his masterpiece, Don Quixote.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.4813888900</latitude><location>Province and Autonomous Community of Madrid</location><longitude>-3.3680555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Alcal&amp;aacute; de Henares was the first city to be designed and built solely as the seat of a university, and was to serve as the model for other centres of learning in Europe and the Americas. The concept of the ideal city, the City of God (&lt;em&gt;Civitas Dei&lt;/em&gt; ), was first given material expression there, from where it was widely diffused throughout the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Henares river valley has been settled by humankind since the Neolithic period. This strategic site in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula inevitably led to the establishment of a Roman town, Complutum. It was here that the child saints, Justus and Pastor, were martyred in AD 304, and their tomb outside the walls of the Roman town became a sanctuary round which the present historic centre developed. It was an Episcopal See during the Visigothic period, and became part of the Emirate of Cordoba when the Moors overran most of Spain; a fortress known as Al-Qal'at was built, and a small settlement grew up.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After it was recaptured in 1118, the territory of Alcal&amp;aacute; was granted to the Archbishopric of Toledo; the city expanded and the medieval fortified settlement took shape with the Archbishop's Palace at its centre. To the south was the Christian quarter, with its church, the Jewish quarter lay to the east, with the Arab quarter to the north. During the late 15th century, the urban core expanded with the construction outside the walls of the Franciscan Convent of San Diego, which attracted settlement around it. Following an attack by the King of Navarre a new, stronger wall was built to enclose the areas of expansion to the south and east. The town prospered until 1496, when the Jews were expelled from Spain by royal edict, taking with them their commercial activities. However, the urban fabric remained intact, making possible the creation of a new university city. Cardinal Xim&amp;eacute;nez de Cisneros began by founding the Colegio de San Ildefonso, at the present in the heart of the university city. It was built in 1537-53 by Rodrigo Gil de Honta&amp;ntilde;&amp;oacute;n, one of the greatest masters of the Plateresque style, and is notable for its grand facade, which symbolizes in its elaborate decoration the harmonious conjuncture of the Christian religion, of learning, and of imperial power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unlike other university cities in Europe, Alcal&amp;aacute; de Henares did not develop slowly, adapting itself to its urban surroundings. From the start it was conceived by Cisneros as an entity, which took over a partly abandoned medieval town and converted it into a city whose function was solely that of a university. This involved the creation of houses to lodge professors and students and the provision of services such as a sewer system and paved streets. The little Chapel of St Justus was rebuilt as a church and given the title 'Magistral'. More centres of learning were added progressively: there were eventually to be 25 Colegios Menores, while eight large monasteries were also colleges of the university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The primary objective of the university was to train administrators for the Church and for the Spanish Empire. The Complutense Polyglot Bible (1514-17) illustrates the type of work that began in Alcal&amp;aacute;: a masterpiece of typography, it took ten years to complete and established the bases of modern linguistic analysis as well as the accepted structure for dictionaries. This work was supported by that of Antonio de Nebrija, author of the first European grammar of a Romance language, published in 1492, which was to be the model for similar grammars in many European and Native American languages. From the mid-17th century, however, the number of students, estimated to have been over 12,000 in the 16th century, begin to decline in favour of Madrid, where the Church had begun to establish university colleges and convents on the Alcal&amp;aacute; model. In 1836 the university was transferred to Madrid, where it survives today under the title of the Complutense University of Madrid. In 1974 the university established a School of Economics in Alcal&amp;aacute;, and the present University of Alcal&amp;aacute; de Henares was inaugurated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The University Precinct begins at the Plaza Cervantes and extends to the east of the medieval city. It was enclosed by demolishing part of the earlier medieval walls and prolonging them round the new urban development. The walled medieval precinct has the Iglesia Magistral (cathedral), a Gothic structure, at its core, from which the street network radiates, merging into the former Jewish and Arab quarters. To the north-west is the ecclesiastical precinct, surrounded by its own walls; at its heart is the Archbishop's Palace.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded by Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros in the early 16th century, Alcalá de Henares was the world's first planned university city. It was the original model for the Civitas Dei (City of God), the ideal urban community which Spanish missionaries brought to the Americas. It also served as a model for universities in Europe and elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>University and Historic Precinct of Alcalá de Henares</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1028</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;San Crist&amp;oacute;bal de la Laguna was founded in 1497 by Alonso Fernandez de Lugo. The last town to be established in the Canary Islands (which was the first Spanish overseas territory) takes its name from a shallow lake or marshy area (La Laguna), which was not drained until 1837.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original settlers, who were almost all soldiers, were not allocated building plots; the non-fortified urban area that was defined was considered to be a public space where anyone could build. As a result small houses were erected around the church of La Concepci&amp;oacute;n in a haphazard fashion, without any overall plan, in the Upper Town (Villa de Arriba). However, this situation was regularized in 1502, when a regular town plan based on Leonardo da Vinci's model for Imola was drawn up by the Captain General (Adelantado) for the area between his official residence and the church. Wide major streets (calles reales) linked the public open spaces and formed the grid on which smaller streets were superimposed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The resulting Lower Town (Villa de Abajo) expanded rapidly, attracting the island's ruling classes, and by 1515 had more than a thousand inhabitants. Monastic communities began building early in the 16th century - the Church of Nuestra Se&amp;ntilde;ora de los Remedios (1511), the Hermitage of San Miguel (1506), and the Hospitals of San Sebasti&amp;aacute;n (1506) and Los Dolores (1515).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A piped water supply was installed at the expense of the Town Council (Cabildo) in 1521, and the first public buildings were constructed in 1525. The town began to seek official urban status as early as 1514, but this was not granted until 1531. In 1554 the Town Council ordained that any buildings in straw were to be demolished, to lessen the risk of fire, an important precaution, because by that time the population had risen to six thousand, making it the largest town in the Canaries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Crist&amp;oacute;bal retained this pre-eminent position as the main political, religious, and commercial centre throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, and the prosperity that this brought is to be seen in the buildings from that period. However, the political and economic centre was progressively transferred to Santa Cruz during the 18th century, and as a result San Crist&amp;oacute;bal declined, only retaining a significant role in religious and cultural life. A brief political revival following the establishment of the Supreme Council (Junta Suprema) of the Canary Islands with its seat in San Crist&amp;oacute;bal in 1808 came to an abrupt end when that body fell foul of the Provincial Council (Diputaci&amp;oacute;n Provincial) based in Santa Cruz de Tenerife five years later and was disbanded.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 20th century has seen San Crist&amp;oacute;bal recovering something of its former role, thanks notably to the prestige of its university.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/929</http_url><id_number>929</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_929.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (ii) and (iv):&lt;/em&gt; San Crist&amp;oacute;bal de la Laguna was the first non-fortified Spanish colonial town, and its layout provided the model for many colonial towns in the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>28.4778888900</latitude><location>Province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands</location><longitude>-16.3117777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic ensemble of San Crist&amp;oacute;bal de La Laguna has outstanding universal value is an urban design that represents the concept of the 'town-territory' as the first example of an unfortified town laid out and built according to a complete plan based on navigation, the science of the time, and as the organized space of a new peaceful social order inspired by the millenary religious concepts of the year 1500. As the first non-fortified Spanish colonial town, its layout was the model for many colonial towns in the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Crist&amp;oacute;bal was founded in 1497 by Alonso Fern&amp;aacute;ndez de Lugo. The last town to be established in the Canary Islands takes its name from a shallow lake or marshy area (La Laguna), drained in 1837. The original settlers, almost all soldiers, were not allocated building plots; the defined non-fortified urban area was considered to be a public space where anyone could build. As a result small houses were erected haphazardly around the church of La Concepci&amp;oacute;n, without any overall plan. In 1502, a regular town plan based on Leonardo da Vinci's model for Imola was drawn up by the Captain General (Adelantado) for the area. Wide major streets linked the public open spaces and formed the grid on which smaller streets were superimposed. The resulting Lower Town expanded rapidly, attracting the island's ruling classes and monastic communities began building. A piped water supply was installed at the expense of the Town Council in 1521, and the first public buildings were constructed. However, the political, religious and economic centre was progressively transferred to Santa Cruz, and San Crist&amp;oacute;bal declined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Crist&amp;oacute;bal consists of the Upper Town (Villa de Arriba) of 1497 and the Lower Town (Villa de Abajo) of 1502. The main street (Calle de la Carrera) forms the axis of the planned town, linking the first parish church with the Plaza del Adelantado. Parallel with it runs the Calle de San Agust&amp;iacute;n, the geometric centre of the town, lined with large houses built by the early merchants. A number of squares open out of it in the regular form derived from Mudejar models. The first church, dedicated to the Conception, was demolished and rebuilt, in 1511. Its present form reflects that long history in its mixture of styles and uncoordinated structures - tower, baptistry, nave with two side-aisles, chapels, etc. Nearby is what remains of the Monastery of San Agust&amp;iacute;n, founded at the beginning of the 16th century with a fine two-storey cloister. The Captain General was concentrating on the development of the Lower Town, where work began in 1515 on building its parish church, dedicated to Los Remedios. A single-aisled building in Mudejar style, with a tower added in the 17th century, it later became the cathedral of the new bishopric of Tenerife, established in 1813. Extensive remodelling took place in the early 20th century, with three aisles and side chapels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Dominican Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena, inaugurated in 1611, became so influential that it absorbed a number of adjoining buildings. The exteriors are plain and severe, but the internal decoration is sumptuous. The small Ermita de San Miguel declined sadly after its foundation, but was restored for use as a cultural centre. What remains of the Convent of Santa Clara, destroyed by fire in 1697, is used for a similar purpose. There is a number of fine former private residences: the oldest is the Casa del Corregidor (although only the facade in dressed red stone is original). The Casa de Lercaro, with a fine Mannerist facade, is now the Tenerife Historical Museum. The Casa de Alvarado Bracamonte (1624-31) was used by successive governors as an office and residence until the 19th century. It has a red stone portal with pilasters, a wrought-iron balcony, and a broken pediment. It now houses the municipal historical and artistic heritage section. The Casa de Salaz&amp;aacute;r, built in 1682, has a handsome portal in eclectic style, principally Baroque but with some Mannerist and neoclassical elements. The Casa de Ossuna has the long balcony on the first floor of the facade: it is used for the enormous archival collection of San Crist&amp;oacute;bal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Among the fine 18th century buildings are the elegant Casa de Monta&amp;ntilde;&amp;eacute;s, a private residence now the seat of the Consultative Council of the Autonomous Government of the Canaries, and the L-plan Casa de los Jesuitas, occupied by the Society of Jesus until its expulsion from the Canaries in 1767. The Casa de la Alh&amp;oacute;ndiga was built at the beginning of the 18th century as a corn market. In the early 19th century it was a French military barracks and it became a district court. The city also has some good 20th century architecture - examples of eclecticism, such as the Palace of Rodriguez de Azero and the Leal Theatre.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;San Crist&amp;oacute;bal de La Laguna, in the Canary Islands, has two nuclei: the original, unplanned Upper Town; and the Lower Town, the first ideal 'city-territory' laid out according to philosophical principles. Its wide streets and open spaces have a number of fine churches and public and private buildings dating from the 16th to the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>San Cristóbal de La Laguna</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1084</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of the Elche palm grove are traditionally attributed to the Phoenicians and Carthaginians in the 1st millennium BC, since dates formed part of their traditional diet. It was with the Arab invasion in the 8th century AD that they began to be cultivated; a network of irrigation canals enabled the brackish waters of the Vinalop&amp;oacute; river to be used. The town was moved northwards to a new location and surrounded by many palm groves, so as to recreate a landscape reminiscent of that of North Africa, from whence the new settlers came.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Elche was recaptured in 1265 during the reign of Jaime I and its lands were redistributed. The fertile lands on the left bank, irrigated by the main canal (Sequia Major) were granted to those who assisted in the reconquest; this area contained many groves of date palms, some of which survive to the present day. There were no groves on the right bank (the Magram), where the lands were assigned to Moslem vassals (moriscos); however, despite the lower fertility of this area, its farmers achieved a high degree of productivity, which was to degenerate sadly when the moriscos were expelled in 1606.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area of palm groves went on producing large crops of dates, but these diminished as the town spread in this direction during the second half of the 17th century and the palm trees were cut down. This process was exacerbated with industrialization and the arrival of the railway in the 19th century. It was not until the 1920s that the danger to the palm groves was recognized, and in the 1930s legislative measures were put in place to ensure the continuance of what remained, a process that was completed with the passage of the Law on the Protection of the Elche Palm Grove by the Regional Parliament of Valencia in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/930</http_url><id_number>930</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_930.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Palmeral (palm groves) of Elche represent a remarkable example of the transference of a characteristic landscape from one culture and continent to another, in this case from North Africa to Europe.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The palm grove or garden is a typical feature of the North African landscape which was brought to Europe during the Islamic occupation of much of the Iberian peninsula and has survived to the present day. The ancient irrigation system, which is still functioning, is of special interest.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>38.2666666700</latitude><location>Province of Alicante, Autonomous Community of Valencia</location><longitude>-0.7166666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Palmeral (palm groves) of Elche represent a remarkable example of the transference of a characteristic landscape from one culture and continent to another, in this case from North Africa to Europe. The palm grove or garden is a typical feature of the North African landscape which was brought to Europe during the Islamic occupation of much of the Iberian peninsula and has survived to the present day at Elche. The ancient irrigation system, which is still functioning, is of special interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is the only palm grove of its type anywhere on the European continent, which makes it an exceptional landscape in this geographical context. Arab geographers and European travellers have testified to this exceptional quality throughout history. In addition to the authentic wild forest, many palm trees are cultivated in gardens, the remains of Arab agriculture established over eight centuries ago on the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeological data from the Iberian and Roman periods indicate that these plantations are in fact much older than the Arab palm grove. There is also what survives of a settlement or an urban plan, which can be seen from the cartography of the region. The central core of the town is surrounded by a series of palm gardens before reaching the rural area proper, where these are more widely scattered, even appearing to be natural woods, without human involvement. Palms also form an essential component of the culture of Elche, manifesting itself in many ways - the processions on Palm Sunday, the Night of the Kings, the town's coat of arms. The origins of the Elche palm grove are attributed to the Phoenicians and Carthaginians in the 1st millennium BC, since dates formed part of their diet. It was with the Arab invasion in the 8th century AD that they began to be cultivated; a network of irrigation canals enabled the brackish waters of the Vinalop&amp;oacute; River to be used. The town was moved northwards to a new location and surrounded palm groves, so as to recreate landscape reminiscent of that of North Africa, from whence the new settlers came.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Elche was recaptured in 1265 during the reign of Jaime I and its lands were redistributed. The fertile lands on the left bank, irrigated by the main canal (Sequia Major) were granted to those who assisted in the reconquest; this area contained many groves of date palms, some of which survive to the present day. There were no groves on the right bank (the Magram), where the lands were assigned to Muslim vassals (Moriscos); however, despite the lower fertility of this area, its farmers achieved a high degree of productivity, which was to degenerate sadly when the Moriscos were expelled in 1606.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area of palm groves went on producing large crops, but these diminished as the town spread in this direction in the 17th century and the palm trees were cut down. This process was exacerbated with industrialization and the arrival of the railway in the 19th century. It was not until the 1920s that the danger to the groves was recognized, and in the 1930s legislation was put in place to ensure the continuance of what remained, to be completed with the passage of the Law on the Protection of the Elche Palm Grove in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The date palm trees of Elche are a dioecious species native to western Asia and North Africa. They can grow to a height of more than 30&amp;nbsp;m and live for over 300 years. The palm groves form a compact group in the eastern part of the town. The boundaries of the plots (&lt;em&gt;huertos&lt;/em&gt; ) are rectilinear, so they are mostly square or rectangular (a few triangular) in plan. They are bounded by cascabots (fences of plaited dried palm leaves) or plastered walls of undressed stone 1-2&amp;nbsp;m high. The plots contain the houses of the tenants or owners of the land, although these are mostly in a ruinous condition in the plots nearest the centre of town. The trees are planted in single or double rows, following the lines of the irrigation canals. They produce dates for human consumption and the 'White Palm' leaves, widely all over the Iberian Peninsula for decoration and processional use on Palm Sunday. This area is clearly defined by the natural feature of the Vinalop&amp;oacute; River, the historic centre of Elche, and recently developed perimeter areas zoned for non-residential use, largely not built.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Palmeral of Elche, a landscape of groves of date palms, was formally laid out, with elaborate irrigation systems, at the time the Muslim city of Elche was erected, towards the end of the tenth century A.C., when much of the Iberian peninsula was Arab. The Palmeral is an oasis, a system for agrarian production in arid areas. It is also a unique example of Arab agricultural practices on the European continent. Cultivation of date palms in Elche is known at least since the Iberian times, dating around the fifth century B.C.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palmeral of Elche</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1085</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Roman town of Lucus Augusti was founded in 15-13 BCE following the pacification of this region by Augustus. The Celtic name Lug suggests that it may have been a sacred site of the Copori, but no evidence has been forthcoming from excavations on this point. There was a Roman military camp here during the campaign of Augustus, and it was here that the new town was laid out on a checkerboard plan according to classical principles. The original plan did not require the town to be enclosed by a defensive wall, because of the effectiveness of the Pax Romana (although the entire region continued to have a military presence, dispersed in a number of small forts).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town prospered in the succeeding centuries, not least because of the important mineral resources of the region, which were actively exploited. It was also the administrative centre of the surrounding area (the Conventus Iuridicus Lucense), and an important nodal point in the network of roads built by the Romans. The town acquired impressive public buildings and luxurious urban villas, which spread over a wide area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, in the mid 2nd century Frankish and Alemannic invaders crossed the limes and ravaged Gaul, penetrating into Hispania before being driven out. This resulted in the construction of massive urban defences at all the towns of the western Roman provinces. Lucus received its walls between 263 and 276; it has been suggested, however, that these were built less against barbarian invaders from across the Rhine frontier than against the local tribesmen, who had never fully accepted the Roman occupation of their lands. As in most colonial towns, the area enclosed by the walls was less than that of the urban settlement: a considerable part of the town in the south-east remained outside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the strength of its fortifications, Lugo was unable to resist the Suevi when they swept into the peninsula in the early 5th century and destroyed the town by fire. They were to be dislodged in their turn by the Visigoths, who captured the town in 457 and settled it once again. The irresistible Moorish invasion of Spain saw Lugo overwhelmed and sacked in 714, but it was recaptured for Christendom by Alfonso I of Asturias in 755 and restored by Bishop Odarius. The town was to be ravaged once again in 968 by the Normans, on their way to the Mediterranean, and it was not restored until the following century.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/987</http_url><id_number>987</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_987.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Roman walls of Lugo are the finest surviving example of late Roman military fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>43.0111100000</latitude><location>Province of Lugo, Autonomous Community of Galicia</location><longitude>-7.5533300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The walls of Lugo are an outstanding example of the type of construction and architectural and archaeological group which illustrates various significant periods of human history. Starting with their Roman origins and passing through the problematical Middle Ages to the innovatory and disturbed 19th century, they unite in a single monumental construction over 2&amp;nbsp;km long different proofs and facets of the evolution of a town such as Lugo (itself a historical and artistic ensemble) from the original Lucus Augusti.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was a Roman military camp here during the campaign of Augustus, and it was here that the new town, Lucus Augusti, was founded in 15-13&amp;nbsp;BCE. The original chequerboard plan did not require the town to be enclosed by a defensive wall, because of the effectiveness of the &lt;em&gt;Pax Romana&lt;/em&gt; . The town prospered in the succeeding centuries, because of the mineral resources of the region. This administrative centre acquired impressive public buildings and luxurious urban villas, which spread over a wide area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, in the mid-2nd century Frankish and Alemannic invaders crossed the &lt;em&gt;limes&lt;/em&gt; and ravaged Gaul, penetrating into Hispania before being driven out. This resulted in the construction of massive urban defences at all the towns of the western Roman provinces. Lucus received its walls between 263 and 276 (perhaps less against barbarian invaders from across the Rhine than against the local tribesmen, who had never fully accepted the Roman occupation of their lands). As in most colonial towns, the area enclosed by the walls was less than that of the urban settlement: a considerable part of the town in the south-east remained outside. Despite the strength of its fortifications, Lugo was unable to resist the Suevi when they swept into the peninsula in the early 5th century and destroyed the town by fire. They were to be dislodged in their turn by the Visigoths, who captured the town in 457 and settled it once again. The irresistible Moorish invasion of Spain saw Lugo overwhelmed and sacked in 714, but it was recaptured for Christendom by Alfonso I of Asturias in 755 and restored by Bishop Odarius. The town was to be ravaged once again in 968 by the Normans, on their way to the Mediterranean, and it was not restored until the following century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The structure of the Roman walls of Lugo consists of internal and external stone facings with a core filling of earth, stones and pieces of worked Roman stone from demolished buildings. There are ten gates: five ancient and five recent. Five stairways and a ramp give access to the parapet walk. A number of double staircases giving access from the parapet walk to the towers have been found within the thickness of the walls, and it is assumed that each of the towers was provided with similar stairways. Of the original interval towers, 46 have survived intact, and there are a further 39 that are wholly or partly dismantled. They are spaced at irregular intervals round the walls; they were two-storeyed and most of them are roughly semi-circular in plan, the gap in the wall in which they were constructed varying in width from 5.35&amp;nbsp;m to 12.80&amp;nbsp;m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several take the form of slightly tapering truncated cones, and a few have rectangular plans. One of the towers, known as La Moschera, is surmounted by the remains of its superstructure containing two arched windows. There is a variety of materials to be observed in their construction, and in that of the walls themselves. The main stones used were dressed granite and, in particular, slate. There is some variety in the forms of laying the stones and in their size. In some cases the slate walls rise from foundation courses of granite; in other examples these basal courses are also in slate. Yet another common wall make-up consists of the courses in the lower half or two-thirds being of dressed granite with the remainder in slate, but with some granite blocks interspersed. The parapet is crenellated in places, but this is certainly post-Roman work. Considerable reconstruction work took place at what is now known as the Reducto de Santa Cristina in 1836&lt;strong&gt;-&lt;/strong&gt; 37, to create a fort that accorded with the military architecture of the period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original gates have undergone a number of transformations since the 3rd century. The best preserved are the Falsa Gate and the Mi&amp;ntilde;&amp;aacute; Gate, which still has its original vaulted arch set between two towers, in characteristic Roman form; traces of the now disappeared guard chamber can be seen on the interior wall (also visible at the San Pedro Gate).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The walls of Lugo were built in the later part of the 3rd century to defend the Roman town of Lucus. The entire circuit survives intact and is the finest example of late Roman fortifications in western Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Roman Walls of Lugo</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1151</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Arab invasion and occupation of the Iberian peninsula never penetrated the valleys of the high Pyrenees. Despite their inaccessibility, these valleys were exposed around the beginning of the 2nd millennium to ideas and cultural influences, brought there by merchants, by itinerant monks and by Christian pilgrims travelling to Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Moreover, of the three Christian territories in Spain at that period, Catalonia was in better contact with outside influences than the kingdoms of Navarre or Le&amp;oacute;n. It was a mosaic of the small fiefs of counts, who paid little heed to their Frankish nominal overlords. In the 11th century Ramon Borrell II established the hegemony of Barcelona and created a dynasty which survived until the early 15th century. New cultural styles were brought into Catalonia from Italy, particularly Lombardy, and their fruits are to be seen in the religious ensembles of Vic, Cuix&amp;agrave;, and Ripoll. Many craftsmen and artists came to Catalonia from this region of Italy, and testimony to their influence is given by the fact that the word lombard became synonymous with "stonemason" or "supervisor" in Catalonia. It was from here that Romanesque architectural and artistic influences were diffused throughout the Iberian peninsula in the 13th-15th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This new cultural movement was late in reaching the remote Vall de Bo&amp;iacute;. The exceptional number of Romanesque churches in the valley, which has supported a relatively low population since the end of the Middle Ages, is attributed to the fact that large quantities of silver came into the region, especially in the first decades of the 12th century, during the campaign to recover Barbastro and Saragossa. The counts of Erill took part in this campaign and drew handsome profits from it. They devoted considerable portions of their gains to embellishing their villages with handsome churches in the new style.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/988</http_url><id_number>988</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_988.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The significant developments in Romanesque art and architecture in the churches of the Vall de Boí testify to profound cultural interchange across medieval Europe, and in particular across the mountain barrier of the Pyrenees.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Churches of the Vall de Boí are an especially pure and consistent example of Romanesque art in a virtually untouched rural setting.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.5047222200</latitude><location>Province of Lleida, Autonomous Community of Catalonia</location><longitude>0.8036111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The churches of the Vall de Bo&amp;iacute; are an especially pure and consistent example of Romanesque art in a virtually untouched rural setting. The group of churches is a remarkable example of an important constructional style in human history, like that of Romanesque art, to which it contributes characteristics that are appropriate to both its religious and its secular aspects. The Vall de Bo&amp;iacute; illustrates the continuous occupation of an area of land. The churches that were built in the Middle Ages at the instigation of a single family symbolize the affirmation and geographical settlement at the time historical Catalonia was created.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Vall de Bo&amp;iacute; is screened by the high peaks of the Beciberri/Punta Alta massif, in the high Pyrenees. Its scenery is one of woodland and meadows, adjoining and surrounding the small villages. The Arab invasion of the Iberian Peninsula never penetrated the valleys, but they were exposed around the beginning of the 2nd millennium to cultural influences, brought there by merchants, by itinerant monks and by Christian pilgrims travelling to Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela. In the 11th century new cultural styles were brought into Catalonia from Italy, particularly Lombardy. This new cultural movement was late in reaching the remote Vall de Bo&amp;iacute;. The exceptional number of Romanesque churches in the valley is attributed to the fact that large quantities of silver came into the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Barruera is located where the Vall de Bo&amp;iacute; widens out. The village extends along the single main Roman road. Its parish church of Sant Feli&amp;uacute; lies outside the village immediately above the river flood plain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sant Joan lies in the fortified centre of Bo&amp;iacute;, on the ancient road, leading to a Roman thermal establishment. It is situated on the right bank of the Sant Mart&amp;iacute; River, between two high rocky outcrops in the centre of the valley. The three bell towers of Bo&amp;iacute;, Ta&amp;uuml;ll and Erill la Vall are intervisible, a notable defensive feature. The church of Sant Joan underwent considerable alteration in the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ta&amp;uuml;ll is a village on a medieval route, with two centres, one around the square and the church of Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a, with a number of medieval houses, and the other an elongated space along the old route leading to Sant Climent. Its churches are acknowledged to be archetypes of the Vall de Bo&amp;iacute; Romanesque style: the parish church of Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a are elaborately decorated in Lombard style and has a cemetery beneath modern paving outside the south wall. The church of Sant Climent is the largest; its characteristic Lombard architecture and interior decoration make it the symbol of Catalan Romanesque architecture. Its most imposing feature is its bell tower: it is square in plan and soars from a simulated solid base to six storeys.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church of the Assumption of Coll lies outside this small village. It is basically Romanesque, with Gothic and later additions and modifications. The semi-ruinous Gothic bell tower is four storeys high.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Mar&amp;iacute;a in Cardet is built on a rocky eminence dominating the entrance to the Vall de Bo&amp;iacute;. The layout and development of the parish church, despite its small size, is complex. Uniquely in this valley, a crypt occupies the space beneath the apse created by the need to keep the latter horizontal as the rock falls away. The facade contains some interesting elements that span a relatively long period of medieval design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Church of the Nativity, Durro: the buildings of this small village, built on a south-facing mountainside, extend up from the parish church of the Nativitat de la Mare de D&amp;eacute;u along the single medieval street. Only its interior has not been renovated in modern times, retaining Baroque and later features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A winding path leads to the Hermitage of Sant Quirc de Durro is on a low peak at an altitude of 1,500&amp;nbsp;m. It is a tiny church with a single nave and apse with a stone bell-frame. There is a roof space accessible only from the outside which probably served as a granary and storeroom. It is very typical of small medieval hermitages in the Pyrenean region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Erill la Vall is a very small settlement, with four domestic ensembles of characteristic form. The church of Santa Eul&amp;aacute;lia has a single long nave with a timber roof, which replaced a former barrel vault.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The narrow Vall de Boí is situated in the high Pyrénées, in the Alta Ribagorça region and is surrounded by steep mountains. Each village in the valley contains a Romanesque church, and is surrounded by a pattern of enclosed fields. There are extensive seasonally-used grazing lands on the higher slopes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1152</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;- Pleistocene deposits&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period is dated to 2.4 million to c 10,000 BP (Note Early dates resulting from scientific dating techniques are expressed as "years BP" - ie years before the conventional date of 1950 on which all radiocarbon dating is based.) The earliest fossil hominid remains in Europe, from c 800,000 BP as established by palaeomagnetic analysis, were found in the Gran Dolina site in the Sierra de Atapuerca, one of the Trinchera del Ferrocarril group. They are associated with simple stone tools of the Pre-Acheulean (Mode I) type, which is consistent with the dating of the earliest levels of this site. Also in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril group of sites are those known as Tres Simas. The oldest human remains from the Galer&amp;iacute;a site have been dated to between 200,000 and 400,000 BP, associated with Acheulean (Mode II) stone tools.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Similar dates have been established for human skeletal remains from the Sima de los Huesos in the Cueva Mayor. The absence of herbivores consumed by humans in this site, where the remains of no fewer than 32 humans have been discovered, suggests that this may have been a mortuary site. If so, it is the earliest yet recorded. The relatively large sample, largely of adolescents and young adults, has permitted a number of important studies to be carried out on the palaeopathology of this population, the growth and development of individuals, and their average size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;- Holocene deposits&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Holocene epoch of the Quaternary period is dated from 10,000 BP to the present day. The archaeological significance of the Portal&amp;oacute;n of the Cueva Mayor was first recognized in 1910, when the representation of a horse's head found at the entrance to the cave was identified as Palaeolithic. Subsequent excavations have established that it was occupied by various human groups over many centuries, mainly at the beginning of the Bronze Age (c 3200 BCE) and again during the Roman period and the early Visigothic period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Galer&amp;iacute;a del Silex contains abundant evidence of human occupation during the Neolithic and Bronze Age. More fifty painted and engraved panels have been recorded, with geometrical motifs, hunting scenes, and anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures. Excavation has revealed the existence in the cave of what appears to be a sanctuary in which funerary rites took place, with human remains (largely young adults and children) and many ceramic fragments, identified as being related to sacrificial activities. At the far end of the gallery there is evidence that the flint from which the cave takes its name was being exploited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is evidence of there having been a similar sanctuary in the Cueva del Silo. Human activities have also been recorded at several other sites, such as the Cueva Peluda, the Cueva Ciega, and El Mirador.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Human activity declined in the Sierra de Atapuerca with the creation of permanent settlements in the plains below, especially in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/989</http_url><id_number>989</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_989.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The earliest and most abundant evidence of humankind in Europe is to be found in the caves of the Sierra de Atapuerca.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The fossil remains in the Sierra de Atapuerca constitute an exceptional reserve of information about the physical nature and the way of life of the earliest human communities in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.3713888900</latitude><location></location><longitude>-3.5472222220</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Sierra de Atapuerca sites provide unique testimony of the origin and evolution both of the existing human civilization and of other cultures that have disappeared. The evolutionary line or lines from the African ancestors of modern humankind are documented in these sites. The earliest and most abundant evidence of humankind in Europe is to be found in the Sierra de Atapuerca. The sites constitute an exceptional example of continuous human occupation, due to their special ecosystems and their geographical location. The fossil remains in the Sierra de Atapuerca are an invaluable reserve of information about the physical nature and the way of life of the earliest human communities in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is located at the north-eastern corner of the Castilian plateau. Although more than 1,000&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, it is now no more than a gently sloping limestone ridge, largely covered with scrub and with some farming. Water erosion over the past 5&amp;nbsp;million years has led to the formation of a karst landscape with an elaborate cave system. The water table became lower as a result of geomorphological processes, making the caves suitable for animals and humans to live in them. The system of terraces formed along the southern margin of the Sierra shows that, during the Middle and Lower Pleistocene, streams flowed close to the entrances of these caves, making them especially suitable for human occupation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest fossil hominid remains in Europe, the Pleistocene deposits, from around 800,000&amp;nbsp;BP as established by palaeomagnetic analysis, were found in the Gran Dolina site in the Sierra de Atapuerca, one of the Trinchera del Ferrocarril group. They are associated with simple stone tools of the pre-Acheulean type, which is consistent with the dating of the earliest levels of this site. Also in the Trinchera del Ferrocarril group of sites are those known as Tres Simas. The oldest human remains from the Galer&amp;iacute;a site have been dated to between 200,000 and 400,000&amp;nbsp;BP, associated with Acheulean stone tools. Similar dates have been established for human skeletal remains from the Sima de los Huesos in the Cueva Mayor. The absence of herbivores consumed by humans in this site, where the remains of no fewer than 32 humans have been discovered, suggests that this may have been a mortuary site. The relatively large sample, largely of adolescents and young adults, has permitted a number of important studies to be carried out on the palaeopathology of this population, the growth and development of individuals, and their average size.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Holocene deposits are dated to the Quaternary period. The archaeological significance of the Portal&amp;oacute;n of the Cueva Mayor was first recognized in 1910, when the representation of a horse's head found at the entrance to the cave was identified as Palaeolithic. Subsequent excavations have established that it was occupied by various human groups over many centuries, mainly at the beginning of the Bronze Age and again during the Roman period and the early Visigothic period. The Galer&amp;iacute;a del Silex contains abundant evidence of human occupation during the Neolithic and Bronze age. More fifty painted and engraved panels have been recorded, with geometrical motifs, hunting scenes, and anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures. Excavation has revealed a sanctuary in which funerary rites took place, with human remains (largely young adults and children) and ceramic fragments, identified as being related to sacrificial activities. At the far end of the gallery the flint from which the cave takes its name was exploited. There is evidence of there having been a similar sanctuary in the Cueva del Silo. Human activities have also been recorded at several other sites, such as the Cueva Peluda, the Cueva Ciega, and El Mirador. Human activity declined in the Sierra de Atapuerca with the creation of permanent settlements in the plains below, especially in the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Scientific interest in the caves began in the mid-19th century, concentrating on the Cueva Mayor. This is entered from the south, giving access immediately to El Portal&amp;oacute;n. To the east lies the sinuous Galer&amp;iacute;a del Silex, extending more than 300&amp;nbsp;m, and to the west the sequence of caves (including the Sima de los Huesos - 'Pit of the Bones') leading over 1&amp;nbsp;km to the Galer&amp;iacute;a del Silo, which has its own access. To the north-west is the group of sites revealed by excavation of a mining railway cutting (from which it takes its name, La Trinchera del Ferrocarril), never to be completed. These are in fact caves brought to light by the cutting and so with the appearance of rock shelters. To the north is the Gran Dolina, and further southwards are the Tres Simas, with the important finds at La Galer&amp;iacute;a.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The caves of the Sierra de Atapuerca contain a rich fossil record of the earliest human beings in Europe, from nearly one million years ago and extending up to the Common Era. They represent an exceptional reserve of data, the scientific study of which provides priceless information about the appearance and the way of life of these remote human ancestors.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Atapuerca</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1153</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Aranjuez area enjoyed a long history of human settlement before becoming a strategic stronghold during Roman times. Then its position at a river crossing and cross roads - a factor to be repeatedly influential - gave it a significance in the political geography of the time. It lay in a sparsely populated region thereafter and was eventually granted by the Crown to the military order of St James of Santiago in the medieval period. Towards the end of the 14th century, the knights built a palace in the middle of the woods, then replete with game.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aranjuez became a Royal site in the 15th century, but it was Philip II in the 16th century who created the first period of splendour. He built a new palace and large ornamental and vegetable gardens laid out according to geometric principles, attempting to symbolize his world-wide imperial sovereignty based on a centralized state while at the same time celebrating a return to nature, its structure, and man's supremacy according to the canons of Humanism. It was also a private and personal retreat. Phillip meanwhile pursued botanical experimentation, acclimatizing plant species from all over the world, and introduced hydraulic engineering based on best practice in central Europe and Italy. During the 17th century Aranjuez prospered as the annual abode of royalty, a place of pageantry and hunting, and a source of inspiration for and patronage of some of the greatest Spanish poets of the Golden Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The continuing splendour of the 18th century culminated in the building of a new town close to the palace. During the reign of Charles III, the city and its surrounding area became an experimental ground for physiocratic, agricultural, scientific, and social ideas lying at the heart of the Enlightenment. The King sought to provide exemplars both for horticultural practice and in the design of model farms. Such cultural grandeur effectively died when, under external pressure from French Revolutionary ideas and Napoleon's ambitions, the Aranjuez Riot at the end of the century signalled the end of Spain's Ancien R&amp;eacute;gime.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After a brief revival which added a new element of modernism and eclecticism to the Royal Site during the first half of the 19th century, the end of the reign of Isabella II marked the close of the Crown's exclusive role in the history of this riverside complex and community. A City Council was established independent of Royal command (1836) and the Royal family's use of Aranjuez decreased. At the Revolution in 1868, all Crown property passed to the State and, although large parts of Aranjuez were initially excepted, all that was left in Royal hands by the early 1870s were fragments of their former estate. Meanwhile, the population increased and a railway line (1851) stimulated vigorous economic activity at the price of cutting the Palace's eastern vistas and bisecting the Picotajo garden. During the 20th century Aranjuez became a densely populated satellite city of Madrid, an industrial and cultural centre in which memory and maintenance of the Royal Site deteriorated. Nevertheless, the Site overall kept its integrity, and by the end of that century new assessments, policies, and programmes of works reflected new attitudes of respect for the Royal Site.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1044</http_url><id_number>1044</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1044.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion ii&lt;/em&gt; : Aranjuez represents the coming together of diverse cultural influences to create a cultural landscape that had a formative influence on further developments in this field.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iv&lt;/em&gt; : The complex designed cultural landscape of Aranjuez, derived from a variety of sources, mark a seminal stage in the development of landscape design.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>40.0364500000</latitude><location>Province and Autonomous Community of Madrid</location><longitude>-3.6093400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The complex cultural landscape of Aranjuez, derived from a variety of sources, marks a seminal stage in the development of landscape design. It represents the coming together of diverse cultural influences to create a cultural landscape that had a formative influence on further developments in this field. Aranjuez has been witness to various cultural exchanges over a span of time, in a specific cultural area, that has had a tremendous influence in the development of its landmarks and the creation of its landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Aranjuez represents a model for a given culture's use of its territory. However, the city has become increasingly vulnerable since the disappearance at the turn of the century of the Royal Court that had so much influence on its development. This area enjoyed a long history of human settlement before becoming a strategic stronghold during Roman times, with its position at a river crossing (the Tajo and the Jarama) and cross-roads, to the south of Madrid and to the north-west of Toledo. Towards the end of the 14th century, the knights built a palace in the middle of the woods, then replete with game. But it was Philip II in the 16th century who created the first period of splendour. He built a new palace and large ornamental and vegetable gardens laid out according to geometric principles and it was also a private and personal retreat. During the 17th century Aranjuez prospered as the annual abode of royalty, a place of pageantry and hunting, and a source of inspiration for the patronage of some of the greatest Spanish poets of the Golden Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The continuing splendour of the 18th century culminated in the building of a new town close to the palace. After a brief revival which added a new element of modernism and eclecticism to the royal site during the first half of the 19th century, the end of the reign of Isabella II marked the close of the Crown's exclusive role in the history of this riverside complex and community. At the Revolution in 1868, all Crown property passed to the State. By the early 1870s the population increased and a railway line (1851) stimulated vigorous economic activity at the price of cutting the palace's eastern vistas and bisecting the Picotajo garden. During the 20th century, Aranjuez became a densely populated satellite city of Madrid, an industrial and cultural centre. Nevertheless, the site overall kept its integrity. The whole area appears as a green oasis in a landscape otherwise of sierra type, dry, brown and fairly barren of vegetation as a result of climate, geomorphology, and over-exploitive land use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site incorporates a planned town, large gardens, vegetable gardens and orchards, lagoons, rivers and waterworks, woods, and moors. The main elements are the Palace and Island Garden, arranged around a plaza with, on the east, the King's Garden of irregular plan with fountains and, on the west, avenues and vistas eventually cut by the railway with, across a canal to the north, entirely within a sharp bend of the river beyond the Garden of the Statues and a fountain, the geometric Island Garden full of fountains and other structures; the Great Historic Garden consisting of a series of gardens which together comprise the bulk of the area; the urban area is subdivided into an industrial area west of the palace, incorporating the railway station and the gardens west of the palace, and the 18th-century town that is now the historic core of modern Aranjuez (the original town plan is intact); and the Prince's Garden, a late 18th- to early 19th-century garden that stretches along the south bank of the Tajo, north-east of the town. These elements are subsumed in a series of intermeshed landscapes, all combining conceptually to create a cultural landscape with rivers, dams, ditches, and fountains. The agricultural landscape is formed by vegetable gardens, orchards, nurseries and stock-breeding; the gardens form a delectable landscape. The geometry, starting with the grand alignments of Phillip II, also influenced parts of the hydraulic system, although clearly other factors were at play there; conversely, the hydrology fed the fountains and ponds, which were usually placed at particular points determined by geometry, albeit serving an aesthetic purpose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The constructed landscape is formed by roads, architecture, and town. Both the natural and geometric bases of the site as a whole survive remarkably well, with relatively little loss and effectively (modern communication routes apart) no inappropriate intrusion. Major buildings as well as the city's layout and its gardens and tree-lined avenues have been preserved as the characteristic of an urban community among orchards and groves living on a ground plan.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Aranjuez cultural landscape is an entity of complex relationships: between nature and human activity, between sinuous watercourses and geometric landscape design, between the rural and the urban, between forest landscape and the delicately modulated architecture of its palatial buildings. Three hundred years of royal attention to the development and care of this landscape have seen it express an evolution of concepts from humanism and political centralization, to characteristics such as those found in its 18th century French-style Baroque garden, to the urban lifestyle which developed alongside the sciences of plant acclimatization and stock-breeding during the Age of Enlightenment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aranjuez Cultural Landscape</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1218</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Vizcaya Bridge can be seen as a culmination of iron working practices in the Basque area. The local iron seams were mined in Roman times; from 13th -16th century iron was exported to France and the Low Countries from as many as 300 Basque ironworks. And by the 18th century Basque iron was being used as agricultural implements for colonising new lands in South America. At the end of the 19th century, the ironworks were at the peak of their output with the adoption of new production methods disseminated by the industrial revolution. A dense array of iron and steel works and shipbuilding were developed around the mouth of the River Ibaizabal and Bilbao was the most important industrial, mining, commercial shipping and financial centre in Spain. Around 12 million tons of goods, mainly iron ore and iron products, were exported each year along the three miles of the River Ibaizabal to the port on the Bay of Biscay. Industry developed all along the river on its west bank towards the estuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Towards the end of the 19th century, as the population increased, the right bank of the estuary was colonised for housing. This brought the need for transport across the mouth of the river for people moving from where they lived to where they worked and to link the railways on both banks. This link could not interrupt the dense shipping traffic in the river.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many solutions were considered; it was architect, Alberto de Palacio who developed the idea of a cable reinforced transporter bridge, making use of the lightweight twisted steel rope cables newly invented by Ferdinand Arnodin. This allowed a bridge to be built on flat land without the need for ramps and created a structure that did not have to be raised and lowered to allow the passage of ships.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The iconic nature of the bridge was recognised at the time. De Palacio said that it should endow the estuary with a &amp;lsquo;elegant and grandiose aspect' and be proof of the &amp;lsquo;extraordinary wealthy Bibao mining area'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bridge was opened on 16 June 1893. It has operated continuously since apart from during the Spanish Civil War.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1217</http_url><id_number>1217</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1217.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3231750000</latitude><location>Basque Country, Province of Bizjaia, </location><longitude>-3.0168333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Vizcaya Bridge straddles the mouth of the Ibaizabal estuary, west of Bilbao. It was designed by the Basque architect Alberto de Palacio and completed in 1893. The 45-m-high bridge with its span of 160 m, merges 19th-century ironworking traditions with the then new lightweight technology of twisted steel ropes. It was the first bridge in the world to carry people and traffic on a high suspended gondola and was used as a model for many similar bridges in Europe, Africa and the America only a few of which survive. With its innovative use of lightweight twisted steel cables, it is regarded as one of the outstanding architectural iron constructions of the Industrial Revolution.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Vizcaya Bridge</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1394</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1258</http_url><id_number>1258</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1258.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>28.2713888889</latitude><location>Canary Island, Santa Cruz de Tenerife</location><longitude>-16.6436111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated on the island of Tenerife, Teide National Park features the Teide-Pico Viejo stratovolcano that, at 3,718 m, is the highest peak on Spanish soil. Rising 7,500 m above the ocean floor, it is regarded as the world&amp;rsquo;s third-tallest volcanic structure and stands in a spectacular environment. The visual impact of the site is all the greater due to atmospheric conditions that create constantly changing textures and tones in the landscape and a &amp;lsquo;sea of clouds&amp;rsquo; that forms a visually impressive backdrop to the mountain. Teide is of global importance in providing evidence of the geological processes that underpin the evolution of oceanic islands.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Teide National Park</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1435</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first Homo sapiens arrived by small groups in northern Spain around 35,000 BP. They cohabited for a time with the last of the Neanderthals, and then developed a significant culture known as Upper Palaeolithic, from 30,000 to 25,000 BP, producing bone projectiles and stone blade tools, and producing the first artistic artefacts and the first decorated walls (La Pe&amp;ntilde;a de Candamo).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last Ice Age then began to make its influence felt, ending in around 18,000 BP. During this period cave art developed in the eastern part of Cantabria, producing an individual style (Altamira, La Pe&amp;ntilde;a del Candamo, El Castillo, Las Pasiega, El Pendo, La Garma, Chufin and El Pendo).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The artistic apogee, known as Magdalenian, corresponds to the end of the Ice Age, from 17,000 to 13,000 BP. This was the period of the major works in the decorated caves, with a great variety of motifs and techniques of representation. This was one of the key moments of the history of art, as seen for example in the polychrome figures of Altamira and El Castillo, the combination of engraving and painting, the use of the rock forms themselves, and realistic detail in the animal figures in most of the nominated caves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 13,000 to 10,000 BP, the climate became warmer (Holocene), causing a profound transformation in human lifestyles, together with a decline in cave art. Las Monedas is an example of late cave art, and there is no evidence of cave art later than 11,000 BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/310</http_url><id_number>310</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_310.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3825277800</latitude><location>Santillana del Mar, Province and Autonomous Community of Cantabria</location><longitude>-4.1161666670</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2008</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Seventeen decorated caves of the Paleolithic age were inscribed as an extension to the Altamira Cave, inscribed in 1985. The property will now appear on the List as Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain. The property represents the apogee of Paleolithic cave art that developed across Europe, from the Urals to the Iberian Peninusula, from 35,000 to 11,000 BC. Because of their deep galleries, isolated from external climatic influences, these caves are particularly well preserved. The caves are inscribed as masterpieces of creative genius and as the humanity&amp;rsquo;s earliest accomplished art. They are also inscribed as exceptional testimonies to a cultural tradition and as outstanding illustrations of a significant stage in human history.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1506</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/348</http_url><id_number>348</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_348.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.6564500000</latitude><location>Province of Ávila, Autonomous Community of Castile-Leon</location><longitude>-4.7001200000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 11th century to protect the Spanish territories from the Moors, this 'City of Saints and Stones', the birthplace of St Teresa and the burial place of the Grand Inquisitor Torquemada, has kept its medieval austerity. This purity of form can still be seen in the Gothic cathedral and the fortifications which, with their 82 semicircular towers and nine gates, are the most complete in Spain.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1562</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 61 BCE a Roman seaborne expedition, probably led by Julius Caesar himself, landed at present-day La Coru&amp;ntilde;a (Brigantium) with the intention of installing a port and commercial settlement. There had already been Roman colonisation along the Mediterranean facade of the Iberian Peninsula and along the south and south-west from the 2nd century BCE. The port of Brigantium played an important role during the Cantabrian Wars (29-19 BCE). Once peace was restored, its strategic maritime role at the entrance to the Bay of Biscay, as well as that of a trading station, were confirmed. It became a rear base for the conquest of the British Isles while Galicia was being Romanised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the name of Farum Brigantium, the Tower was probably erected in the 1st century CE, at the latest in the reign of Trajan (98-117). The votive inscription on a small ancillary construction would appear to bear this out.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This monumental lighthouse is located at the entrance to La Coru&amp;ntilde;a harbour, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. It is designed to facilitate navigation along the rugged Galicia coastline, on a strategic point on the sea route linking the Mediterranean to northwest Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A wood-fired system was located on the summit platform in a shelter opening on to the seaward facade; it possibly had columns used for navigational alignment when making the difficult approach and entry into the harbour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the basis of the surviving structure, the original tower had a horizontal cross-section measuring 11.75m (33 Roman feet) square. It was surrounded by a spiral ramp providing access to the platform. The base of the Tower rested on 18m square foundations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tower's use as an illuminated lighthouse probably persisted for a relatively long time throughout the Roman Empire. It seems not to have been lit throughout most of the High Middle Ages, although it remained intact and continued to play a role as a landmark and watchtower. The gazetteer lists the names of farum and faro in the 9th and 10th centuries, probably with periods of return to nocturnal service depending on the historical context and the state of maritime navigation. It is difficult to determine exactly the Tower's use and upkeep in medieval times. It seems to have been abandoned and in poor condition after the Viking invasions (854-56), as was the city; it is, however, referred to in two 10th century texts as the Farum Precantium.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Medieval chronicles mention the creation of a fort and a small town in the 11th-12th centuries, in this same position. The Tower is referred to as the Castellum Pharum; at this time it was used for defensive purposes and as an observation post, which most likely saved it from probable ruin. The urban and port development of Burgo de Faro Novo, later Crunia, started at the end of the 12th century and into the following century, in connection with the reign of Ferdinand II and the Pilgrimage of Santiago de Compostela. The contemporary toponymy shows that the name then given to the Tower was Turrin de Faro suggesting its restoration as a lighthouse, but the external ramp appears to have been in ruins, perhaps as a result of the Tower's use for defensive purposes in the preceding centuries. The reuse of dressed stone from the collapsed parts of the Tower is reported during the late Middle Ages, until a 1557 municipal edict forbade this practice.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Starting in the 14th century, La Coru&amp;ntilde;a became one of the kingdom's largest and most cosmopolitan ports. It was an essential stage between northern Europe and the Mediterranean world. The lighthouse's function would appear to have been fully restored at that time. The Tower of Hercules was a major symbol of the city in the 15th century, and was the main heraldic motif on the city's seal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Iconography from the 16th century shows a highly restored Tower, notably fitted with a dome-shaped lantern. The external ramp no longer exists, but traces of its spiral shape are still visible. Work on the timber staircase is mentioned in the same period. There are several descriptions of the Tower in the 17th century. The first truly identifiable restoration was that led by the Duke of Uceda, the Captain General of Galicia in 1684-85. The presence of an internal staircase is again reported.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1755 the Lisbon earthquake affected many buildings in the La Coru&amp;ntilde;a region, but the Tower survived thanks to its architectonic design and the quality of its mortar (see Description).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The major restoration-reconstruction work on the Tower was undertaken in two stages at the end of the 18th century, from 1788 to 1806. The work was carried for navigational reasons, the external condition of the Tower, and changes in lighting systems. The work was entrusted to the naval engineer Lieutenant Eustaquio Giannini. It was preceded and accompanied by measurements and plans that are invaluable in understanding the Tower in modern times. At this time, its height was significantly raised and it was fitted with a new bell lantern; the interior staircase was rebuilt; and the exterior facing and the openings were completely reconstructed (see Description). It assumed its current external form in Neo-Classical style. Additional work was carried out by Jos&amp;eacute; Giannini, Eustaquio's brother, between 1799 and 1806. The lantern and the lighting system were replaced for operational reasons and to take account of the most recent innovations, the bell turret was replaced by a new higher one, and a platform was added around the base of the Tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The optical system was again changed in 1847 for a very efficient catadioptric system using Fresnel lenses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1860s, ancillary buildings were erected and the access ways repaired. Further work was carried out in 1905: the internal staircase was again restored, this time entirely in stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lighthouse was fitted with electric lighting in 1926, with its beam visible for up to 32 nautical miles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1990s excavations were undertaken at the base of the Tower, under the platform added in the early 19th century, to reveal the Roman foundations and buried remains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1991-92 the facades of the Tower and the small Roman building were restored.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Numerous legends surround the Tower's history, from the Middle Ages to the 19th century. They attempt to explain in mythical and popular terms the Tower's origins and its construction, regardless of any historical or archaeological understanding. There are three main families of legends: the legend of Breog&amp;aacute;n in the Celtic-Irish tradition, the Greco-Roman legend of Hercules, the demigod of mythical strength who gave the Tower its contemporary name, and the tale of Trecenzonio halfway between the former two legends. There is evidence of these mythical tales in Galicia starting from the 14th century, but they probably predate that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Given that the lighthouse continues in use, ICOMOS regrets the absence of any description of the optical systems, which are an integral part of the lighthouse and its history, and the changes that they have undergone, notably in modern and contemporary times, in relation to Atlantic shipping.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1312</http_url><id_number>1312</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1312.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3858333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>-8.4063888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tower of Hercules has served as a lighthouse and landmark at the entrance of La Coruña harbour in north-western Spain since the late 1st century A.D. when the Romans built the Farum Brigantium. The Tower, built on a 57 metre high rock, rises a further 55 metres, of which 34 metres correspond to the Roman masonry and 21 meters to the restoration directed by architect Eustaquio Giannini in the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, who augmented the Roman core with two octagonal forms. Immediately adjacent to the base of the Tower, is a small rectangular Roman building. The site also features a sculpture park, the Monte dos Bicos rock carvings from the Iron Age and a Muslim cemetery. The Roman foundations of the building were revealed in excavations conducted in the 1990s. Many legends from the Middle Ages to the 19th century surround the Tower of Hercules, which is unique as it is the only lighthouse of Greco-Roman antiquity to have retained a measure of structural integrity and functional continuity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tower of Hercules</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1616</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The inspiration of the Palau de la M&amp;uacute;sica CataIana was the concept of the &amp;quot;Orfeo Catal&amp;aacute;&amp;quot; that emerged during the Barcelona Universal Exhibition of 1888. This choir for the performance of Catalan music formed part of the overall political movement that developed in these years, with a resurgence of Catalan nationalism. It was conceived on the model of contemporary groups in Britain, France, Germany, and elsewhere in Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After its foundation in 1891, the choir used various premises in Barcelona. In October 1904 it acquired a site in Calle de Sant Pere M&amp;eacute;s Alto and commissioned Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Montaner, then at the peak of his career, as architect of its new building. Construction began in 1905 and was completed three years later, when the building was awarded a prize as the best building of the year by the Municipality of Barcelona.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Domenech i Montaner had already begun work at that time on the Hospital de Sant Pau. It was the successor of a 15th century foundation at the other end of the city, the Hospital de Santa Creu, which was inadequate to deal with the enormous growth of the population of Barcelona at the end of the 19th century. In 1892 a Paris banker of Catalan origin, Pau Gil, left a large sum of money in his will for the construction of a hospital in his native city, to be named in honour of his patron saint. The land for this was purchased in 1898 and Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Montaner received the commission to design it.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work began in 1901 and by 1911 eight blocks of the complex had been built and were in use. The work of Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Montaner was once again honoured in 1913 by the award for the best building of the previous year (in fact, the third that he had received, as a consequence of which the architect was awarded a Gold Medal by the city). In 1913 the architect brought his son, Pere Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Roura, into the project, and they worked together on the church and further hospital blocks until Lluis Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Montaner's death in 1923 at the age of 73. Pere Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Roura was responsible for completion of the project, which continued until 1930&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/804</http_url><id_number>804</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_804.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe these two properties on the basis of criteria (i), (ii) and (iv), considering that the Palau de la Música Catalana and the Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona are masterpieces of the imaginative and exuberant Art Nouveau that flowered in early 20th century Barcelona.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>41.3877800000</latitude><location>Province of Barcelona, Autonomous Community of Catalonia</location><longitude>2.1750000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;These two monuments are masterpieces of the imaginative and exuberant Art Nouveau that flowered in early 20th century. The Palau de la M&amp;uacute;sica Catalana has uniqueness, authenticity, and beauty and it is an unparalleled testimony, in the Modernist style, to a public concert hall whose symbolic, artistic, and historical value is universal. The Hospital de Sant Pau is the outstanding example of its type of exceptional interest because of its beauty, size and unique architectural design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The inspiration of the Palau de la M&amp;uacute;sica CataIana was the concept of the choir of &lt;em&gt;Orfeo Catal&amp;aacute;&lt;/em&gt; that emerged during the Barcelona Universal Exhibition of 1888. The performance of Catalan music formed part of the overall political movement to resurge of Catalan nationalism. In October 1904 the choir acquired a site in Calle de Sant Pere M&amp;eacute;s Alto and commissioned Dom&amp;eacute;nech i Montaner, then at the peak of his career, as architect of its new building. Construction began in 1905 and was completed three years later. He had already begun work at that time on the Hospital de Sant Pau. In 1892 a Paris banker of Catalan origin, Pau Gil, left a large sum of money in his will for the construction of a hospital in his native city, to be named in honour of his patron saint.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Palau de la M&amp;uacute;sica Catalana is one of the most emblematic buildings of Art Nouveau (Modernism), exceptional both for its qualities and its setting in the historic centre of Barcelona. It was outstanding from the moment of its conception because of two factors that were to be of great future importance: a special concept of space and a very intelligent use of new technologies developed during the Rationalist revolution. The Palau was the most important source of an architectural concept of great future relevance: the reticulated metallic structure, free floor space, and non-load-bearing outer walls like continuous curtains of glass. The entire building was designed as an intelligent interplay of spaces stemming from the abrupt separation between the exterior and the interior and making maximum use of natural light.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The use of a steel framework makes it possible for the internal floor plan to be free and with a series of large open spaces, in particular the great concert hall. In this way the Palau de la M&amp;uacute;sica Catalana became an exceptional example of the fusion of two basic concepts: tradition and modernity elevated to the level of art. The coming together of music and architecture is clearly manifested in the Palau de la M&amp;uacute;sica Catalana. Several of the most important artists and craftsmen of the time contributed to the Palau, such as the sculptors Pau Gargallo, Francesc Modollel, Miguel Blay, and Eusebi Aranau; the mosaicists Llu&amp;iacute;s Bru, Francesc Labarta and Mario Maragliano; the painter Miguel Massot, and the stained-glass artist Jeroni Granell. The relationships between architect and artists was intimate and constructive:especially harmonious is the concert hall, with its great inverted dome of painted glass, where the lavish decoration contributes to the spatial continuity and integrity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From a historiographical point of view, the Hospital de Sant Pau is of immense importance because it is the largest hospital complex in Modernist style. Historically, the Hospital de Sant Pau, at one and the same time original and daring, demonstrates how Dom&amp;eacute;nech i Montaner had studied the problem of modern hospitals. Work began in 1901 and by 1911 eight blocks of the complex had been built and were in use. In 1913 the architect brought his son, Pere Dom&amp;eacute;nech i Roura, into the project, and they worked together on the church and further hospital blocks until Lluis Dom&amp;egrave;nech i Montaner's death in 1923. Pere Dom&amp;eacute;nech i Roura was responsible for completion of the project, which continued until 1930.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architect planned to erect 48 individual buildings in a quadrilateral. Its floral decoration and abundant use of sculptures by the best artists of the period emphasize in a remarkable way the structure of the buildings. Dom&amp;eacute;nech i Montaner's value as the creator of architectural volumes is also revealed by light. For Dom&amp;eacute;nech i Montaner it was essential to be able to give sick people a feeling of well-being and beauty, which would most certainly contribute to an early convalescence, as according to him beauty has therapeutic value. After almost a century of existence and uninterrupted public use, the Hospital de Sant Pau has international prestige from both the medical and the architectural and artistic points of view.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These are two of the finest contributions to Barcelona's architecture by the Catalan art nouveau architect Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The Palau de la Música Catalana is an exuberant steel-framed structure full of light and space, and decorated by many of the leading designers of the day. The Hospital de Sant Pau is equally bold in its design and decoration, while at the same time perfectly adapted to the needs of the sick.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1631</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/383</http_url><id_number>383</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_383.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.3838400000</latitude><location>Province of Seville, Autonomous Community of Andalusia</location><longitude>-5.9915500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cathedral and the Alc&amp;aacute;zar of Seville bear exceptional testimony to the civilization of the Almohads and to that of Christian Andalusia dating from the Reconquest of 1248 to the 16th century. The Giralda, which influenced the construction of many towers in Spain and the Americas, is a masterpiece of Almohad architecture. The immense cathedral with its five naves is the largest Gothic edifice in Europe. The elliptical space of the Cabildo, created by Hernan Ru&amp;iacute;z, is one of the most beautiful architectural works of the Renaissance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cathedral, one of the most vast and ornate religious edifices in the world, contains in its complex structure the wide range of styles resulting from its troubled history. In the Chapel of the Granada, there are the capitals of several columns dating from the time of the Visigoths, the last vestiges of the original cathedral which in 712 the Arab conquerors condemned to destruction. It is, above all, one of the major witnesses of the Almohad period at its apogee. In 1147, when it became the capital of a Muslim empire that covered the whole of the Maghreb, Seville endowed itself with monuments whose splendour the Arabian travellers took great pleasure in pointing out. The Giralda, which was formerly the minaret of the Great Mosque (built in 1172-98 by the Emir Yaqub al-Mansur), escaped destruction and was turned into a bell tower after the reconquest of Seville in 1248. In the 16th century it was topped with a bronze statue symbolizing the Christian faith, which serves as a weather vane (&lt;em&gt;Giraldillo&lt;/em&gt;), at an altitude of 97.52m. The only other part of the cathedral which preserves the memory of the Great Mosque is the Patio de los Naranjos on the north, a marvellous interior garden. The Christians wished to replace the mosque, the destruction of which began in 1401, with a cathedral in the Gothic style, unsurpassed by any other. In 1420 Seville became one of the largest international construction sites of the 15th century, employing the most renowned Spanish, Flemish and German architects and sculptors. Seville's prosperity following the discovery of the New World further bolstered the already considerable financial means made available for the construction and embellishment of the cathedral. In the 16th century, it was enhanced by an incomparable ornamentation of stained glass, altarpieces, grille work and stalls. In the 17th century, the cathedral was still the beneficiary of rich donations, and was filled with Baroque sculptures and paintings by the great Sevillian painters Murillo and Vald&amp;eacute;s Leal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Alc&amp;aacute;zar and its gardens is a palatial fortress erected beginning in 712 by the conquering Arabs to control the Guadalquivir. It boasts a crenellated enclosure from the Almohad period as well as several interior spaces dating from before the Reconquest. After 1248 it became a royal residence and was renovated under the reign of Peter the Cruel. The palace constructed in the interior of the Alc&amp;aacute;zar in 1364-66 illustrates the syncretism proper to Mudejar art which borrows its techniques and decorative expression from the Arabian art of Andalusia. The Patio de las Doncellas is evocative of a captivating aesthetic which survived Christianization with its finely worked stuccos, wooden artesonados ceilings, the &lt;em&gt;azulejos&lt;/em&gt; of the galleries, and the fountain that rises in the middle of the courtyard. The work of decoration of the apartments, the fountains or the pavilions undertaken between the 15th and 17th centuries, partially respected the original palace, its general layout, and the traditional refinement of an Andalusian palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Casa Lonja was built by Philip's II favourite architect, Juan de Herrera, to control trade with the American colonies. This new 'Casa de Contrataci&amp;oacute;n' was to replace a similar establishment that had been located in the Alc&amp;aacute;zar outbuildings since 1503. The 'Hall of Trade' designed by Herrera was constructed between 1583 and 1598 in the severe style favoured by the architect of the Escurial. However, even after the last of the work had been completed in 1649, the 'Casa de Contrataci&amp;oacute;n' never occupied the chosen premises. Used for various temporary purposes, the Lonja became, in 1784, the Archivo General de Indias and, from 1790, housed all the historic and diplomatic collections relative to the American colonies.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Together these three buildings form a remarkable monumental complex in the heart of Seville. The cathedral and the Alcázar – dating from the Reconquest of 1248 to the 16th century and imbued with Moorish influences – are an exceptional testimony to the civilization of the Almohads as well as that of Christian Andalusia. The Giralda minaret is the masterpiece of Almohad architecture. It stands next to the cathedral with its five naves; the largest Gothic building in Europe, it houses the tomb of Christopher Columbus. The ancient Lonja, which became the Archivo de Indias, contains valuable documents from the archives of the colonies in the Americas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1747</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1371</http_url><id_number>1371</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1371.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.7308333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>2.6947222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana located on a sheer-sided mountain range parallel to the north-western coast of the island of Mallorca. Millennia of agriculture in an environment with scarce resources has transformed the terrain and displays an articulated network of devices for the management of water revolving around farming units of feudal origins. The landscape is marked by agricultural terraces and inter-connected water works - including water mills - as well as dry stone constructions and farms.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1781</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/669</http_url><id_number>669</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_669.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>43.3350000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-6.4147222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2015</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A network of four Christian pilgrimage routes in northern Spain, the site is an extension of the Route of Santiago de Compostela, a serial site inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993. The extension represents a network of almost 1,500 km: coastal, interior of the Basque Country–La Rioja, Liébana and primitive routes. It includes a built heritage of historical importance created to meet the needs of pilgrims, including cathedrals, churches, hospitals, hostels and even bridges. The extension encompasses some of the earliest pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela, following the discovery in the 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;century of a tomb believed to be that of St. James the Greater.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Routes of Santiago de Compostela: &lt;i&gt;Camino Francés&lt;/i&gt; and Routes of Northern Spain </site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2055</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/316</http_url><id_number>316</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_316.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>42.3407333333</latitude><location>Province of Burgos, Autonomous Community of Castile-Leon</location><longitude>-3.7040111111</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Burgos Cathedral, an outstanding example of an integral Gothic cathedral, with church, cloister and annexes. has exerted, at different times, a considerable influence on the evolution of architecture and the plastic arts. It bears witness to the creative genius of many architects, sculptors, and craftsmen. It is sufficient to call to mind its role in the diffusion in Spain of the forms of French Gothic art of the 13th century, and the international importance of the workshop in the 15th and 16th centuries where artists from the Rhineland, Burgundy and Flanders trained Spanish architects and sculptors, thus creating one of the most flourishing schools of the end of the Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Begun in 1221 and completed in 1567, Santa María de Burgos is a striking summary of the evolution of Gothic architecture. The body of the work, undertaken through the initiative of Bishop Mauricio in the reign of Ferdinand III 'the Holy', was rapidly carried out: a first campaign, the most important, was completed in 1293. The plan of the cathedral is based on a Latin cross of pleasing proportions. The three-storey elevation, the vaulting, and the tracery of the windows are closely related to contemporary models of the north of France. The portals of the transept (the Puerta del Sarmental to the south and the Puerta de la Coronería to the north) may also be compared with the great sculpted ensembles of the French royal domain, while the enamelled brass tomb of Bishop Mauricio resembles the so-called Limoges goldsmith work. Undertaken after the cathedral, the two-storeyed cloister that was completed towards 1280 still fits within the framework of 'French' High Gothic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After a hiatus of some 200 years, work was resumed on the Cathedral of Burgos in the mid-15th century and continued over more than 100 years. These were embellishments of a profuse splendour which have, ever since, assured the world renown of this edifice. The workshop was composed of an international team. Among the most famous architects were Juan de Colonia, soon relieved by his son Simon (towers and open spires of the facade, the Constable's chapel, the Chapel of Santa Ana) and Felipe de Borgoña, assisted by numerous collaborators (choir, cupola and lantern tower over the transept crossing).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When in 1567 two of these architects, Juan de Vallejo and Juan de Castaneda, completed the prodigious cupola with its starred vaulting, the cathedral of Burgos incorporated one of the greatest concentrations of masterpieces of this last phase of the Gothic: the Puerta della Pellejería (1516) of Francesco de Colonia, the ornamental grill and choir stalls, the grill of the chapel of the Presentation (1519), the retablo of Gil de Siloé in the Constable's chapel, the retablo of Gil de Siloé and Diego de La Cruz in the chapen of Santa Ana, the staircase of Diego de Siloé in the north transept arm, the tombs of Bishop Alonso de Cartagena, of Bishop Acuña, of Abbot Juan Ortega de Velasco, of the Condestable Pedro Hernández de Velasco and of his wife Doña Mencia de Mendoza, etc. Thereafter, the cathedral continued to be a monument favoured by the arts - the Renaissance retablo of the Capilla Mayor by Rodrigo and Martín de la Haya, Domingo de Berríz and Juan de Anchieta, the tomb of Enrique de Peralta y Cardenas in the chapel of San Enrique, the chapel of Santa Tecla and the trascoro of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Our Lady of Burgos was begun in the 13th century at the same time as the great cathedrals of the Ile-de-France and was completed in the 15th and 16th centuries. The entire history of Gothic art is summed up in its superb architecture and its unique collection of works of art, including paintings, choir stalls, reredos, tombs and stained-glass windows.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Burgos Cathedral</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2070</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1501</http_url><id_number>1501</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1501.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.0250000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-4.5444444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located at the heart of Andalusia in southern Spain, the site comprises three megalithic monuments: the Menga and Viera dolmens and the &lt;i&gt;Tholos&lt;/i&gt; of El Romeral, and two natural monuments: La Peña de los Enamorados and El Torcal mountainous formations, which are landmarks within the property. Built during the Neolithic and Bronze Age out of large stone blocks, these monuments form chambers with lintelled roofs or false cupolas. These three tombs, buried beneath their original earth tumuli, are one of the most remarkable architectural works of European prehistory and one of the most important examples of European Megalithism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Antequera Dolmens Site</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2088</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/311</http_url><id_number>311</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_311.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.9484722200</latitude><location>Province of Segovia, Autonomous Community of Castile-Leon</location><longitude>-4.1167500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Segovia is indicative of a complex historical reality. Its neighbourhoods, streets, and houses are laid out in accordance with a social structure in which hierarchy was overshadowed by belonging to one of the different cultural communities. Moors, Christians and Jews coexisted for a long time in the medieval city and worked together during the 16th century manufacturing boom. All the component parts of the built environment, from domestic architecture to the great religious and military structures, can be found in Segovia in a broad range of construction techniques and styles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman aqueducts of Sevilla, Toledo, and Calahorra in Spain did not survive. The 221 colossal piers bear witness to the magnitude of the Aquae Atilianae in the province of Zaragoza. The impressive monuments that survive in M&amp;eacute;rida, Tarragona, and Segovia illustrate the political determination which, following the steps of the victorious armies, greatly increased the number of aqueducts which Frontinus described as 'the most solemn testimony of the Empire.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Aqueduct of Segovia, the symbol of the city, is the best known of these civil engineering feats owing to its monumentality, to its excellent state of conservation, and in particular to its location in one of the most beautiful urban sites in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The hydraulic engineers who tapped the waters of the R&amp;iacute;o Fr&amp;iacute;o in the Sierra de Guadarrama to bring them 18km to Segovia via a canal with an average gradient of 1% ran into no natural obstacle more challenging than the crossing of the valley of the R&amp;iacute;o Clamores at the end of the course. In order to reach the rocky contrefort on which the city was perched they had to erect an enormous construction of masonry 813&amp;nbsp;m in length, consisting of four straight segments and two superimposed arcades borne by 128 pillars. At the lowest point of the valley, the aqueduct stands at a height of 28.5&amp;nbsp;m above ground.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This colossal edifice is undocumented. However, the profile of the arcade and the construction technique used afford typological comparisons with the Aqua Claudia in Rome, a canal built between AD 38 and 52. Moreover, excavation carried out at the foot of the piers appears to corroborate a date of roughly AD 50.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following its restoration, which took place after 1484 on the initiative of the Catholic Kings (&lt;em&gt;Los Reyes Cat&amp;oacute;licos&lt;/em&gt;), the aqueduct was always used and well maintained. The most serious damage which it suffered occurred in the last century: the replacement in 1929-30 of the 16th-century stone conduit with a cement canal, the stone conduit having earlier replaced a wooden one; disintegration of the masonry owing to the effects of vibration caused by traffic of heavy trucks; decay of the stone caused by gas pollutants. This physical-chemical damage results principally from a poorly planned urban development policy which has destroyed the monument's surroundings by the building of parking lots, large thoroughfares and slip roads which detract from the beauty of the aqueduct and hinder its proper conservation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Roman aqueduct of Segovia, probably built c. A.D. 50, is remarkably well preserved. This impressive construction, with its two tiers of arches, forms part of the setting of the magnificent historic city of Segovia. Other important monuments include the Alcázar, begun around the 11th century, and the 16th-century Gothic cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Segovia and its Aqueduct</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2124</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mudéjar art in Aragón is a direct consequence of the singular nature of the Christian Reconquest, in the early 12th century, of territories that had been dominated by the Moors since the 8th century. For various practical and political reasons, the Christians allowed the Moors to remain on the reconquered territories and keep their own culture and religion. On the other hand, Islamic art fascinated the Christians, who continued using its themes for a long time. Because of this cohabitation, many Islamic buildings were preserved, such as the Aljaferia Palace in Zaragoza and other palaces and mosques in Toledo, Córdoba, Seville, and Granada. In this cultural context, there also developed a new expression, Mudéjar art, which represented the fusion of two artistic traditions, Islamic and Christian. The region of Aragón became one of the principal locations for this development. Here the easily available materials were brick, lime, ceramics, and timber, which were also economical in use. Most master builders were Moors, who continued to contribute to the construction. Mudéjar art gradually declined with the interruption of relations with the Islamic world and the introduction of Italian Renaissance concepts in the 16th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Mudéjar art in Aragón can be divided into three phases: a) the beginnings from 12th to 13th centuries, b) full development and expansion in the 14th and 15th centuries, and c) survival and extension in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Only few examples of Mudéjar art remain from the period immediately succeeding the Reconquest. The earliest surviving buildings are in Daroca and Teruel. In Daroca these include the tower of St Domingo and the apse of St Juan from the mid 13th century. Both constructions were initiated in stone and completed in brick. In Teruel the earliest examples are the church of St Maria de Mediavilla (cathedral), and the tower of St Pedro, of a slightly later date. Both of these have very similar decorative systems and structures: they are gate towers on a square base, allowing a passage under a pointed vault, reinforced with buttresses. It should be understood that, apart from their religious and military functions, these bell towers also had an important town-planning function in tracing the routes. The ceiling of the cathedral of Teruel, dating from the second half of the 13th century, is the most interesting artistic achievement of Mudéjar art in Aragón.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The full development of Mudéjar art in Aragón in the 14th and early 15th centuries coincides with the introduction of Gothic to the Iberian peninsula. In Aragón, Mudéjar art continued to predominate over Gothic, except in some minor areas in the south. The most common type of church has a single aisle, with a polygonal apse of five or six sides and without any buttresses. The structure presents some characteristics of Gothic architecture, showing the interrelation between these two art forms. Many of these churches were modified in later periods. The churches of Zaragoza (La Magdalena, St Gil, and St Miguel de los Navarros) correspond to this type. Perhaps the most distinguished type of church building in this period is one with a strongly military function, a fortified church with tribunes over the lateral chapels, opening towards the exterior. In fact, the patrons were mainly from military orders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the last period, starting from the beginning of the 16th century (1502-26), the Mudéjars were forced to convert to Christianity, becoming "new Christians" or "moriscos". This is followed by a period of intolerance, resulting in the expulsion of these new Christians in 1609-10. This is also the period of the decline and extinction of Mudéjar art, though there are still some interesting achievements, of which there are examples in Zaragoza, Muniesa, Mara, Tierga, Alcubierre, Utebo, Villamayor, and Ricla.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/378</http_url><id_number>378</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_378.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.3438900000</latitude><location>Provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza, Autonomous Community of Aragon</location><longitude>-1.1072200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Mudejar art of Aragon symbolizes pacific coexistence between the Muslim, Christian and Jewish cultures, exchanging knowledge and experiences. Within this special historical context Mudejar art came into being in Teruel, as in Toledo, Zaragoza and many other cities. These art forms drew their substance from both the Western tradition and the Eastern Islamic tradition, itself transformed by the artistic accomplishments in the Maghreb and the Emirate of Córdoba. The material culture has survived in space and time thanks to the historical processes of conquest and colonization of new lands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The region owes its architecture to the singular nature of the reconquest, in the early 12th century, of territories dominated by the Moors since the 8th century. For various reasons, the Christians allowed the Moors to remain on the reconquered lands and keep their own culture and religion. On the other hand, Islamic art fascinated the Christians, who continued using its themes for a long time. Mudejar art represents the fusion of two artistic traditions, Islamic and Christian, in the region of Aragon. Here the easily available materials were brick, lime, ceramics, and timber, which were also economical in use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Mudejar art in Aragon can be divided into three phases:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;beginnings (12th-13th centuries): the ceiling of the cathedral of Teruel, dating from the second half of the 13th century, is the most interesting artistic achievement of Mudejar art in Aragon;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;full development and expansion, coinciding with the introduction of Gothic to the Iberian Peninsula. Mudejar art continued to predominate over Gothic, except in some minor areas in the south;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;final period (16th-17th centuries): the Mudejars were forced to convert to Christianity, becoming 'new Christians' (Moriscos). This is followed by a period of intolerance, resulting in the expulsion of these new Christians in 1609-10. This is the period of the decline and extinction of Mudejar art, with the interruption of relations with the Islamic world and the introduction of Italian Renaissance. There were still some achievements in Zaragoza, Muniesa, Mara, Tierga, Alcubierre, Villamayor and Ricla.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The churches are divided into three groups: those with one nave, those with three aisles, and fortress churches. Another category is represented by the bell towers, the most visible element of Mudejar architecture, which are characterized by great richness in their decoration: a variety of geometric patterns of brick reliefs, different patterns of coloured ceramics, elements in gypsum, as well as various architectural forms, niches, windows, and buttresses. The towers can have different forms in plan: octagonal base, square base, or a mixture of both forms. Their internal structure differs from the Almohades model (with one tower inside another), and the stairs are additional feature. Another typical feature of Mudejar architecture is found in the painted and decorated wooden ceilings (e.g. Santa María de Mediavilla) of Teruel. Mudejar architecture is also found in monasteries, castles, and residential buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Province of Zaragoza there are the Palace of La Aljafería, initially an Islamic royal palace; the Cathedral of La Seo del Salvador, built over a former Moorish mosque; the Church of San Pablo, which has a octagonal tower, and its Almohad-type minaret remains largely intact although with some Renaissance additions and a Baroque spire; the Collegiate Church of Santa María, Calatayud, replacing a former Moorish mosque, with the 14th-century cloister on the north side (the largest of such Mudejar constructions); the Parish Church of Santa Tecla, Cervera de la Cañada, built on top of an old castle; and the Church of Santa María, Tobed, which is well preserved and with fine interiors with carved and painted ceilings, built to the order of Pope Benedict XIII under the patronage of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Teruel's monuments are: the towers of San Pedro, the cathedral with the painted ceiling, San Salvador and San Martin. The Teruel towers together form a coherent ensemble which is truly characteristic of Mujédar art after the Reconquista. The architects of the Christian churches copied the structure and decoration of Almohad minarets, although giving them new functions right from the start.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2001</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The development in the 12th century of Mudejar art in Aragon resulted from the particular political, social and cultural conditions that prevailed in Spain after the Reconquista. This art, influenced by Islamic tradition, also reflects various contemporary European styles, particularly the Gothic. Present until the early 17th century, it is characterized by an extremely refined and inventive use of brick and glazed tiles in architecture, especially in the belfries.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mudejar Architecture of Aragon</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2188</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/384</http_url><id_number>384</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_384.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.4744400000</latitude><location>Province of Cáceres, Autonomous Community of Extremadura</location><longitude>-6.3700000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;C&amp;aacute;ceres is an outstanding example of a city that was ruled from the 14th to 16th centuries by powerful rival factions: fortified houses, palaces and towers dominate its spatial configuration. This city in Estremadura bears the traces of highly diverse and contradictory influences, such as Islamic arts, Northern Gothic, Italian Renaissance, arts of the New World, etc. The walls of the city bear exceptional testimony to the fortifications built in Spain by the Almohads. The Torre Desmochada in C&amp;aacute;ceres is part of an ensemble of walls and towers which is representative of a civilization and which has been largely conserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Few traces of the Colonia Norbensis Caesarina, founded 29 BC, remain in the urban landscape; here and there traces of the cardo and the decumanus can be perceived. All that is left of the Roman wall, substantially reworked by the Arabs, is a few wall sections and some foundation stones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Caesarina, its name in the 6th century, played only a minor role in the Visigothic Kingdom. It had lost almost all its prominence when the Arabs seized it and made it a fortified city, called Qasri, which in the 12th century Al-Idrisi saw as the principal bridgehead against the Christians. Moreover, during the 12th-century wars, after the Almohads had lost and then retaken the city several times, they built remarkable fortifications which completely changed the appearance of the Roman walls. Flanking towers were positioned externally a few metres from the rampart and connected to it by a wall; five of the towers, rectangular in shape, still stand to the west, including the famous Torre del Bujaco; two polygonal towers can be seen to the south (Torre Redonda and Torre Desmochada); to the east, the Torre de los Pozos, rising 30&amp;nbsp;m above the rampart walk, is partly built into a barbican.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Few monuments have survived from the Muslim period within the walls. The most significant is the five-nave reservoir with three bays, incorporated into the Casa de las Veletas in the 16th century. Although most of the monuments have been lost (the site of the Alc&amp;aacute;zar was parcelled out in 1473), the pattern of the streets, with winding backstreets that open on tiny squares or turn into narrow alleys, is a survival from urban planning during the Almohad period. The number of patios and interior gardens also bears testimony to the influence of Qasri on C&amp;aacute;ceres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Alfonso IX, King of Le&amp;oacute;n, recaptured the city from the Moors in 1229. The destiny of C&amp;aacute;ceres shifted again in the 14th century with the massive influx of noblemen who had initially been excluded from repoblaci&amp;oacute;n as a result of measures imposed by Alfonso IX. In the space of a few decades, fortified houses dotting the landscape made the city a perfect example of a feudal city, which since 1312 had been the stage for power struggles between rival clans. Notable among the oldest seigniorial fortresses are the Palacio de la Generala, the house and tower de las Cig&amp;uuml;e&amp;ntilde;as, Casa de los Ovando-Perero, Torre de los Espaderos, and Casa Espadero-Pizarro or Casa del Mono.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 15th and 16th centuries, noble pride is demonstrated by richly decorated coats of arms and a surge of towers, machiccolation and crenellation. The Catholic Kings tore down most of these unusual constructions, but preserved some in deference to the wishes of a few select lords (e.g. Palacio de los Golfines de Arriba, Palacio de las Cig&amp;uuml;e&amp;ntilde;as). Only their smaller proportions and a more modest system of defence distinguish the city's exquisite stone houses from the palaces (Casa de Aldana, Casa del Sol, Casa del Aguila, Casa de Ulloa, Casa de Carvajal, etc.). When the 'Americans' returned, new palaces were constructed: Palacio Godoy, built by a newly rich conquistador and Palacio de los Toledo-Moctezuma, built in the second half of the 16th century for the grandson of the Aztec who had greeted Cortes when he reached Mexico. A wide variety of styles is reflected in these constructions and the city's contemporary structures, palaces, churches or convents. The later addition of the imposing Jesuit church of San Francisco Javier (1755) did not disturb the harmony of an urban fabric which had been remodelled according to a common pattern.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city's history of battles between Moors and Christians is reflected in its architecture, which is a blend of Roman, Islamic, Northern Gothic and Italian Renaissance styles. Of the 30 or so towers from the Muslim period, the Torre del Bujaco is the most famous.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Cáceres</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2189</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1560</http_url><id_number>1560</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1560.jpg</image_url><iso_code>es</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.8858888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>-4.8676944444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Caliphate city of Medina Azahara is an archaeological site of a city built in the mid-10th century CE by the Umayyad dynasty as the seat of the Caliphate of Cordoba. After prospering for several years, it was laid to waste during the civil war that put an end to the Caliphate in 1009-1010. The remains of the city were forgotten for almost 1,000 years until their rediscovery in the early 20th century. This complete urban ensemble features infrastructure such as roads, bridges, water systems, buildings, decorative elements and everyday objects. It provides in-depth knowledge of the now vanished Western Islamic civilization of Al-Andalus, at the height of its splendour.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Caliphate City of Medina Azahara</site><states>Spain</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2225</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/200</http_url><id_number>200</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_200.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>8.3333333330</latitude><location>North Central Province, Anuradhapura District</location><longitude>80.3833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Anuradhapura attests in a unique and specific way to the Sinhalese civilization. On numerous occasions the city was submitted to the assaults of invaders from southern India - Tamils, Pandyas, Cholas, etc. It stands as a permanent manifesto of the culture of Sri Lanka, impervious to outside influences. The sacred city exerted a considerable influence on the development of architecture during several centuries. It includes remarkable monuments, particularly the Dagabas of colossal size, placed on circular foundations and surrounded by a ring of monolithic columns, characteristic of the Sinhalese stupas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city is one of the principal shrines of Buddhism. The cutting from the fig tree of Buddha, brought there in the 3rd century BC, has flourished and, today, the Bodhi tree spreads out over the centre of the site from a sanctuary near the Brazen Palace. The relics of Siddharta have, moreover, shaped the religious topography of Anuradhapura, where the Dagaba Thuparama was built by King Tissa in the 3rd century BC to house the clavicle of Buddha, an important religious relic presented by Ashoka.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded during the 4th century BC, Anuradhapura quickly became both the capital of Ceylon and the sacred city of Buddhism on the island. The Chronicles of Mahanam, a narrative written 1,000 years later, affirms that it was founded in 380 BC by Prince Pandukabhaya.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Towards 250 BC, King Ashoka sent his son Mahinda to convert Tissa, the grandson of Pandukabhaya, and the latter became the first Buddhist sovereign (&lt;em&gt;devanampiya&lt;/em&gt;) of Ceylon. A second mission, led by Sanghamitta, Buddhist nun and daughter of Ashoka, brought Tissa a cutting from the Ashvattha, the sacred fig tree of Bodhgaya, under which Siddharta attained spiritual enlightenment and supreme wisdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the exception of the period of the invasion of the Tamil princes, at the beginning of the 2nd century BC, Anuradhapura remained the political and religious capital of Ceylon during 10 centuries. Its apogee was reached under the reign of Dutthagamani who, in 161 BC, expelled the Tamil invaders, re-established Buddhism in the place of Brahminism and endowed the site with extraordinary monuments: Dagaba Minisaweti, Dagaba Rubanwelisaya, the Brazen Palace, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Anuradhapura was sacked and taken by the Pandyan kings during the 9th century and then returned against payment of a ransom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The majority of the monuments were restored but the city never recovered after its destruction in AD 993 by King Chola Rajaraja I. Having lost its position as capital, it was deserted in favour of Polonnaruwa.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This sacred city was established around a cutting from the 'tree of enlightenment', the Buddha's fig tree, brought there in the 3rd century B.C. by Sanghamitta, the founder of an order of Buddhist nuns. Anuradhapura, a Ceylonese political and religious capital that flourished for 1,300 years, was abandoned after an invasion in 993. Hidden away in dense jungle for many years, the splendid site, with its palaces, monasteries and monuments, is now accessible once again.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sacred City of Anuradhapura</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>221</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/201</http_url><id_number>201</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_201.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.9158333330</latitude><location>North Central Province, Polonnaruva District</location><longitude>81.0005555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Polonnaruwa bears witness to several civilizations, notably that of the conquering Cholas, disciples of Brahminism, and that of the Sinhalese sovereigns during the 12th and 13th centuries. This immense capital created by the megalomaniac sovereign, Parakramabahu I, in the 12th century, is one of history's most astonishing urban creations, both because of its unusual dimensions and because of the very special relationship of its buildings with the natural setting. It is also a shrine of Buddhism and of Sinhalese history. The tooth of the Lord Buddha, a remarkable relic placed in the Atadage under Vijabayahu, was considered as the talisman of the Sinhalese monarchy: its removal by Bhuvanaikabahu II confirmed the decline of Polonnaruwa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the destruction of Anuradhapura in 993 by Rajaraja, Polonnaruwa, a temporary royal residence during the 8th century, became the capital. The conquering Cholas constructed monuments to their religion (Brahmnism), and especially temples to Shiva where fine bronze statues, today in the Museum of Colombo, were found. The reconquest of Ceylon by Vijayabahu I did not put an end to the city's role as capital: it became covered, after 1070, with Buddhist sanctuaries, of which the Atadage (Temple of the Tooth Relic) is the most renowned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The apogee of Polonnaruwa occurred in the 12th century AD. Two sovereigns then proceeded to endow it with monuments. Parakramabahu I (1153-86) created within a triple-walled enceinte a fabulous garden-city, where palaces and sanctuaries prolonged the enchantment of the countryside. The following monuments date from this reign: the Lankatilaka, an enormous brick structure which has preserved a colossal image of Buddha; the Gal Vihara, with its gigantic rock sculptures which may be placed among the chefs-d'&amp;oelig;uvre of Sinhalese art; the Tivanka Pilimage, where wall paintings of the 13th century illustrate the &lt;em&gt;jataka&lt;/em&gt; (narratives of the previous lives of Buddha), etc. Nissamkamalla hastily constructed monuments that, although less refined than those of Parakramabahu I, were nonetheless splendid: the Rankot Vihara, an enormous stupa 175&amp;nbsp;m in diameter and 55&amp;nbsp;m high, is one of the most impressive; its plan and its dimensions are reminiscent of the dagabas at Anuradhapura.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After this golden age, Polonnaruwa underwent a century of difficulties, before its final decline. The city which was invaded by the Tamils and the Maghas, then reconquered in a precarious manner, was only periodically the capital before the end of the 13th century when it was captured in an assault by Bhuvanaikabuha II, who set up his government at Kurunegala.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Polonnaruwa was the second capital of Sri Lanka after the destruction of Anuradhapura in 993. It comprises, besides the Brahmanic monuments built by the Cholas, the monumental ruins of the fabulous garden-city created by Parakramabahu I in the 12th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Polonnaruwa</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>222</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/202</http_url><id_number>202</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_202.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.9500000000</latitude><location>Central Province,  Matale District</location><longitude>80.7500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sigiriya is a unique witness to the civilization of Ceylon during the years of the reign of Kassapa I. The site of the 'Lion Mountain' was visited from the 6th century AD, by passionate admirers. The frescoes of Sigiriya inaugurated a pictorial style which endured over many centuries. The poems inscribed on the rock by certain of these admirers, and known as the 'Sigiri graffiti,' are among the most ancient texts in the Sinhalese language, and thus show the considerable influence exerted by the abandoned city of Kassapa I on both literature and thought.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the heart of Ceylon, the extraordinary site of Sigiriya, a lofty rock of reddish gneiss dominating, from a height of some 180m, the neighbouring plateau, has been inhabited since the 3rd century BC, as attested by the graffiti which proliferate in the grottoes and the shelters of the Buddhist monks. The fame of the 'Lion Mountain' is, however, due to one single factor: during a short period in the 5th century AD, a sovereign established his capital there. King Kassapa I (477-95), son of Dhatusena, only came to power after he had engineered the assassination of his father and had, briefly, dispossessed his brother.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Justly fearing the vengeance of the latter, Kassapa had a fortified palace built on the rock of Sigiriya which was reputed to be impregnable. However, it was there that he was defeated after a short but cruel battle in 495, following which he cut his throat. After the death of Kassapa, Moggallana returned the site of Sigiriya to the monks, thus condemning it to progressive abandonment. During the eleven years that Kassapa resided in Sigiriya, he created a residence of exceptional splendour and founded his capital there, impressive vestiges of which are still extant.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;At the summit of the rock is the fortified palace with its ruined buildings, its cisterns and its rock sculptures. At the foot of the rock are the two quarters of the lower city which are defended by a massive wall: the eastern quarter (perhaps postdating the 5th century), which has not been sufficiently excavated, and the aristocratic quarter of the capital of Kassapa I, noteworthy for its terraced gardens embellished by canals and fountains, as well as for numerous monumental remains which have been disengaged from the forest which had invaded the ruins.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Halfway up the rock, within an inaccessible rocky shelter in the vertical wall of the western face are rock paintings which have brought universal acclaim to the site of Sigiriya - 'The Maidens of the Clouds', 21 non-identified female figures, comparable to the most beautiful creations of Ajanta.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of the capital built by the parricidal King Kassapa I (477&amp;ndash;95) lie on the steep slopes and at the summit of a granite peak standing some 180m high (the 'Lion's Rock', which dominates the jungle from all sides). A series of galleries and staircases emerging from the mouth of a gigantic lion constructed of bricks and plaster provide access to the site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Sigiriya</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>223</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Notified a national heritage wilderness area on 21 October 1988 (Gazette No. 528/14). Most of the area was originally declared a forest reserve on 3 May 1875 under the Waste Lands Ordinance and notified in the Ceylon Government Gazette No. 4046, dated 8 May 1875, while the rest was notified a proposed forest reserve in the early 20th century. Sinharaja Forest Reserve, comprising the existing and proposed forest reserves, was declared a biosphere reserve in April 1978, and inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1988.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/405</http_url><id_number>405</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_405.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>6.4166666670</latitude><location>Sabaragamuwa and Southern Provinces</location><longitude>80.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Sinharaja Forest Reserve is situated in the south-west lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka. Most of the area was originally declared a forest reserve on 1875 under the Waste Lands Ordinance and notified in the Ceylon Government, whereas the rest was notified a proposed forest reserve in the early 20th century. Sinharaja Forest Reserve, comprising the existing and proposed forest reserves, was declared a biosphere reserve in 1978.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This narrow strip of undulating terrain consists of a series of ridges and valleys. Two main types of forest can be recognized: remnants of &lt;em&gt;Dipterocarpus&lt;/em&gt; forest occur in valleys and on their lower slopes; secondary forest and scrub occur where the original forest cover has been removed by shifting cultivation and in other places the forest has been replaced by rubber and tea plantations. Mesua-Doona forest is the climax vegetation in most of the reserve. Of Sri Lanka's 830 endemic species, 217 trees and woody climbers are found in the lowland wet zone. Other rare endemics are the palm, the latter being restricted to Sinhagala. A variety of plants of known benefit to man are present, of which palm (for jaggery, a sugar substitute), wewal, cardamom, dun (for varnish and incense) and weniwal (for medicinal purposes) are used intensively by villagers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Endemism is high, particularly for birds, mammals and butterflies. Threatened mammals are leopard and Indian elephant. Birds considered to be endangered or rare are Sri Lanka wood pigeon, green-billed coucal, Sri Lanka white-headed starling, Sri Lanka blue magpie, ashy-headed babbler and red-faced malkoha. Of interest is the presence of the Sri Lanka broad-billed roller. Reptiles and amphibia include the python, which is vulnerable, and a number of endemic species. Noteworthy species include the rarest of all agamids on the island, the rough-nose horned lizard and a rare endemic microhylid. Threatened freshwater fish are combtail, smooth-breasted snakehead, black ruby barb, cherry barb and red-tail goby. Sri Lankan five-bar sword, which is considered to be very rare, is not uncommon in Sinharaja at certain times of the year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Sinharaja region has long featured in the legends and lore of the people of Sri Lanka. Its name, literally meaning lion (&lt;em&gt;sinha&lt;/em&gt; ) king (&lt;em&gt;raja&lt;/em&gt; ), perhaps refers to the original 'king-sized or royal forest of the Sinhalese', a people of the legendary 'lion-race' of Sri Lanka, or to the home of a legendary lion of Sri Lanka.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are two villages within the south-west of the reserve, and about 52 families live in the north-western sector. At least 20 other settlements occur on the periphery, an unknown number of which have been illegally established on state land without approval from the relevant authorities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sinharaja Forest Reserve is the last viable remnant of Sri Lanka's tropical lowland rainforest; over 60% of the trees are endemic and many of these are rare; and there are 21 endemic bird species as well as a number of rare insects, reptiles and amphibians.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in south-west Sri Lanka, Sinharaja is the country's last viable area of primary tropical rainforest. More than 60% of the trees are endemic and many of them are considered rare. There is much endemic wildlife, especially birds, but the reserve is also home to over 50% of Sri Lanka's endemic species of mammals and butterflies, as well as many kinds of insects, reptiles and rare amphibians.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sinharaja Forest Reserve</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>468</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/450</http_url><id_number>450</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_450.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.2936111110</latitude><location>Central Province</location><longitude>80.6402777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The monumental ensemble of Kandy, rebuilt in the reign of Keerti Sri Rajasimha, is an outstanding example of a traditional type of construction in which the Royal Palace and the Temple of the Tooth of Buddha are juxtaposed. The Temple of the Tooth, the palatial complex, and the sacred city of Kandy are directly and tangibly associated with the history of the spread of Buddhism, one of humanity's great religions. Built to house the relic of the tooth of Buddha, which had come from Kalinga (Orissa State, India) to Sri Lanka during the reign of Sri Meghavanna (310-28), when it was transferred a final time, the Temple of Kandy bears witness to an ever flourishing cult.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kandy, founded in the 14th century, is the southern tip of Sri Lanka's 'Cultural Triangle'. The city became the capital of the kingdom in 1592, during a troubled time when many of the islanders were fleeing to the interior, away from the coastal areas the European powers were fighting over. Although taken several times, the city remained one of the bastions of Sinhalese independence until the British troops entered it on 14 February 1815. From Vimala Dharma Suriya I (1591-1604) to Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe (1798-1815), it was the last seat of royal power. It remains the religious capital of Buddhism and a sacred city for millions of believers. Enshrined in the Dalada Maligawa is the relic of the tooth of Buddha which has long been greatly venerated. The ceremonial high point each year is the splendid ritual of the great processions on the feast of Esala Perahera.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built in a small wooded valley deep in the hills around an artificial lake created by Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe between 1803 and 1807, the city has much charm. The monumental zone includes, on the northern shores of the lake, the remains of the Royal Palace with the great Audience Hall, Temple of the Tooth, Palace of Sri Wickrama, queen's apartments and bathing house, Palle Wahala and Ran Ayuda Maduwa. Three other monumental groups (Dewala, Malwatte Vihara and Asgiriya Vihara) are the final elements of this important complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a result of more recent modifications the Royal Palace and the Temple of the Tooth date from the reign of Keerti Sri Rajasimha (1747-82). A first temple was built in 1603, destroyed by the Portuguese in 1637, and rebuilt in 1697. As a reference to the great architecture of Anuradhapura, the first historic capital, the present grander edifice was built upon a granite substructure. In addition to granite a wide variety of materials were used for this extraordinarily rich building: limestone, marble, sculpted wood, terracotta, metal and ivory. The painted decorations vie with the sculpted decor, and include purely decorative motifs as well as different series of figures (dancers, acrobats, animals) on the beams and ceilings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This sacred Buddhist site, popularly known as the city of Senkadagalapura, was the last capital of the Sinhala kings whose patronage enabled the Dinahala culture to flourish for more than 2,500 years until the occupation of Sri Lanka by the British in 1815. It is also the site of the Temple of the Tooth Relic (the sacred tooth of the Buddha), which is a famous pilgrimage site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sacred City of Kandy</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>522</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/451</http_url><id_number>451</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_451.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>6.0213888890</latitude><location>City of Galle, Southern Province</location><longitude>80.2186111100</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Galle provides an outstanding example of an urban ensemble which illustrates the interaction of European architecture and South Asian traditions from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The most salient feature is the use of European models adapted by local manpower to the geological, climatic, historical, and cultural conditions of Sri Lanka. In the structure of the ramparts, coral is frequently used along with granite. In the ground layout all the measures of length, width and height conform with the regional metrology. The wide streets, planted with grass and shaded by suriyas, are lined with houses, each with its own garden and an open veranda supported by columns, another sign of the acculturation of an architecture which is European only in its basic design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The bay of Galle lies off the south-west coast of Sri Lanka, sheltered by a rocky peninsula. Mentioned as early as 545 in the cosmography of Cosmas Indicopleustes, it is one of the most ancient 'ports of call of the Levant'. When Ibn Batuta landed there in 1344, it was the principal port of Ceylon. Portuguese navigators settled there in 1505, two years before settling in Colombo. It seems that they preferred Colombo at first. In 1588, they decided to withdraw to Galle and they hastily constructed a rampart and three bastions to defend the peninsula on the northern landside. The seaward side was considered invulnerable and was not fortified.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Few vestiges subsist from a Franciscan chapel that was built in 1543. When the fortified town fell into the hands of the Dutch in 1640, they decided to replace the precarious Portuguese defences constituted partially of palisades and earth banks. They encircled the whole of the peninsula with a bastioned stone wall so as to render it impregnable against the English, French, Danish, Spanish and Portuguese fleets vying with Holland for the supremacy of the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This fortified city, built by the Dutch, exists still, but with few changes. It has an area of 52&amp;nbsp;ha inside the walls defended by 14 bastions. The majority of the curtain walls were built in 1663. The northern fortified gate, protected by a drawbridge and a ditch, bears the date 1669. Much of the city, laid out on a regular grid pattern adapted to the configuration of the terrain (north-south peripheral streets are parallel to the ramparts and not to the central traffic axes), dates from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 18th century, protected by a sea wall finished in 1729, the city reached full development. It housed 500 families, and a large number of public administrations, trade establishments and warehouses were located there. A Protestant, Baroque-style church, the oldest in Sri Lanka, was constructed in 1775 for the European colonists and a few Christian converts from plans drawn up by Abraham Anthonisz. However, Galle remained essentially a stronghold. In the layout of the city the Commandant's residence, the arsenal and the powder house were prominent features. The forge, carpentry and rope-making workshops, the naval guardhouse, and barracks rounded out a system that closely linked prosperous trade to military security.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fort of Galle was handed over to the English only on 23 February 1796, one week after the surrender of Colombo. As a British protectorate, Galle remained the administrative centre of the south of Ceylon. A number of unfortunate modifications were then made: ditches filled in, new blockhouses added, a gate put in between the Moon bastion and the Sun bastion, a lighthouse installed on the Utrecht bastion, and a tower erected for the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1883. Other work was undertaken during the Second World War in order to restore the defensive function of the fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taken together these alterations, few in number, as can be seen from the above, have not seriously modified the original city plan. Galle remains the best example of a fortified city built by Europeans in South and South-East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 16th century by the Portuguese, Galle reached the height of its development in the 18th century, before the arrival of the British. It is the best example of a fortified city built by Europeans in South and South-East Asia, showing the interaction between European architectural styles and South Asian traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>523</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The rock of Dambulla is the centre of a Buddhist cave-temple complex established in the 3rd century B.C. and occupied continuously to this day. Its location has marked a transportation node between the Eastern and Western Dry Zones and between the Dry Zones and the central mountains throughout the history of Sri Lanka. The cave-temple complex is established on an inselberg or erosional remnant of importance in the study of the island's geological history. The 25 hectare site proposed for inscription also includes evidence of human occupation going back to the prehistoric period, including the recently excavated megalithic cemetery at Ibbankatuwa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has been in continuous use for over 22 centuries, when it was occupied by a Buddhist monastic establishment, following the arrival of Buddhism on the island. Remains of 80 rock shelter residences established at that time on the site have been identified. Likely in the 1st century B.C., the uppermost group of shelters on Dambulla's South face were transformed into shrines. These transformations continued and were intensified between the 5th and 13th centuries: cave-temples were extended into the sheltering rock, and brickwalls constructed to screen the caves. By the end of the 12th century, with the introduction by King Nissanka Malla of sculpture to the caves on the upper terrace, echoing the rock carving that had preceded it, the caves assumed their present general forms and layout.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The next major phase of development took place in the 18th century when following a long-standing tradition, the upper terrace was restored and refurbished. All of the painted surfaces within the caves were painted or overpainted in a style characteristic of the Kandy school of the late 18th century. At that time, the modest Buddhist figures in the caves were repainted, maintaining original details and iconography; the fronting screen walls were rebuilt and roofed to form an outer veranda. Throughout the 19th century, following the loss of royal patronage in 1815, periodic repainting of sculptures and deteriorating surfaces continued. In 1915, thanks to the efforts of a local donor, cave no5 was entirely repainted. And in the 1930's, the veranda was rebuilt incorporating a mixture of European and Asian detailing, and the complex's entrance porch was reconstructed in a conjectural 18th c. style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/561</http_url><id_number>561</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_561.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.8566666670</latitude><location>Central Province, Matale District</location><longitude>80.6491666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of Dambulla is an outstanding example of the religious art and expression of Sri Lanka and South and South-East Asia. The excavated shrine-caves, their painted surfaces and statuary are unique in scale and degree of preservation. The monastery includes significant masterpieces of 18th century art, in the Sri Lankan school of Kandy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rock of Dambulla is the centre of a Buddhist cave-temple complex established in the 3rd century BC and occupied continuously until today. Its location has marked a transportation node between the Eastern and Western Dry Zones and between the Dry Zones and the central mountains throughout the history of Sri Lanka. The cave-temple complex is established on an inselberg or erosional remnant of importance in the study of the island's geological history. The site also includes evidence of human occupation going back to the prehistoric period, including the megalithic cemetery at Ibbankatuwa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has been in continuous use for over 22 centuries, when it was occupied by a Buddhist monastic establishment, following the arrival of Buddhism on the island. Remains of 80 rock-shelter residences established at that time on the site have been identified. Most probably in the 1st century BC, the uppermost group of shelters on Dambulla's south face was transformed into shrines. These transformations continued and were intensified between the 5th and 13th centuries: cave-temples were extended into the sheltering rock, and brick walls constructed to screen the caves. By the end of the 12th century, with the introduction by King Nissanka Malla of sculpture to the caves on the upper terrace, echoing the rock carving that had preceded it, the caves assumed their present general forms and layout.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The next major phase of development took place in the 18th century when, following a long-standing tradition, the upper terrace was restored and refurbished. All the painted surfaces within the caves were painted or overpainted in a style characteristic of the Kandy school of the late 18th century. At that time, the modest Buddhist figures in the caves were repainted, maintaining original details and iconography; the fronting screen walls were rebuilt and roofed to form an outer veranda. Throughout the 19th century, following the loss of royal patronage in 1815, periodic repainting of sculptures and deteriorating surfaces continued. In 1915, thanks to the efforts of a local donor, cave No 5 was entirely repainted. In the 1930s, the veranda was rebuilt incorporating a mixture of European and Asian detailing, and the complex's entrance porch was reconstructed in a conjectural 18th century style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This cultural landscape is an extraordinary and unique complex: the cave-temple, rock paintings in five caves and 157 statues of various sizes. Dambulla bears witness in its richly layered composite nature to the use of the entire site for close to four millennia. The larger site incorporates a set of individual units reflecting all phases of site development from the megalithic period to the present day, including a monastic chapter house, bo-tree temple, dagoba and the earliest known village revealed by archaeological research in Sri Lanka. Those are located within a site of considerable natural beauty and power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Particular care has been taken in developing approaches to conservation which are in tune with the site's qualities, and the capacities of available conservators. One of the site's distinguishing characteristics is the regular renewal of decorated surfaces over time; conservation measures devoted to stripping back layers of later painting on wall surfaces or sculpture to reveal earlier images, would be ignoring the worth of the ongoing tradition which has regularly ensured complete repainting of surfaces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As well, the physical nature of the cave setting, with its latent moisture and migrating salts problems, has prompted much of the painting 'repair' that has taken place. Equally, limited tests, during conservation efforts, suggest that little earlier work survives, most later overpainting having prompted reinstatement of new base surfaces and obliteration of the old. The Jeevan Naide family, charged with care of the wall paintings since early in the 18th century BC, is still employed, working with ola leaf manuscripts which provide a clear idea of the complex layout and associated painting techniques. Technical missions to the site in 1990 and 1991, working with local apprentices and the Jeevan Naide family, brought science and tradition together in treatment of the site.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A sacred pilgrimage site for 22 centuries, this cave monastery, with its five sanctuaries, is the largest, best-preserved cave-temple complex in Sri Lanka. The Buddhist mural paintings (covering an area of 2,100 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ) are of particular importance, as are the 157 statues.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Golden Temple of Dambulla</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>663</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1203</http_url><id_number>1203</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1203.jpg</image_url><iso_code>lk</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>7.4524500000</latitude><location></location><longitude>80.8021000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of Adam's Peak is full of legends. According to the Mahavamsa, the Great Chronicle of Sri Lanka, the projection of Buddha's image is believed to have visited Sri Lanka in 550 BCE and to have planted one foot at the north of the royal city (Anuradhapura) and the other at the top of a mountain (Sri Pada or Adam's Peak). In the 11th century CE the reigning monarch, King Vijayabahu I, climbed the Peak with his army for the first time. In the 13th century King Panditha Parakrama Bahu I climbed the Peak and decided to make it less difficult for the pilgrims to reach the summit. Marco Polo visited the place in the 13th century and Ibn Battuta a century later. During the reign of King Magha, Buddhists were persecuted and monks fled in great numbers to neighbouring countries such as Burma, Thailand, and Laos. To continue their worship of the Buddha's footprint, the Sri Pada, they made replicas that were installed in temples abroad. As a result, the worship of the Sri Pada spread in South-East Asia, a practice that has continued unbroken since the 13th century. When the monks returned they brought these replicas back to the temples of Sri Lanka and the cult of the Sri Pada by means of small-scale copies became popular in the country. Over the centuries, right up to the present day, Adam's Peak has grown in importance as a place for worship.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural heritage of the HPNP is connected with its prehistory. Archaeological findings demonstrate that the area was occupied by Mesolithic people. Recent systematic archaeological investigations based on scientific analysis have yielded evidence of hunting and foraging during the glacial maximum (24,000-18,500 BP). Traces of slash-and-burn and grazing practices have been detected in the following period, whilst during the Post-Glacial period (17,600-16,000 BP) evidence of the beginning of the management of cereals (oats and barley) has been found. The systematic cultivation of rice occurred in the period 13,000-8,700 BP. By that time the cultivation of oats and barley had decreased. Between 8,000 and 3,600 BP with increasingly dry conditions agriculture decreased and in the following period the area appears to have been almost deserted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The KCF has traces of human life dating back to the Mesolithic period, the Early Iron Age, and the Pre- Colonial period (before 1505 CE). Several sites dated at 30,000 BP have been identified and associated relics, primary tool types, and microliths, have been found. A number of caves that were occupied by Mesolithic man have recently been identified. The area is rich in prehistoric evidence and further research is expected to provide additional information about its occupation in prehistory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several caves with drip-ledges dating from the Iron Age (2nd century BCE to 1st century CE) have been discovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sri Lanka's highlands are situated in the south-central part of the island. The property comprises the Peak Wilderness Protected Area, the Horton Plains National Park and the Knuckles Conservation Forest. These montane forests, where the land rises to 2,500 metres above sea-level, are home to an extraordinary range of flora and fauna, including several endangered species such as the western-purple-faced langur, the Horton Plains slender loris and the Sri Lankan leopard. The region is considered a super biodiversity hotspot.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central Highlands of Sri Lanka</site><states>Sri Lanka</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1650</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations at Gebel Barkal have not reached yet the earliest strata. In the vicinity of the site, excavations revealed human activity from the 3rd millennium BC. For the Egyptians of the New Empire, Gebel Barkal was a holy place and they made it a religious center and probably an administrative one as well.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The best represented period in the region is the Napatan- Meroitic.Napata or Gebel Barkal, was the capital of the Kushite kingdom, probably already at the end of the 9th century BC,and kept its religious and administrative role until the 4th century. Kurru and Nuri are the two royal cemeteries and Sanam has a Napatan cemetery and a big, not yet excavated, town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Remains from the post Meroitic period are found El Kurru, Zumma and other sites. Christian period remains are found in the whole region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;History of excavations starts with 1842-45 exploration and documentation by Prussian expedition headed by Karl Richard Lepsius. In 1912-13 an expedition from the Oxford University, directed by F. L. Griffith, excavated at Sanam. The most important archaeologist for the archaeology of Sudan was George Andrew Reisner who excavated on behalf of the Harvard University and the Boston Fine Art Museum, from 1907 till 1932.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recently excavations are being carried out by different local and foreign expeditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1073</http_url><id_number>1073</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1073.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sd</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criteria i, ii, iii and iv: The pyramids and tombs, being also part of the special desert border landscape, on the banks of the Nile, are unique in their typology and technique. The remains are the testimony to an ancient important culture which existed and flourished in this region only. Criterion (vi): Since antiquity the hill of Gebel Barkal has been strongly associated with religious traditions and local folklore. For this reason, the largest temples (Amon Temple for example) were built at the foot of the hill and are still considered by the local people as sacred places.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>18.5370000000</latitude><location>Northern state, province of Meroe</location><longitude>31.8280277778</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Gebel Barkal and the other sites bear exceptional testimony to the Napatan, Mero&amp;iuml;tic and Kushite civilizations that existed along the Nile between 900 BC and AD 600. The Amun temple at Gabel Barkal is a main centre of what was once an almost universal religion and, together with the other sites, represents the revival of Egyptian religious values.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sites are on both sides of the Nile, in an arid area, considered as part of Nubia. The pyramids and tombs, being also part of the special desert border landscape, on the banks of the Nile, are unique in their typology and technique. The remains are testimony to an ancient important culture which existed and flourished in this region only.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gebel Barkal is a natural hill 100&amp;nbsp;m above the plain surrounding it. Ever since antiquity the hill has played a special role in the religious life and folklore of the people of the region. Although a natural feature, because of its cultural significance it is considered to be cultural heritage. Excavations and surveys of the hill and its surroundings have revealed nine temples, all at the foot of the hill and facing the Nile, palaces, administrative structures, pyramids and other kinds of tomb. The largest of the temples is that dedicated to the god Amon. Many of the temples are decorated and have carved hieroglyphic inscriptions. Unlike the temples, which are built from stone, many of the palaces were made from earthen, sun-dried bricks. The necropolis - the field of pyramids - is part of the royal Napatan-Mero&amp;iuml;tic cemetery. Many differences exist between these pyramids and their more famous Egyptian models. The Napatan-Mero&amp;iuml;tic pyramids reach the maximum high of 30m and have a different construction and stone-finishing technique. The most important difference is their function. Unlike the Egyptian pyramids, which were built to enclose and hide the burial chamber, the Napatan ones are commemorative monuments to the deceased, buried in a hypogeum underneath. In front of the pyramid a small temple was built, for offerings. The 30 explored tombs are accessible by stairs and most of them are decorated, whether with paintings or engravings. The Gebel Barkal site has vast archaeological areas that have neither been excavated nor studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Napatan cemetery of El-Kurru is situated 20&amp;nbsp;km from Gebel Barkal. It includes several royal tombs and royal family members' burials. In the cemetery, in use between the 9th and 7th centuries BC, there are different types of tombs, from the most simple, covered with a small tumulus, to the most elaborate with a pyramid on top. Of these 34 tombs were excavated between 1916 and 1918. The cemetery of Nuri contains 82 tombs. Most of the tombs have pyramidal superstructures. The first burial in Nuri is from 664 BC and the last from around 310 BC. The tombs contain one, two or more burial chambers, some decorated, others plain. Other structures at Nuri include funerary chapels, a church and houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sanam is situated in the modern town of Mero&amp;euml;. The site includes a residential area, never excavated, and a vast 'popular' cemetery with more than 1500 burials and a large temple. An enigmatic structure, called 'the Treasury' because of some finds, is the largest structure on the site: its function is unknown. Zuma is a vast unexplored burial field, covered with small tumuli. It represents the period between the end of the Mero&amp;iuml;tic culture in the 4th century AD and the arrival of Christianity to Nubia in the 6th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations at Gebel Barkal have not reached yet the earliest strata. In the vicinity of the site, excavations revealed human activity from the 3rd millennium BC. For the Egyptians of the New Empire, Gebel Barkal was a holy place: they made it a religious centre, and probably an administrative one as well. The best represented period in the region is the Napatan-Mero&amp;iuml;tic. Napata or Gebel Barkal was the capital of the Kushite kingdom, probably already at the end of the 9th century BC, and kept its religious and administrative role until the 4th century. Kurru and Nuri are the two royal cemeteries and Sanam has a Napatan cemetery and a large unexcavated, town. Remains from the post-Mero&amp;iuml;tic period have been found at El Kurru, Zuma and other sites. Christian period remains are found in the whole region.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These five archaeological sites, stretching over more than 60 km in the Nile valley, are testimony to the Napatan (900 to 270 BC) and Meroitic (270 BC to 350 AD) cultures, of the second kingdom of Kush. Tombs, with and without pyramids, temples, living complexes and palaces, are to be found on the site. Since Antiquity, the hill of Gebel Barkal has been strongly associated with religious traditions and folklore. The largest temples are still considered by the local people as sacred places.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gebel Barkal and the Sites of the Napatan Region</site><states>Sudan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1250</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1336</http_url><id_number>1336</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1336.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.9333333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>33.7166666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Archaeological Sites of the Island of Meroe, a semi-desert landscape between the Nile and Atbara rivers, was the heartland of the Kingdom of Kush, a major power from the 8th century B.C. to the 4th century A.D. The property consists of the royal city of the Kushite kings at Meroe, near the River Nile, the nearby religious site of Naqa and Musawwarat es Sufra. It was the seat of the rulers who occupied Egypt for close to a century and features, among other vestiges, pyramids, temples and domestic buildings as well as major installations connected to water management. Their vast empire extended from the Mediterranean to the heart of Africa, and the property testifies to the exchange between the art, architectures, religions and languages of both regions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Sites of the Island of Meroe</site><states>Sudan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1760</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/262</http_url><id_number>262</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_262.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sd</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.7361111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>37.4430555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The property consists of two separate areas: Sanganeb is an isolated, coral reef structure in the central Red Sea and the only atoll, 25 km off the shoreline of Sudan. The second component of the property is made up of Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island, situated 125 km north of Port Sudan. It includes a highly diverse system of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, beaches and islets. The site provides a habitat for populations of seabirds, marine mammals, fish, sharks, turtles and manta rays. Dungonab Bay also has a globally significant population of dugongs. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Sanganeb Marine National Park and Dungonab Bay – Mukkawar Island Marine National Park</site><states>Sudan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2177</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2002</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first voyages of discovery to the so-called "Wild Coast" of South America were made in 1499 by the Spaniards Alonso and Juan de la Cosa, accompanied by Amerigo Vespucci. Rumours soon circulated about an Inca "City of Gold" (El Dorado) at Lake Parima in the interior of modern Guyana, and many adventurers were attracted to this coast, but Eldorado remained a legend.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the beginning of the 17th century colonization of the Wild Coast was directed towards the cultivation of sugarcane and tobacco. European governments encouraged settlers to establish plantations in order to exploit the region to meet the increasing demand for tropical products in Europe. English planters from Barbados arrived in the mid 17th century. The Dutch, who had a trading patent, also came to the coast around this time in search of tobacco and hardwoods; Dutch trading posts existed as early as 1614 on the Corantijn river and near the Indian village of Parmarbo or Parmurbo on the banks of the Suriname river. The English were driven out by a Dutch fleet commanded by Abraham Crijnssen during the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-67), and Suriname remained a Dutch possession for the next three centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the 18th century there were some six hundred plantations in operation. In the second half of the century the owners, who had hitherto lived on their plantations, began to migrate to Paramaribo, leaving the running of the plantations to managers. As a result, the plantations began to decline, but the town grew, with many fine houses built along tree-lined streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economic situation of Suriname worsened as the plantations declined, with beet being replaced as the source of sugar, and the situation deteriorated further when slavery was abolished in 1863. Fewer than a hundred plantations survived, and their owners and the freed slaves moved to Paramaribo, which expanded rapidly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To replace the slaves, the government brought in labourers to work the remaining plantations, first from China and the West Indies and later from India and Java. Between 1873 and 1939 34,000 Indians and 33,000 Javanese immigrated to Suriname, increasing its cultural and ethnic diversity and this is reflected in the present-day appearance of Paramaribo, which developed from an administrative centre and port into a city with multifarious activities existing side by side.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Paramaribo began when Fort Zeelandia was built in 1667 on a promontory on the left bank of the Suriname river, but early civil development was low-quality and random. When Van Sommelsdijck, the first governor and joint owner of the colony, took over in 1683 he laid out a planned town. It began on the shell ridges to the west, which offered a naturally drained hard base for building. In the mid 18th century it expanded southwards to the sandy land along the river, and finally at the end of the century to the north, where Dutch civil engineers used their skills to drain the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to Fort Zeelandia, Paramaribo was also protected by the Nieuw-Amsterdam Fortress at the confluence of the Suriname and Commewijne rivers, near the coast. Because of these strong defensive works, it was not necessary for the town to be fortified, which allowed it to be laid out in spacious lots along wide streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There were disastrous fires in 1821 and again in 1832, when much of the existing town was destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/940</http_url><id_number>940</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_940.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion ii Paramaribo is an exceptional example of the gradual fusion of European architecture and construction techniques with indigenous South America materials and crafts to create a new architectural idiom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion iv Paramaribo is a unique example of the contact between the European culture of the Netherlands and the indigenous cultures and environment of South America in the years of intensive colonization of this region in the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>5.8261100000</latitude><location>District of Paramaribo</location><longitude>-55.1500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Paramaribo is a unique example of the contact between the European culture of the Netherlands and the indigenous cultures and environment of South America in the years of intensive colonization of this region in the 16th and 17th centuries. The gradual fusion of European architecture and construction techniques with indigenous materials and crafts led to the creation of a new architectural idiom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the beginning of the 17th century, colonization of the Wild Coast was directed towards the cultivation of sugar cane and tobacco. European governments encouraged settlers to establish plantations in order to exploit the region. The Dutch, in search of tobacco and hardwoods, had settled as early as 1614 on the Corantijn River and near the Indian village of Parmarbo or Parmurbo on the banks of the Suriname River. Suriname remained a Dutch possession for the next three centuries. Paramaribo began when Fort Zeelandia was built in 1667 on a promontory on the left bank of the Suriname River. In 1683 Van Sommelsdijck, the first governor and joint owner of the colony, laid out a planned town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to Fort Zeelandia, Paramaribo was also protected by the Nieuw-Amsterdam Fortress at the confluence of the Suriname and Commewijne rivers, near the coast. Because of these strong defensive works, it was not necessary for the town to be fortified, which allowed it to be laid out in spacious lots along wide streets. By the end of the 18th century, settlers who had hitherto lived on their plantations began to migrate to Paramaribo, leaving the running of the plantations to managers. As a result, the plantations began to decline, but the town grew, with many fine houses built along tree-lined streets. Disastrous fires in 1821 and again in 1832 led to much of the existing town being destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economic situation of Suriname worsened as the plantations declined, with beet being replaced as the source of sugar, and the situation deteriorated further when slavery was abolished in 1863. Their owners and the freed slaves moved to Paramaribo, which expanded rapidly. To replace the slaves, the government brought in labourers to work the remaining plantations, first from China and the West Indies and later from India and Java, increasing its cultural and ethnic diversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The layout of the Inner City consists of a main axis stretching north-west behind Fort Zeelandia (the group of public buildings here is the central ensemble in the town plan), with streets crossing at right angles. To the north of Fort Zeelandia is the large public park known as the Garden of Palms. The wide streets and the public open spaces are tree-lined, giving a serene and spacious townscape. The larger public buildings, such as Fort Zeelandia, the Presidential Palace, the Ministry of Finance, the Reformed Church, and the Roman Catholic cathedral, were built from stone and brick in traditional Dutch style but increasingly incorporating native elements. Thus, the ground floor of the Presidential Palace is of stone but its upper storeys are of wood. Interestingly, the neoclassical Reformed Church is built from brick but the neo-Gothic Roman Catholic cathedral is entirely of wood. Most of the buildings in Paramaribo, both commercial and residential, are built entirely from wood, the majority of them following the 1821 and 1832 fires. The work was carried out by local craftsmen. They all conform to a general layout: they are rectangular and symmetrical in plan with steep roofs and brick substructures. Both these and the public buildings are generally painted white, the brick elements being highlighted in red. Doors and window shutters are in dark green.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There has been considerable restoration work on a number of other, non-listed, buildings; this has preserved the traditional style but has made use of contemporary materials, such as concrete simulating wood. Nevertheless, the overall urban fabric of Paramaribo, which dates from 1680-1800, still survives virtually intact and the authenticity of the townscape is exceptionally high.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Paramaribo is a former Dutch colonial town from the 17th and 18th centuries planted on the northern coast of tropical South America. The original and highly characteristic street plan of the historic centre remains intact. Its buildings illustrate the gradual fusion of Dutch architectural influence with traditional local techniques and materials.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Inner City of Paramaribo</site><states>Suriname</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1096</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1017</http_url><id_number>1017</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1017.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (ix) and (x):&lt;/em&gt; The site encompasses significant vertical relief, topography and soil conditions that have resulted in a variety of ecosystems. This ecosystem variation allows organisms within these ecosystems to move in response to disturbance, adapt to change and maintain gene flow between populations. The site&amp;rsquo;s size, undisturbed state (in general a rare condition in Amazonian forest parks) and protection of the entire Coppename watershed, will allow long-term functioning of the ecosystem. The site contains a high diversity of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic to the Guyana Shield and are globally threatened.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>4.0000000000</latitude><location>District Sipaliwini</location><longitude>-56.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Central Suriname Nature Reserve comprises 1.6&amp;nbsp;million hectares of primary tropical forest of west-central Suriname, within the phylogeographical limits of Amazonia. The reserve protects the upper watershed of the Coppename River and covers a range of topography and ecosystems. This site is one of the two largest reserves in the Guyana Shield highlands. Its mountainous and lowland forests contain a high diversity of plant life with almost 6,000 vascular plant species have been collected to date. There are also other areas of swamp forest, savannah and xerophytic vegetation on granite outcrops. The reserve's avifauna numbers 400 species and there are viable populations of animals typical of the region, including jaguar, giant armadillo, giant river otter, tapir, sloths and eight species of primate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much of the reserve has yet to be inventoried and the true extent of the area's diversity is not fully known. Several distinctive geological and physical formations occur in the site including several granite inselbergs that rise to 360&amp;nbsp;m above the surrounding tropical forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This natural property has a number of attributes that distinguish it from other reserves in the region:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;its size makes it one of the 10 largest tropical forest reserves in the Amazon/Guyana Shield region;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;its floristic composition, due to its location on the eastern edge of the Precambrian Guyana Shield, contains an assemblage of species with substantial differences with the rest of the region; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;it is of particular importance for several rare faunal species such as cock-of-the-rock and giant otter; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;it contains the distinctive geological feature of granite domes and additional relief provided by a &lt;em&gt;tepui&lt;/em&gt; and the Wilhelmina mountain range;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;it is one of the very few undisturbed forest areas in the Amazonian region with no inhabitants and no human use.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although large parts of the Guyana Shield and Amazon regions are being rapidly transformed by logging, hunting, mining and settlement, the reserve remains inaccessible, largely unaffected and unthreatened by human activity. However, as development pressures build around the reserve it is likely that, in future, threats may arise. Of the three existing protected areas that were linked to form this area, only the Raleighvallen Natural Reserve has infrastructure for park management and a management plan. Preparation of a plan for the whole reserve has commenced. This process will take some time as consultations with the local communities are being undertaken.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Central Suriname Nature Reserve comprises 1.6 million ha of primary tropical forest of west-central Suriname. It protects the upper watershed of the Coppename River and the headwaters of the Lucie, Oost, Zuid, Saramaccz, and Gran Rio rivers and covers a range of topography and ecosystems of notable conservation value due to its pristine state. Its montane and lowland forests contain a high diversity of plant life with more than 5,000 vascular plant species collected to date. The Reserve's animals are typical of the region and include the jaguar, giant armadillo, giant river otter, tapir, sloths, eight species of primates and 400 bird species such as harpy eagle, Guiana cock-of-the-rock, and scarlet macaw.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central Suriname Nature Reserve</site><states>Suriname</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1187</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The date of the foundation of the settlement at Birka, on the island of Bjijrkij in Lake Malaren, is uncertain. Archaeological evidence suggests that it began in the closing years of the 8th century AD. It was certainly flourishing when the German monk Ansgar (later to be canonized) went there in 829 from Denmark, where he had been sent by the Emperor Louis the Pious to evangelize the Danes. His successful mission is recorded in the Vita Ansaari written shortly after his death in 865 by his successor, Rimbert. The chronicler Adam of Bremen, writing around 1070, records later missions in the 930s and the 106Os, and Birka is referred to in an interpolation in the Anglo-Saxon translation of the Geographv of Orosius prepared at the request of Alfred the Great of England in the second half of the 9th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the two centuries of its occupation, Birka was one of the dominant emporia of the northern world, which extended from Russia in the east to Ireland in the west, through important centres such as Hedeby/Haithabu (Schleswig), Ribe (Denmark), Kaupang (Norway), Dorestad (Netherlands), and Hamwic/Southampton (England). The size of the Birka settlement and the fact that it had the status of a quasi-town, with its own thinq (council) and law, suggests that it was pre-eminent in this part of Scandinavia. It appears to have succeeded and replaced the earlier trading settlement at Helgo, some 10 km to the southeast, which flourished between AD 400 and 800.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Judging from the archaeological finds, Birka began to lose its importance in the 970s or 98Os, when its role was taken over by Sigtuna. Occupation lingered on for a few decades but Birka was probably abandoned by 920.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the decline of Birka, a Royal estate was established on the neighbouring island of Adelso. There are documentary references to associations between this area and the 11th century king Hakon. In the 13th century a royal palace was built in brick and became a favoured location for meetings of the Royal Council. It was here that the momentous Council meeting was held in 1279 at which the Swedish feudal system was given shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/555</http_url><id_number>555</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_555.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.3351400000</latitude><location>Stockholm County (Region of Uppland)</location><longitude>17.5426400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Birka is one of the most complete and undisturbed examples of a Viking trading settlement of the 8th-10th centuries AD. The Birka-Hovg&amp;aring;rden complex bears exceptionally well-preserved testimony to the wide-ranging trade network established by the Vikings during the two centuries of their phenomenal economic and political expansion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Birka-Hovg&amp;aring;rden is an important archaeological complex illustrative of the elaborate trading networks of Viking Age Europe and Scandinavia and their influence on subsequent history. It is also important as the site of the first evangelization of this part of Sweden. As the most extensive and complex prehistoric site in Sweden, Birka is unique as a well defined proto-town, mentioned in Frankish documents as early as AD 870, on the island of Bj&amp;ouml;rk&amp;ouml; in Lake M&amp;auml;laren, is uncertain. The earliest known Christian congregation in Sweden was founded when the German monk Ansgar (later to be canonized) went there in 829 from Denmark, where he had been sent by the Emperor Louis the Pious to evangelize the Danes. His successful mission is recorded in the Vita Ansgari written shortly after his death in 865 by his successor, Rimbert. The chronicler Adam of Bremen, writing around 1070, records later missions in the 930s and the 1060s, and Birka is referred to in an interpolation in the Anglo-Saxon translation of the Geography of Orosius prepared at the request of Alfred the Great of England in the second half of the 9th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its location on a small island had preserved the entire site from modern development and exploitation. The conservation work that has been in progress continuously since 1931 and its historic relevance make it a well-known tourist site. The historic connection with Birka and the historical events since the medieval period at Alsn&amp;ouml; make the ensemble of Adels&amp;ouml; Hovg&amp;aring;rden and Birka unique in Swedish history and of great significance in European history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the two centuries of its occupation, Birka was one of the dominant emporia of the northern world, which extended from Russia in the east to Ireland to the west, through important centres. The size of the Birka settlement and the fact that it had the status of a quasi-town, with its own &lt;em&gt;thinq&lt;/em&gt; (council) and law, suggests that it was pre-eminent in this part of Scandinavia. It appears to have succeeded and replaced the earlier trading settlement at Helg&amp;ouml;, 10&amp;nbsp;km to the south-east, which flourished between AD 400 and 800.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Judging from the archaeological finds, Birka began to lose its importance in the 970s or 980s, when its role was taken over by Sigtuna. With the decline of Birka, a royal estate was established on the neighbouring island of Adels&amp;ouml;. There are documentary references to associations between this area and the 11th-century King H&amp;aring;kon. In the 13th century a royal palace was built from brick and became a favoured location for meetings of the Royal Council. It was here that the momentous council meeting was held in 1279 at which the Swedish feudal system was given shape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The proto-town of Birka occupies much of the western part of the island of Bj&amp;ouml;rk&amp;ouml;. The surface evidence is confined to the ramparts of the hill fort, used as a refuge in times of danger, the long ramparts of the town wall, structures that existed formerly, with gaps where timber gate were located, traces of harbours and stone jetties along the shore, and some 3,000 burial mounds and stone settings surrounding the area of the main settlement. There are no standing remains of the settlement itself, with its timber buildings, but its location is vividly indicated by the so-called 'Black Earth', composed of the layers of human occupation and the remains of wooden structures that are common on other sites of the period, such as Anglo-Scandinavian York as revealed by excavation over the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This Viking Age and medieval royal estate is centred on Adels&amp;ouml; church, and the visible remains include the foundations of the 13th century brick palace, several large burial mounds, and an early medieval harbour.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Birka archaeological site is located on Björkö Island in Lake Mälar and was occupied in the 9th and 10th centuries. Hovgården is situated on the neighbouring island of Adelsö. Together, they make up an archaeological complex which illustrates the elaborate trading networks of Viking-Age Europe and their influence on the subsequent history of Scandinavia. Birka was also important as the site of the first Christian congregation in Sweden, founded in 831 by St Ansgar.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Birka and Hovgården</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>653</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Iron was produced in this region from at least the end of the Migration Period, using primitive smelting furnaces. The local peasants began mining ore and smelting in the 13th century, to supplement their agricultural activities. The introduction of the water-wheel to supply power for furnace bellows and hammers led to the rapid development of the Swedish iron industry in the later Middle Ages. The first bar-iron forge was operating at: Engelsberg in the closin9 years of the 16th century, and by the mid-17th century the scale of operations there was substantial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The policy of the Swedish Government of the time was to re\strict pig-iron production to the peasants and to site forges outside the mining districts, leading to the establishment of estates with iron works attached (jarnbruk) by noblemen or burghers, who were economically better able to develop high output units.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was the case at Engelsberg, where a nobleman built a blast furnace in 1681, for producing both pig and bar iron. Production steadily increased during the 18th century as a result of improving the technology and acquiring neighbouring forges: between 1695 and 1767 it rose from 135 to 264 tons per year. In 1778-9 a new blast furnace was built, incorporating recent technological innovations, together with an ore crusher and large charcoal store. The introduction of a new blowing engine in 1836 resulted in a significant increase in production. A gas-fired ore-roasting kiln was added in 1848. The forge, which was rebuilt in the later 18th century, was re-equipped with French hearths in the 1850s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decline of charcoal iron production began with the introduction of the Bessemer and open-hearth bulk steel-making processes into Sweden in the 1860s. Engelsberg was only able to survive by increasing the size of its smelting furnaces and lengthening their operating periods in the 1880s. By this time the Engelsbergs bruk was owned by the Fagersta Company, which found the older works increasingly uneconomical and closed it down in 1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/556</http_url><id_number>556</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_556.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.9666700000</latitude><location>Västmanland</location><longitude>16.0083300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Engelsberg is an outstanding example of an influential European industrial complex of the 17th-19th centuries, with important technological remains and the associated administrative and residential buildings intact. It is the best preserved and most complete example of a Swedish iron-working estate, of the type which produced the superior grades of iron, using primitive smelting furnaces, that made Sweden the economic leader in this field for two centuries, from at least the end of the Migration Period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The local peasants began mining ore and smelting in the 13th century, to supplement their agricultural activities. The introduction of the water-wheel to supply power for operating furnace and hammer bellows led to the rapid development of the Swedish iron industry in the later Middle Ages. The first bar-iron forge was operating at Engelsberg in the closing years of the 16th century, and by the mid-17th century the scale of operations there was substantial.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The policy of the Swedish Government of the time was to restrict pig-iron production to the peasants and to site forges outside the mining districts, leading to the establishment of estates with iron works attached by noblemen or burghers, who were economically better able to develop high-output units. This was the case at Engelsberg, where a nobleman built a blast furnace in 1681, for producing both pig and bar iron. Production steadily increased during the 18th century as a result of improving the technology and acquiring neighbouring forges: between 1695 and 1767 it rose from 135 to 264 tons per year. In 1778-9 a new blast furnace was built, incorporating recent technological innovations, together with an ore crusher and large charcoal store. The introduction of a new blowing engine in 1836 resulted in a significant increase in production. A gas-fired one-roasting kiln was added in 1848. The forge, which was rebuilt in the later 18th century, was re-equipped with French hearths in the 1850s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decline of charcoal iron production began with the introduction of the Bessemer and open-hearth bulk steelmaking processes into Sweden in the 1860s. Engelsberg was only able to survive by increasing the size of its smelting furnaces and lengthening their operating periods in the 1880s. By this time the Engelsbergs bruk was owned by the Fagersta Company, which found the older works increasingly uneconomical and closed it down in 1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Engelsberg is the most complete surviving example of the traditional j&amp;auml;rnbruk upon which much of Sweden's prosperity was based in the 17th and 18th centuries. These self-contained estates comprised not only technical installations but also a range of administrative and residential buildings for management and workers, including those who worked on the associated farm.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 50 buildings of various ages and functions have been preserved with in the complex. The main building, erected around 1750, is a two-storey modern house with weather-boarded walls and a black tin-plated roof. Some of the room are decorated with paintings in the Gustavian style (akin to English Georgian), with views of the manor itself, its furnace, and forge. The last modernization dates from 1828, when the manor changed hands again. New windows and a porch were added, together with a clock tower on the courtyard facade. The buildings has wings, that on the east containing the kitchen. There is a round pavilion, built from slag-stone, in front of each wing: the interior of that on the west is elegantly decorated. Other buildings around the manor house include the master gardener's house (1790), the brewery (1829), and a monumental slagstone barn (1872).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other noteworthy buildings at Engelsberg include the inspector's house, a modern storehouse, the office building (brought from Dalecarlia in 1917-18), stables, a coach-house, and smiths' cottages. The smelting house of 1778-79, together with associated installations from later periods, survives intact, as do the forge of the 1850s and the ore-roasting kiln of the 1800s. Together they provide a very complete picture of the technological equipment of a traditional Swedish &lt;em&gt;j&amp;auml;rnbruk&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sweden's production of superior grades of iron made it a leader in this field in the 17th and 18th centuries. This site is the best-preserved and most complete example of this type of Swedish ironworks.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Engelsberg Ironworks</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>655</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The landscape in which the rock carvings are situated has undergone a number of dramatic changes since the end of the Ice Age. The land began to rise some 10,000 years ago, but at the same time the melting of the ice cap caused the sea level to rise, so there have been successive periods of inundation and uplifting, combined with marked climatic fluctuations. Human occupation began in the Mesolithic period (90004000 BC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From around 3800 BC the economy changed, with the introduction of agriculture and the establishment of permanent settlements. A number of Neolithic burial mounds with passage graves survive in the Bohushin region. The funerary practice changed to burial in cist graves c. 2400 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around 1800 BC, when the sea level was at least 15 m above its present level, the region entered the Bronze Age. Many burial mounds, much higher than those in the preceding period, are to be found in Bohuslan. Bronze artefacts such as swords, spears, and axes were imported, and these figure on the rock engravings dated to this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cremation replaced inhumation around 1000 BC; some of the cinerary urns were placed in stone settings in the form of boats, which also figure prominently among the rock carvings. Analysis of the representations on the engraved stones and comparison with other cultural material of the period, such as weapons, tools, boats, etc. shows that this was the heyday of rock art; very little can be securely dated either earlier or later than the Bronze Age (1800-500 BC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In succeeding centuries the sea level continued to drop, so that by 500 BC it was only 4 m above its present level. This led to the emergence of large areas of land, but this coincided with deteriorating climatic conditions, and a period of hardship ensued. It was not until the beginning of the 1st millennium AD that Scandinavia resumed contact with the rest of Europe, to enter into its Golden Age from ADS 400 to the end of the Viking period. It was this period which saw the Bohushin landscape assume its present form and features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/557</http_url><id_number>557</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_557.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>58.7011100000</latitude><location>Bohuslan</location><longitude>11.3411100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The range of motifs, techniques and compositions on the Tanum rock carvings provide exceptional evidence of many aspects of life in the European Bronze Age. The continuity of settlement and consistency in land use in the Tanum area, as illustrated by the rock art, the archaeological remains, and the features of the modern landscape in the Tanum region combine to make this a remarkable example of continuity over eight millennia of human history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Northern Bohusl&amp;auml;n is a land of granite bedrock, parts of which were scraped clean as the ice cap slowly moved northwards, leaving gently curved rock faces exposed, many of them bearing deep scratches made by rocks caught in the receding ice. These were the 'canvases' selected by the Bronze Age artists, all of them just above the shoreline of the period that began in 1500 BC, i.e. 25-29&amp;nbsp;m above today's sea level.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This rock art is unique by comparison with that in rock-art areas in other parts of Scandinavia, Europe, and the world in its outstanding artistic qualities and its varied and vivid scenic compositions of Bronze Age man. The often lively scenes and complex compositions of elaborate motifs illustrate everyday life, warfare, cult, and religion. Some of the panels were obviously planned in advance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape in which the rock carvings are situated has undergone a number of dramatic changes since the end of the Ice Age. From around 3800 BC began the introduction of agriculture and the establishment of permanent settlements. A number of Neolithic burial mounds with passage graves survive in the Bohusl&amp;auml;n region. The funerary practice changed to burial in cist graves around 2400 BC. Around 1800 BC, when the sea was at least 15&amp;nbsp;m above its present level, the region entered the Bronze Age. Many burial mounds much higher than those in the preceding period, are to be found in Bohusl&amp;auml;n. Bronze artefacts such as swords, spears, and axes were imported, and these figure on the rock engravings dated to this period. Cremation replaced inhumation around 1000 BC; some of the cinerary urns were placed in stone settings in the form of boats, which also figure prominently among the rock carvings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In succeeding centuries the sea level continued to drop. This led to the emergence of large areas of land, but this coincided with deteriorating climatic conditions, and a period of hardship ensued. It was not until the beginning of the 1st millennium AD that Scandinavia resumed contact with the rest of Europe, to enter into its Golden Age from AD 400 to the end of the Viking period. It was this period which saw the Bohusl&amp;auml;n landscape assume its present form and features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The carvings were executed by scratching an outline, pecking and grinding the rock to break the surface and remove rock dust, and then grinding to the depth required, using stone hammers and points. Surviving engravings may be as little as 1&amp;nbsp;mm deep or as much as 30&amp;nbsp;mm or even 40&amp;nbsp;mm. It is suggested that the more deeply engraved figures were of greater symbolic significance and therefore required to be visible to larger gatherings of people. There are at least 1,500 known rock-carving sites in Northern Bohusl&amp;auml;n, each with a number of images, but new examples are regularly coming to light as research continues. They are concentrated in certain areas: for example, the parish of Tanum has over 360 recorded sites. There is a rich variety in the images, 13 categories of which have been identified: cup marks, discs, circles and wheels; boats, ships and sledges; animals; humans; hands; foot-soles and feet; wheeled vehicles; primitive ploughs; nets, traps and mazes; trees; weapons and other equipment; and other images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There have been many interpretations of the significance of these carvings since research began on them in the late 18th century. At the present, the generally accepted explanation is that they are examples of primitive symbolic art, with its two facets. On the one hand they are expressions of instrumental art, demonstrating the order of life and the pattern of existence (weapons, wagons, animals, humans) and on the other of transcendental art, concerned with the other world and the unknown (distorted animals and humans, disembodied hands).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The rock carvings in Tanum, in the north of Bohuslän, are a unique artistic achievement not only for their rich and varied motifs (depictions of humans and animals, weapons, boats and other subjects) but also for their cultural and chronological unity. They reveal the life and beliefs of people in Europe during the Bronze Age and are remarkable for their large numbers and outstanding quality.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rock Carvings in Tanum</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>657</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1912 Stockholm City Council acquired a 96 ha tract of pineclad sand and gravel for the purpose of creating a new cemetery. Au international architectural competition was organized, with the following conditions: the basic plan must be clear, simple, and efficient without sacrificing any of its artistic merits and without undue alteration of the natural contours of the existing landscape dignity must play an important part in the design; details should contribute to an attractive overall impression of artistic value; and the natural formation of the existing gravel pits should be used as far as possible to form valleys and glens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first prize was awarded to two 30-year old Swedish architects, Gunnar Asplund and Sigurd Lewerentz. Work began in 1917 and the formal consecration of the Woodland Cemetery and its first chapel, the Woodland Chapel (designed by Asplund), took place in 1920. The Stockholm Cemetery Board also introduced special restrictions regarding the size and form of gravestones in the new cemetery. The Woodland Chapel soon proved to be too small and so the Chapel of Resurrection (designed by Lewerentz) was added in 1925. In 1923-24 a service building designed by Aslund was erected.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1935t he City Council commissioned Asplund to draw up a plan for a chapel and crematorium complex just inside the main gate. The group of three chapels (the Chapels of Faith, Hope, and the Holy Cross), with common mortuary and crematorium facilities, were built in 193740. The huge granite cross on the lawn outside the chapels, also designed by Asplund, was a gift from an anonymous donor.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/558</http_url><id_number>558</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_558.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.2755600000</latitude><location>Stockholm County</location><longitude>18.0994400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The creation of Asplund and Lewerentz at Skogskyrkog&amp;aring;rden established a new form of cemetery that has exerted a profound influence on cemetery design throughout the world. It is an outstandingly successful example of a designed cultural landscape and buildings conceived as an integral whole, which blends landform and natural vegetation with architectural features to create a landscape that is ideally suited to its purpose as a cemetery.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In 1912 an international architectural competition was organized for the purpose of creating a new cemetery in a 96&amp;nbsp;ha tract of pine-clad sand and gravel with the following conditions: the basic plan must be clear, simple, and efficient without sacrificing any of its artistic merits and without undue alteration of the natural contours of the existing landscape; dignity must play an important part in the design; details should contribute to an attractive overall impression of artistic value; and the natural formation of the existing gravel pits should be used as far as possible to form valleys and glens. The first prize was awarded to two 30-year-old Swedish architects, Gunnar Asplund and Sigurd Lewerentz. The design of the cemetery stands out for its intense romantic naturalism. It turned the existing, essentially untouched, Nordic forest into the dominant experience, and it is the evocation of raw Nordic wilderness that constitutes a radical departure in landscape architecture as well as cemetery layout at this time.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Work began in 1917 and the formal consecration of the Woodland Cemetery (Skogskyrkog&amp;aring;rden): its first chapel, the Woodland Chapel, was built in 1920 and soon proved to be too small and so the Chapel of Resurrection and a service building was added between 1923 and 1925. The Stockholm Cemetery Board also introduced special restrictions regarding the size and form of gravestones in the new cemetery. In 1935 Asplund draw up a group of three chapels (Chapels of Faith, Hope, and the Holy Cross) and a crematorium complex. The huge granite cross on the lawn outside the chapels was a gift from an anonymous donor.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Unlike most of its contemporaries, Asplund and Lewerentz's cemetery design evokes a more primitive imagery. The intervention of footpaths, meandering freely through the woodland, is minimal. Graves are laid out without excessive alignment or regimentation among the natural forest. Such interventions as the architects allowed themselves, such as the reshaping of the two old gravel pits and the layout of the area round the main chapel, are effectively concealed within the virgin forest around them; yet provide a vivid contrast to them. Their sources were not 'high' architecture or landscape design but ancient and medieval Nordic burial archetypes. Nonetheless, skilful use was made of elements from Mediterranean antiquity, such as the Via Sepulchra at Pompeii, but these are not allowed to dominate the essentially Nordic whole.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The Woodland Chapel, built from wood with whitewashed walls and a shingled roof, represents both intensification and a formal disciplining of the romantic naturalism of the competition scheme. Its severity reflects Asplund's increasing interest in classicism and classical composition methods. The point of departure for the chapel, set in a grove of mature fir trees surrounded by a wall, is an indigenous vernacular landscape element, the country church surrounded by a walled graveyard. This is further evoked by the chapel's black shingle roof, but this is subtly shifted by isolating it on Tuscan columns, which give it the appearance from a distance of a wooden pyramid emerging from the surrounding trees.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The second group of chapels is designed to permit funerals to take place simultaneously. Each of the chapels has its own enclosed garden, and as a group they take full advantage of the natural landscape. The gentle slope is accentuated by the gradually descending height of the buildings to the open-air columbarium and the main gate. The largest of the chapels, Holy Cross, has a monumental hall in front of it, and adjoining this is a lily-pond. Beyond the pond is the space for open-air ceremonies. The columbarium, with niches and graves for urns, lies to the north of the chapels. Decorations inside the three chapels resulted from a competition held in 1937. They maintain the austerity that is characteristic of the entire Skogskyrkog&amp;aring;rden complex.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This Stockholm cemetery was created between 1917 and 1920 by two young architects, Asplund and Lewerentz, on the site of former gravel pits overgrown with pine trees. The design blends vegetation and architectural elements, taking advantage of irregularities in the site to create a landscape that is finely adapted to its function. It has had a profound influence in many countries of the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Skogskyrkogården</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>659</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/559</http_url><id_number>559</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_559.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>59.3230600000</latitude><location>Province of Stockholm, Region of Ekero</location><longitude>17.8833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of Drottningholm - castle, theatre, Chinese pavilion and gardens - is the best example of a royal residence built in the 18th century in Sweden and is representative of all European architecture of that period, heir to the influences exerted by the Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Versailles on the construction of royal residences in western, central and northern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The royal domain of Drottningholm is located on Queen's Island in Lake M&amp;auml;laren, outside Stockholm. The island's name acknowledges the closely interwoven history of the castle with the different queens of Sweden. The first royal residence was built there towards the end of the 16th century for Queen Catherine Jagellon, as the summer residence of the royal family. A century later, Queen Hedvig-Eleonora bought the lands and had a new castle built by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder (1615-81). The interior was decorated between 1665 and 1703, at first in a heavy, sumptuous Baroque style, but later increasingly refined to French patterns. After his death, his son carried on the work, but the building remained unfinished for almost 100 years. Belonging to this phase of construction are the royal bedroom and the atrium-vestibule from which the main staircase rises. The next owner was a future queen, the crown princess Louisa-Ulrika (wife of Adolph-Frederick 1751-71).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;She ordered Carl Harleman to continue the work in the style of Louis XV and, along with the private apartments, to add a sumptuous library and a portrait gallery, built by the French architect Jean Eric Rehn. Gustav Ill (1771-92) inherited the castle from his mother, but the terrible monarch was obliged to sell it to the state with all the furnishings and collections of Louisa-Ulrika. Expansion and renovation went on over the decades that followed as well, leading to the creation pf new ancillary buildings, the radical restructuring of the throne room and, during the reign of King Oscar II (1829-1907), an extensive campaign of decoration intended to make the palace adhere more closely to the eclectic Rococo tastes of the king.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The same queen Louisa-Ulrika had Frederik Adelcrantz build a theatre (1766) in the castle grounds. In the early 20th century it was restored to its original appearance and refurbished with the original fittings, even the stage sets. It is a unique example of a European theatre of the 18th century that has conserved its original state. The sophisticated theatrical machinery, designed and built by the Italian Donato Stoffani, is still fully intact, permitting quick changes of scene with the curtain up. A unique collection of stage sets, the dressing rooms, the storerooms, the scenery, and the large orchestra, seating 400 spectators, are preserved. The park was later expanded with a wilder section, and Gustav III also had an English park laid out in 1777. In 1922 the castle, once again a residence for the royal family, was restored and a large part of the furnishings and decorations of the 18th century were returned, under the direction of Agne Beijer.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The changes and shifts in styles and fashions also affected the gardens: the French garden, which surrounds the complex, designed by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger in 1681 on the model of the Baroque park of Versailles, with bronze statues by Adriaen de Vries, hedges with surprising shapes, and flowerbeds, bushes, waterfalls, fountains and artificial ponds; and the English garden, to plans by King Gustav III and the architect Adelcrantz, reflecting the new preference for a more lively and 'picturesque' landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a birthday gift, the mother of Gustav III was once given a Chinese pavilion, in keeping with the chinoiseries in vogue at the time. The pavilion, built in 1769 to replace a wooden pavilion from 1753, is considered one of the most important examples of this type of structure conserved in Europe. The architecture is basically French Rococo but it has an exotic character, with Chinese and other oriental elements, which were the height of fashion then. The interiors are among the most splendid in Swedish Rococo. The exterior of the Chinese Pavilion was renovated in 1943-55 and the interior in 1959-68.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Royal Domain of Drottningholm stands on an island in Lake Mälar in a suburb of Stockholm. With its castle, perfectly preserved theatre (built in 1766), Chinese pavilion and gardens, it is the finest example of an 18th-century north European royal residence inspired by the Palace of Versailles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Domain of Drottningholm</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>660</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;By virtue of its position, Gotland has played a dominant role in Baltic trade for many centuries. Gotlanders were among the first to recognize the enormous potential resources of Russia in furs, wax, tar, and timber, and they founded trading houses along the coasts and rivers leading into the heart of Russia. Russian goods were being shipped from Gotland into Western Europe, to Schleswig, Frisia, and England&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations have indicated that there was a trading settlement in the early Viking Age on the site of Visby, among others along the coasts of the island. These banded together for the protection of their chains of trading posts and to assert their interests vis-&amp;agrave;-vis the rulers of the territories through which they passed (and also against their rivals) into a federation or Hansa. By the 12th century Visby had come to dominate this trade: all the commercial routes of the Baltic were channeled through the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the foundation of L&amp;uuml;beck in 1158-59 German merchants began to expand their sphere of interest into the Baltic. Good relations were established between L&amp;uuml;beck and Gotland. German merchants settled in Visby, which became the only trading place on the island with the privilege of trading with German towns, and hence the main centre of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic. The Germans were followed by Russian and Danish traders; guild houses and churches were built in the town, and stone warehouses were constructed along the harbour. The earlier small wooden buildings were replaced during the 13th century by large stone houses, built in parallel rows eastwards from the harbour. Pressure on the original centre was such that the surrounding land was used for housing, as well as the erection of Churches and guild houses. During the 13th century Visby changed from a simple Gotland village to an impressive international town, enclosed by a strong defensive wall, and increasingly divorced from its rural hinterland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 14th century saw Visby losing its leading position in the Hanseatic League, following a series of disasters. The Black Death struck in 1350, when over 8000 people died in the town. The island was occupied by the Danish army in 1361, to be followed by the pirates known as the Vitalian Brothers in 1396; they were driven out two years later by the Order of Teutonic Knights, who occupied the island in their turn. The incessant warfare and piracy of the 15th century severely affected trade in the Baltic and the economy of Visby deteriorated. The 15th century saw further misfortunes for Visby, when it was the centre of prolonged battles between the Danes and the deposed Swedish king, Erik of Pomerania, who made it the headquarters for his attempts to win back his kingdom. The end of Visby's greatness came in 1525, when it was stormed by an army from L&amp;uuml;beck which put the northern parts of the town to the torch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, a hundred years after Gotland returned to Swedish rule, Visby experienced a revival Of trade and industry. New buildings were added, both on the ruins of earlier ones and in new areas on the cliff and around Visborg castle. The Swedish law of 1757 that exempted those who built in stone from taxes, in order to conserve timber, was of crucial importance for Visby, which continued to grow and prosper. The 19th century saw the construction of schools, a hospital, and a prison and the growth of a small shopping area on one of the main streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/731</http_url><id_number>731</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_731.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>57.6416700000</latitude><location>Island region of Gotland</location><longitude>18.2958300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Visby is an outstanding example of a north European medieval walled trading town which preserves with remarkable completeness a townscape and assemblage of high-quality ancient buildings that illustrate graphically the form and function of this type of significant human settlement. The urban fabric and overall townscape of Visby is its most important quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By virtue of its position, Gotland has played a dominant role in Baltic trade for many centuries between Western Europe (Schleswig, Frisia, England) and Russia. Excavations have indicated that there was a trading settlement in the early Viking Age on the site of Visby. These trading settlements banded together for the protection of their chains of trading posts and to assert their interests vis-&amp;agrave;-vis the rulers of the territories through which they passed (and also against their rivals) into a federation or Hansa. By the 12th century Visby dominated this trade: all the commercial routes of the Baltic were channelled through the town. German merchants began to expand their sphere of interest into the Baltic and to settle in Visby, henceforward the main centre of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic. The Germans were followed by Russian and Danish traders; guild houses and churches were built in the town, and stone warehouses were constructed along the harbour. The earlier small wooden buildings were replaced during the 13th century by large stone houses, built in parallel rows eastwards from the harbour. Pressure on the original centre was such that the surrounding land was used for housing, as well as the erection of churches and guild houses. Visby changed from a simple Gotland village to an impressive international town, enclosed by a strong defensive wall, and increasingly divorced from its rural hinterland. The 14th century saw Visby losing its leading position in the Hanseatic League, following a series of disasters: the Black Death struck in 1350, the occupation by the Danish army in 1361, the pirates known as the 'Vitalian Brothers' in 1396, driven out two years later by the Teutonic Knights, who occupied the island in their turn. The end of Visby's greatness came in 1525, when it was stormed by an army from L&amp;uuml;beck which burned the northern parts of the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is enclosed by the medieval City Wall built in the 13th century and substantially modified in the 14th century. From the town gates in the north, east, and south roads (possibly prehistoric in origin) lead from the cliff to the harbour, giving Visby its characteristic townscape. Dating in its present form mainly from the 13th century, the streets are irregularly laid out, suddenly becoming broad or narrow in places. A similar street pattern existed in the heart of the later city in Viking times and can still be traced from the plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Medieval Visby had more churches than any other town in Sweden - fifteen within the walls and two outside, which served various functions: parish churches, guild churches, monastic churches, and hospital church. Also there are over 200 secular buildings with substantial medieval elements surviving. They are all relatively similar in shape and size: rectangular in plan, with gables end-on to the street, and of between five and seven storeys. The top storeys are often vaulted in stone, as a fire-protection measure. Decoration is used sparingly, generally restricted to quoins, stepped gables, and door surrounds: the main constructional material is limestone, with decorative elements in brick and tiled roofs. The best preserved and most complete of these medieval warehouses is the 'Old Pharmacy' on Strandgatan, with vaulted rooms on the ground and top floors, a latrine cellar, a medieval well, and original surrounds on doors, windows, and apertures. Other notable buildings are von Lingen's House on St Hansgatan and a number of houses in the narrow streets running down to the harbour. The 'Old Residence' and the Burmeister House on Strandgatan, both from the mid-17th century, have lavishly painted interiors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the eastern part of the town, within the walls and below the cliff, the medieval vegetable plots were built over in the 1740s with small wooden houses of horizontal plank construction, which survive intact, as do the late 18th century houses in Swedish vernacular style built on the site of Visborg castle, blown up by the Danes when they left the island in the late 17th century. New buildings in stone were added in the 19th century: schools, a hospital, a prison and the growth of a small shopping area on one of the main streets.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A former Viking site on the island of Gotland, Visby was the main centre of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic from the 12th to the 14th century. Its 13th-century ramparts and more than 200 warehouses and wealthy merchants' dwellings from the same period make it the best-preserved fortified commercial city in northern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hanseatic Town of Visby</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>864</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Lule river and its valley have provided an effective route between the Gulf of Bothnia and the mountains of Lapland, and beyond to the coast of northern Norway, from earliest times. Agricultural villages had been established on the fertile lands along the coast and in the lower portion of the river valley as early as the 13th century. A market centre developed on the islands in the Lulea district in the 14th century. When the Swedish-Finnish kingdom, supported by the Archbishop of Uppsala, expanded into this region as an act of deliberate colonization, to counteract Russian pressure, the present stone church of Gammelstad was built at the turn of the 14th century. Its unusual size and lavish decoration testify both to the prosperity of the region, based on trade in furs and fish from Lapland, and to its political and religious significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement became the meeting place for three groups- merchants from the coastal regions of the Gulf of Bothnia, local farmers, and the Sami (Lapps) of the hinterland. Of these, the farmers were the largest group: the parish of Lulea comprised 47 villages with over 400 farms by the mid-16th century. A social framework evolved around the parish church, influenced strongly by two factors - trade and church visits from outlying villages and farms, whose inhabitants were unable to attend church services and return to their homes within a single day. BY the beginning of the 17th century the site of the church and its neighbouring market place had developed into a church town (a translation of the Swedish term for this type of settlement), ie a cluster of wooden cottages and stables to provide sleeping accommodation for churchgoers at weekends and festivals. This type of settlement is considered to have developed from several sources: the dormitory cottages of merchants who visited it only occasionally; the stables built near churches to protect horses during the bitter winters of northern Sweden, and the legal obligation upon parishioners to attend Sunday services and religious festivals. In all, 71 church towns were created in northern Sweden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time the merchant town developed on more formal lines, with the granting of a town charter in 1621, as part of a deliberate policy of regulating trade. BY this time the merchants were all local inhabitants: the earlier links with Stockholm had been severed. However, the phenomenon of progressive land upheaval following the end of the last Ice Age led to the abandonment of the old harbour and the relocating of the trading centre closer to the sea in the mid-17th century; the new settlement took the name of Lulea, and was also known as Nystan (New Town), the earlier church site being renamed Gammelstad (Old Town).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gammelstad continued as the parish centre, though the parish itself had diminished in size as population growth led to the creation of new parishes. lt was an administrative and judicial centre, and also provided the focus for social activities of all kinds. Because of the need to ensure that farm animals were continuously supervised, it was not possible for an entire family to take part in religious observances at the same time. As a result the tradition of &amp;quot;church holidays&amp;quot; for older parishioners two or three times a year developed, along with an annual two-week period at midsummer for the younger people to meet, to prepare themselves for confirmation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gammelstad was untouched by the industrialization of the region in the later 19th century, made possible by the introduction of the railway from the south, which mitigated the isolation during winter. when the sea froze over. The advent of the automobile saw the gradual disappearance of most of the stables in the church town. Despite the relocation of the settlement to Lulea, the church village (ie that area of houses that were permanently occupied), this quarter retained its town plan simply because there was no pressure for it to be changed during a period of stagnation. As a result the houses built in the 20th century as part of the dormitory area of Lulea all lie outside the early settlement, and Gammelstad has retained its historical integrity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/762</http_url><id_number>762</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_762.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (ii), (iv) and (v)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that the site is of outstanding universal value as it is a remarkable example of the traditional church town of northern Scandanavia, and admirably illustrates the adaptation of conventional urban design to the special geographical and climatic conditions of a hostile natural environment.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>65.6461100000</latitude><location>County of Norrbotten (Norrbottens län)</location><longitude>22.0286100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lule&amp;aring; Gammelstad is a remarkable example of the traditional church town of northern Scandinavia, and illustrates the adaptation of conventional urban design to the special geographical and climatic conditions of a hostile natural environment. It is a type of milieu that has been shaped by people's religious and social needs rather than economic and geographical forces, being intended for use only during weekends and church festivals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lule&amp;aring; river and its valley have provided a route between the Gulf of Bothnia and the mountains of Lapland, and beyond to the coast of northern Norway, from earliest times. Agricultural villages were established on the fertile lands as early as the 13th century, when the Swedish-Finnish kingdom expanded into this region as an act of deliberate colonization, to counteract Russian pressure. The size of the 14th century stone church of Gammelstad testifies to the prosperity of the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement became the meeting place for three groups - merchants from the coastal regions of the Gulf of Bothnia, local farmers, and the Saamis (Lappons) of the hinterland. Of these, the farmers were the largest group by the mid-16th century. A social framework evolved around the parish church, influenced strongly by two factors - trade and church visits from outlying villages and farms, whose inhabitants were unable to attend church services and return home in a single day. The site of the church and its market place developed into a church town, i.e. a cluster of wooden cottages and stables to provide sleeping accommodation for churchgoers at weekends and festivals. The new settlement resulting from the relocation of the old harbour and of the trading centre closer to the sea took the name of Lule&amp;aring;, and was also known as Nystad (New Town). The earlier church site, renamed Gammelstad (Old Town), continued as the parish centre, although the parish itself had diminished in size as population growth led to the creation of new parishes. Because of the need to ensure that farm animals were continuously supervised, it was not possible for a family to take part in religious observances at the same time. As a result the tradition of 'church holidays' for older parishioners two or three times a year developed, along with an annual two weeks at midsummer for the younger people to meet, to prepare themselves for confirmation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gammelstad was untouched by the industrialization of the region in the later 19th century, made possible by the introduction of the railway from the south, which mitigated the isolation during winter, when the sea froze over. The advent of the car saw the gradual disappearance of most of the stables in the church town. Despite the relocation of the settlement to Lule&amp;aring;, the church village retained its town plan simply because there was no pressure for it to be changed during a period of stagnation. The houses built in the 20th century as part of the dormitory area of Lule&amp;aring; all lie outside the early settlement, and Gammelstad has retained its historical integrity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church town consists of 424 buildings, divided into 555 separate rooms. All are built from wood, painted red and with doors and window frames picked out in white. The doors, which face the street, are very varied in design, as are the window shutters, essential where buildings are not occupied continuously. Most of the doors bear a pyramid device, a motif from pagan antiquity reinterpreted as a Christian symbol depicting an altar with a sacrificial fire. The roofs were originally of wood, but with the advent of metal sheeting this became the favoured roofing material, to reduce fire risk and water leakage during thaws. A specific form of rolled steel sheeting has become accepted as the traditional roofing material.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The church is the largest of its type in northern Scandinavia. It was decorated by artists from Stockholm and is crowned with the coat of arms of the archbishop. The bell tower (1852) is detached from the church, an unusual feature in this region. Notable buildings within the area are the Chapel of Bethel on the church square; the Cottage of the Separatists: the Parish House, built in 1754; the imposing Tithe Barn (1790); and a number of private houses, notably the Mayor's Residence, the Captain's Residence, and the Guest House, mostly dating from the foundation of the 17th century town.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Gammelstad, at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, is the best-preserved example of a 'church village', a unique kind of village formerly found throughout northern Scandinavia. The 424 wooden houses, huddled round the early 15th-century stone church, were used only on Sundays and at religious festivals to house worshippers from the surrounding countryside who could not return home the same day because of the distance and difficult travelling conditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Church Town of Gammelstad, Luleå </site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>898</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vii)(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1996</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The nominated area in northern Fennoscandia was first occupied in the Palaeolithic period, towards the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 Years BP. The settlers were nomadic hunter-gatherers, subsisting principally on wild reindeer, and traces of their occupation is found in the form of hearths and house-foundations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present-day peoples of the area, the Lapps or Saami, as they call themselves, who speak a Finno-Ugrian language, arrived from the east 4000-5000 years ago. At the same time other peoples arrived in the region from the south, settling along rivers and lake-shores. The Saami began hunting wild reindeer, like their predecessors, but slowly replaced them by domesticated herds, with which they migrated during the year. They practised a form of transhumance, spending the summer in the mountains and the winters in the coniferous forests to the east.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/774</http_url><id_number>774</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_774.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe the nominated property on the basis of &lt;em&gt;natural criteria (vii), (viii) and (ix)&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;cultural criteria (iii) and (v)&lt;/em&gt;. The Committee considered that the site is of outstanding universal value as it contains examples of ongoing geological, biological and ecological processes, a great variety of natural phenomena of exceptional beauty and significant biological diversity including a population of brown bear and alpine flora. It was noted that the site meets all conditions of integrity. The site has been occupied continuously by the Saami people since prehistoric times, is one of the last and unquestionably largest and best preserved examples of an area of transhumance, involving summer grazing by large reindeer herds, a practice that was widespread at one time and which dates back to an early stage in human economic and social development.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>67.3333300000</latitude><location>County of Norrbotten. Municipalities – rural districts – Gällivare, Jokkmokk and Arjeplog</location><longitude>17.5833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This area has been occupied continuously by the Saami people since prehistoric times, and is one of the last and unquestionably the largest and best preserved area of transhumance, involving summer grazing by large reindeer herds, a practice that was widespread at one time and which dates back to an early stage in human economic and social development. It contains all the processes associated with glacial activity, such as monad nocks, kursu valleys, sandurs, boulder hollows, U-shaped valleys, glacial cirques and moraines, talus slopes, drumlins, presence of large erratic and rapidly flowing glacial streams, as well as a record of humans being part of these ecosystems as far as 7000 BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site lies close to the Arctic Circle in northern Sweden. It consists of two landscape types: an eastern taiga area of Archaean geological origin and a western mountainous landscape covering two-thirds of the area, formed more recently and comprising part of the Swedish-Norwegian Scandes, with a thinly vegetated mountainous landscape, steep valleys and powerful rivers. Birch, low heath and alpine meadows, are found below boulder fields, permanent snowfields and glaciers. The area in northern Fennoscandia was first occupied in the Palaeolithic period, towards the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 years BP. The settlers were nomadic hunter-gatherers, subsisting principally on wild reindeer, and other of their occupation is found in the form of hearths and house-foundations. The region includes the four national parks Padjelanta, Sarek, Stora Sjofallet and Muddus, and the nature reserves Sjaunja and Stubba. The archaeological record shows remains of human settlement over wide areas of the site indicating hunting and fishing culture between 3500 BC and 2000 BC. Extensive reindeer domestication and nomadic life based on herding of tame reindeer did not develop until the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lapps or Saami in the area still live, for 4,000-5,000 years, in the mountains during the summer, especially in the western part near some of the large lakes. Family groups occupy small cabins, which have replaced the traditional dwellings made from goat-skins. There are no summer camps in the eastern part: the reindeer owners there live in the neighbouring villages and municipalities. There are no permanent settlements occupied throughout the year anywhere in this area. The Saami have progressively substituted reindeer hunting for reindeer herding from the 16th century onwards. At the same time other peoples arrived in the region from the south, settling along rivers and lake-shores. This people practised a form of transhumance, spending the summer in the mountains and the winters in the coniferous forests to the east. The Saami people have the right to fish in the large lakes in Padjelanta commercially, but as a sideline during the summer while there with reindeer herding. The crucial factor in terms of the area's integrity is the impact of reindeer husbandry which, by Swedish law, is a right guaranteed to the Saami people.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Researchers working on large mammal predators and white-tailed eagle indicated that all populations seem to be healthy with the exception of wolverine which occurs in low numbers. Also there are more than 150 bird species and 100 bears, including wanderers use the area. Regarding the wolf, the mission was advised that it is not politically feasible to reintroduce it because of the reindeer herding activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Swami retain their traditional rights relating to pasturage, felling, fishing, and hunting and to the introduction of dogs into the protected areas. The practice of pastoral transhumance has been rendered obsolete or been abandoned in many parts of the world, but this area is one of the last and the best preserved of those that survive.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Arctic Circle region of northern Sweden is the home of the Saami people. It is the largest area in the world (and one of the last) with an ancestral way of life based on the seasonal movement of livestock. Every summer, the Saami lead their huge herds of reindeer towards the mountains through a natural landscape hitherto preserved, but now threatened by the advent of motor vehicles. Historical and ongoing geological processes can be seen in the glacial moraines and changing water courses.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Laponian Area</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>916</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The naval port of Karlskrona was founded in 1680, at a time when Sweden was a major power whose territory included modern Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and parts of north Germany. The first step towards domination of the Baltic came when Sweden secured direct access to the North Sea ports and broke Danish control over &amp;Ouml;resund Sound, the key to Baltic trade. When peace with Denmark was declared in 1658 with the Treaty of Roskilde, Sk&amp;aring;ne, Blekinge, and Gotland became Swedish territory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A garrison and shipyard were installed at the small port of Bodekull, renamed Karlshamn in honour of King Karl XI. However, after a short Danish occupation (1676-79), it was recognized that this was not the ideal site for a naval base, and so in 1680 Karl XI issued a charter for the foundation of a new town in the east of Blekinge on the islands of W&amp;auml;m&amp;ouml; and Tross&amp;ouml;, to be known as Karlskrona and to serve both as a port and as a naval base. Tradesmen and merchants from this hitherto Danish area were forced into the new town by the withdrawal of their charters from the established towns of Kristianopel and Ronneby, and the region was progressively assimilated into Sweden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The naval installations that developed at Karlskrona, beginning with a shipyard and storage facilities, were initially supervised by Erik Dahlbergh, Quartermaster General, responsible for the defences of the Swedish kingdom. Naval architects and craftsmen were sent from Stockholm, and houses were built to receive them. The shipyard began with two building berths, two quays, two forges, and five warehouses; the first keel was laid down in December 1680 and the first ship was launched the following year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Karlskrona became a seat of government in 1683, the year in which Dahlbergh drew up the definitive plans for the town and its fortifications. By the time Gustav III took the throne by means of a coup d'&amp;eacute;tat in 1772 it had become the third largest town in Sweden. There was a frenzied burst of activity at this time, with the building of a large fleet (accompanied by renewed building activity in the town itself) aimed first at Denmark and then Russia. Gustav's military adventures achieved very little, and he was assassinated by his political enemies among the nobility, who resented his assumption of absolute power. The loss of Finland in 1809 saw the end of the Swedish imperial dream.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the political decline of the country, Karlskrona continued as the main base for the Swedish navy. A number of modernization and expansion projects took place during the 19th and 20th centuries, to keep pace with developments in naval and military tactics and technology (although the shipyard was slow to adopt new technologies, with the result that wooden hulls did not give way to steel until the 1880s). World War II saw the modernization of some of the older fortifications and the installation of new facilities for defence against aerial attack. Since that time there has been a progressive diminution of activity in the naval area, though it still plays an active role in the Swedish defence system. The town has been damaged by fire, most severely in 1790. As a result, rebuilding of the destroyed buildings, numbering over 400, was carried out using stone. However, the original street layout was largely preserved.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/871</http_url><id_number>871</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_871.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Karlskrona is an exceptionally well preserved example of a European planned naval town, which incorporates elements derived from earlier establishments in other countries and which was in its turn to serve as the model for subsequent towns with similar functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Naval bases played an important role in the centuries during which naval power was a determining factor in European Realpolitik, and Karlskrona is the best preserved and most complete of those that survive.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>56.1666700000</latitude><location>Blekinge County</location><longitude>15.5833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The complex of the naval port of Karlskrona was the model for several similar projects in Europe. It is a unique relic of Sweden's time as a major power, and of the North European Baroque movement's attempt to create unity between the layout of the city, the manufacturing areas, and the surrounding countryside. The whole is characterized by the consistent long-term aim of cultivating efficiency and aesthetic, still clearly discernible in the infrastructure and open spaces&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Karlskrona was founded in 1680 when Sweden was a major power whose territory included modern Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Sk&amp;aring;ne, Blekinge and Gotland and parts of north Germany. Karl XI issued a charter for the foundation of a new town on the islands of W&amp;auml;m&amp;ouml; and Tross&amp;ouml;, to be known as Karlskrona and to serve both as a port and as a naval base. Danish tradesmen's and merchants' area were forced into the new town, and the region was progressively assimilated into Sweden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The naval installations that developed at Karlskrona, beginning with a shipyard and storage facilities, were initially supervised by Erik Dahlbergh, the Quartermaster-General, who was responsible for the defences of the Swedish kingdom. Naval architects and craftsmen were sent from Stockholm, and houses were built to receive them. The shipyard began with two building berths, two quays, two forges, and five warehouses; the first keel was laid down in December 1680 and the first ship launched the following year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Karlskrona became a seat of government in 1683, the year in which Dahlbergh drew up the definitive plans for the town and its fortifications. By the time Gustav III took the throne by means of a coup d'&amp;eacute;tat in 1772 it had become the third largest town in Sweden. Despite the political decline of the country (Gustav's assassination and the loss of Finland in 1809) Karlskrona continued as the main base for the Swedish Navy. The town has been damaged by fire, most severely in 1790. As a result, rebuilding of the destroyed buildings was carried out using stone and the original street layout was largely preserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Second World War saw the modernization of some of the older fortifications and the installation of new facilities for defence against aerial attack. Since that time there has been a progressive diminution of activity in the naval area, although it still plays an active role in the Swedish defence system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The plan of Karlskrona integrates strategic imperatives with the classical ideal. The Baroque layout with wide main streets radiating out from a central square lined with majestic public buildings is clearly discernible in the present-day town. It was planned by Erik Dahlbergh and Karl Magnus Stuart on the orders of the Lord High Admiral, Hans Wachtmeister.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The centre of the town is Stortorget (Great Square), at the highest point of the island of Tross&amp;ouml;. Here are located the two main churches of the town, Heliga Trefalighets Kyrka (Holy Trinity Church) and Fredrikskyrkan, both dating from the first half of the 18th century, R&amp;aring;dhuset (the City Hall), from the same period, and later public buildings such as the Concert Hall, the City Library, and the Post Office.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The naval harbour is located to the south of the town, from which it was originally separated by an impressive enclosure wall, only small sections of which survive. To the south of the Parade Ground is Gamle Varvet (the Old Shipyard). This is made up of a number of fine buildings dating mainly from the late 18th century, commissioned by Frederic Henric af Chapman, Shipyard Admiral of Karlskrona from 1780 until his death in 1808 and many of them designed by this gifted master shipbuilder and architect. On the other side of Amiralitetssl&amp;auml;tten is Artillerig&amp;auml;rden (Artillery Yard), an area of reclaimed land housing barracks, ordnance storehouses, workshops, and a hospital. The point of land on which they were built is protected by the Aurora Bastion, dating from 1704.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Karlskrona is an outstanding example of a late-17th-century European planned naval city. The original plan and many of the buildings have survived intact, along with installations that illustrate its subsequent development up to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Naval Port of Karlskrona</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1022</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The first human beings to come to the island of Öland were the hunter-gatherers who arrived 8000 years ago. A coastal settlement of these people, probably in use for some two millennia, has been excavated at Alby. During this period there is evidence for the domestication of plant and animal species, and passage graves at Resmo, at the summit of Västra Landborgen, testify to permanent settlement in the Neolithic period. Archaeological remains testify to considerable clearance of the alvar at this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This process continued during the Bronze Age (1800-500 BC), when farming became more specialized. Technological improvements made possible the cultivation of much larger areas. Stock breeding resulted in the creation of large flocks and herds, which were pastured on the Alvar.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Iron Age (550 BCE-CE 1050) saw greater developments in farming, with the creation of permanent arable fields and the introduction of dairy farming. The landscape, including Stora alvaret, was being exploited intensively in small fields. The remains of many house sites from the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period (the first six centuries CE), with their associated enclosures, are known, some grouped in villages. The Bronze Age social structure of clans dependent upon large flocks was transformed into one of unitary farmsteads producing food crops and hay. Cattle formed the basis of the economy, and there is evidence that hides and leather goods were being exported, along with dried meat. The availability of iron saw stone tools being replaced by metal ones. Metal-working was among the specialist crafts that evolved during the Iron Age, along with comb-making and stone polishing. Fishing, especially for herring, became important, centred on Kyrkhamn, at the southern tip of Öland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Increasing unrest led to the need to provide protection for the islanders, and five forts (or, more accurately, fortified villages) have been identified. These probably began as places of refuge but developed into permanent settlements. A legislative structure was created, matters of importance being decided by the Ting, where rules for the administration of justice were laid down. A military organization, the ledung, was created for defence against external enemies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In early medieval times, from the 11th century onwards, there was a movement from the Iron Age sites, following the introduction of the medieval open-field system and strip farming. The villages migrated to the sites that they still occupy today, sited conveniently between the infields and outfields on elevated, dry terrain, and laid out in linear form along a single street.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prosperity of the island, due in no small measure to its situation on the main trading route through the Kalmar Sound, is reflected in the imposing stone churches built in the 12th century, such as those at Hulterstad and Resmo. They were fortified as defence against attacks from marauders. Exports from Öland included horses, oxen, fish, limestone, and slate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 15th century Öland was dominated by land-owning farmers, though the Crown, the nobility, and the monastic orders also owned land there. Gustav Vasa established five "model" manors there for the benefit of local farmers, and also as a centre for stock breeding. Fishing was important, and was of special interest to the monastic communities: Kyrkhamn, at the southernmost tip of the island, was a major centre of this activity. In 1569 Johan III reserved the open spaces on the island for the Crown as a hunting preserve. The farmers lost their commoners' rights and suffered considerably from depredations by preserved game animals. This restriction survived until 1801, when it was abolished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island suffered during the long wars between Sweden and Denmark in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, not least from epidemics, which carried off nearly half the population. As a result farms were deserted and fields reverted to nature. In the latter half of the 18th century the first reform of the land holding system (storskifte) took place. This involved the large number of discrete strips held by individual farmers being consolidated into larger holdings. A more radical redistribution (enskifte) took place in the early 19th century. Each farmer received an allocation consisting of sections of each of the different types of land within the village boundaries - arable land, meadows, alvar land, and coastland; at the same time many of the farmsteads were relocated outside the linear villages. A great deal more land was brought into cultivation at this time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Heavy population growth led to men travelling to the mainland and into northern Europe annually in search of work. However, it was not until the agricultural crisis of the 1880s that mass permanent emigration to North America took place, reducing the population by more than a quarter; the alvar villages were abandoned and farming discontinued. However, the early years of the 20th century saw considerable expansion and diversification of agriculture, including horticultural products and sugar beet, whilst the dairy industry assumed a major role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The depression of the 1930s saw the abandonment of many farms, and after World War II agriculture underwent rationalization and intensive mechanization. The number of farm holdings decreased as a result of mergers, a process that is still continuing, with concomitant rural depopulation.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/968</http_url><id_number>968</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_968.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The landscape of Southern Öland takes its contemporary form from its long cultural history, adapting to the physical constraints of the geology and topography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; Södra Öland is an outstanding example of human settlement, making the optimum use of diverse landscape types on a single island.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>56.3250000000</latitude><location>Kalmar County, Island of Öland</location><longitude>16.4833300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Södra Öland is an outstanding example of human settlement, making the optimum use of diverse landscape types on a single island. The medieval land division uniquely indicates how natural conditions dictated the extent of cultivable land at an early stage. This site takes its contemporary form from its long cultural history, adapting to the physical constraints of the geology and topography.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island is a sedimentary formation, the uppermost surface of Ordovician limestone. The main topographical feature is Västra Landborgen. To the west there is a 3 km wide coastal plain, which contains the most fertile soils on Öland. On the east is Stora alvaret: half of this limestone pavement (one of the largest in Europe) is either exposed or covered by a thin calcareous soil, with other parts covered by raised beaches or lenses of sediment, sometimes overlaid by fen peat. The villages are almost entirely located along Västra Landborgen, and there is a large number of archaeological sites from the prehistoric period. The interaction between man and the natural environment in the south of Öland is of unique universal value. The continuity of land use goes back to the Stone Age, when people began farming this area. The use made of the land has not changed significantly since then, with arable farming and animal husbandry remaining the principal economic activity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present-day land division, with linear villages in 'lawful location', is easily discernible, and the division can be clearly perceived between infields and outfields, a division that has been constant since the medieval period, by which time all the available farmland was in use. The outfields are still being used as pasturage. Together the linear villages, infields, coastland and limestone pan make up a unique agricultural landscape possessed of great cultural and natural values of more than 1,000 years' continuity. This living agricultural community also includes a residual Iron Age landscape, as well as abundant traces of the Stone Age and Bronze Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Stora alvaret is noteworthy because of the way in which its medieval land-use pattern of villages and field systems is still clearly visible, which is a very rare survival in northern Europe. This is borne out by numerous adaptations to climate, frost movements, and grazing, among other things. The grazing regime is a precondition for the preservation of biodiversity. The present agricultural landscape and the community of southern Öland have a unique cultural tradition which still exists in land use, land division, place names, settlement and biological diversity as far back as the Iron Age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prosperity of the island, due in no small measure to its situation on the main trading route through the Kalmar Sound, is reflected in the imposing stone churches built in the 12th century, such as those at Hulterstad and Resmö. They were fortified as defence against attacks from marauders. By the 15th century Öland was dominated by land-owning farmers, although the Crown, the nobility, and the monastic orders also owned land there. In 1569 Johan III reserved the open spaces on the island for the Crown as a hunting preserve. The farmers lost their commoners' rights and suffered considerably from depredations by preserved game animals. This restriction survived until 1801, when it was abolished. The island suffered during the long wars between Sweden and Denmark in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, not least from epidemics, which carried off almost half the population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The typical so-called 'Geatish' farmstead is divided into a dwelling yard and a cattle yard, separated by a wall or fence. They are constructed of materials from Öland, with the Geatish homestead and windmills forming distinctive features. Most of the farms originally had their own windmills. The houses are constructed of wood and weather-boarded. Many of the houses in the dwelling yards were considerably extended and embellished, with upper floors and ornamentation, especially around the doors. Some of the barns retain their original medieval structures, with crown-post roofs. The Royal Manor of Ottenby in the extreme south of the island, established by Gustav Vasa in the 16th century, is still Crown property. The main building dates from 1804; its design was influential elsewhere on Öland and more widely in Sweden.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The southern part of the island of Öland in the Baltic Sea is dominated by a vast limestone plateau. Human beings have lived here for some five thousand years and adapted their way of life to the physical constraints of the island. As a consequence, the landscape is unique, with abundant evidence of continuous human settlement from prehistoric times to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Agricultural Landscape of Southern Öland</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1132</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The oldest surviving document relating to the Great Copper Mountain was issued in 1288, but scientific studies suggest that its origins date back to the 8th or 9th century. This was a period when there was considerable trade between Germany and Sweden and Germans settled in Sweden, and so it is likely that the Swedish industry was upgraded at this time under German influence. There is considerable evidence of this in the form of the technology being applied, such as firesetting and mine drainage, the origins of which can be traced to continental sources such as the Harz Mountains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A charter of 1347 led to the creation of a distinctive manmade landscape. Miners were granted the right to establish new settlements in the forests without paying any compensation to the landowners. At the same time they were exempted from land or forest taxes and their properties could pass to their children.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 15th century was a period of unrest and armed conflict. The "free miners" of the Great Copper Mountain played their full part in this, protesting against trade restrictions and taxation. This culminated in a major rising in 1531-34, as a result of which several distinguished citizens of Falun were executed on the orders of Gustavus Vasa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 16th and 17th centuries the Great Copper Mountain was the mainstay of Sweden's economy, enabling it to become one of the leading European powers. By the mid 17th century Falun was producing 70% of the world's output of copper. It was exported all over the world - for the roofs of the Palace of Versailles or for Spanish coinage, for example. The revenue from copper financed the disastrous involvement of Sweden in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Great Copper Mountain was organized as a corporate operation, with free miners (bergsm&amp;auml;n) owning shares (fj&amp;auml;rdeparter) proportional to their interests in copper smelters. The 1347 charter covered, inter alia, ore extraction, settlement, and trade within the region. It may justifiably be considered to be the precursor of the later joint stock companies, and it is often referred to as "the oldest company in the world."&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A cultural region known as Kopparbergslagen developed around Falun which is unique to Sweden. There were no fewer than 140 copper smelting furnaces in the region at this time, and the free miners had their estates and manor-houses close to the furnaces. The agrarian landscape was dominated by grazing land and wooded pastures. A crop-rotation system with a five-year cycle, known as lindbruk or the Falun method, was developed here in the 17th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Despite the high level of technology developed and applied in and around the Great Copper Mountain, there were inevitably accidents, and especially in the 17th century, when production was at its most intensive. The most dramatic was that in 1687, when a massive landslip led to the creation of the Great Pit (Stora St&amp;ouml;ten) there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Falun was founded in the 17th century: its population of some six thousand people made it the second largest city in Sweden at that time. The formal 1646 layout survives in the three districts of Gamla Herrg&amp;aring;rden, &amp;Ouml;stanfors, and Elsborg.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The copper furnaces were water-powered from as early as the 13th century, and the earliest water-powered hoisting gear was built in 1555 at Blankst&amp;ouml;ten, one of the open-cast mines. Ponds, dikes, and canals were constructed to supply the furnaces and the mines; the oldest surviving dam dates from the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Many foreign scientists and businessmen visited Falun in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, and all were very impressed by the enormous size of the mine, the smoke from the furnaces, and the remarkable structures related to the copper industry. The Great Copper Mountain became Sweden's first tourist attraction: the first recorded use of the word "tourist" is from 1824.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was a leading centre of technological progress from the 16th century onwards. Among those who worked there and developed their research were the mechanical engineer Christopher Polhem and the chemist J&amp;ouml;ns Jacob Berzelius.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the demand for copper receded in the 18th and 19th centuries, production was extended to other mineral resources of the Great Copper Mountain, including sulphur, lead, zinc, silver, and gold. In 1888 the old company was reconstituted as a modern limited company, Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags AB. The old copper furnaces were abandoned and large new factories built. Outside Falun itself the company had been acquiring iron mines and setting up iron and steelworks, and it became one of the major Swedish enterprises in this field. Another area was that of forestry, producing paper and sawn timber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The company celebrated its seventh centenary in 1988. However, by 1992 all the viable ore deposits had been extracted and so mining ceased: the last round of shots was fired on 8 December 1998. The only industrial activity remaining is the production of the traditional and very distinctive Falun (Swedish) red paint, used for the protection of the wooden buildings of Sweden and other parts of Scandinavia.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1027</http_url><id_number>1027</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1027.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Copper mining at Falun was influenced by German technology, but this was to become the major producer of copper in the 17th century and exercised a profound influence on mining technology in all parts of the world for two centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The entire Falun landscape is dominated by the remains of copper mining and production, which began as early as the 9th century and came to an end in the closing years of the 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The successive stages in the economic and social evolution of the copper industry in the Falun region, from a form of “cottage industry” to full industrial production, can be seen in the abundant industrial, urban, and domestic remains characteristic of this industry that still survive.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>60.6047200000</latitude><location>Town of Falun, Dalarna Province</location><longitude>15.6308300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Falun landscape is dominated by the remains of copper mining and production, which began as early as the 9th century and came to an end in the closing years of the 20th century. Falun was to become the major producer of copper in the 17th century and exercised a profound influence on mining technology and economy in all parts of the world for two centuries. The successive stages in the economic and social evolution of the copper industry in the Falun region, from a form of 'cottage industry' to full industrial production, can be seen in the industrial, urban, and domestic remains of this industry that still survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Great Copper Mountain in Falun and its cultural landscape are an outstanding example of a technological ensemble with a historical industrial landscape and unique types of buildings and settlements. The Great Copper Mountain (Stora Kopparberget) is the oldest and most important mine working in Sweden and one of the world's most remarkable industrial monuments. The man-made landscape surrounding the mine is very remarkable and unique by Swedish and international standards. The World Heritage site consists of the Great Copper Mountain and several areas around it which make up Kopparbergslagen, with many furnace sites, waterways, ponds, canals, and ancient mining settlements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest surviving document relating to the Great Copper Mountain, which consisted of the underground mine, was issued in 1288, but scientific studies suggest that its origins date back to the 8th or 9th centuries. It is likely that the Swedish industry was upgraded at this time under German influence. There is considerable evidence of this in the form of the technology being applied, such as fire-setting and mine drainage, the origins of which can be traced to continental sources.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 15th century was a time of unrest and armed conflict, protesting against trade restrictions and taxation. In 1531-34 several distinguished citizens of Falun were executed on the orders of Gustavus Vasa. During the 16th and 17th centuries the Great Copper Mountain was the mainstay of Sweden's economy, enabling it to become one of the leading European powers: Falun was producing 70% of the world's output of copper. The Great Copper Mountain was organized as a corporate operation, with free miners owning shares proportional to their interests in copper smelters. It may justifiably be considered to be the precursor of the later joint stock companies, and it is often referred to as 'the oldest company in the world.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A cultural region known as Kopparbergslagen developed around Falun which is unique to Sweden. There were no fewer than 140 copper-smelting furnaces in the region at this time, and the free miners had their estates and manor-houses close to the furnaces. The agrarian landscape was dominated by grazing land and wooded pastures. Despite the high level of technology developed and applied in and around the Great Copper Mountain, there were inevitably accidents, and especially in the 17th century, when production was intensive. The copper furnaces were water-powered from as early as the 13th century: ponds, dykes and canals were constructed to supply the furnaces and the mines; the oldest surviving dam dates from the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Falun, with its 1646 gridiron street plan and the three districts of wooden houses, was the second largest city in Sweden at that time, with a population of some 6,000 people. As the demand for copper receded in the 18th and 19th centuries, production was extended to other mineral resources of the Great Copper Mountain, including sulphur, lead, zinc, silver and gold. In 1888 the old company was reconstituted as a modern limited company, Stora Kopparbergs Bergslags AB. The old copper furnaces were abandoned and large new factories were built, producing paper and sawn timber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century the Great Copper Mountain became Sweden's first tourist attraction and the company celebrated its seventh centenary in 1988. However, by 1992 all the viable ore deposits had been extracted and so mining ceased. By 1998 the only industrial activity remaining was the production of the traditional and very distinctive Falun red paint, used for the protection of the wooden buildings of Sweden and other parts of Scandinavia.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The enormous mining excavation known as the Great Pit at Falun is the most striking feature of a landscape that illustrates the activity of copper production in this region since at least the 13th century. The 17th-century planned town of Falun with its many fine historic buildings, together with the industrial and domestic remains of a number of settlements spread over a wide area of the Dalarna region, provide a vivid picture of what was for centuries one of the world's most important mining areas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mining Area of the Great Copper Mountain in Falun</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1200</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, scientific and technical developments in telecommunication were based on inventions by people like Michael Faraday, J.C. Maxwell, H. Hertz, and Guglielmo Marconi. The use of telegraph started in the second half of the century. From here, telegraphic and radio transmissions developed further in the early 20th century. The first experiments to have wireless transmission of speech across the Atlantic were in 1915 and 1919.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Sweden, the contribution of the chief engineer Ernst Fredrik Werner Alexanderson (1878-1975) was decisive for taking these techniques further into practice. He was responsible for a number of innovations, including the high-frequency alternator for continuous (undamped) electric oscillations, which led to the improvement of telegraphic wireless communication over large distances as well as providing the basis for wireless telephony, later leading into radio broadcast. He developed the &amp;lsquo;multipletuned antenna', a system of cooperating vertical antennae, which resulted in an important improvement of long-wave radio communication.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Alexanderson promoted the plan for a global radiotelegraphic network after the First World War. The Radio Corporation of America was formed to exploit and commercialise these achievements. From the end of World War I to the mid-1920s the global network of radiotelegraphic stations was constructed according to Alexanderson's system of which Varberg Radio Station at Grimeton became a part, built in 1922-24. The structural engineer Henrik Kre&amp;uuml;ger (1882-1953) was responsible for the six antenna towers at Grimeton, the tallest built structures in Sweden at that time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the 1920s, the rapid development in electronic transmitters for long-distance wireless communication made the Alexanderson technique obsolete. Of the large Alexanderson stations only Varberg Radio Station remains today; the others were either modified or demolished The Varberg station was used in regular service until the 1960s, but it has been kept in working condition even later.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1134</http_url><id_number>1134</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1134.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Varberg radio station at Grimeton is an outstanding monument representing the process of development of communication technology in the period following the First World War.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Varberg radio station is an exceptionally well preserved example of a type of telecommunication centre, representing the technological achievements by the early 1920s, as well as documenting the further development over some three decades.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>57.1000000000</latitude><location>County of Halland</location><longitude>12.3833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Varberg radio station at Grimeton is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a type of telecommunication centre, representing the technological achievements by the early 1920s, as well as documenting further development over some three decades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is located 7&amp;nbsp;km east of Varberg in the Parish of Grimeton, in south-western Sweden. The site comprises 109.9&amp;nbsp;ha of land with buildings housing the Alexanderson ultra-long wave radiotelegraph transmitter constructed in 1922-24. This includes the towers carrying the antenna installation, short-wave transmitters with their antenna, and a residential area with housing for the station staff.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main property consists of the original station site, with the exception of an area containing the 'new' transmitter building and the antenna mast of Teracom AB's broadcasting station. The main buildings were designed by architect Carl &amp;Aring;kerblad in neoclassical style. Inside the transmitter building, about half the area of the transmitter hall is occupied by the Alexanderson 200&amp;nbsp;kW high-frequency alternator and its associated equipment: control racks, auxiliary machinery, high-frequency transformers and the Alexanderson magnetic modulator. All are in operative condition. The other half of the hall contains short-wave transmitters installed from the late 1930s onwards. These have remained in operational condition, although now out of service, except for two transmitters that are still occasionally used. Most of the site is occupied by the antenna plant. Its aerial system is supported by six steel towers, each 127&amp;nbsp;m high, arranged in a straight line 380&amp;nbsp;m from each other. The towers were designed by and constructed under the supervision of Professor Henrik Kre&amp;uuml;ger. Each tower is associated with a radiating antenna element stretching from the top to an inductance coil on the ground. Buried in the ground is a counterpoise network of copper wire, extending to the borders of the site and adjacent properties. A system of electricity wires on wooden poles connects the inductance coils with the buried network. An ice-melting transformer house close to the transmitter hall provides electricity to heat up and free the wires of ice in the winter.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century, scientific and technical developments in telecommunication were based on inventions by people such as Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, Hertz and Marconi. The use of telegraph started in the second half of the century. From here, telegraphic and radio transmissions developed further in the early 20th century. The first experiments to have wireless transmission of speech across the Atlantic were in 1915 and 1919. In Sweden, the contribution of the chief engineer Ernst Fredrik Werner Alexanderson (1878-1975) was decisive for taking these techniques further into practice. He was responsible for a number of innovations, including the high-frequency alternator for continuous (undamped) electric oscillations, which led to the improvement of telegraphic wireless communication over large distances as well as providing the basis for wireless telephony, later leading into radio broadcast. He developed the 'multiple-tuned antenna', a system of cooperating vertical antennae, which resulted in an important improvement of long-wave radio communication. Alexanderson promoted the plan for a global radiotelegraphic network after the First World War, when the global network of radiotelegraphic stations was constructed, according to Alexanderson's system of which Varberg Radio Station at Grimeton became a part. The structural engineer Henrik Kre&amp;uuml;ger (1882-1953) was responsible for the six antenna towers at Grimeton, then the tallest built structures in Sweden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the rapid development in electronic transmitters for long-distance wireless communication made the Alexanderson technique obsolete, the other radio stations were either modified or demolished. Varberg Radio Station, in regular service use until the 1960s, survives today, but it has remained an industrial site until 1997, since it has been partly opened to the public. Some equipment is still used by the Swedish Navy or for other purposes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Varberg Radio Station at Grimeton in southern Sweden (built 1922–24) is an exceptionally well-preserved monument to early wireless transatlantic communication. It consists of the transmitter equipment, including the aerial system of six 127-m high steel towers. Although no longer in regular use, the equipment has been maintained in operating condition. The 109.9-ha site comprises buildings housing the original Alexanderson transmitter, including the towers with their antennae, short-wave transmitters with their antennae, and a residential area with staff housing. The architect Carl Åkerblad designed the main buildings in the neoclassical style and the structural engineer Henrik Kreüger was responsible for the antenna towers, the tallest built structures in Sweden at that time. The site is an outstanding example of the development of telecommunications and is the only surviving example of a major transmitting station based on pre-electronic technology.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Grimeton Radio Station, Varberg</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1314</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1282</http_url><id_number>1282</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1282.jpg</image_url><iso_code>se</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The nominated property is considered to be of Outstanding Universal Value as a cultural property for the following reasons:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; The selected decorative farmhouses of H&amp;auml;lsingland represent an outstanding collection of some 1,000 well preserved farmhouses with around 400 decorative rooms still in situ.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; The density of intact preserved decorated rooms is unparalleled within the entire Northern Taiga.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; The seven selected farms, dating from 1800 to 1870 which constitute the peak of this cultural expression, are outstanding examples of how independent farmers within a small geographical area combined a highly developed building tradition with a rich folk art tradition in the form of decoratively painted interiors in rooms used for celebrations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; These decorated farms bear witness to a culture that has disappeared today but has been preserved in an exceptional way.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>61.7072222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>16.1958333333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;In a comparatively small area of north-eastern Sweden, bordering the Gulf of Bothnia and known as H&amp;auml;lsingland, are a concentration of large richly decorated, wooden farmhouses and associated farm buildings reflecting the peak of prosperity for the farming landscape in the 19th century and the social status of its farmers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The seven sites are, spread across an area 100 km from east to west and 50 km north to south. Six of these are in H&amp;auml;lsingland Province with a seventh just across the border in Dalarna Province &amp;ndash; although this area was culturally part of H&amp;auml;lsingland in the 1800s. The farmhouses are seen as the best and most representative of the decorated farmhouse tradition, and have been selected from some 400 surviving decorated rooms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;H&amp;auml;lsingland is mountainous and fairly densely afforested province with the small amount of cultivable land (approximately 5% of the total) in long narrow, flat, valleys alongside lakes and rivers.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The rural landscape of small villages and scattered farmsteads has evolved over at least seven centuries. The landscape reflects the comparative independence of the farmers, traditional communal use of pasture, and mixed farming based on cattle breeding, arable cultivation, forestry, flax growing and hunting.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;In the 19th century, communal use of woodland and pasture and traditional sharing of valley fields was replaced by a legal apportionment of land to farmers, part of a national land regularisation scheme This change brought considerable prosperity to the farmers who invested their new wealth in large buildings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;A particularly distinctive feature of the new or enlarged farmhouses was the provision of either a separate house, a &lt;em&gt;Herrstuga&lt;/em&gt;, or rooms in the main house, set aside for festivities, special occasions or assemblies, and hardly used for the rest of the year. These rooms were usually the most highly decorated in the farmstead.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;In the 18th century, most farms had houses and farm buildings arranged around a courtyard with a &lt;em&gt;Portlider&lt;/em&gt;, or access building on one side. During the 19th century, the layout was often changed to a more open arrangement of house with side wings. Gradually during the hundred years from around 1800 many houses also changed from one storey to either one and a half or two storeys.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;Most buildings were constructed of jointed horizontal timbers of pine or spruce from the village&amp;rsquo;s forests. By the 18th century, the face of the timbers was planed smooth and in the 19th century many buildings were faced first with broad, hand-sawn, vertical timber boards, and later machine cut ones, often painted, to make the houses look more similar to those constructed of brick. Dark red paint using pigments from the Falun copper mines was also used in H&amp;auml;lsingland (and all over Sweden) and came to be seen a symbolic of Swedish rural life. Later in the 19th century lighter pastel colours were also introduced. The traditional roof covering was birch bark, held in place by thin split rods. This was supplanted in the 19th century by nailed shingles and in the 20th by tiles for dwellings and tin sheets for outbuildings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;A distinctive feature of the 19th century houses is their elaborate decoration, a fusion of popular art and contemporary landed-gentry styles, such as Baroque, Rococo and &amp;ldquo;le style gustavien&amp;rdquo;. On the outside, this elaboration is commonly found in carved decoration around the main entrance door or porch, the work of local cabinet makers. Within, the houses were decorated with canvas or textile paintings affixed to the walls, or with paintings directly onto the wooden ceilings or walls, some supplied in the 19th century by itinerant painters from neighbouring Dalarna (Dalecarlia), and known as Dalecarlian paintings. The subjects were often biblical but with the people depicted in the latest fashions of the time. Four hundred painted interiors have been recorded, the majority from the 19th century. The names of ten painters are known, although the majority of the work remains anonymous.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The seven sites selected consist of farmhouses with a number of decorated rooms for festivities (between four and ten), with largely intact ranges of farm buildings, and sited within a landscape context that has the capacity to reflect their agrarian function.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;In detail, the property consists of the following farms.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;1. Kristofers farm, Stene, J&amp;auml;rvs&amp;ouml; &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Kristofers farm, with two houses and service buildings arranged around three sides of the courtyard, is on the outskirts of the village of Stene. It was reconstructed in the early 19th century. The larger of the two houses was used solely for festive occasions and both its banqueting house and other domestic rooms have been richly decorated with freestyle and stencilled floral paintings, created by Anders &amp;Auml;del in the 1850s, and which are typical of the upper Ljusnandal area.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The festivities room in the banqueting house &amp;ndash; where the most important celebratory meals were served &amp;ndash; has a free-hand painting of landscape views, divided into panels and framed by columns, wreathed in red and blue drapery. The central panel has a cross crowned with an eye, a symbol of God&amp;rsquo;s all-seeing eye that marked the place for honoured guests.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;2. G&amp;auml;stgivars farm, Vallstabyn&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1860s this farm, at the edge of the village of Vallsta, had an enclosed plan &amp;ndash; four buildings around a courtyard. The fourth side was later removed and a further group of farm buildings constructed around a yard to the south.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The farm has two dwellings. The residential building was constructed around 1800 but refaced with smooth wooden panels in 1882. The second building, which was reserved for festivities, was constructed in 1838. The building for festivities was decorated throughout by Jonas Wallstr&amp;ouml;m over a period of some years. On the ground floor the main room is still in its original state, whereas some of the others have been partially repainted since the 1950s. The unrestored room has stencilled paintings on stretched linen fabric in a vertical design in imitation of silk brocade that is characteristic of Wallstr&amp;ouml;m&amp;rsquo;s work. Around the paintings is a printed wallpaper border.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;3. Pallars farm, L&amp;aring;nghed&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L&amp;aring;nghed village is characterised by large farmhouses often of two and a half stories and impressive complexes of farm buildings.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;Pallars has three houses, dating from the 1850s or slightly earlier, grouped around a courtyard. Both the main house and a house reserved for festivities in the east wing have Dalecarlian paintings. Pallars represents the time when large residential buildings had reached their zenith in H&amp;auml;lsingland. The main central house is of two and a half storeys with a mansard roof. Its fa&amp;ccedil;ade is finished with smooth wooden panels now painted white and presumably originally painted to imitate pale stone. The house has a large richly carved porch. Within, two rooms retain their&amp;nbsp; painted decoration. On the ground floor a living room has landscape paintings by Sv&amp;auml;rdes Hans Errson. The paintings executed in oils, together form one overall panorama of trees and bushes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;4. Jon-Lars farm, L&amp;aring;nghed&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Jon-Lars is the largest of all the H&amp;auml;lsingland farmhouses with seventeen rooms over two and a half storeys. Built for two brothers and their families in 1857, its empire-style porch shelters have two doors that lead to two separate residential quarters. The house is unusual in that all the rooms for domestic functions were within one roof and there is thus no separate festivities building. There are also no flanking farm buildings, the main group of farm buildings dating from the mid-19th century being a short distance away.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;5. Bortom &amp;aring;a farm, Gammelg&amp;aring;rden&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Bortom &amp;aring;a is a remote forest village in the border district between H&amp;auml;lsingland and Dalarna, an area that was colonised in the 1600s by Finnish immigrants. Its main farmhouse, built in 1819 and extended in 1835, was originally enclosed by a second house and farm buildings but these were moved further away at the end of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The entire old house has been preserved with its fittings and fixtures so that it now reflects a complete farmer&amp;rsquo;s house from the mid-19th century. Some of the rooms were decorated in the 1820s and 1830s and others between 1856 and 1863. The lower of the two festivities rooms was decorated in 1825. The main image is of Sweden&amp;rsquo;s Crown Prince in a covered carriage, flanked by soldier. Around the rest of the room are flower motifs on the walls and landscapes with buildings and figures above windows and doors. On the first floor, a festivities room was decorated in 1856 by the Dalecarlian painter B&amp;auml;ck Anders Hansson with stylised flowers in strong colours within simple frames.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;6. Bommars farm, Letsbo, Ljusdal&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Bommars farm consists of winter and summer houses built in the 1840s at right angles to each other, of two and one and a half storeys respectively. Both have late 19th century porches.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;The rooms for festivities take up the entire upper storey of the winter house. The main room has walls covered with hand printed wallpaper, the design copied from wallpaper preserved at Ekebyhof Castle near Stockholm. Two other chambers were decorated at the same time, one with painted, marbled panels framed by a stenciled border and the second with a factory produced Renaissance revival style wallpaper.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;strong&gt;7. Erik-Anders farm, Askesta village, S&amp;ouml;derala&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of Erik-Anders farmhouse was begun in 1825 and, with its originally yellow painted facades, and hipped and gabled roof with classical moulding, it resembled a small manor house. Its one multi-purpose&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;farm building was constructed in 1915.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;There are festivities rooms on both of its two floors and these were decorated in 1850 by members of the Knutes family from Dalarna. The ground floor room now has wallpaper from the 1890s, while the decorations in the upper rooms survive. The largest room has restrained decoration with marbled dados, below marbled panels with patterned border, and with garlands of flowers over the doors.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Seven timber houses are listed in this site located in the east of Sweden, representing the zenith of a regional timber building tradition that dates back to the Middle Ages. They reflect the prosperity of independent farmers who in the 19th century used their wealth to build substantial new homes with elaborately decorated ancillary houses or suites of rooms reserved for festivities. The paintings represent a fusion of folk art with the styles favoured by the landed gentry of the time, including Baroque and Rococo. Decorated by painters, including known and unknown itinerant artists, the listed properties represent the final flowering of a long cultural tradition.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Decorated Farmhouses of Hälsingland</site><states>Sweden</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1814</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/267</http_url><id_number>267</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_267.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.9480600000</latitude><location>Canton of Berne</location><longitude>7.4502800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Built on a rocky promontory which fits tightly into a loop of the Aar River, the old city of Berne still retains the imprint and original character of the successive periods of its very rich history in its plan and its monuments. It was founded, on a hill site surrounded by the Aar, by Duke Berchtold V of Z&amp;auml;hringen (most likely in 1191): on Kramgasse there is the first of Berne's many ornamented fountains, an armoured bear holding the standard of the city's founder, dating from 1535. The original core was established around Fort Nydegg, seat of ducal power; but, when Berne became a free city in 1218, it expanded to the west towards the Zeitglochenturm (restored in 1771). A new stage in its urban expansion coincided with the protectorate of Peter II of Savoy (1255-65) when the city extended to the K&amp;auml;figturm (rebuilt in 1643); some years later Fort Nydegg was destroyed and a lower quarter built up on its site. A bridge was built to give access to this quarter. The final urban expansion of the medieval period took place in the 14th century. It is marked by the Christoffel tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gradual conquest of the site is still evident in the parcelling, largely a result of the medieval implantation. However, the physiognomy of Berne has been modified by additions and developed over the centuries in line with an exceptionally coherent planning concept right up to the modern period. The buildings in the Old City, dating from a variety of periods, include 15th-century arcades and 16th-century picturesque fountains, as well as towers and walls. The cathedral was constructed during the 17th century, when many patrician houses were built from sandy limestone; towards the end of the 18th century, almost 80% of the constructed zones were renewed. Like many European capitals, Berne today offers a contrast (particularly acute on the Bubenbergplatz) of old monuments and contemporary buildings; but it preserves in localized areas, traditional old streets with arcades of which the majority are walking streets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The three quietest and most characteristic streets in the Old Town - Postgasse, Gerechtigkeitsgasse and J&amp;uuml;nkerngasse - all meet at the Nydeggbr&amp;uuml;cke, the easternmost point of Berne's peninsula and the location of Nydegg Castle, built probably before the 1191 founding of Berne and the spur to the city's construction. It was destroyed in the mid-13th century and its location is now marked by the Nydeggkirche, although parts of its massive stone foundations survive here and there. The church is a mishmash of elements added to an original 1341 building, with a well which originally stood within the precincts of the 12th-century castle and a picturesque view of the medieval houses clustering on the slopes all around.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The impressively wide main cobbled thoroughfare of the old town stretches away on both sides of the Zytglogge: Marktgasse is to the west, while elegant Kramgasse runs east and features many Baroque facades stuck on to the medieval arcaded buildings early in the eighteenth century. There is the Einstein House, the apartment and workplace of the famous scientist, who developed his theory of relativity in 1905.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Rathausplatz is dominated by the double-staircased Rathaus. Although the building dates from 1406-17, it has been much altered over the centuries - not least in 1939-42, when the ground floor was entirely rebuilt. Opposite is a 1542 fountain sporting a Bernese standard-bearer in full armour. Next to the Rathaus is the St Peter und St Paul-Kirche, built in 1858 as the first Catholic parish church to go up in the city since the Reformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In L&amp;auml;uferplatz the fountain-statue of the city herald standing at the head of the low Untertorbr&amp;uuml;cke, one of the oldest bridges in Switzerland (1468). To the south-west, Gerberngasse follows the bend of the river down into one of the most appealing districts of the Old Town, Matte. For many centuries this was a self-contained district of craftspeople and dockworkers which long retained its own dialect, related to the Jenisch language of the Swiss gypsies and dubbed Mattenenglisch by the other Bernese, an incomprehensible language spoken in a meadow (Matte). Since 1848, large public monuments have been built which underscore the function of the capital of Berne: the Bundeshaus, Museum of Fine Arts, Historical Museum, University, Municipal Theatre, etc.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 12th century on a hill site surrounded by the Aare River, Berne developed over the centuries in line with a an exceptionally coherent planning concept. The buildings in the Old City, dating from a variety of periods, include 15th-century arcades and 16th-century fountains. Most of the medieval town was restored in the 18th century but it has retained its original character.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Berne</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>297</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/268</http_url><id_number>268</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_268.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.4233300000</latitude><location>Canton of St Gall, Town of St Gall</location><longitude>9.3777800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;St Gall is a typical and outstanding example of the large Benedictine monastery, centre of art and knowledge, with its rich library and its scriptorium; the successive restructurings of the conventual's space attest to its ongoing religious and cultural function. The Convent exerted great influence on developments in monastic architecture following the Council of Aachen.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was in 612 that the lrish monk Gallus withdrew into the valley of Steinach to lead the existence of a hermit. In 747, the abbot Othmar established a community of Benedictine monks in the place made famous by St Gall and at the same time founded a school.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 9th and 10th centuries, the abbey of St Gall was one of the most renowned centres of Western culture and science. Its apogee coincided with the abbacy of Gotzbert (816-37) to whom was sent the famous plan on parchment known as the Plan of Saint Gall; this was probably sent by the Bishop of Basel, Heito, Abbot of Reichenau. Following the Council of Aachen, this architectural design accompanied by 341 annotations constitutes the ideal plan of a Benedictine abbey, including a scriptorium and a library. Excavations carried out at St Gall by Sennhauser show that this innovative plan was partially realized.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 818, in the course of the Carolingian reform of the Church by Ludwig the Pious, the abbey, as a monastery immediately subordinate to the empire, received an imperial privilege of immunity, making it independent of the Diocese of Constance and placing it under the direct protection of the Crown. In 883 the East Frank Ludwig II the German conferred upon it the right to choose its own abbot, and finally, in 854, it was released from the obligation to pay tithes to the Bishop of Constance. The Abbey of St Gall had at last attained full autonomy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The abbots had since 1206 been Princes of the Empire and ruled over the town of St Gall, the F&amp;uuml;rstenland, and after 1468 over the County of Toggenburg. The Princely Abbey ruled at that time over the territory surrounding the town, while simultaneously being cut off in its monastery from the town itself, which in the meantime had gone through the Reformation and become independent. The Reformation had in fact for a time threatened the dissolution of the abbey itself, but after 1531 clerical sovereignty was restored, although freedom of religious practice was conceded to Toggenburg. Abbey rule in effect ended when French troops marched into St Gall in 1798. In 1805, the abbey was dissolved. Its clerical and administrative successor was to all intents and purposes the newly created Bishopric of the same name, which, although at first set up as the twin Diocese of Chur and St Gall, was made legally independent and then separated from Chur in 1847.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1836 the church became a cathedral: only the foundations and some elements of architecture, discovered as a result of probes undertaken after 1960, remain of what was once the splendour of the Carolingian monastery. Indeed, it has been reconstructed several times. Its present appearance, marked by the full-blown Baroque style of the cathedral (former abbatial) and the library, are the result of the construction campaigns of the 18th century.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Convent of St Gall, a perfect example of a great Carolingian monastery, was, from the 8th century to its secularization in 1805, one of the most important in Europe. Its library is one of the richest and oldest in the world and contains precious manuscripts such as the earliest-known architectural plan drawn on parchment. From 1755 to 1768, the conventual area was rebuilt in Baroque style. The cathedral and the library are the main features of this remarkable architectural complex, reflecting 12 centuries of continuous activity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Abbey of St Gall</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>298</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/269</http_url><id_number>269</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_269.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.6294500000</latitude><location></location><longitude>10.4476500000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Benedictine Convent of St John at M&amp;uuml;stair, in the upper valley of the Canton of Grisons, bears exceptional testimony to a Carolingian civilization and art which has disappeared. It is one of the most coherent examples of conventual architecture and painting of the Carolingian period and the early Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This convent was, most likely, founded around 780 by the Bishop of Chur at the behest of Charlemagne. It is noted from the beginning of the 9th century as being an establishment of Benedictines. It did not become a convent until 1163.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most important construction of the monastic complex, including two cloisters, is the church, dedicated to St John the Baptist. Formed by a simple rectangular hall some 20&amp;nbsp;m long, it is closed at the east by three tall semi-circular apses, adorned on the exterior by blind arcades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the church, the removal of the Gothic ceiling (1908-9) and of the whitewash (1947-51) brought to light important vestiges of frescoes dating from the Romanesque period (approximately 1150-70) and, more important still, from the Carolingian period. This is, in fact, the most important cycle of painting which is currently known dating from around 800. These figurative paintings (scenes from the Old and New Testaments), of a fine aesthetic quality, painted in a limited range of ochres, reds and browns, postdate the frescoes of Castelseprio and San Salvatore in Brescia. They are particularly important in understanding the evolution of certain Christian iconographic themes, such as the Last Judgement. The panels are framed with painted strips of garlands and ribbons, and culminate at the top in a large cornice that reproduces an architectural feature. Sadly, the cycle has suffered considerable damage, both because of ill-conceived restorations and because of the repainting of the apses, which probably took place between 1165 and 1180, whereas the frescoes on the side walls, with the Stories of David, were removed and placed in the Landesmuseum in Z&amp;uuml;rich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other precious artworks preserved in the Benedictine complex date from successive centuries: dating from the Romanesque period are, in addition to the frescoes preserved in the church's apse area, the large statue in painted stucco depicting Charlemagne (1165), located in the choir, and on the left wall of the same room a fine Romanesque relief depicting the Baptism of Christ (1087).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the enclosure walls of the monastery are found other early elements, among them, in particular, in the north-west quarter, the residence of Bishop Norbert with its remarkable decor of frescoes and stucco-work in the two-storey chapel (11th and 12th centuries).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The other rooms in the abbey, which for the most part date back to the 18th century, are located around the main cloister and contain documents, models related to the religious complex, reliquaries, robes, and object of sacred art, dating from the 13th to the 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Gothic and Baroque periods, it was subjected to major modifications, like the rest of the complex: two rows of columns divided the interior into three aisles, a matroneum was installed, and the original wooden ceiling was replaced by a vaulted roof; on the exterior, in the 15th century, adjoining the right-hand side of the church, a stout tower with a square plan was built, a tower-house for the Abbess of the convent.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Convent of Müstair, which stands in a valley in the Grisons, is a good example of Christian monastic renovation during the Carolingian period. It has Switzerland's greatest series of figurative murals, painted c. A.D. 800, along with Romanesque frescoes and stuccoes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Benedictine Convent of St John at Müstair</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>299</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Bellinzone owes its origins to its strategic position controlling access, via the Ticino valley, to the main Alpine passes into the Milanese, ie the whole north of Italy and on into other northern regions up to the Danube and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recent excavations have shown that the site was inhabited as early as the Neolithic period. It was a Roman outpost until the frontiers of the Empire were pushed further north to the Danube. Under pressure from barbarian inroads from the north, Bellinzone once again became a defensive stronghold against the peoples streaming down from the plains of central Europe. In the troubled days of the declining Roman Empire, the site fell into the hands of the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines, and finally the Lombards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The excavations also showed that the fortress suffered a fire around the year 800. In the 10th century, Bellinzone formed part of the possessions of Otto I, founder of the Holy Roman Empire. The earliest constructions still extant probably date from around this period. Around the year 1000 the castle and the county were granted by the emperor to the Bishop of Como. It was at this period that the interior of the castle of Castelgrande was divided up to accommodate houses, turning it into a small fortified town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 12th century, Frederick Barbarossa took possession of the fortress. The town grew up gradually around the citadel and the fortifications were improved. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the town expanded around the castle. The castle of Montebello was built around 1300, and soon incorporated into the system of fortifications. The castle of Sasso Corbaro, built in 1480 to the south-east of Castelgrande, also forms part of the system of defences, but was destined to remain separate from the network of fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bellinzone became part of the state of Milan under the rule of the Visconti. From the early 15th century onwards, Bellinzone came under attack from the Swiss confederates who sought to capture it. The Visconti strengthened its defences considerably and began the construction of a wall running from Castelgrande to block the Ticino valley: the wall was known as the Murata. More work was launched on Castelgrande, the hub of the system of defences, in order to rationalize the scheme of fortifications. The tripartite division of the courtyard was finalized and the courtyard cleared of the houses which still encumbered it, while the constructions on the south flank were connected to the castle. From this stronghold stretched a series of ramparts to protect the city and make it possible to control the movement of travellers through the valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 16th century, Bellinzone fell to the confederates, and the fortifications lost much of their importance but were not destroyed. In 1515 the Ticino flooded and swept away a large part of the Murata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 16th century onwards, history began to pass the stronghold by. In 1803, Castelgrande was used as prison and an arsenal. The modern town developed at the expense of the ramparts. In 1882, the arsenal was extended.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 20th century brought belated recognition of the historical value of the site and major restoration work began.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/884</http_url><id_number>884</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_884.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;The fortified ensemble of Bellinzona is an outstanding example of a late medieval defensive structure guarding a key strategic Alpine pass.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>46.1931400000</latitude><location>Bellinzona - Canton of Ticino</location><longitude>9.0224200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The fortified ensemble of Bellinzone is a unique example of European architecture erected in defence of the feudal structure guarding a key strategic Alpine pass. The Bellinzone ensemble is the sole remaining example in the entire Alpine region of medieval military architecture, comprising three castles, a wall that once closed off the whole Ticino valley, and the ramparts which surrounded the town for the protection of its citizens. Bellinzone owes its origins to its strategic position controlling access, via the Ticino valley, to the main Alpine passes into the Milanese, i.e. the whole north of Italy.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recent excavations have shown that the site was inhabited as early as the Neolithic period. It was a Roman outpost until the frontiers of the empire were pushed further north to the Danube. Under pressure from barbarian inroads from the north, Bellinzone once again became a defensive stronghold against the peoples streaming down from the plains of central Europe. In the troubled days of the declining Roman Empire, the site fell into the hands of the Ostrogoths, the Byzantines, and finally the Lombards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 10th century, Bellinzone formed part of the possessions of Otto I, founder of the Holy Roman Empire. The earliest constructions still extant probably date from around this period. Around the year 1000, the castle and the county were granted by the emperor to the Bishop of Como. It was at this period that the interior of the castle of Castelgrande was divided up to accommodate houses, turning it into a small fortified town. In the 12th century, Frederick Barbarossa took possession of the fortress. The town grew up gradually around the citadel and the fortifications were improved. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the town expanded around the castle. The Castle of Montebello was built around 1300 and soon incorporated into the system of fortifications. The Castle of Sasso Corbaro built in 1480 to the south-east of Castelgrande.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bellinzone became part of the state of Milan under the rule of the Visconti, who strengthened its defences considerably and began the construction of a wall running from Castelgrande to block the Ticino valley: the wall was known as the Murata.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the beginning of the 16th century, Bellinzone fell to the confederates, and the fortifications lost much of their importance but were not destroyed. In 1803, Castelgrande was used as prison and an arsenal. The modern town developed at the expense of the ramparts. In 1882, the arsenal was extended. In the 20th century the major restoration work began. The ensemble of three castles and a network of fortifications are: Castelgrande (Ch&amp;acirc;teau d'Uri, Ch&amp;acirc;teau Saint-Michel), Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Montebello (Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Schwyz, Ch&amp;acirc;teau Saint-Martin); and Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Sasso Corbaro (Ch&amp;acirc;teau d'Unterwald, Ch&amp;acirc;teau Sainte-Barbara).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Castelgrande is the largest of the three fortresses and dominates the town from its rocky eminence with its two towers, known as the White and Black Towers respectively. The spacious interior is divided by internal walls radiating out from the Black Tower into three courtyards. The White Tower, to the east, is surrounded by its own set of fortifications, known as the Redoubt. The arsenal consists of a series of massive buildings on the western side of the south courtyard. The enceinte has two chapels, but only their foundations still survive. Montebello Castle lies on a rocky spur to the east of Castelgrande, with which it is linked by the town walls; unlike Castelgrande, it is surrounded by deep moats. Its core is the central keep, from the end of the 13th century, which was given additional protection in the form of new defensive walls in the mid-14th and late 15th centuries. Sasso Corbaro Castle does not form part of the defensive perimeter of Bellinzone: it covers a vulnerable approach route. It is square in plan, the keep jutting out on the north-eastern corner and rising slightly above the level of the crenellated walls. Some two-thirds of the original line of the Town Ramparts still survive, with interval towers, but the gates have disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Bellinzona site consists of a group of fortifications grouped around the castle of Castelgrande, which stands on a rocky peak looking out over the entire Ticino valley. Running from the castle, a series of fortified walls protect the ancient town and block the passage through the valley. A second castle (Montebello) forms an integral part of the fortifications, while a third but separate castle (Sasso Corbaro) was built on an isolated rocky promontory south-east of the other fortifications.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Three Castles, Defensive Wall and Ramparts of the Market-Town of Bellinzona</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1036</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1037</http_url><id_number>1037</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1037.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.5000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>8.0333333333</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn region is located in the south central Swiss Alps midway between the cities of Brig and Interlaken, 77% in Valais and 23% in Bern. Nine peaks in the site are higher than 4,000 m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The geology of the site derives from the 'Helvetic nappe' (a large body of rock that was thrust over younger rock in Europe during the Miocene epoch). The folding and over-thrusting of rock layers during the formation of the Alps have produced very complex rock formations that have since been exposed by glacial activity. The physiography of the area is characterized by steep north-facing slopes and relatively gentle southern ones. Classic examples of glacial phenomena occur in the site, such as U-shaped valleys, valley glaciers, cirques, horn peaks and moraines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Vegetation and fauna are representative of the Alps and vary by slope, aspect and elevation. There is a marked difference in vegetation between the northern and southern slopes. On the north side, forests at lower elevations consist of broadleaved species such as beech, ash, alder, elm and birch. The south side is too dry for beech, which is replaced by Scots pine. On the northern side, the subalpine zone is dominated by Norway spruce with mountain ash, silver birch and stone pine and, on the southern side, by more continental species such as European larch on young soils.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Above the timberline are extensive areas of rhododendron scrub, alpine grassland and tundra vegetation and, on the xeric southern slopes, steppe grassland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fauna in the region is typical of the Alps, with a wide variety of species including ibex, lynx, red deer, roe deer, chamois and marmot as well as several reptiles and amphibians. A representative range of alpine birds also occurs, including golden eagle, kestrel, chough, ptarmigan, black grouse, snow finch, wallcreeper, lammergeier, pygmy owl and various woodpecker species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn stands out in having the following four qualities:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The scenic and aesthetic appeal is one of the most dramatic in the Alps, as evidenced by the long history of international visitation. The impressive northern wall of the site with the panorama of the Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau mountains provides a classic view of the north face of the High Alps. The only other alpine regions that rival it for sheer scenic splendour are the Pennine Alps around the Matterhorn/Monte Rosa and Mont Blanc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Glaciation is the most extensive in the Alps. The Aletsch is the largest and longest glacier in western Eurasia in terms of area (128km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), length (23km) and depth (900m).&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The extensive glaciation and rugged topography, as well as protection measures dating back to 1933, have resulted in this being one of the most (if not the most) undisturbed natural areas in the Alps.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;For its record of productive scientific research on geology, geomorphology, climatic change, biology and atmospheric physics, the region is unsurpassed in the Alps and, in certain fields, at the global level. Observations on some of the glaciers go back to the 12th century and have allowed reconstructions of historical fluctuations.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2007</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The extension of the natural World Heritage property of Jungfrau - Aletsch - Bietschhorn (first inscribed in 2001), expands the site to the east and west, bringing its surface area up to 82,400 ha., up from 53,900. The site provides an outstanding example of the formation of the High Alps, including the most glaciated part of the mountain range and the largest glacier in Eurasia. It features a wide diversity of ecosystems, including successional stages due particularly to the retreat of glaciers resulting from climate change. The site is of outstanding universal value both for its beauty and for the wealth of information it contains about the formation of mountains and glaciers, as well as ongoing climate change. It is also invaluable in terms of the ecological and biological processes it illustrates, notably through plan succession. Its impressive landscape has played an important role in European art, literature, mountaineering and alpine tourism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Swiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1211</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;A chance find of Latin inscription on the worship of wine in antiquity, together with many Roman remains - Saint-Saphorin overlies what survives of a substantial Roman villa built along a main Roman highway, and Lausanne was a Roman settlement - suggests that the area was probably cultivated for wine in Roman times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Lausanne grew from the Roman camp and was ruled by the Dukes of Savoy and the Bishop of Lausanne and then later by Bern before joining the Swiss Federation in 1803.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oldest written testimonies to attest to the culture of the vine date from the 9th century and mention various places of the current canton of Vaud. By the 12th century several large abbeys had been given land in the area by the Bishops of Lausanne - such as the Cistercian Abbeys of Hauterive, (1138), Hautcr&amp;ecirc;t (1141) and Montheron (1142), and over the next four centuries until the Reformation, it was the Abbeys that managed these fertile lands and shaped the landscape, introducing terraces and developing roads to export their wines. Many of the current boundaries and roads follow these mediaeval structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 14th century, the growth and extent of work had encouraged the monks and brothers of the monasteries to let out most of their land to tenants who cultivated the land as mixed farmers - as well as vines they also had arable fields, grazing animals and orchards - against the payment of a percentage of their crops (a half, a third or two fifths of the fruit) to the monasteries. By this time many of the families who still farm the area had become established. For instance the Chappuis family history records vine growers back to 1335.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A document of 1331 is the first to describe the structures created for the vines: terraces 10 to 15 metres wide, supported by walls up to 5 or 6 metres in height. Terms requiring vine growers to maintain walls and the &amp;lsquo;slides' for heading the water run-off appeared in 1391.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1536 Lausanne came under the control of Bern and several wealthy patrician families from Bern started to acquire land in Lavaux. Bern carried out improvements to the roads, for instance from Vevey to Moudon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Wine growing was carefully controlled to keep up quality: first by the Prince-Bishops of Lausanne and later by the Bernese. The first testimonies for this control dates back to 1368. Wine cellars were defined and local wines were encouraged, while &amp;lsquo;foreign' wines and distillation (which would deprive the vines of manure and take too much wood) were discouraged. The value of the land on which the vines were grown was much higher than that for arable fields resulting in much interest from the middle-class of Lausanne and pressure to extend the wine growing areas. In response, there was much legislation to try and prevent this and maintain quality, often doomed to failure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the 1800s there were many small plots and a huge diversity of landowners (including some monasteries such as Hauterive associated with Freiburg, who had managed to hold onto land after the Reformation), as well as many representatives of wealthy secular and ecclesiastical families. This patchwork of often very small land-holdings meant that work on the land was inefficient. After 1803 when Lausanne had become the capital of the newly formed Swiss canton Vaud, and joined the Swiss Federation, a period of agricultural improvement was ushered in. Terraces were rationalized and larger walls created and new drainage of whole sectors created to limit erosion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1849 the Great Council of Vaud agreed to the improvement and widening of the road connecting Lausanne to Vevey by the edge of the lake. At the end of the 19th century, the Corniche road along the Lake made it possible to connect the villages between Cully and Chexbres. Finally the railway arrived in 1861; it was enlarged in 1862 and again in 1904 and the lines now form a triangle round the site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One of the biggest changes to vine growing was brought about by the phylloxera vine disease imported from North America; it arrived in Lavaux in 1886. To recover from this, the growers changed their methods to allow easier access to the vines for chemical treatment in order to prevent a recurrence of the disease. In order to have better access, many of the old methods disappeared as new grafted vines were planted along lines rather than &amp;lsquo;goblet' fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Change came also at a Canton level: in response to the crisis, the authorities intervened to support the industry at canton and federal level. In return the industry was much more tightly regulated with the introduction of Statutes of Wine to maintain quality but also a decent income for the wine growers. This brought to an end the relative freedom of the wine growers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following the Second World War, the expansion of Lausanne and other towns attracted growers to leave their plots and at the same time, improved transport offered the possibility of growers living in towns. Mixed farming finally disappeared and with it the orchards and cows and pigs. Between 1957 and 1977 legislation was introduced to sustain what had come to be seen as part of Swiss culture (see below). Resisted by many initially, it is now seen as the saviour of the industry in protecting not only wine making but also the vineyard landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The final major alteration to the landscape was the building of the A9 Autoroute along the upper edge of the site, in the proposed Buffer Zone.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1243</http_url><id_number>1243</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1243.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.4919444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>6.7461111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Lavaux Vineyard Terraces, stretching for about 30 km along the south-facing northern shores of Lake Geneva from the Chateau de Chillon to the eastern outskirts of Lausanne in the Vaud region, cover the lower slopes of the mountainside between the villages and the lake. Although there is some evidence that vines were grown in the area in Roman times, the present vine terraces can be traced back to the 11th century, when Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries controlled the area. It is an outstanding example of a centuries-long interaction between people and their environment, developed to optimize local resources so as to produce a highly valued wine that has always been important to the economy.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Lavaux, Vineyard Terraces</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1420</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1179</http_url><id_number>1179</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1179.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>46.9166666667</latitude><location>Cantons of Glarus, St. Gallen and Graubünden</location><longitude>9.2500000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The&lt;strong&gt; &lt;/strong&gt;Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona in the north-eastern part of the country covers a mountainous area of 32,850 ha which features seven peaks that rise above 3,000 m. The area displays an exceptional example of mountain building through continental collision and features &lt;em&gt;.&lt;/em&gt;excellent geological sections through tectonic thrust, i.e. the process whereby older, deeper rocks are carried onto younger, shallower rocks. The site is distinguished by the clear three-dimensional exposure of the structures and processes that characterize this phenomenon and has been a key site for the geological sciences since the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. The Glarus Alps are glaciated mountains rising dramatically above narrow river valleys and are the site of the largest post-glacial landslide in the Central Alpine region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1497</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Human settlement of the high Jura plateau was relatively late. The name of Le Locle, a small mountain village, does not appear until the Late Middle Ages, and that of the hamlet of La Chaux-de-Fonds not until even later. However, the two autonomous rural communities existed by the mid-17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The birth of watchmaking at Le Locle is attributed to the semi-legendary figure of Daniel Jean-Richard, at the end of the 17th century, and then subsequently to other remarkable entrepreneurs of the 18th century. Technical watchmaking activity was then divided between rural workers, who were increasingly numerous, specialising in the making of a particular part. The parts were then brought together by the establisseur, who issued the orders. He assembled the basic movement of the watch in his own workshop in the village and finished it off, or if not sold the basic movement to a watchmaker from Geneva or Paris. Many craft specialities were necessary, but the division of labour meant that this was manageable and that the necessary labour force could be trained relatively rapidly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, the Upper Jura farm was well adapted to this type of activity, which required a room, light, and the time made available by the long winter months. The establissage system at that time tended to be concentrated in the towns of Le Locle and La Chaux-de- Fonds, which were close to each other, and to become professionalised to meet the growing demand for watches. The town house permanently dedicated to watchmaking then took over from the farm. With two or three storeys and with an architecture that was sober and functional, a house of this type would accommodate several families of worker-craftsmen and their workshop rooms. This evolved into the vast colonies of rented accommodation in the second half of the 19th century. In 1870 some 90% of the Swiss watchmaking labour force consisted of home workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fire of 1794 at La Chaux-de-Fonds and the fires at Le Locle in 1833 and 1844 made it possible to redesign the plans of these two watchmaking mountain towns in a more rational way, in order to make them into towns entirely dedicated to the development of watchmaking (see Description). The names of Mo&amp;iuml;se Perret-Gentil and in particular of the engineer Charles-Henri Junod are associated with these projects.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The urban population grew steadily from 1750 to 1830; there was then a considerable acceleration in urbanisation, particularly at La Chaux-de-Fonds between 1830 and World War I. The population of La Chaux-de-Fonds was then around 40,000 and that of Le Locle 13,000. The Industrial Revolution led to the building of a railway line between the two towns, in 1857, which was extended to Neuch&amp;acirc;tel shortly afterwards. It fitted in well with the strip-based urban fabric. In addition to its transport function, the railway helped to strengthen earlier urban options and to encourage development along the axis of the valley. The town plans were extended, reinforced by the construction of a water supply system and a sewerage system; hygienic concerns were given priority. During the second part of the 19th century the watchmakers had to cope with various market pressures: an increase in output, the growing need for quality at a lower cost, and the shock of American competition based on another manufacturing business model. The Universal Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 revealed the capacities of the new model. The production of fully interchangeable standardised parts, using sophisticated machine tools, provided an effective response to the new needs of the markets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The watchmaking industry of the Neuch&amp;acirc;tel mountains was the first in Europe to adapt to this competition. This led to the creation of integrated factories, or larger workshops in annexes to houses, but still in the pre-existing grid of streets. Not only did the Swiss watchmaking industry maintain its previous positions, it strengthened them, again dominating the world watch market.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The crisis of the 1930s left its mark on the region; the Swiss watchmaking industry coped thanks to a system of cartelisation under public control. Negative population growth occurred for the first time in the inter-war years, particularly at La Chaux-de-Fonds. There was then a substantial increase during the thirty years of post-war prosperity (1945-75), exceeding the previous record population levels of the early 20th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Another brutal change in the industrial system occurred in the 1970s, with the sudden arrival of quartz crystal and electronic techniques from foreign countries. This led to another drastic and rapid conversion of the manufacturing system, which after some difficult years again raised Swiss watchmaking to the position of unrivalled market leader. The number of watchmaking concerns is declining and populations are decreasing, but without a serious and irreversible crisis, as happens all too often in the industrial world.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1302</http_url><id_number>1302</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1302.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ch</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.1038888889</latitude><location></location><longitude>6.8327777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of La Chaux-de-Fonds / Le Locle watchmaking town-planning consists of two towns situated close to one another in a remote environment in the Swiss Jura mountains, on land ill-suited to farming. Their planning and buildings reflect watchmakers&amp;rsquo; need of rational organization. Planned in the early 19th century, after extensive fires, the towns owed their existence to this single industry. Their layout along an open-ended scheme of parallel strips on which residential housing and workshops are intermingled reflects the needs of the local watchmaking culture that dates to the 17th century and is still alive today. The site presents outstanding examples of mono-industrial manufacturing-towns which are well preserved and still active. The urban planning of both towns has accommodated the transition from the artisanal production of a cottage industry to the more concentrated factory production of the late 19th and 20th centuries. The town of La Chaux-de-Fonds was described by Karl Marx as a &amp;ldquo;huge factory-town&amp;rdquo; in Das Kapital where he analyzed the division of labour in the watchmaking industry of the Jura.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>La Chaux-de-Fonds / Le Locle, Watchmaking Town Planning</site><states>Switzerland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1582</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/21</http_url><id_number>21</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_21.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.1991666667</latitude><location>Aleppo</location><longitude>37.1627777778</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Aleppo has exceptional universal value because it represents medieval Arab architectural styles that are rare and authentic, in traditional human habitats. It constitutes typical testimony of the city's cultural, social, and technological development, representing continuous and prosperous commercial activity from the Mameluke period. It contains vestiges of Arab resistance against the Crusaders, but there is also the imprint of Byzantine, Roman and Greek occupation in the streets and in the plan of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located 350&amp;nbsp;km north of Damascus at the crossroads of several trade routes, Aleppo was very prosperous from the 3rd millennium BC, a prosperity it preserved throughout its evolution and its settlement. The old city was surrounded by a defensive enclosure, flanked by towers and entered by fortified gates from the Islamic era. Aleppo is famous for its mosques, &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; (the Fardos Madrassa is one of the outstanding religious buildings) and churches. It is still a very active Arab commercial city. Aleppo has a jumble of houses in the subtlest pastel colours with slender minarets and, dominating it all, the great mass of the Citadel. The southern ramparts, partly cleared of houses, lead to the impressive of all the fortified gates, Bab Qinnesrin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The al Gassa- skirts the Jdeideh, 'old houses' quarter, with its beautifully decorated courtyards. All the houses here are built from fine limestone, lining narrow streets without shops and sometime vaulted. This lead through the souks, covered by vaulted roofs. The al Joumrok khan (Customs Caravanserai) dates from the 17th century: French, English, and Dutch merchants traded here and their consuls were obliged to live here. In a corner a staircase leads up to a private house which was the Venetian consulate from the 15th to the 19th century when it became the residence of the Belgian consul; at the present time the house conserves its typically Venetian style. Over many generations men of taste have built up a priceless collection of works of art from every country between China and.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jami al Kabir entrance (Umayyad or Great Mosque) is opposite an old Koranic school, the al Halawyah Madrassa, installed in the former Byzantine cathedral erected at the command of the Empress Helena. The Great Mosque was founded in the early Islamic period, but there is little to see that dates from that time. The Mameluke minaret dates from 1090 and is, with its fine proportions and Kufic inscriptions, a good example of the great period of Islamic architecture in Syria. The north facade is one side of the square.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A ring of crenellated walls and towers rises rise 50m above the city from a steep glacis, encircling a mass of ruins of every period. The nail-heads on the doors themselves are beautifully worked, the lintels have comic or enigmatic carvings on them, and there are fine Kufic inscriptions calling upon the power and the mercy of Allah. The interior of the citadel shows all too clearly how it has been ravaged by enemies (the Mongols invaded it twice) and shattered by earthquakes (that of 1822 was particularly devastating).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St George's Cathedral stands behind a labyrinth of narrow streets on a tiny square. The postern gate in the middle of the ramparts (Bab Antakia) is the Antioch Gate. Beyond there are many important monuments - the little domed Byzantine church converted into a mosque; a prison with dungeons dug into the rock; a stretch of wall 4&amp;nbsp;m thick, the base of a Syrio-Hittite temple; the remains of a great mosque built by Saladin's son; a covered building containing sculpture and objects from various periods found on the site; the tomb of Emir Zaher Ghazi (son of Saladin) in an annex to a &lt;em&gt;madrasa&lt;/em&gt; founded during the Crusader period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 13th century royal palace, with its fine stalactite and honeycomb entrance porch, is inlaid with white marble. The throne room, dating from the Mameluke period (15th-16th centuries) has been tastefully restored: Syrian artists and craftsmen have recreated the luxurious setting of the court - the ceiling with its decorated beams and caissons, lighting, windows, polychrome columns - all are a tribute to their skill. There are around 200 minarets, some squat like defensive towers, others slender as needles. On the other side stands a fine octagonal, part of the 15th century al Atroush mosque.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located at the crossroads of several trade routes from the 2nd millennium B.C., Aleppo was ruled successively by the Hittites, Assyrians, Arabs, Mongols, Mamelukes and Ottomans. The 13th-century citadel, 12th-century Great Mosque and various 17th-century madrasas, palaces, caravanserais and hammams all form part of the city's cohesive, unique urban fabric, now threatened by overpopulation.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Aleppo</site><states>Syrian Arab Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>24</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In the general perception, the two castles and various others that had a role in the Crusader period, used to be associated mainly with the European invaders. More recently, their national significance has however been recognized. In fact, the Fortress of Sayun (Ch&amp;acirc;teau de Sa&amp;ocirc;ne) was renamed Fortress of Saladin in 1957 to honour the sultan who conquered it in 1188. This castle has its origins in the 10th century, when the region formed part of the eastern boundary of the Byzantine Empire, which was confronted by the Fatimids, the Mirdasids and later the Seljuks, who all erect defensive structures based on the experiences of the Umayyads, Abbasids and early Byzantines. The Crac des Chevaliers dates from the 11th century, when it was known as the Castle of the Kurds. During the Crusader period, starting from the early 12th century, the Franks built or rebuilt several castles in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Their leaders stayed either in fortified settlements or in castles such as the Fortress of Saladin. In the second half of the 12th century, the Latin lands were handed over to the Knights Hospitallers or Templars, who were then responsible for the construction until the castles were occupied by the Arabs in the late 12th or 13th centuries. Subsequently, Crac des Chevaliers was occupied by villagers resulting in various additional structures. The Fortress of Saladin, instead, due to its relative isolation, was abandoned and remained unused for centuries. In the 20th century, both castles have been subject to restoration as ancient monuments.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1229</http_url><id_number>1229</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1229.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.7816666667</latitude><location>Municipalities of Al Hosn and Haffeh</location><longitude>36.2630555555</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;These two castles represent the most significant examples illustrating the exchange of influences and documenting the evolution of fortified architecture in the Near East during the time of the Crusades (11th - 13th centuries). The Crac des Chevaliers was built by the Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem from 1142 to 1271. With further construction by the Mamluks in the late 13th century, it ranks among the best-preserved examples of the Crusader castles. The Qal&amp;rsquo;at Salah El-Din (Fortress of Saladin), even though partly in ruins, represents an outstanding example of this type of fortification, both in terms of the quality of construction and the survival of historical stratigraphy. It retains features from its Byzantine beginnings in the 10th century, the Frankish transformations in the late 12th century and fortifications added by the Ayyubid dynasty (late 12th to mid-13th century).&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Crac des Chevaliers and Qal’at Salah El-Din</site><states>Syrian Arab Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1406</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2013</danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1348</http_url><id_number>1348</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1348.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.3341666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>36.8441666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Some 40 villages grouped in eight parks situated in north-western Syria provide remarkable testimony to rural life in late Antiquity and during the Byzantine period. Abandoned in the 8th to 10th centuries, the villages, which date from the 1st to 7th centuries, feature a remarkably well preserved landscape and the architectural remains of dwellings, pagan temples, churches, cisterns, bathhouses etc. The relict cultural landscape of the villages also constitutes an important illustration of the transition from the ancient pagan world of the Roman Empire to Byzantine Christianity. Vestiges illustrating hydraulic techniques, protective walls and Roman agricultural plot plans furthermore offer testimony to the inhabitants' mastery of agricultural production.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient Villages of Northern Syria</site><states>Syrian Arab Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1761</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/20</http_url><id_number>20</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_20.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>33.5113900000</latitude><location>Administrative District of Damascus</location><longitude>36.3063900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Damascus is considered to be the oldest city as well as the oldest capital of the world. It is the cradle of historical civilizations, constituting a beacon of science and art over time, and a historical encyclopaedia which tells a great part of the history of humanity. In the same way, it represents a historical reference for comparing the systems of architecture and town planning over several thousand years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 3rd millennium BC, Damascus is one of the oldest cities in the Middle East. Dominated to the west by Mount Qasiyun and bounded to the east by the desert, Damascus was founded, with the name of Palmyra, in an oasis that was very fertile thanks to the presence of the River Barada, a meeting place for cultures and caravans. It was the capital of an Aramaic kingdom (11th-7th centuries BC), often at war with the kings of Israel and temporarily conquered by King David. After being defeated twice by the Assyrians, it was definitively conquered by Nebuchadnezzar in 600 BC. It fell into Persian hands in 530 BC, and then in 333 BC it was annexed to the empire of Alexander the Great. The two adjoining areas were unified by the Romans, during the reigns of Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (AD 197-217). The city was enclosed by a single ring of enclosure walls that are still be identified. After the interval of rule by the Sassanid Parthians, in 636 its fate was sealed permanently as part of the Arab world, becoming the prestigious and monumental capital of the Umayyad caliph. The city then began to expand outside the enclosure walls and enjoyed a time of particular economic prosperity, which continued despite its loss of capital status under the Mameluke dynasty and the devastation wrought during the Mongol incursion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Damascus preserves a few traces of its long history prior to the Arabic conquest, including some from the Roman period, such as the &lt;em&gt;decumanus&lt;/em&gt;, mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, which coincides with the present-day route that crosses the city from east to west, a road lined with columns which still preserves one of the three monumental arches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main entrance to the old city is the al Hamidiyeh souk. The Ayyubid Citadel of Damascus is a masterpiece of military architecture, and its courtyards, walls and two enormous entrances illustrate numerous historical events, including the conquest by Timur in 1400.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 4th century, during the reign of Emperor Theodosius, on the site of the ancient Temple of Jove there was a Byzantine church dedicated to St John the Baptist and, since 706, the Great Mosque, built at the behest of al-Walid, the sixth Umayyad caliph. The complex has an external courtyard, bounded by a massive wall and flanked by three minarets in different styles. The inner courtyard has three sides with a covered double portico and the centre of it is covered by a dome for the ablution ritual that precedes the prayers. Adjoining the porticoes is the Dome of Treasure, a small octagonal pavilion covered with fine mosaics, and surmounted by a dome that stands on eight Corinthian columns. On the fourth side of the internal courtyard is the mosque proper, subdivided by arches into three parallel aisles, cut on a perpendicular line by a transect, the central part of which was covered by a wooden dome that was destroyed in 1401.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The arrangement of its component elements is reminiscent of the Christian churches of Syria and Armenia and represents a significant example of Umayyad art that continues, through the master craftsmen employed, the tradition of Byzantine art. The urban fabric underwent important transformations with the rise to power of the Abbasids: the urban centre ceased to be a unified organism and was divided up into autonomous quarters, each equipped with its own institutions, mosques, public baths, markets, and police corps. In this way, the rectangular blocks from the Hellenistic grid were transformed into the characteristic Islamic urban fabric. Over the centuries guilds of craftsmen and merchants established themselves around the Great Mosque, while the important Christian minority consolidated itself in the north-east quarters of the city, around the churches and sites associated with the conversation of St Paul.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in the 3rd millennium B.C., Damascus is one of the oldest cities in the Middle East. In the Middle Ages, it was the centre of a flourishing craft industry, specializing in swords and lace. The city has some 125 monuments from different periods of its history – one of the most spectacular is the 8th-century Great Mosque of the Umayyads, built on the site of an Assyrian sanctuary.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Damascus</site><states>Syrian Arab Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1862</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/22</http_url><id_number>22</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_22.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.5180600000</latitude><location>Governorate of Deraa</location><longitude>36.4816700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bosra is associated with important events in the history of ideas and beliefs: according to tradition its bishop took part in the Council of Antioch, while the Prophet Muhammad came there twice and, at the time of his first visit, is said to have learned the precepts of Christianity from a Nestorian monk named Bahira. The monuments built in different times make Bosra a city of extreme rarity, of universal importance and of unique aesthetic value&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old city of Bosra was the northern capital of the Nabataean kingdom of the Roman province of Arabia, referred to in the Bible, in AD 106. It was successively an important religious metropolis of the Byzantine Empire and a caravan centre, in the role of a large frontier market on the pilgrim route to Mecca.The square minarets are without doubt the oldest still standing in the whole of Islam. The significance of the city as an important stop on the way to Mecca and the prosperity that this brought lasted until the 17th century. By then the region was becoming unsafe and pilgrims began to take a less dangerous route further west.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of the city which once counted 80,000 inhabitants, there remains today only a village of striking beauty, settled among the ruins. The 2nd century Roman theatre, probably built under Trajan, is the only monument of this type with its upper gallery in the form of a covered portico that has been integrally preserved. This unique monument, enclosed by the walls and towers of a splendid citadel fortified between 481 and 1231, alone would suffice for the glory of Bosra. From outside it could be an Arab fortress similar to many others. On a semi-circular front, great square towers built from enormous blocks of stone (some of the corner ones are more than 5&amp;nbsp;m high) project from the blind ramparts. A deep ditch, the first line of defence, is crossed on a six-arched bridge. An iron-bound gate, a series of vaulted rooms, twisting passages, rampart walks, and all kinds of defensive works give an impression of the military quality of the castle, but there is no preparation for the discovery that right at its heart lies a splendid ancient theatre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two structures, both equally fine, are closely integrated into one another. The 13th-century enclosing wall completely encircles the cavea of the theatre. When the Arabs entered Bosra they immediately blocked all the doors and openings of the ancient theatre with thick walls, thus transforming it into an easily defensible citadel. But the new threats posed by the Crusaders rendered these early defences inadequate; so in the mid-11th century three towers were built, jutting out from the Roman building; nine other larger ones followed between 1202 and 1251. Later accretions overlaid the interior of the theatre and its ranges of seats, but at the same time preserved them. This interior has now been fully uncovered and restored in its entire majestic entirety by the Department of Antiquities, which began its work here shortly after Syria became independent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is room for 15,000 spectators to face a stage 45&amp;nbsp;m long and 8.5&amp;nbsp;m deep, and a stage wall whose base is emphasized by a series of Corinthian columns. Many details of its architecture proclaim the perfection of its construction and the concern of its 2nd-century builders for the comfort of the audience. Furthermore, sources reveal that the whole theatre was draped with silk hangings that protected audiences from both summer sun and winter rain. Perfumed water was also evaporated in the theatre - the ultimate touch of style and refinement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Bosra, Nabatean and Roman monuments, Christian churches, mosques and &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; come together, all equally celebrated: they are to be found within the half-ruined enceinte of the city. The basilica of the martyrs Sergios, Bacchos and Leontios, the cathedral of Bosra, was completed in 513 by Archbishop Julianus. The structure of this monument, a central plan with eastern apses flanked by two sacristies, exerted a decisive influence on the evolution of Christian architectural forms, and to a certain extent on Islamic forms as well. The Mosque of Omar, restored in 1950, is one of the rare constructions of the 1st century of the Hegira preserved in Syria. The Jami' Mabrak an-Naqua &lt;em&gt;madrasa&lt;/em&gt; is one of the oldest and most celebrated of Islam.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Bosra, once the capital of the Roman province of Arabia, was an important stopover on the ancient caravan route to Mecca. A magnificent 2nd-century Roman theatre, early Christian ruins and several mosques are found within its great walls.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ancient City of Bosra</site><states>Syrian Arab Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2209</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23</http_url><id_number>23</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_23.jpg</image_url><iso_code>sy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>34.5541700000</latitude><location>Province of Homs</location><longitude>38.2666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Palmyra exerted a decisive influence on the evolution of neoclassical architecture and modern urbanization.&lt;a name="Hundreds_of_columns"&gt;&lt;/a&gt;The city offers the consummate example of an ancient urbanized complex, for the most part protected, with its large public monuments such as the Agora, the Theatre and the temples. Alongside these, the inhabited quarters are preserved, and there are immense cemeteries outside the fortified enceinte. Palmyran art, for which the great museums of the world now vie, unites the forms of Graeco-Roman art with indigenous elements and Iranian influences in a strongly original style. As the crossroads of several civilizations, it is here that unique creations came into existence, notably in the domain of funerary sculpture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since prehistory there has been human settlement in this area, from the Palaeolithic and Neolithic eras. Palmyra is a fertile oasis located close to a mountainous passage, in the heart of the Syrian desert. It developed into a staging post between Al-Shaam and Iraq, the Arab Gulf and Persia and the Mediterranean. It was to the exploitation of this rich caravan trade that the city owed its prosperity and importance. Palmyra established itself as the most important market for Eastern products and the leading caravan city of the Roman Empire, taking over a role that had previously been performed by Petra. This began when the emperor Trajan in AD 105-6 incorporated it into the new province of Arabia, following the annexation of Nabatea, a client state that controlled much of the trade with the East.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 3rd century AD, with the accession of the Sassanid dynasty to the Parthian throne and the resulting resumption of hostilities against the Romans, Palmyra also assumed an important strategic and military role: the nobleman Septimius Odaenathus obtained support and recognition from Rome, as an ally in their struggle against the Sassanids. When the Emperor Valerian was defeated and captured by the King of the Parthians, Odaenathus took a stand in defence of the empire and Valerian's son, Gallienus, winning a series of military victories. He was succeeded on the throne by his younger son from his second marriage, Wahballath, under the regency of his mother Zenobia, who invited to her court as her son's preceptor Cassius Longinus. She conquered all of Syria and extended her dominion as far as Egypt and Anatolia. Palmyra, which was spared at first, made an attempt at rebellion but was quickly sacked and plundered, and the city walls were destroyed. It was the beginning of the city's decline, but the myth of the queen of Palmyra, Zenobia, was not destroyed. She was the incarnation of the finest male and female virtues, which were to outlive the collapse of the ancient world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palmyra was a wealthy caravan centre from 44 BC to AD 272, alternately independent from and under the rule of Rome, which during the 2nd and 3rd centuries was richly embellished. The grand colonnade, 1,100&amp;nbsp;m in length, which links the temple of Bel with the so-called Camp of Diocletian, is the monumental axis of the city, with its open central street flanked by covered lateral passages. The principle of the colonnaded portico is to be found in the secondary axes, which run perpendicular to the grand colonnade, and certain of these date back to the 2nd century. The colonnade is not perspectival in its progress: the two areas are not aligned with each other, and so it takes a sharp turn before straightening out again at the three-arched Triumphal arch dating from the Severan period, only to undergo a further adjustment to align itself with the so-called Tetrapyle, two pairs of floral columns symmetrically arranged on tall monumental bases. The temple proper, built in AD 32, stood at the centre of a sacred precinct which was later bounded by a broad porticoed peribolos with a double order of columns on the interior, punctuated on the exterior by elegant Corinthian pilaster strips.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Outside the inhabited town, along the four main access roads to the city, stood four cemeteries, which feature three types of tomb. The oldest and most distinctive group is represented by the funerary towers, tall multi-storey sandstone buildings belonging to the richest families. On the fronts of those that survive, foremost among them the Tower of Elahbel, there is an arch with sarcophagus halfway up, which in ancient times supported a reclining statue. Corridors and rooms were subdivided by vertical bays of loculi, closed by slabs of stone carved with the image of the deceased and painted in lively colours.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;An oasis in the Syrian desert, north-east of Damascus, Palmyra contains the monumental ruins of a great city that was one of the most important cultural centres of the ancient world. From the 1st to the 2nd century, the art and architecture of Palmyra, standing at the crossroads of several civilizations, married Graeco-Roman techniques with local traditions and Persian influences.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Site of Palmyra</site><states>Syrian Arab Republic</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2256</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The proto-urban settlement of Sarazm dates back to the first half of the 4th millennium BCE. It may have been established on an earlier village of farmers dating back to the Neolithic. In its earliest level, a particularly rich funerary circle testifies to the existence of an important settlement in around 3500 BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In geographical terms, Sarazm is situated at a point of contact between a mountainous area and an extensive plain. In the 4th millennium BCE, contacts developed between nomadic shepherds from the mountains and the agrarian populations of Transoxiana, on the basis of economic complementarity. The mountains that frame the main valley, to the north and south of Sarazm, are rich in a variety of mineral raw materials and metal ores. They can be crossed by high valleys and passes which are accessible in the summer, particularly to the south.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to its own farming produce, it seems that Sarazm established itself, at a particularly early date near the beginning of the 4th millennium BCE, as a centre for inter-regional interchanges over long distances, particularly with the plains of Turkmenistan and the steppes of the north-east. Archaeological evidence, particularly from studies of ceramics, then demonstrates the great variety of contacts established by Sarazm over the course of its history. The remains reflect both pre-Elamite and Baluchistani influences, and tangible and cultural interchanges with the Indus Valley.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 3rd millennium BCE, Sarazm was an important centre for tin and bronze, and for copper and lead, in Central Asia. In addition, Sarazm developed production of manufactured goods: ornaments, ceramics, and tools. It also drew its prosperity from the exploitation of other regional resources: semi-precious stones such as turquoise, agate, and lapis lazuli, and also wool and leather. Sarazm was the first centre in Central Asia - probably from the start of the 3rd millennium BCE - to establish commercial relations and a network of cultural interchanges on such a large geographical scale. The town had connections to the west with Turkmenistan extending as far as the Aral Sea, to the north-east with the Eurasian steppe as far as Siberia, to the south-west with the Persian plateau as far as Mesopotamia and perhaps further, and to the south with Bactria, to Baluchistan and the Indus Valley, and as far as the Indian Ocean (sea shells). Findings at Sarazm in particular confirm the permanency of interchanges with the mountains of the Hindu Kush.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Bronze Age, Sarazm became a rich protourban settlement. The town had a sophisticated culture which required complex organization, and the capacities to erect dwellings with a wide range of different rooms and decorated monumental buildings. This was a centre where a large number of complementary activities were developed in an economy based on agriculture and cattle-breeding on the one hand, and the processing of local mineral resources and handicrafts on the other.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This led to a situation which is emblematic of the beginnings of urbanization, with socially diversified settlement, professional specialization, and a certain degree of sophistication in architectural construction and technical achievements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sarazm seems to have declined between the middle and end of the 3rd millennium BCE. No evidence of occupation has been found for subsequent periods, and it seems likely that nomadic shepherds then once again inhabited the region. The reasons why Sarazm was abandoned by its inhabitants have not yet been identified. Various scholarly hypotheses have been advanced: a population migration, an epidemic, or military attacks on a settlement which was prosperous but which was located in a non-fortified urban ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following an accidental discovery by a villager in 1976, excavations on the site began in 1979. Since then excavations have been carried out at thirteen different places, covering a surface area of about 2.5ha (the archaeological urban area is estimated to be around 47ha). The excavated zones have been partially backfilled to preserve them from destruction. However, this solution turned out not to be fully satisfactory, as the structures unearthed were then subject to visible natural deterioration. This is why five of the excavation zones have been covered with metal shelters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;ICOMOS considers that in the new dossier and in the additional documentation of 14 and 26 February 2010, the State Party has satisfactorily taken into consideration Recommendation a) of the Committee decision 31 COM 8B.29.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1141</http_url><id_number>1141</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1141.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tj</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.5077777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>67.4602777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sarazm, which means &amp;ldquo;where the land begins&amp;rdquo;, is an archaeological site bearing testimony to the development of human settlements in Central Asia, from the 4th millennium BCE to the end of the 3rd millennium BCE. The ruins demonstrate the early development of proto-urbanization in this region. This centre of settlement, one of the oldest in Central Asia, is situated between a mountainous region suitable for cattle rearing by nomadic pastoralists, and a large valley conducive to the development of agriculture and irrigation by the first settled populations in the region. Sarazm also demonstrates the existence of commercial and cultural exchanges and trade relations with peoples over an extensive geographical area, extending from the steppes of Central Asia and Turkmenistan, to the Iranian plateau, the Indus valley and as far as the Indian Ocean.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Proto-urban Site of Sarazm</site><states>Tajikistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1651</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1252</http_url><id_number>1252</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1252.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tj</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.7650000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>72.3052777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Tajikistan National Park&amp;nbsp;covers more than 2.5 million hectares in the east of the country, at the centre of the so-called &amp;ldquo;Pamir Knot&amp;rdquo;, a meeting point of the highest mountain ranges on the Eurasian continent. It consists of high plateaux in the east and, to the west, rugged peaks, some of them over 7,000 meters high, and features extreme seasonal variations of temperature. The longest valley glacier outside the Polar region is located among the 1,085 glaciers inventoried in the site, which also numbers 170 rivers and more than 400 lakes. Rich flora species of both the south-western and central Asian floristic regions grow in the Park which shelters nationally rare and threatened birds and mammals (Marco Polo Argali sheep, Snow Leopards and Siberian Ibex and more). Subject to frequent strong earthquakes, the Park is sparsely inhabited, and virtually unaffected by agriculture and permanent human settlements. It offers a unique opportunity for the study of plate tectonics and subduction phenomena.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tajik National Park (Mountains of the Pamirs)</site><states>Tajikistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1907</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/574</http_url><id_number>574</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_574.jpg</image_url><iso_code>th</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.0072200000</latitude><location>Sukhothai and Kamphaeng Phet Provinces</location><longitude>99.7897200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The small historic park of Sukhothai (3.38&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) constitutes a masterpiece of the first Siamese architectural style. The three sites are representative of the first period of Siamese art and the creation of the first Thai state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beginning in the 12th century, a people from Yunnan in China settled in the northern regions of the Khmer state. Known as the Thai (free men), they organized themselves in small communities. A Thai prince married a Khmer woman, then rebelled against the central power and created the first Siamese state, calling it the kingdom of Sukhothai after the name of its capital city. Ramkhamhaeng (or Rama the Strong), second son of the founder of the state (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 1280-1318) was one of the most important Thai sovereigns, for he brought his state extensive territory through his military victories. He invented the Siamese alphabet (Khmer script) and imposed strict observance of the Buddhist religion and instituted a military and social organization copied from his vanquished neighbours, the Khmers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The great civilization which evolved in the kingdom of Sukhothai was a tributary of numerous influences and ancient local traditions, but the rapid assimilation of all these elements forged, in record time, what is known as the Sukhothai style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three old towns were the principal centres of the kingdom of Ramkhamhaeng: Sukhothai (the capital), Si Satchanlai (second royal residence), and Kampheng Pet. In their architecture, built from brick with decorations in stucco and wood, they offer a great variety and skilful mixture of elements inspired by the Singhalese or Khmers. The great meeting rooms with the massive chevet decorated with a monumental portrait of Buddha are specific to Sukhothai architecture and subsequently influenced all Thai art. Among the statuary, the first Thai style is distinguished by the particular physical features of the Buddhas: a long, fine nose, a flame-like protuberance on the head (Sinhalese influences) and a double line around the mouth (Khmer tradition). Buddha is often represented upright (walking), his clothing clinging to his body, with an almost haughty attitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Sukhothai lies a dozen or so kilometres from the modern town and still has a large part of its fortifications. The principal monuments include the monastery (&lt;em&gt;wat&lt;/em&gt;) Mahathat, with its royal temple and its cemetery; Sra Si Wat, with its two stupas, their graceful lines reflected in the water of the town's biggest reservoir; and an impressive &lt;em&gt;prang&lt;/em&gt; (reliquary tower typical of Ayutthaya art) from a somewhat later period. The site has been excavated and studied since the mid-20th century. In 1988 a 70&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; area was declared a historic park. Unfortunately, a modern road was built and cuts the site in two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Si Satchanm, famous for its ceramics, is separated from the modern town by the river Yom. Among the 140 buildings on the site the most notable is the monastery of Chedi Chet Thao (temple with seven points), impressive with its seven rows of elongated stupas, erected to hold the ashes of the governors of the town. Since 1983, the site has been classed as a historic park (45 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Kamohena Pet (wall of diamonds) played mostly a military role and, even after the fall of the kingdom of Sukhothai, retained strategic importance. For this reason, its monuments are as much in the Sukhothai as in the Ayutthaya style. In 1980 the site was declared a historic park.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sukhothai was the capital of the first Kingdom of Siam in the 13th and 14th centuries. It has a number of fine monuments, illustrating the beginnings of Thai architecture. The great civilization which evolved in the Kingdom of Sukhothai absorbed numerous influences and ancient local traditions; the rapid assimilation of all these elements forged what is known as the 'Sukhothai style'.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns</site><states>Thailand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>679</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Until the 1960s. south-east Asia was considered to have been a culturally backward area in prehistory. The generally accepted view was that its cultural development resulted from external influences, principally from China to the north and India to the west. Recent archaeological work at Nok Nok Tha and, later, Ban Chiang on the Khorat plateau of north-east Thailand has demonstrated this view to be incorrect: this area of modem Thailand has been shown by excavation and field survey to have been the centre of an independent, and vigorous, cultural development in the 4th millennium BC which shaped contemporary social and cultural evolution over much of southeast Asia and beyond. into the Indonesian archipelago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Settlement of the Khorat plateau began around 3600 BC. The settlers came from the neighbouring lowlands, bringing with them a hunter-gatherer economy that was beginning to develop sedentary farming, with domesticated cattle, pigs, and chickens and an elementary form of dry-rice cultivation. The settled village life of this Early Period at Ban Chiang lasted until c. 1000 BC. Agricultural methods were refined and improved, along with other skills such as house construction and pottery manufacture. The equipment of burials reflects an increasing social complexity. Of especial importance was the growing use of bronze, for weapons and personal ornament in the earlier phase but spreading to more utilitarian applications in the later phases.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Middle Period (lOOO-500/300 BC) was notable for the introduction of wet-rice farming, as evidenced by the presence of waterbuffalo bones, and technological developments in ceramic and metal production, It was a period of considerable prosperity, as shown by the grave-goods, and one which saw the introduction of iron into common use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the Late Period (500/300 BC-AD 200/300) there was further social and technological development. especially in ceramic design and production. Although occupation appears to have ended at Ban Chiang in the 3rd century AD, at other sites in the region, such as Non Maung and Ban Prasat, settlement was continuous into the 16th century and later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ban Chiang is considered to have been the principal settlement in this area of the Khorat plateau and has given its name to a distinctive archaeological culture. Scores of contemporary sites have been discovered in the region, at several of which excavations have been carried out. The prehistoric settlement lies beneath the modern village of Ban Chiang (established by Laotian refugees in the late 18th century). It is a low oval mound some 500m by 1.3km. Only very limited excavation has been possible in the settlement site, but this has established the existence of deep stratification and long cultural continuity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main excavations have taken place on the perimeter of the modem village, where a large number of burials from all three periods, with rich ceramic and metal grave-goods, have been revealed and recorded. One of the excavations has been preserved for public viewing, with a permanent cover building: there is an excellent site museum in another part of the village.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/575</http_url><id_number>575</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_575.jpg</image_url><iso_code>th</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.5486100000</latitude><location>Udon Thani Province</location><longitude>103.3583300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Ban Chiang was the centre of a remarkable phenomenon of human cultural, social, and technological evolution in the 5th millennium BC, which occurred independently in this area of south-east Asia and spread widely over the whole region. It is without question the most important prehistoric settlement so far discovered in south-east Asia. It presents the earliest evidence for true farming in the region and for the manufacture and use of metals: its long cultural sequence, size and economic status has no parallel in any other contemporary site in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recent archaeological work at Nok Nok Tha and, later, Ban Chiang on the Khorat plateau of north-east Thailand has demonstrated that in south-east Asia prehistory was culturally backward. This area of modern Thailand has been shown by excavation and field survey to have been the centre of a cultural development in the 4th millennium BC that was an independent from China to the north and India to the west over much of south-east Asia and beyond into the Indonesian archipelago.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Settlement of the Khorat plateau began around 3600 BC. The settlers came from the neighbouring lowlands, bringing with them a hunter-gatherer economy that was beginning to develop sedentary farming, with domesticated cattle, pigs, and chickens and an elementary form of dry-rice cultivation. The settled village life of this Early Period at Ban Chiang lasted until around 1000 BC. Agricultural methods were refined and improved, along with other skills such as house construction and pottery manufacture. The equipment of burials reflects an increasing social complexity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Middle Period (1000-500/300 BC) was notable for the introduction of wet-rice farming, as evidenced by the presence of water buffalo bones, and technological developments in ceramic and metal production. It was a time of considerable prosperity, as shown by the grave-goods, and one which saw the introduction of iron into common use.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although occupation appears to have ended at Ban Chiang in the 3rd century AD, while continuing at other sites in the region, Ban Chiang is considered to have been the principal settlement in this area of the Khorat plateau and has given its name to a distinctive archaeological culture. The prehistoric settlement, a low oval mound established by Laotian refugees in the late 8th century, lies beneath the modern village of Ban Chiang. Only very limited excavation has been possible in the settlement site, but this has established the existence of deep stratification and long cultural continuity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main excavations have taken place on the perimeter of the modern village, where a large number of burials from all three periods, with rich ceramic and metal grave-goods, have been revealed and recorded. One of the excavations has been preserved for public viewing, with a permanent cover building: there is an excellent site museum in another part of the village.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ban Chiang is considered the most important prehistoric settlement so far discovered in South-East Asia. It marks an important stage in human cultural, social and technological evolution. The site presents the earliest evidence of farming in the region and of the manufacture and use of metals.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ban Chiang Archaeological Site</site><states>Thailand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>680</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/576</http_url><id_number>576</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_576.jpg</image_url><iso_code>th</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.3477800000</latitude><location>Ayutthaya Province</location><longitude>100.5605600000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded c. 1350, Ayutthaya became the second Siamese capital after Sukhothai. It was destroyed by the Burmese in the 18th century. Its remains, characterized by the prang (reliquary towers) and gigantic monasteries, give an idea of its past splendour.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic City of Ayutthaya</site><states>Thailand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>681</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/590</http_url><id_number>590</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_590.jpg</image_url><iso_code>th</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (x): &lt;/em&gt;The Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex (DPKY-FC) contains more than 800 fauna species, including 112 species of mammals, 392 species of birds and 200 reptiles and amphibians. It is internationally important for the conservation of globally threatened and endangered mammal, bird and reptile species that are recognised as being of outstanding universal value. This includes 1 critically endangered, 4 endangered and 19 vulnerable species. The area contains the last substantial area of globally important tropical forest ecosystems of the Thailandian Monsoon Forest biogeographic province in northeast Thailand, which in turn can provide a viable area for long-term survival of endangered, globally important species, including tiger, elephant, leopard cat and banteng. The unique overlap of the range of two species of gibbon, including the vulnerable Pileated Gibbon, further adds to the global value of the complex. In addition to the resident species the complex plays an important role for the conservation of migratory species, including the endangered Spot-billed Pelican and critically endangered Greater Adjutant.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>14.3300000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Saraburi, Nakhon Nayok, Nakhon Rachisima, Prachinburi, Srakaew and Burirum</location><longitude>102.0500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Dong Phayayen - Khao Yai Forest Complex spans 230 km between Ta Phraya National Park on the Cambodian border in the east, and Khao Yai National Park in the west. It is a rugged mountainous area ranging between 100 m and 1,351 m in altitude, with about 7,500 ha of its 615,500 ha above 1,000 m. The north side is drained by several tributaries of the Mun River, itself a tributary of the Mekong River. The southern side is drained by numerous scenic waterfalls and gorges and four main fast streams that flow into the Prachinburi River.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is home to more than 800 species of fauna, including 112 mammals (among them two species of gibbon), 392 species of birds and 200 reptiles and amphibians. It is internationally important for the conservation of globally threatened and endangered mammals, birds and reptiles, among them 19 that are vulnerable, four that are endangered, and one that is critically endangered. The area contains substantial and important tropical forest ecosystems, which can provide a viable habitat for the long-term survival of these species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex also contains the last substantial area of globally important tropical forest ecosystems of the Thailandian Monsoon Forest biogeographic province in north-east Thailand, which in turn can provide a viable habitat for long-term survival of endangered, globally important species, including tiger, elephant, leopard cat and banteng. The unique overlap of the range of two species of gibbon, including the vulnerable pileated gibbon, further adds to the global value of the complex. In addition to the resident species, the complex plays an important role in the conservation of migratory species, including the endangered spot-billed pelican and critically endangered greater adjutant.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex spans 230 km between Ta Phraya National Park on the Cambodian border in the east, and Khao Yai National Park in the west. The site is home to more than 800 species of fauna, including 112 mammal species (among them two species of gibbon), 392 bird species and 200 reptile and amphibian species. It is internationally important for the conservation of globally threatened and endangered mammal, bird and reptile species, among them 19 that are vulnerable, four that are endangered, and one that is critically endangered. The area contains substantial and important tropical forest ecosystems, which can provide a viable habitat for the long-term survival of these species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex</site><states>Thailand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>698</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1991</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/591</http_url><id_number>591</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_591.jpg</image_url><iso_code>th</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.3333300000</latitude><location>Kanchanaburi, Tak and Uthai Thani provinces</location><longitude>98.9166700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site comprises two contiguous wildlife sanctuaries: Thung Yai and Huai Kha Khaeng, alongside the western international border with Myanmar, 300&amp;nbsp;km north-west of Bangkok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The terrain in Huai Kha Khaeng is generally hilly with many permanent and seasonal streams. The highest peak lies in the extreme north of the sanctuary. Valleys are interspersed with small lowland plains. In Thung Yai the topography is more dissected with a network of many permanent rivers and streams dividing the area onto valleys and lowland plains. A distinguishing feature is a large central grassland plain, from which the Sanctuary takes the name of Thung Yai ('big field'). Within the catchment area are four important rivers, one of which flows through Burma to the Andaman Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A physical feature that is important for wildlife is the presence of mineral licks. These occur throughout the sanctuary as either wet or dry, and most appear to be located on, or around, granite intrusions in areas with red-yellow podzolic soil and may be associated with the massive faults or lineaments in the intensely folded geomorphology of this area. Small lakes, ponds and swampy areas occur, some being seasonal whereas others are perennial; these are important wildlife habitats; limestone sinkholes are found.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Five types of forest can be distinguished: the highest slopes are covered with hill evergreen forest, whereas slopes above 600&amp;nbsp;m generally support dry semi-evergreen forest. The rest of the sanctuary supports mixed deciduous and bamboo forest, and dry dipterocarp forest in areas with poor or shallow soil. Along some rivers and streams, evergreen gallery forest occurs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thung Yai also has two specific features not common in other areas which add to its uniqueness. One is the existence of a large grassland plain and surrounding savannah forest made up of cycads and Phoenix palm, a feature not known elsewhere in the region. The second feature is the existence of Thailand's most extensive riparian forests.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna of both Thung Yai and Huai Kha Khaeng includes an unusual mix of species with primarily Sundaic, Indo-Chinese, Indo-Burmese and Sino-Himalayan affinities, many of whose ranges do not overlap. Species lists have been compiled that include 120 mammals, 400 birds, 96 reptiles, 43 amphibians and 113 freshwater fish. 34 internationally threatened species are also found within the confines of the two sanctuaries. It also is home to 22 species of woodpecker, more than any other park in the world. The reason for such exceptional diversity is partly due to its status as one of only two evergreen forest refuges during the driest periods of the Pleistocene glaciations. Few areas in Asia are large enough to support viable populations of large herbivores (300 elephants) and predators (e.g. tigers).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Being contiguous with the forest of Myanmar there are longer term prospects for a transfrontier reserve between the two countries. This would greatly add to its integrity as there is cross-border migration of some species and Thai logging concessions in Myanmar could be reduced.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some 3,800 tribal people live within Thung Yai, whereas there is no resident population within Huai Kha Khaeng.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Stretching over more than 600,000 ha along the Myanmar border, the sanctuaries, which are relatively intact, contain examples of almost all the forest types of continental South-East Asia. They are home to a very diverse array of animals, including 77% of the large mammals (especially elephants and tigers), 50% of the large birds and 33% of the land vertebrates to be found in this region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries</site><states>Thailand</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>699</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Batammariba are linguistically associated with other people in the area such as the Gangan, Gurma, Moba, Bassar, Nawda, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of the Batammariba are somewhat uncertain. Archaeological investigations and oral history indicates that the Batammariba migrated to their present home from the north and northwest around Burkino Faso where they were living with the Mossi people sometime between the 16th and 18th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1140</http_url><id_number>1140</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1140.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tg</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (v): The Koutammakou is an outstanding example of a system of traditional settlement that is still living and dynamic, and subject to traditional and sustainable systems and practices, and which reflects the singular culture of the Batammariba, particularly the Takienta tower houses.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (vi): The Koutammakou is an eloquent testimony to the strength of spiritual association between people and landscape, as manifested in the harmony between the Batammariba and their natural surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>10.0666666700</latitude><location>Kara Region</location><longitude>1.1333333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Koutammakou, a cultural landscape in north-eastern Togo extending into neighbouring Benin, is home to the Batammariba people whose remarkable Takienta mud tower-houses have come to be seen as a symbol of Togo. They are also a reflection of social structure and are known to blend uniquely with the natural environment of farmland and forest. Many of the buildings are two storeys high and those with granaries feature an almost spherical form above a cylindrical base. Some of the buildings have flat roofs, others have conical thatched roofs. They are grouped in villages, which also include ceremonial spaces, springs, rocks and sites reserved for initiation ceremonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The word &lt;em&gt;butabu&lt;/em&gt; describes a process of moistening earth with water in preparation for building. Whether modelled by hand or built from mud-brick, the variety of architectural forms found throughout West Africa illustrates the myriad ways in which the simple properties of earth and water have come together to create works of striking artistic sophistication and interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not only do the sun's rays bathe the earthen core of a building, making it hard and resilient, but they also continually redefine the structure's surface and interior features with patterns of light and shade as they pass overhead through the course of each day. Many of these edifices, especially the tall ones, boast rows of timbers bristling from their exteriors, on which the sun's shadows play particularly dramatically. These spiky elements serve both to solidify the structure, and to help alleviate moisture, but also to offer supportive scaffolding during yearly plastering. Building roofs, which have wooden or pottery drain spouts to channel seasonal rains, are made from thatch or earth, the latter either domed or flat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;West African earthen architecture collectively challenges the inherent boundaries between built form and sculpture in their visual power and unique play of texture, geometry, light, and shade. These buildings incorporate the vital attributes of geometrical primacy and boldness that pervade so many of the continent's figural traditions and invite tactility, an element critical to appreciation. Centuries of upheaval, which led to the massive uprooting of local populations through war, migrations, and slavery, also have left a mark on the region's architecture, and in part, as a result, this architecture also expresses vital social and political concerns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On the interior, multiple levels of space often are articulated through a combination of pole and beam flooring/terrace articulation supported by the adjacent earthen joining walls. Upper levels, which are reached by earthen steps or ladders, serve a variety of functions as both open-air spaces and enclosed chambers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beyond their sheer architectural value, West African buildings of earth are often imbued with potent symbolism. Cones of the same material, which historically have served as shrines in this area dedicated to deities, ancestors, wild game, and an array of spirit powers, often punctuate a portal, either at ground level or along the roofline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to the Takienta mud-tower houses, the Koutammakou landscape is also marked by its farmland and forest. There is a great value in the 'associations between people and landscape' in the hilly landscape of the Togo-Benin border, where nature is strongly associated with the rituals and beliefs of society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Koutammakou is an outstanding example of a system of traditional settlement that is still living and dynamic and subject to traditional and sustainable systems and practices, and which reflects the singular culture of the Batammariba, particularly the Takienta tower houses. It is eloquent testimony to the strength of spiritual association between people and landscape, as manifested in the harmony between the Batammariba and their natural surroundings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Koutammakou landscape in north-eastern Togo, which extends into neighbouring Benin, is home to the Batammariba whose remarkable mud tower-houses (Takienta) have come to be seen as a symbol of Togo. In this landscape, nature is strongly associated with the rituals and beliefs of society. The 50,000-ha cultural landscape is remarkable due to the architecture of its tower-houses which are a reflection of social structure; its farmland and forest; and the associations between people and landscape. Many of the buildings are two storeys high and those with granaries feature an almost spherical form above a cylindrical base. Some of the buildings have flat roofs, others have conical thatched roofs. They are grouped in villages, which also include ceremonial spaces, springs, rocks and sites reserved for initiation ceremonies.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Koutammakou, the Land of the Batammariba</site><states>Togo</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1321</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1996-2006</danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Djebel Ichkeul was acquired by the state government in 1891. Prior to that date the lake surrounding the Djebel had been used as a hunting reserve. In 1240AD the dynasty of the Hafsids managed Djebel Ichkeul as a hunting reserve (Ministere de 1 'Agriculture, 1986; Anon, 1988). The area was first realised to be of international importance in the late 1960s and early 1970s, leading to a major part of the Ichkeul marshes being ceded to the Direction des Forets in 1974.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The creation of the national park was ratified by Presidential Decree No. 80-1608 of 18 December 1980. It was classed as a Biosphere Reserve in January 1977 and included in the list of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) in June 1980 and 'subsequently in September 1980 was nominated as a World Heritage site (Anon, 1988).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/8</http_url><id_number>8</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_8.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.1636100000</latitude><location>Bizerta District, 25 km southwest of Bizerta</location><longitude>9.6747200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Garaet el Ichkeul National Park is situated on the Mateur plain and is approximately 30&amp;nbsp;km south-west of the Mediterranean coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In AD 1240 the dynasty of the Hafsids managed Djebel Ichkeul as a hunting reserve. The area was first realized to be of international importance in the late 1960s and early 1970s, leading to a major part of the Ichkeul marshes being ceded to the Direction des F&amp;ocirc;rets in 1974 and was ratified as a National Park in 1980.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park consists of an isolated and wooded massif, Djebel Ichkeul and a brackish permanent lake, Lac Ichkeul, the area of which varies with season. The lake is indirectly connected to the sea by the river, Oued Tindja, which leads into the marine lagoon, Lac de Bizerte. In the summer, the reduced level of incoming freshwater, in combination with high levels of evaporation, result in an overall drop in the level of the lake. There is also an increase in the concentration of salinity due to the influx of sea water. The waters in Ichkeul reach greatest salinity from July to October; there is a replenishment of fresh-water with the first autumnal rains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Djebel Ichkeul is composed of Triassic and Jurassic formations, largely as metamorphosed limestone with pseudo-dolomitic marbles. Triassic limestone and other sedimentary deposits are exposed in the quarries on the south-western slopes of the Djebel. The endorheic (closed) basin of the lake and also the marshes are composed of Quaternary alluvia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park has a typical semi-arid ecosystem dominated by Mediterranean plant species. Distinct habitat types within the park include the mountain and its foothills, dominated by a lentisc with wild olive, phillyrea and &lt;em&gt;Smilax aspera&lt;/em&gt; . There is a rich variety of northern Tunisian plant species. The vegetation of the marshes is zoned. The lake is fringed by a narrow belt of reeds while further inland the area is dominated by &lt;em&gt;Scirpus maritimus&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;S. lacustris&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Juncus&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ichkeul wetland is the most productive wetland for waterfowl in North Africa and one of the most important sites in the entire Mediterranean region for wintering Palaearctic species, with past records of up to 300,000-400,000 birds present at one time. 226 species of birds including 34 breeding residents were recorded in 1986. The most numerous species are wigeon (39,000: 112,000 in the 1970s), common pochard (120,000 in 1971) and coot (36,000: 188,000 in 1973). High records for common pochard and greylag goose (3,200: 18,000 in the 1970s) show that Ichkeul is their most important wintering site in north-west Africa. 600 (4% of known world population) of the threatened white-headed duck &lt;em&gt;Oxyura leucocephala&lt;/em&gt; , were seen in 1977. Other wintering wetland birds include the threatened marbled teal &lt;em&gt;Marmoronetta angustirostris&lt;/em&gt; , ferruginous duck and corncrake; also high numbers of green-winged teal, northern pintail, northern shoveler and black-winged stilt. Flamingoes summer on the lake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ichkeul is recognized as being extremely diverse largely due to the wide variety of habitats. One of the most notable of the mammals recorded at Ichkeul is the otter, which has been hunted for its meat. Less than 10 animals were believed to exist at the time of a 1987 survey. Of the larger mammals there are large populations of wild boar and introduced wild water buffalo; also a number of crested porcupine, jackal, genet, Egyptian mongoose, wild cat and four species of bat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reptiles and amphibians vary with water level and salinity. The marsh frog is common in the marshes. There are also painted frog, three species of toad, two harmless species of snake and one lacertid. Two pond turtles, Iberian&lt;em&gt; Clemys leprosa&lt;/em&gt; and European &lt;em&gt;Emys orbicularis&lt;/em&gt; , are found in the lake.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lake and marshes, especially the dense Potamogeton beds, support huge populations of a few species of marine and brackish water invertebrates. Species include &lt;em&gt;Nereis diversicolor&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Gammarus locusta&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Corophium volutator&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Sphaeroma hookeri&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;Idotea &lt;/em&gt; spp., &lt;em&gt;Hydrobia &lt;/em&gt; spp., &lt;em&gt;Abra &lt;/em&gt; spp. and &lt;em&gt;Cerastoderma glaucum&lt;/em&gt; . Freshwater invertebrate species also occur on the edge of the saltmarsh. Shore crab &lt;em&gt;Carcinus mediterraneus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Balanus amphitrite&lt;/em&gt; occur near the Tindja canal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site also has internationally important fossil deposits, including late Tertiary and early Quaternary outcrops on the northern shore. The Pleistocene deposits include numerous unique assemblages of fossil mammal remains.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ichkeul lake and wetland are a major stopover point for hundreds of thousands of migrating birds, such as ducks, geese, storks and pink flamingoes, who come to feed and nest there. Ichkeul is the last remaining lake in a chain that once extended across North Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ichkeul National Park</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>11</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/37</http_url><id_number>37</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_37.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.8527800000</latitude><location>District of Tunis</location><longitude>10.3233300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Carthage is one of the most famous historic sites of the Roman Empire. The Roman Julia Carthago illustrates the splendour and wealth of Rome, and exerted considerable influence on the development of structural architecture and of characteristic Punic and Roman town planning. It is also important testimony to Punic history and constitutes an interesting example of the Punic city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The state takes its name from the city of Carthage, out on the coast, 10&amp;nbsp;km from modern Tunis. Carthage was founded in the 9th century by Phoenician traders from Tyre, in today's Lebanon; it had two first class harbours, and therefore an advantage in possessing the most efficient means of communications of those days, the sea. The Carthaginians soon developed high skills in the building of ships and used these to dominate the seas for centuries. The most important merchandise was silver, lead, ivory and gold, beds and bedding, simple cheap pottery, jewellery, glassware, wild animals from African, fruit, and nuts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 7th century, with the establishment of Greek trading colonies in Sicily, the position of Carthage was seen as inconvenient, and a conflict became inevitable. In the 6th century Carthage had conquered the territory of the Libyan tribes and the old Phoenician colonies and had control over the North African coast, stretching from today's Morocco to the borders of today's Egypt, plus Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and the western half of Sardinia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src="file:///C:/Users/M_MONC%7E1/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" alt="" width="25" height="1" align="left" /&gt;The town was fighting the Greeks and the Romans for control over territories. The war against the Greeks lasted more than 200 years, ending with success for Carthage. The wars against Rome, known as the Punic Wars, were divided into three periods, from 264 to 146 BCE. In 146 BC Carthage was almost totally burnt to the ground, and strict controls over further settlement were imposed on the remaining population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1st century CE, Augustus founded Colonia Julia Carthago, a city that once again proved the skills and the power of the people of this region. Within a few years it prospered and soon became only second to Rome in splendour and wealth. In 439 the Vandal king Genseric occupied Carthage and made it his capital. In 637 Carthage was captured by the Arabs and destroyed, and since then never regained its importance, largely owing to the concentration of power in nearby Tunis.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Punic port is the best place to visit, as Carthage was a seaport that was stronger on the seas than the Roman Empire for many years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most modern archaeologists agree that child sacrifice was performed by the Carthaginians at the site of the Tophet, just a few hundred metres from the Punic port. The Tophet (not the original name, but the biblical name for sanctuaries for child sacrifice in the Middle East) lies next to a sanctuary dedicated to Baal Hammon and Tanit, but little remains of this.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An example from the period of Roman rule is the Antonine Baths, constructed from AD 145 to AD 165, which reflect the extent to which Carthage was an important and rich city even after the Roman conquest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Also remarkable is the presence of the Cathedral of St Louis on the hill overlooking Carthage: it was built in the 1890s on the spot where the French King Louis IX died in 1270. Today the cathedral is used only for cultural purposes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Carthage was founded in the 9th century B.C. on the Gulf of Tunis. From the 6th century onwards, it developed into a great trading empire covering much of the Mediterranean and was home to a brilliant civilization. In the course of the long Punic wars, Carthage occupied territories belonging to Rome, which finally destroyed its rival in 146 B.C. A second &amp;ndash; Roman &amp;ndash; Carthage was then established on the ruins of the first.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Carthage</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>41</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/332</http_url><id_number>332</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_332.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.9463900000</latitude><location>Gouvernorat de Nabeul</location><longitude>11.0991700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kerkuane, which has never been reinhabited since it was abandoned, bears exceptional witness to Phoenician town planning and daily life in a Punic city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the tip of Cap Bon, the archaeological site of Kerkuane has enriched knowledge in the area of Punic town planning thanks to the discovery of a city (Tamezrat?) which was fossilized after being abandoned during the first Punic War (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. 250 BC). Unlike Carthage, Tyre or Byblos, no Roman city was built upon this Phoenician city whose port, ramparts, residential districts, shops, workshops, streets, squares, temples and necropolis clearly remain as they were in the 3rd century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rectangular houses have a single entrance and a corridor which afford access to an interior courtyard containing a well, a washbasin and a bath; around the courtyard there are reception rooms. In proving the repetitive nature of this particular plan, which was taken to be a typical plan, the excavation made it possible to confirm the existence of an authentic town-planning programme that gave considerable importance to hydraulics and hygiene.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Through the study of small artefacts and structures, it is possible to understand a city that was cut off from the hinterland and lacking in agricultural and pastoral occupations, preferring to focus its efforts on industry (manufacture of purple dye through murex processing) and arts and crafts (stonecutters, masons, stucco workers, potters, and makers of clay figurines abounded there). It is believed that this Phoenician port traded with the Punic cities of Sicily, particularly Motya, as early as the 6th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The links between Punic culture, Hellenic culture and natives cultures can be analysed over three centuries on the basis of architectural forms and on a number of iconographic documents illustrating Assyro-Babylonian, Phoenician, Greek and Sicilian, etc., influences.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The necropolis of Arg el Ghazouani, located on a rocky hill less than 1&amp;nbsp;km north-west of the city, is the best conserved portion of the great Kerkuane necropolis whose tombs are scattered throughout the coastal hills at the extreme end of Cap Bon. In the protected area there are approximately 200 tombs, including 50 that have not been excavated. Investigations of the site revealed two types of tomb: these hewn in rock and these comprising a funerary chamber, with dromos in tiers and an antechamber. No other example of this type of tomb with steps has been found outside the area of Cap Bon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The funerary chambers reveal a rich collection of seats, niches and dug-out sarcophagi never before found in other necropolises. Decorations painted in red ochre and inscriptions of the name of the deceased engraved above the entrance doors are a basic source for the study of funerary rites. Exceptionally rich furnishings (ceramics, bronze artefacts, jewellery, coins, etc.) add to the value of the site. Burials at the site cover a long period, from the 6th to the mid-3rd centuries BC.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>1986</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This Phoenician city was probably abandoned during the First Punic War (c. 250 B.C.) and as a result was not rebuilt by the Romans. The remains constitute the only example of a Phoenicio-Punic city to have survived. The houses were built to a standard plan in accordance with a sophisticated notion of town planning.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Punic Town of Kerkuane and its Necropolis</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>378</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;According to Diodorus Siculus, writing at the end of the 4th century BC, Thugga was a city of a ''fine size.&amp;quot; It is thought to have been founded, in the centre of a very fertile region, before the 5th century BC, on the basis of recent excavations of an early necropolis on the northern edge of the site. When he conquered the region in the early 2nd century BC, the Numidian Massinissa made it one of his capitals, and it shared in the expansion and prosperity of the kingdom (and also some of its political tribulations during the Punic Wars) under his successors, becoming the centre of the Libyco-Punic culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After his defeat of Juba I at the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC Julius Caesar annexed eastern Numidia as the Roman province of Africa Nova, and Thugga became a Roman town. For two and a half centuries, starting in the reign of Augustus (27-14 BC), the town was formally composed of two legally distinct communities: a shifting indigenous population who were governed according to their traditional systems, and a community of Roman citizens belonging to the Roman colonia of Carthage, who lived according to the Roman way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Roman influence was quick to make its impact on the nature of the town. Whilst it retained what was essentially a Numidian urban fabric, Thugga acquired a typically Roman monumental appearance. Although small, its inhabitants never having exceeded five thousand, it flourished from its rural economy based on its rich and fertile territorium, especially in the boom years for the North African economy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and so the quality of the public buildings was high, as was that of the private houses. It should be emphasized, however, that Thugga was in the Roman period never more than a prosperous country market town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the Severan emperors (193-235) Thugga was raised to the status of municipium, and Gallienus elevated it to the highest level of provincial town, that of colonia in 261. It had also become the seat of a bishopric in the 3rd century. Its prosperity seems to have continued, albeit at a lower level, throughout the 4th century, judging by the considerable amount of restoration and rehabilitation attested by numerous inscriptions, but urban life declined in the 5th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The re-establishment of Byzantine rule (533-698) saw Thugga assigned a minor role in the political and economic life of the region. The forum and capitolium were enclosed during his period by a wall, for the building of \\hich some of the important public buildings were robbed of their decorative and structural elements.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Little is known of the town in the Islamic period, beyond the fact that it continued to be inhabited for a considerable period, as demonstrated by the erection of the simple Mosque of Sidi Sahbi, to the east of the capitolium, in the 14th century. It is hoped that further excavations will throw more light on the eventual abandonment of his once thriving city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/794</http_url><id_number>794</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_794.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of criteria (ii) and (iii), considering that Dougga is the best preserved Roman small town in North Africa and as such provides an exceptional picture of everyday life in antiquity.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>36.4236100000</latitude><location>Gouvernat de Beja</location><longitude>9.2202800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Dougga is the best-preserved example in North Africa of the rise, development, and daily life over more than 17 centuries of an indigenous Numidian city. Many of its monuments are unique of their type and bear witness to the harmonious synthesis of several cultures - Numidian, Punic, Hellenistic, and Roman - making it an exceptional site. The important epigraphic collection from Dougga, comprising over 2,000 Libyan, Punic, Greek and Roman inscriptions, has made a decisive contribution to the decipherment of the Libyan language and to knowledge of the social and municipal life of the Numidians and Roman colonial policy and municipal organization in its provinces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thugga is thought on the basis of recent excavations of an early necropolis on the northern edge of the site to have been founded before the 5th century BC. In the early 2nd century BC the Numidian Massimissa made it one of his capitals. In 46 BC Julius Caesar annexed eastern Numidia as the Roman province of Africa Nova, and Thugga became a Roman town. Then during the reign of Augustus the town was formally composed of two legally distinct communities: a shifting indigenous population who were governed according to their traditional systems, and a community of Roman citizens belonging to the Roman colonia of Carthage, who lived according to the Roman way.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although small, its inhabitants never having exceeded 5,000, it flourished from its rural economy based on its rich and fertile territorium. Its prosperity seems to have continued throughout the 4th century, judging by the considerable amount of restoration and rehabilitation attested by numerous inscriptions, but urban life declined in the 5th century. The re-establishment of Byzantine rule (533-698) saw Thugga assigned a minor role in the political and economic life of the region. Little is known of the town in the Islamic period, beyond the erection of the simple Mosque of Sidi Sahbi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The original Numidian settlement was built on a steep hillside, in the centre of a very fertile region. Thugga possesses a remarkable assemblage of public buildings - temples and sanctuaries, forum, public baths, theatre, amphitheatre, circus, market, public cisterns and fountains, etc. Private life is also well represented by large and small houses, shops, and mausolea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The small rectangular forum, which is surrounded by a marble colonnade, is crossed by part of the later Byzantine fortifications. On one side of it is the capitolium, dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, one of the finest buildings of its type in North Africa. The theatre is small and is of standard Roman form. The &lt;em&gt;scenae frons&lt;/em&gt; (stage) was originally floored with mosaic. Among the many temples is that dedicated to Juno Caelestis (the Punic goddess Tanit), built around 230. The temple of Saturn, on the edge of the town in the area of the pre-Roman settlement, is located on the site of an older sanctuary dedicated to Baal. There are two triumphal arches: that of Septimius Severus is much degraded, but the Arch of Severus Alexander still stands to a substantial height. The well-preserved 3rd-century Licinian bath is an excellent example of this type of municipal facility.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;One of the most significant monuments in Thugga is the Lybico-Punic mausoleum in the southern part of the town, but it was reconstructed in 1908-10. This is the only major monument of Punic architecture still surviving in Tunisia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1961 the Tunisian Government relocated all but two families of the remaining inhabitants of the archaeological site to a new village, Dougga-al-Jadida.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Before the Roman annexation of Numidia, the town of Thugga, built on an elevated site overlooking a fertile plain, was the capital of an important Libyco-Punic state. It flourished under Roman and Byzantine rule, but declined in the Islamic period. The impressive ruins that are visible today give some idea of the resources of a small Roman town on the fringes of the empire.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dougga / Thugga</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>938</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/38</http_url><id_number>38</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_38.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.2963900000</latitude><location>El-Mahdia</location><longitude>10.7069400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The monument of El Jem is one of the most accomplished examples of Roman amphitheatre construction, approximating to the status of the Colosseum in Rome. The construction of such a polished and complex building, located in a distant province and destined for popular attractions, is symbolic of a certain type of Roman imperial propaganda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Classical Thysdrus (today El Jem) is now no more than an overgrown agricultural village, 60&amp;nbsp;km south of Sousse. Nonetheless, it houses the impressive ruins of the largest amphitheatre in North Africa, built during the 1st half of the 3rd century. It most probably accommodated up to 60,000 spectators. Elliptical in form, it is built from large stone blocks and probably comprised four floors. Built on level terrain, rather than into the flanks of a hillside, and supported by a complex vaulting system, it illustrates the grandeur and extent of imperial Rome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is a complex building that is well preserved and little altered, one of the last surviving monuments of this type from the Roman world, 138&amp;nbsp;m long by 114&amp;nbsp;m wide. Underneath it run two passageways, in which animals, prisoners and gladiators were kept until the moment when they were brought up into the bright daylight to perform what was in most cases the last show of their lives.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thysdrus prospered especially at the time of Emperor Hadrian (AD 117-38), when it became an important centre of olive oil manufacture. It is in good condition, like the Colosseum in Rome, but parts of its yellow stone walls were used to build the modern town. The construction started in 238 by Gordius I, who was declared Emperor of Rome here. The theatre was never completed, because of political rivalries and lack of funds within the Empire. Stones were quarried from a distance of 50km away, but even so most of the material was too soft to carve. There was no decent water supply available, and so naval battles were never staged in the arena. Later the amphitheatre served for centuries as a stronghold: it was the last Berber bastion against Arab invaders. Following the Roman period, the amphitheatre was used at various times as a citadel, which is the reason it was attacked twice by cannon fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Apart from the Roman amphitheatre, the sights of El Jem are still covered by sand. The modern city of El Jem is a sleepy place without much character, but the amphitheatre is massive, almost as large as the Colosseum in Rome. It is in fairly good condition: there is nothing missing which detracts from its grandeur. One area of the walls is gone, damages due to 17th-century ignorance, when dissidents hiding inside were driven out by the ruling Turks: a large hole was blown in the wall in order to uncover their hiding places.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The impressive ruins of the largest colosseum in North Africa, a huge amphitheatre which could hold up to 35,000 spectators, are found in the small village of El Jem. This 3rd-century monument illustrates the grandeur and extent of Imperial Rome.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Amphitheatre of El Jem</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1741</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/499</http_url><id_number>499</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_499.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.6816700000</latitude><location>Gouvernorat de Kairouan</location><longitude>10.1038900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;With the Great Mosque, the Mosque of the Three Doors, the Basin of the Aghlabids, and the other numerous archaeological remains, Kairouan bears exceptional witness to the civilization of the first centuries of the Hegira in Ifriqiya. The Great Mosque served as a model for several other Maghreban mosques, particularly for its decorative motifs, which are unique. Kairouan is, moreover, one of the holy cities and spiritual capitals of Islam. Next to the Great Mosque, the first place of worship founded in the Maghreb only 38 years after the death of the Prophet, is the Zawiya of Sidi Sahab where the remains of Abu Djama, one of Mahomet's companions, are kept.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The establishment of the garrison at al-Kayrawan by Oqba Ibn Naf&amp;igrave;i in year 50 of the Hegira (AD 670) marked a decisive step in the history of the Islamic conversion of Ifriqa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Replacing a temporary encampment, Kairouan became an essential element in the conquest because of its key position, midway between the coast threatened by the return of the Byzantine fleets and the mountains controlled by the Berbers, who took Kairouan in 688. But the city remained the capital of Ifriqiya, the seat of the governor representing the authority of the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus and later the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the Aghlabid emirs became practically independent from the Abbasids (800-909), Kairouan became a true capital city. The Great Mosque was rebuilt by the Emir Ziyadat Allah I in 836 and again in 862-63 by the Emir Abou Ibrahim Ahmad, who also had certain spectacular urban projects carried out. These included the Basin of the Aghlabids filled by water brought through a 36&amp;nbsp;km aqueduct from the Cherichera Djebel. During a period of civil and religious peace, the Aglabids relinquished the governor's palace and emirs had residences built a short distance south of Kairouan at Al-Abbassiya and Raqqada.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the rule of the Shiite imam Fatimid Obaid Allah (910-34), Kairouan at first declined somewhat in importance. The new capital Mahdia, founded in 916, was better suited to the imam's expansionist policy directed towards the Orient. However, the Fatimids returned to Kairouan, and the transfer of the Fatimid caliphate to Cairo in 972 put an end to the two-capital situation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the 10th century, Kairouan no longer directly participated in the major events shaping world history. The city had many religious and political problems: it was invaded and sacked by the Hilalians in 1057 and Tunis became a real centre of political power as well as one of the most populated cities in Africa. However, it never succeeded in stripping Kairouan of its status as the holy city of the Maghreb, a position it still enjoys throughout the Islamic world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The considerable weight of history is still palpable in the medina, which is surrounded by more than 3&amp;nbsp;km of walls with its gates (Bab el Tounes, Bab el Khoukha, Bab ech Chouhada): its skyline is punctuated by the minarets and the cupolas of its mosques and zawiyas, and it has preserved its network of winding streets and courtyard houses. Very few small windows or arched doorways are cut in the exterior walls, but inner walls have larger openings that give on to the central courtyard. However, certain remarkable monuments dating from the early centuries of the Hegira need to be carefully distinguished from the profusion of more recent or remodelled religious edifices.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In their present form, these buildings date for the most part from the last three centuries. The immense majority of houses and souks in the ancient honeycomb of passageways, where a number of wells and fountains are still to be found, form a traditional and coherent urban fabric.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded in 670, Kairouan flourished under the Aghlabid dynasty in the 9th century. Despite the transfer of the political capital to Tunis in the 12th century, Kairouan remained the Maghreb's principal holy city. Its rich architectural heritage includes the Great Mosque, with its marble and porphyry columns, and the 9th-century Mosque of the Three Gates.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kairouan</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1742</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/498</http_url><id_number>498</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_498.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.8277800000</latitude><location>Gouvernorat de Sousse</location><longitude>10.6386100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;With its outstanding buildings, Sousse bears exceptional witness to the civilization of the first centuries of the Hegira. The medina constitutes an early and interesting example of a new type of Islamic city. The most ancient and best conserved of all, the ribat of Sousse is an excellent example of this type of construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The port of Sousse was the Phoenician outpost of Hadrumetum, a free Roman city, the capital of Byzacium under Diocletian, the Vandal city of Hunericopolis, and finally the Byzantine city of Justiniana or Justinianopolis. No monument, however, survives from these thousand years of history, for during his conquest of Ifriqiya, Oqba ibn Naf&amp;igrave;i entirely destroyed Justinianopolis after a two-month siege. Built in the late 7th century on these ruins and given its present name, Sousse was a completely new city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most ancient monument still standing, the Ribat, belongs to that period. It was part of the Islamic defences against the Byzantine fleets. The ribats housed the garrisons of the Defenders of the Faith, the Mourabitin, and their austere architecture reflected the structures' dual military/religious function. In 821 the Emir Ziyadat Allah I completed the fortifications by adding a square bastion with tower which served both as a watchtower and as a minaret. From the enclosed port, protected by these walls, Muslim troops embarked in 827 on their conquest of Sicily.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the Aghlabids (800-909), Sousse rapidly flourished. Certain significant monuments were constructed in this golden century: the mosque of Bu Ftata, the first kasbah, and the Great Mosque, founded by the Emir Abdul Abbas Mohammed. In 859, the urban walls seem to have been in their final stage of completion, and the limits of the medina were broadly drawn. The surrounding fortifications made the military function of the ribat less vital and it reverted fully to its religious function.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The port declined with the founding of Mahdia in 916, but re-established itself in the 11th century. In the 12th century its status was again compromised when the Sicilian Normans captured Sousse and held it for eleven years. The Spanish troops of Charles V took Mahdia in 1554; after this it recovered to some extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The medina was conceived according to a regular plan with its meridian axis running from Bab el Khabli to the ribat and the ancient interior port, and its east-west axis going from Bab el Djedid to Bab el Gharbi. It is a rectangular enclosure flanked with towers and turrets, a single gate on the south, an inner courtyard rising over two levels with 35 cells opening on to it. It has a mosque on the southern side of the first storey with the south-east tower, added in 821, serving as both minaret and watchtower; from it signals could be transmitted to the ribat at Monastir.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Sousse was an important commercial and military port during the Aghlabid period (800&amp;ndash;909) and is a typical example of a town dating from the first centuries of Islam. With its kasbah, ramparts, medina (with the Great Mosque), Bu Ftata Mosque and typical ribat (both a fort and a religious building), Sousse was part of a coastal defence system.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medina of Sousse</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1743</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/36</http_url><id_number>36</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_36.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.8166700000</latitude><location>Tunis</location><longitude>10.1666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Medina of Tunis has exerted an outstanding influence on the development of architecture, sculpture, and connected arts, and of urban planning. This group of buildings is rare, as most historic Islamic centres have suffered grave destruction and reconstruction over the centuries, whereas Tunis still preserves its homogeneity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the Almohads and the Hafsids, from the 12th to 16th centuries, Tunis was considered one of the greatest and wealthiest cities in the Islamic world. Some 700 monuments, including palaces, mosques, mausoleums, &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; and fountains, testify to this remarkable past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is a commercial and economical centre for northern Tunisia and the administrative centre for the whole of Tunisia. It is situated close to the sea with only Lake Tunis between it and Mediterranean Sea. Tunis is divided into three parts: the old city, called the Medina; the French quarter, which now is the centre; and the newer and larger regions built in the south and north of the city.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tunis has a number of landmarks; most dominant are the Zitouna mosque and the few remains of ancient Carthage. &lt;em&gt;Suuq&lt;/em&gt; is the Arabic name for market, &lt;em&gt;medina&lt;/em&gt; for town. In Tunis today, the suuq is also known as the medina. Today, the medina is still inhabited, but by only a small percentage of the total population.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This is where the main mosque of Tunis is located, as has been the case almost all the time Tunis has been a Muslim city. The city was even laid out with it as the centre. Its name means 'olive tree', and comes from the mosque's founder who taught the Koran under an olive tree. It was first erected in the 9th century by the Aghlabid rulers, but its most famous part, the minaret, is a 19th-century addition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Medina of Tunis extends over 270&amp;nbsp;ha and includes most of the 700 historic monuments of the city. It is divided between the central core, which still bears traces from the period of its foundation (8th century), and two quarters dating back to the 13th century. This remarkable set of buildings developed from a small settlement named Oppidum tunicense, mentioned by Pliny the Elder. It reached its greatest splendour in the 13th century under the Hafsid dynasty, but continued to be enriched with mosques, buildings, and &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; during the 16th and 17th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decorated, mysterious and varied doors that line the roads, above all those of the Medina, illustrate the ways of thought and life of Tunisian families: there are simple doors with a single leaf, double rectangular doors in Hafsid style, and doors with a small under door known as a Khoukha. It was invented by the Spanish princess, wife of Abdulaziz Ibn Moussa Ibn Noussair, in order to oblige his Muslim subjects to bow to their monarch. Their colour also have a particular meaning: yellow ochre in the Koran is the colour loved by God; green is the colour of Paradise; blue, only introduced in recent times, recalls the 'blue of Sidi Bou Said', the village north of Tunis, which in the past was identified with catastrophe, but today used between the dominant colours in the windows and the walls of the houses of the Tunis medina. tricolour (white, green and red) one is the coat of arms of the Hafsid dynasty, who reigned from 1228 to 1574 in Tunis: they were brought together to recall the preceding dynasties - white for the Aghlabids, green for the Fatimids, and red for the Sanhajids.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The decorations (hilia, jewel) over the doors are made using large and small nails in order to execute symbolic and geometric designs: they have considerable historical and sociological importance. Also to be found are the symbol of Tanit, the Carthage goddess of the fertility, the six-angled star of David (which according to legend drives away djinng, the malignant spirits), the Christian cross (a memory of the Christian past of Tunisia, with St Augustine of Hippo), the Muslim &lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; (the place in the mosque where the Imam leads the faithful in prayer), the Turkish moon, symbolizing Ottoman Turkey, and the other Christian symbols, the eye and the fish.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Under the Almohads and the Hafsids, from the 12th to the 16th century, Tunis was considered one of the greatest and wealthiest cities in the Islamic world. Some 700 monuments, including palaces, mosques, mausoleums, madrasas and fountains, testify to this remarkable past.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Medina of Tunis</site><states>Tunisia</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1744</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(v)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/357</http_url><id_number>357</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_357.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.6666700000</latitude><location>Nevşehir Province (Cappadocia) in Central Anatolia</location><longitude>34.8500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The rupestral sanctuaries of Cappadocia constitute an unique artistic achievement in a region of superlative natural features, providing irreplaceable testimony to post-iconoclast Byzantium. The dwellings, village convents and churches retain the fossilized images of a province of the Byzantine Empire between the 4th century and the Turkish invasion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The eroded plateau of the G&amp;ouml;reme valley is a spectacular example of the effects of differential erosion of the volcanic tuff sediments by wind and water. Typical features are pillars, columns, towers, obelisks and needles that reach heights of 40&amp;nbsp;m. The major remnant of erosion, Akdağ (1,325&amp;nbsp;m), is the dominant feature in the valley. The nearby Erciyas volcano is still active with occasional minor eruptions. Its outstanding example represents the Earth's evolutionary history. Within these rock formations people have excavated a network of caves which served as refuges, residences, storage and places of worship dating from the 4th century. The surrounding landscape is agricultural with a number of small scattered rural villages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historical setting, the rock-hewn churches and the unusual eroded landforms combine to produce a mixed cultural/natural landscape of unusual appearance. Architectural styles are based on the local stone and the valley has changed little over the centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the area has been extensively used and modified by man for centuries the resulting landscape is one of harmony and consideration of the intrinsic values of the natural landforms. There has been some earthquake damage to some of the cones and pillars but this is seen as a naturally occurring phenomenon. In the ruin like landscape of the Cappadocia plateau where natural erosion has sculpted the tuff into shapes which are eerily reminiscent of towers, spires, domes and pyramids, man has added to the workmanship of the elements by digging cells, churches and veritable subterranean cities which together make up one of the world's largest cave dwelling complexes. Although interesting from a geological and ethnological point of view, this phenomenal rupestral site excels especially for the incomparable beauty of the decor of the Christian sanctuaries whose features make Cappadocia one of the leading examples of post-iconoclast Byzantine art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is believed that the first signs of monastic activity in Cappadocia date back to the 4th century at which time, acting on the instructions of Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea (Kayseri), small anchoritic communities began inhabiting cells dug into the rock. Later on, in order to resist Arab forays they began banding together into troglodyte villages or subterranean towns such as Kaymaklı or Derinkuyu which served as places of refuge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Cappadocian monasticism was already well established in the iconoclast period (725-842), as illustrated by the many sanctuaries, the decoration of which was held to the strict minimum of symbols (most often sculpted or tempera painted crosses). After 842, however, many rupestral churches were dug in Cappadocia. These churches were richly decorated with brightly coloured figurative painting. Among them were those in the G&amp;ouml;reme valley: Tokalı Kilise, El Nazar Kilise (10th century), Barbara Kilise, Saklı Kilise (11th century), Elmalı Kilise and Karanlık Kilise (end of the 12th to beginning of the 13th centuries), etc.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In a spectacular landscape, entirely sculpted by erosion, the G&amp;ouml;reme valley and its surroundings contain rock-hewn sanctuaries that provide unique evidence of Byzantine art in the post-Iconoclastic period. Dwellings, troglodyte villages and underground towns &amp;ndash; the remains of a traditional human habitat dating back to the 4th century &amp;ndash; can also be seen there.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>410</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/358</http_url><id_number>358</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_358.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.3712710000</latitude><location>City and District of Divriği, Province of Sivas (Eastern Anatolia)</location><longitude>38.1218260000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Divriği mosque is an outstanding example of Selçuk mosques in Anatolia, having neither a courtyard, colonnades, nor an uncovered ablutions basin, but which (owing perhaps to the harshness of the climate) organizes all religious functions in an enclosed area. A charitable foundation, the contiguous hospital makes an already exceptional ensemble even more interesting thanks to a princely command.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Far away from the major communication links at the south-east of Sivas province in eastern Anatolia, the mountainous region of Divriği (Tephrike in the Byzantine Empire) was a 12th-century refuge for the Paulician Christian sect which was persecuted by Basil I and then by John Tzimisces, who exiled their survivors to Thrace. From there the heresy gradually moved westward, gaining followers of varying degrees of loyalty such as the Bogarmils or Cathars.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After 1071, Divriği fell to the Turks. In 1118 the city was given to Mengücek Bey and the dynasty of the Mengücekids governed the province virtually without interruption until the Mongol occupation in 1277.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The rectangular ensemble of buildings, which occupies the south-west slope of the hill from which Divriği Castle rises, dates back to this first Turkish period. There is a mosque which was founded in 1228-29 by the Mengücekid emir, Ahmet Shah, and a &lt;em&gt;marestan&lt;/em&gt; (hospital for the insane) endowed by his wife, Malikaturan Malik. These two complementary monuments were built simultaneously by the same architect, Khurramshad of Ahlat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sole prayer room in the great mosque has five aisles, each consisting of five bays. It has stone vaulting and above are two cupolas of unequal size. One is above the ablutions basin and the other is above the &lt;em&gt;mihrab&lt;/em&gt; (prayer niche). The second cupola is the principal one, recognizable from the exterior by its hexagonal spire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With its ribwork on pendentives, it is the most refined piece of architecture that the mosque has to offer. Yet each of the 16 remaining vaults is an amazing technical feat: the vaulting of the hospital room is comparable in scientific achievement, making use of a spacious design of perfectly pure lines. The principal nave opens towards the east on an &lt;em&gt;iwan&lt;/em&gt; (three-sided, vaulted hall open at one end) and laterally on to two &lt;em&gt;iwans&lt;/em&gt; flanked by small rooms. Such a layout makes possible isolation as well as contact in a communal area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the outside, the Divriği ensemble provides a gripping contrast between the low, blind walls of its rectangular enclosure and the three immense gates which afford access to the hospital at the west and to the mosque at the north and west. These three high, recessed gates with their exuberant decor which is both floral and geometric have been the subject of the most paradoxical of comparisons with Khmer and Gothic monuments. As was the case with the vaulting in the mosque and the hospital, the architect most likely drew his inspiration from contemporary Armenian or Georgian motifs, transposing them in an ingenious fashion.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a fourth and more recent opening at the east side which can probably be traced back to 1241.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This region of Anatolia was conquered by the Turks at the beginning of the 11th century. In 1228–29 Emir Ahmet Shah founded a mosque, with its adjoining hospital, at Divrigi. The mosque has a single prayer room and is crowned by two cupolas. The highly sophisticated technique of vault construction, and a creative, exuberant type of decorative sculpture – particularly on the three doorways, in contrast to the unadorned walls of the interior – are the unique features of this masterpiece of Islamic architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>411</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/377</http_url><id_number>377</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_377.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.0138900000</latitude><location>District of Sungurlu, Çorum Province</location><longitude>34.6205600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hattusha exerted dominating influence upon the civilizations of the 2nd and 1st millennia BC in Anatolia and northern Syria. The palaces, temples, trading quarters and necropolis of this political and religious metropolis provide a comprehensive picture of a capital and bear a unique testimony to the disappeared Hittite civilization. The city's fortifications, along with the Lion Gate and the Royal Gate and the Yazılıkaya rupestral ensemble with its sculptured friezes, represent unique artistic achievements as monuments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruins of ancient Hattusha, the modern village of Bog&amp;acirc;zkale and the great capital of the Hittite empire, are framed by the grandiose backdrop of the high Anatolian plains 200&amp;nbsp;km to the east of Ankara. The site was partially occupied at the end of the 3rd millennium by a pre-Hittite population which, as was also the case in other regions, permitted Assyrian traders to settle there. From a number of epigraphic documents we learn that the city was then called Hattus (Hattush) and that it was destroyed around 1720 by Anitta, a Hittite sovereign. The vicissitudes of a complex history rich in events did not spare Hattusha from the 18th to 12th centuries and are borne witness to by monumental vestiges of the built-up and rupestral ensembles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site, discovered in 1834, was not comprehensively excavated until 1906, which was the memorable date of the discovery of a copy of a peace treaty between Hattushili III and the Pharaoh Ramses II, which made possible the identification of Hattusha. Since then, joint efforts on the part of German and Turkish archaeologists have made decisive progress in knowledge of the Hittite capital. The exploration of Hattusha should serve as a model of long-term archaeological research planning and has given rise to a host of publications and to a specialized periodical issued by the Deutsches Arch&amp;auml;ologisches Institut.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At its largest, the city spread over a sloping, uneven plateau, covering 2.1&amp;nbsp;km from north to south and 1.3&amp;nbsp;km from east to west. In the 13th century, the city was surrounded by a system of double walls forming a perimeter of roughly 8&amp;nbsp;km. It was protected at the east end by the Kayalı Boğ&amp;auml;z outpost, 1.5&amp;nbsp;km from the Royal Gate. To the north, beyond the walls, were located a necropolis cut into the rock at Osmankayası and the great rupestral sanctuary of Yazılıkaya, whose walls decorated with bas-reliefs are the undisputed masterpiece of Hittite art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inside the walls whose most impressive remains lie to the south and the east and comprise primitive Hittite fortifications, with underground passageways, the city is built on two levels. To the northwest, not far from the present-day village of Bog&amp;acirc;zkale, which occupies part of the site, is the lower town. The most remarkable monument is the great temple, dedicated to the god of storms and the goddess of the Sun, Arinna, and surrounded by an array of buildings including stores. Thousands of cuneiform tablets were found in this area. Slightly to the north of the temple is the Assyrian settlement's karum with its houses built around a central courtyard. Part of it dates back to the pre-Hittite period. To the south is located the upper city, a complex layout. The most important element is the royal residence of B&amp;uuml;y&amp;uuml;kkale, a veritable palace-citadel perched upon the main peak.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is on other fortified peaks the area between the Lions' Gate to the west and the Royal Gate to the east (the only well-preserved vestiges of the five original monumental entrances) that the best preserved stretches of the double wall are to be found. This wall protected Hattusha, its residential quarters, its palaces and four temples.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Hattusha, former capital of the Hittite Empire, is notable for its urban organization, the types of construction that have been preserved (temples, royal residences, fortifications), the rich ornamentation of the Lions' Gate and the Royal Gate, and the ensemble of rock art at Yazilikaya. The city enjoyed considerable influence in Anatolia and northern Syria in the 2nd millennium B.C.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hattusha: the Hittite Capital</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>432</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/448</http_url><id_number>448</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_448.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.0366100000</latitude><location>Adiyaman Province</location><longitude>38.7636900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The tomb or the Hierotheseion of Nemrut Dağ bears unique testimony to the civilization of the kingdom of Commagene. Antiochos I is represented in this monument as a descendant of Darius by his father Mithridates, and a descendant of Alexander by his mother Laodice. This semi-legendary ancestry translates in genealogical terms the ambition of a dynasty that sought to remain independent of the powers of both the East and the West. More than the tombs at Karakuş and Eski K&amp;acirc;hta, the tumulus at Nemrut Dağ illustrates, through the liberal syncretism of a very original pantheon, a significant historical period. The landscaping of the natural site of Nemrut Dağ is one of the most colossal undertakings of the Hellenistic epoch (some of the stone blocks used weigh up to 9 tonnes).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the empire of Alexander the Great was breaking up, numerous kingdoms were formed in the Hellenized provinces of the East. One such kingdom was Commagene, which, from 162&amp;nbsp;BC to AD&amp;nbsp;72, existed as a semi-independent state, its sovereigns defending their autonomy first against the Seleucids and then against the Romans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The monarchs of this dynasty bore the Greek names of Antiochos or Mithridates. They left behind, in the mountainous region that stretched from the north of the high valley of the Euphrates, not far from Adıyaman, several breathtakingly beautiful funerary sanctuaries. Locations include Eski K&amp;acirc;hta, Karakuş and, especially, Nemrut Dağ, where the most impressive of all the tomb sites is found, that of Antiochos I of Commagene (69-34 BC).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Discovered by chance in 1881 by Charles Sester, an engineer, it was not until 1953 that exploration of the site was undertaken. Dominating the summit of Nemrut Dağ is a conical tumulus of stone chips. This funerary mound, whose interior layout remains unknown despite numerous attempts to locate the dromos, is surrounded on the east, west and north sides by artificial terraces. The east terrace has two distinct levels dug out of the rock. On the upper level, a row of five colossal seated figures (7&amp;nbsp;m high) representing deities shares a common substructure with two pairs of equally immense statues, each pair comprising a lion and an eagle, symmetrically positioned at either end. Inscriptions on the statues identify them from left to right as being: the god Apollo-Mithras-Helios-Hermes; the goddess Tyche of Commagene; the god Zeus-Oromasdes; Antiochos himself; the god Heracles-Artagnes-Ares.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The heads of these statues have broken off and tumbled to the lower terrace, which is bordered on its east side by a pyramid-shaped altar, and on the north and south sides by rows of orthostats. On the north side, these stones are decorated with relief sculptures representing the Persian ancestors of Antiochos. On the south side, his Macedonian ancestors symmetrically face the others. Engraved inscriptions on the backs of the slabs identify the genealogical links.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The west terrace has similar features, with the same series of five statues between the two lion-eagle pairs, but does not have an altar. The orthostats repeat the dual genealogy of Antiochos I, the Persian branch on the south, the Macedonian on the west. The symmetry is somewhat modified by the topography of the mountain.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Three superb reliefs show Antiochos exchanging a handshake with Apollo-Mithras-Helios-Hermes, with Zeus-Oromasdes and Heracles-Artagnes-Ares. They are framed by an allegorical group of Antiochos and the Commagenes on the left and an astrological relief called 'the king's horoscope' on the right. The inscription, which has been deciphered, gives the date 10 July 62-61 BC: the date that Antiochos I was invested as king by the Romans.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The mausoleum of Antiochus I (69&amp;ndash;34 B.C.), who reigned over Commagene, a kingdom founded north of Syria and the Euphrates after the breakup of Alexander's empire, is one of the most ambitious constructions of the Hellenistic period. The syncretism of its pantheon, and the lineage of its kings, which can be traced back through two sets of legends, Greek and Persian, is evidence of the dual origin of this kingdom's culture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Nemrut Dağ</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>520</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/484</http_url><id_number>484</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_484.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.3350000000</latitude><location>Provinces of Muğla and Antalya </location><longitude>29.3202800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Xanthos directly influenced Lycia throughout antiquity, as demonstrated by the many epigraphic texts found on the two sites as well as by the remarkable funerary monuments preserved there or originating from the area, and also the neighbouring provinces. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is a direct descendant of the Nereid Monument at Xanthos.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Xanthos, the capital of ancient Lycia, and the neighbouring and indissociable site of Letoon located 8km away form a famous archaeological complex. The excavations were carried out from 1838 to 1844 by the Englishman Charles Fellows.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lycians were one of the 'Sea Peoples' who invaded the Hittite Empire around 1200 BC. Herodotus relates that they came from Crete to take part in the Trojan War. Throughout its long history, this ethnic group displayed two apparently contradictory characteristics. In the first place they were extremely loyal to their traditions: the Lycian language was preserved over a very long period. Even today the farmers of the region build wooden houses and barns whose structure is comparable to the monuments found in the Lycian rock art tombs. Their second characteristic is their capacity to assimilate the cultural contributions of Hellenism and those of Rome. The town was still inhabited in the Byzantine period when several basilicas were built; it was only in the 7th century that the Arab raids left the town in ruins.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A long and complex history has left many splendid but at times hard to distinguish remains on the two neighbouring sites of Xanthos and Letoon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;East of the Xanthe River, a first monumental zone includes the old Lycian Acropolis, which was remodelled during the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. At that time a church was built at the north-east corner, while an advanced defensive structure fortified the western side of the citadel along the river. Directly north of the Acropolis stands a very beautiful theatre that dominates the Roman agora. This entire area is marked with great Lycian funerary monuments, which are characteristic of the archaeological landscape of Xanthos and rise up spectacularly from the ruins. There is a second, more confused, archaeological zone that extends between the Vespasian Arch to the south and the Hellenistic Acropolis to the north. This is where the lower part of the town was located.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Letoon, dedicated to Leto, Artemis and Apollo, includes the ruins of a nymphaeum dating back to Hadrian, built on the site of the sacred source that was at the origin of the creation of the sanctuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The famous trilingual inscription in Lycian, Aramaic and Greek dating back to 358 BC (Year I in the reign of Artaxerxes III Okhos) was discovered near the temple of Artemis in Letoon. It is in Xanthos and Letoon that are to be found the longest and most important texts in the Lycian language: most of them are carved in rock or on huge monoliths. They cannot be moved and are the major monuments of a unique Indo-European language that disappeared long ago. The rock-art tombs, pillar tombs, and pillar-mounted sarcophagi represent a novel type of funerary architecture. The rich series of Lycian tombs in Xanthos and Letoon make it possible to understand the successive acculturation phenomena that took place in Lycia from the 6th century BC.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site, which was the capital of Lycia, illustrates the blending of Lycian traditions and Hellenic influence, especially in its funerary art. The epigraphic inscriptions are crucial for our understanding of the history of the Lycian people and their Indo-European language.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Xanthos-Letoon</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>563</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/485</http_url><id_number>485</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_485.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.9238900000</latitude><location>Denizli Province</location><longitude>29.1233300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;This site is exceptional by vurtue of its superlative natural phenomena - warm, heavily mineralized water flowing from springs creating pools and terraces which are visually stunning. It is on this outstanding natural site that Hierapolis, an exceptional example of a Graeco-Roman thermal installation, was established. The Christian monuments of Hierapolis constitute an outstanding example of an early Christian architectural complex.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Pamukkale, which literally means 'cotton castle', is the name the Turks gave to the extraordinary site of Hierapolis. The name was inspired by the preternatural landscape of bizarre forms created by calcite deposits from the hot springs that surface through a fault: mineral forests, petrified cascades and terraced pools of an immense natural nymphaeum. The ancients attributing healing powers to the hot springs (35&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) equal to their power to metamorphose the landscape, they founded a thermal station on the site in the late 2nd century. The history of Hierapolis followed the same course as many Hellenistic cities in Asia Minor. The Romans acquired full control of it in 129 BC and it prospered under its new rulers. It was a cosmopolitan city where Anatolians, Graeco-Macedonians, Romans and Jews intermingled. The hot springs which attracted throngs of people 'taking the waters' also served another purpose: scouring and dying wool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The therapeutic virtues of the waters were exploited at the various thermal installations which included immense hot basins and pools for swimming. Hydrotherapy was accompanied by religious practices, which were developed in relation to local cults. The Temple of Apollo was erected on a fault from which noxious vapours escaped. The theatre, which dates from the time of Severus, is decorated with an admirable frieze depicting a ritual procession and a sacrifice to the Ephesian Artemis. The necropolis affords a vast panorama of the funerary practices of the Graeco-Roman epoch. According to ancient tradition, Philip the Apostle converted it and was crucified there by Domitian around the year 87. Hieropolis remained one of the two metropolises of the Phrygia Pacatiana as well as being a bishopric. The group of Christian buildings are the cathedral, baptistry and churches. The most important monument is the &lt;em&gt;martyrium&lt;/em&gt; of St Philip. At the top of a monumental stairway, the octagonal layout of the building is remarkable because of its ingenious spatial organization. The fortress, built on the cliff, testifies to its ultimate historic phase.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pamukkale National Park is the focal point for the natural values of the site, formed by its highest travertine terraces, with 20&amp;nbsp;m high cliffs and waterfalls, and situated along on the foothills of the Cokelez Mountains. The terrace is about 200&amp;nbsp;m above the Curuksu plain and extends some 6&amp;nbsp;km between the villages of Pamukkale and Karahayit. Semi-circular pools occur in a step-like arrangement down the upper third of the slope. Fresh deposits of calcium carbonate give the pools a dazzling white coating. The travertine deposits, Quaternary in age, are thought to originate from a fault in the contact zone between the Mesozoic crystalline rocks and the layers of the Neogen series. The springs form part of a complex hydraulic system extending 70&amp;nbsp;km to the north-west to Alasehir and west along the valley of the Menderes River. These canals take thermal water to nearby villages and agricultural areas, some over the years having accumulated travertine deposits up to 10&amp;nbsp;m in height. The oldest rocks in the area are crystalline marbles, quartzite and schists and are located in the northern parts of the park. Most of the rocks are of the Pliocene epoch.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A vegetation map produced in 1969 showed land use, in descending order of area covered, as cultivated land, bare land subject to erosion, bare land urban areas and maquis. There are some 45 species of flowering plant, while in Denizli Province there are records of ten species of mammal and ten species of bird. State ownership around 500&amp;nbsp;m, rising to 1,840&amp;nbsp;m in the Cokelez mountains, to the immediate north of the park peaks further out but surrounding the park rise to 2,308&amp;nbsp;m (Babadağ) and 2,571&amp;nbsp;m (Honaz).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The natural features of the site provide the setting that attracted the original Roman town of Hierapolis. They thus form an important backdrop for the cultural landscape that now dominates the area.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Deriving from springs in a cliff almost 200 m high overlooking the plain, calcite-laden waters have created at Pamukkale (Cotton Palace) an unreal landscape, made up of mineral forests, petrified waterfalls and a series of terraced basins. At the end of the 2nd century B.C. the dynasty of the Attalids, the kings of Pergamon, established the thermal spa of Hierapolis. The ruins of the baths, temples and other Greek monuments can be seen at the site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hierapolis-Pamukkale</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>564</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The site of Safranbolu has been occupied by human settlements since prehistory, as evidenced by rock-cut tombs and a Roman temple in the vicinity. The present settlement developed as a trading centre after the Turkish conquest in the 11th century. In the 13th century it became an important caravan station on the main east-west trade route. Surviving buildings from this early period include the Old Mosque, the Old Bath, and the Medresse of Siileyman Pasha. all built in 1322.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The caravan trade reached its apogee in the 17th century, when the central market was extended to meet the requirements of travellers rather than the local inhabitants. Many buildings survive from this period, including the Cinci Inn with its sixty guest rooms (1640-48), the Kopriilii Mosque (1661), and the Izzet Pasha Mosque (1796), as well as many stores, stables, and baths.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 19th century saw considerable investment in private estates and a sharp increase in the size of the town. The richer inhabitants donated public buildings, including eighteen fountains, the ~ and Hamadiye mosques, the Ali Baba convent, and the town hospital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Changes in trading structures and the advent of the railways brought this long period of prosperity to an end in the early 20th century. The town underwent a period of economic deprivation until the building of the Karabiik steelworks, which provided a great deal of employment in the region. Safranbolu residents who went to work at Karabiik preferred to retain their original homes, thus bringing limited economic stability back to the town.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/614</http_url><id_number>614</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_614.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.2600000000</latitude><location>City and District of Safranbolu, Province of Karabuk</location><longitude>32.6897200000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Safranbolu is a typical Ottoman city that has survived to the present day. It also displays an interesting interaction between the topography and the historic settlement. By virtue of its key role in the caravan trade over many centuries, Safranbolu enjoyed great prosperity and as a result it set a standard in public and domestic architecture that exercised a great influence on urban development over a large area of the Ottoman Empire. The architectural forms of the buildings and the streets are illustrative of their period. The caravan trade was for centuries the main commercial link between the Orient and Europe. As a result, towns of a characteristic type grew up along its route. With the coming of railways in the 19th century, these towns abruptly lost their raison d'être, and most of them were adapted to other economic bases. Safranbolu was not affected in this way and as a result has preserved its original form and buildings to a remarkable extent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Safranbolu has been occupied by human settlements since prehistory, as evidenced by rock-cut tombs. The Turks conquered the town in the 11th century and in the 13th century it became an important caravan station on the main east-west trade route. Surviving buildings from this early period include the Old Mosque, Old Bath, and Medresse of Süleyman Pasha, all built in 1322.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The caravan trade reached its apogee in the 17th century, when the central market was extended to meet the requirements of travellers. Many buildings survive from this period, including the Cinci Inn with its 60 guestrooms (1640-48), Koprülü Mosque (1661) and Let Pasha Mosque (1796), as well as many stores, stables and baths. Changes in trading structures and the advent of the railways brought this long period of prosperity to an end in the early 20th century. The town underwent a period of economic deprivation until the building of the Karabük steelworks, which provided a great deal of employment in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Safranbolu consists of four distinct districts: the market place area of the inner city, known as Çukur (The Hole), the area of Kıranköy, Bağlar (The Vineyards), and an area of more recent settlement outside the historic area. The original Turkish settlement was immediately in the south of the citadel and developed to the south-east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Çukur is so named because it lies in the lower part of the town; its centre is the market place, which is surrounded by the houses and workshops of craftsmen, such as leather workers, blacksmiths, saddlers and shoemakers, and textile workers. The area is triangular in shape, defined by two rivers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kıranköy was formerly a non-Muslim district, with a socio-architectural pattern similar to that in contemporary European towns, in fact the craftsmen and tradesmen living above their workshops, cellars used for winemaking and storage, etc. The pattern of settlement in Bağlar is one of single houses set within large gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The streets in Çukur and Kıranköy are narrow and curved, following contours. They are surfaced with stone paving, sloping inwards to evacuate surface water. The older houses are half-timbered, the spaces between the timbers being filled with various materials (clay, brick, etc.). There are no windows on the street frontage, so that the stone walls resemble extensions of garden walls; the main rooms are on the first floor. Many of the ceilings are lavishly carved and painted.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;From the 13th century to the advent of the railway in the early 20th century, Safranbolu was an important caravan station on the main East–West trade route. The Old Mosque, Old Bath and Süleyman Pasha Medrese were built in 1322. During its apogee in the 17th century, Safranbolu's architecture influenced urban development throughout much of the Ottoman Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Safranbolu</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>729</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Human occupation on the site of Troy (Ilion) began in the Early Bronze Age (late 4th millennium BC). The first defensive wall round the citadel was built around 3000 BC and expanded twice, attaining a diameter of c 110m at the end of Phase I, around 2500 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There was steady development and regularization of the settlement plan in the following five centuries (Troy IIV) to the end of the Early Bronze Age. Around 2000 BC there was a dramatic cultural change, with reconstruction of houses and walls in stone. The town expanded considerably outside the original walled settlement, and Troy VI (from c 1700 BC) may have covered the entire plateau, making it one of the largest towns in the Aegean region. Goods imported from Mycenae and elsewhere in Greece give an indication of its important trading role.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An earthquake in c 1350 BC caused grave damage to Troy VI, with defensive walls and houses collapsing, but the town quickly recovered and was rebuilt in a more orderly layout. The evidence of widespread fire and slaughter around 1250 BC, which brought Troy VIIA to an end, has led to this phase being identified with the city besieged by the Greeks during the Trojan War, immortalized in The Iliad. What is known of the economic and political history of the Aegean region in this period suggests that the real cause of the Trojan War was intense commercial rivalry between Troy and the mercantile Mycenaean kingdom, the prize being control of the Dardanelles and the lucrative trade with the Black Sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town was to be rebuilt once again, but Bronze Age Troy, having most likely lost its commercial supremacy, had been abandoned by the end of the 2nd millennium BC. The site was reoccupied by Greek settlers from Lemnos in the 8th century BC (Troy VIII), and it assumed considerable importance in 306 BC as the capital of a league of cities in the Troad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 188 BC it was identified by the Romans as the Ilion of Homer and recognized as the mother-city of Rome (Ilium Novum), being granted exemption from taxes. It was sacked in 85 BC during the Mithridatic War and not rebuilt until around 20 BC, following a visit by Augustus. The town prospered under Roman rule, despite being devastated by Herulian raiders in AD 267, and survived a severe earthquake in the early 6th century. Abandoned once again in the 9th century, it was reoccupied in the later Byzantine period and not finally deserted until well into the Ottoman period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849</http_url><id_number>849</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_849.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Troy is of immense significance in the understanding of the development of European civilization at a critical stage in its early development. It is, moreover, of exceptional cultural importance because of the profound influence of Homer&amp;rsquo;s Iliad on the creative arts over more than two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.9564400000</latitude><location>Province of Çanakkale</location><longitude>26.2390000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Troy is of immense significance in the understanding of the development of European civilization at a critical stage in its early development. It is, moreover, of exceptional cultural importance because of the profound influence of Homer's Iliad on the creative arts over more than two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Troy is a unique example in an Aegean context of the oriental city at the junction between Anatolia, the Aegean and the Balkans. It is also probably the most famous archaeological site in the world. It may be considered to represent the starting point for modern archaeology and its public recognition.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Troy II and Troy VI in particular are characteristic examples of the ancient city, with a majestic fortified citadel enclosing palaces and administrative buildings, surrounded by an extensive lower town, also fortified. Troy is directly associated with the universally significant literary works of Homer (The Iliad) and Virgil (The Aeneid). Hellenistic tumuli were erected over the supposed burial places of these heroes, such as Achilles, Ajax, Hector, and Patroclus.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Human occupation on the site of Troy began in the early Bronze Age. The first defensive wall round the citadel was built around 3000 BC. Then Troy VI expanded, making it one of the largest towns in the Aegean region with an important trading role. An earthquake in 1350 BC caused grave damage to Troy VI, but the town quickly recovered and was rebuilt in a more orderly layout. The evidence of widespread fire and slaughter around 1250 BC, which brought Troy VII to an end, has led to this phase being identified with the city besieged by the Greeks during the Trojan War, immortalized in &lt;em&gt;The Iliad&lt;/em&gt; . The real cause of the Trojan war was intense commercial rivalry between Troy and the mercantile Mycenaean kingdom, the prize being control of the Dardanelles and the lucrative trade with the Black Sea. In 306 BC, Troy became the capital of a league of cities in the Troad and in 188 BC it was identified by the Romans as the Ilion of Homer and recognized as the mother-city of Rome (Ilium Novum). The town prospered under Roman rule and survived a severe earthquake in the early 6th century. Abandoned once again in the 9th century, it was reoccupied in the later Byzantine period and not finally deserted until well into the Ottoman period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The contemporary history of the site and its subsequent exploration and conservation dates from 1793, when it was discovered. It was identified by scholars, first as Ilion in 1810 and then as Troy in 1820. Heinrich Schliemann first visited the site in 1868. Between then and his death in 1890 he carried out seven major campaigns, completed in 1893-94 by his assistant, Wilhelm D&amp;ouml;rpfeld. It was in 1873 that he found the famous gold hoard, known erroneously as 'King Priam's Treasure', as it came from Troy II, not Troy VIIA. Excavations over more than a century have revealed 23 sections of the defensive walls around the citadel, eleven gates, a paved stone ramp, and the lower portions of five defensive bastions. These date for the most part from Troy II and VI; however, a section of the earliest wall (Troy I) survives near the south gate of the first defences. The great residential complex from Troy II consists of five parallel long buildings with porches (&lt;em&gt;megara&lt;/em&gt; ). The largest of these is considered to represent the prototype of the Greek temple. The ensemble is considered to have constituted some form of palace. The remains of a number of long rectangular houses from Troy II are to be seen at the bottom of one of the most striking features off the site, the so-called Schliemann Trench, dug by the famous 19th-century excavator in search of the 'Citadel of Priam', the object of his search.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Greek and Roman cities at Troy are represented above all by the sanctuary complex. Roman urban organization is reflected by two major public buildings on the edge of the agora. The odeion (concert hall) has the traditional horseshoe-shaped plan and tiers of seats made from limestone blocks. The nearby &lt;em&gt;bouleuterion&lt;/em&gt; (council house) is smaller but similar in plan. The surrounding landscape contains many important prehistoric and historical sites: cemeteries, Hellenistic burial mounds, Greek and Roman settlements, Roman and Ottoman bridges, etc.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Troy, with its 4,000 years of history, is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world. The first excavations at the site were undertaken by the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in 1870. In scientific terms, its extensive remains are the most significant demonstration of the first contact between the civilizations of Anatolia and the Mediterranean world. Moreover, the siege of Troy by Spartan and Achaean warriors from Greece in the 13th or 12th century B.C., immortalized by Homer in the Iliad, has inspired great creative artists throughout the world ever since.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Troy</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1000</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1366</http_url><id_number>1366</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1366.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.6777777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>26.5594444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The square Mosque with its single great dome and four slender minarets, dominates the skyline of the former Ottoman capital of Edirne. Sinan, the most famous of Ottoman architects in the 16th century, considered the complex, which includes madrasas (Islamic schools), a covered market, clock house, outer courtyard and library, to be his best work. The interior decoration using Iznik tiles from the peak period of their production testifies to an art form that remains unsurpassed in this material. The complex is considered to be the most harmonious expression ever achieved of the Ottoman k&amp;uuml;lliye, a group of buildings constructed around a mosque and managed as a single institution.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Selimiye Mosque and its Social Complex</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1784</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2012</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1405</http_url><id_number>1405</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1405.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.6666666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>32.8280555556</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Two hills form the 37&amp;nbsp;ha site on the Southern Anatolian Plateau. The taller eastern mound contains eighteen levels of Neolithic occupation between 7400&amp;nbsp;bc and 6200&amp;nbsp;bc, including wall paintings, reliefs, sculptures and other symbolic and artistic features. Together they testify to the evolution of social organization and cultural practices as humans adapted to a sedentary life. The western mound shows the evolution of cultural practices in the Chalcolithic period, from 6200&amp;nbsp;bc to 5200&amp;nbsp;bc. &amp;Ccedil;atalh&amp;ouml;y&amp;uuml;k provides important evidence of the transition from settled villages to urban agglomeration, which was maintained in the same location for over 2,000 years. It features a unique streetless settlement of houses clustered back to back with roof access into the buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1829</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1452</http_url><id_number>1452</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1452.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.1847305556</latitude><location></location><longitude>29.0623361111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This property is a serial nomination of eight component sites in the City of Bursa and the nearby village of Cumalıkızık, in the southern Marmara region. The site illustrates the creation of an urban and rural system establishing the Ottoman Empire in the early 14th century. The property embodies the key functions of the social and economic organization of the new capital which evolved around a civic centre. These include commercial districts of khans, &lt;em&gt;kulliyes&lt;/em&gt; (religious institutions) integrating mosques, religious schools, public baths and a kitchen for the poor, as well as the tomb of Orhan Ghazi, founder of the Ottoman dynasty. One component outside the historic centre of Bursa is the village of Cumalıkızık, the only rural village of this system to show the provision of hinterland support for the capital.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bursa and Cumalıkızık: the Birth of the Ottoman Empire</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1995</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1457</http_url><id_number>1457</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1457.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.1258333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>27.1800000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site rises high above the Bakirçay Plain in Turkey’s Aegean region. The acropolis of Pergamon was the capital of the Hellenistic Attalid dynasty, a major centre of learning in the ancient world. Monumental temples, theatres, stoa or porticoes, gymnasium, altar and library were set into the sloping terrain surrounded by an extensive city wall. The rock-cut Kybele Sanctuary lies to the north-west on another hill visually linked to the acropolis. Later the city became capital of the Roman province of Asia known for its Asclepieion healing centre. The acropolis crowns a landscape containing burial mounds and remains of the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman empires in and around the modern town of Bergama on the lower slopes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2001</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1018</http_url><id_number>1018</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1018.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.9291666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>27.3594444444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located within what was once the estuary of the River Kaystros, Ephesus comprises successive Hellenistic and Roman settlements founded on new locations, which followed the coastline as it retreated westward. Excavations have revealed grand monuments of the Roman Imperial period including the Library of Celsus and the Great Theatre. Little remains of the famous Temple of Artemis, one of the “Seven Wonders of the World,” which drew pilgrims from all around the Mediterranean. Since the 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, the House of the Virgin Mary, a domed cruciform chapel seven kilometres from Ephesus, became a major place of Christian pilgrimage. The Ancient City of Ephesus is an outstanding example of a Roman port city, with sea channel and harbour basin.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ephesus</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2014</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1488</http_url><id_number>1488</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1488.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.9031000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>40.2393083333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on an escarpment of the Upper Tigris River Basin that is part of the so-called Fertile Crescent, the fortified city of Diyarbakır and the landscape around has been an important centre since the Hellenistic period, through the Roman, Sassanid, Byzantine, Islamic and Ottoman times to the present. The site encompasses the Inner castle, known as İçkale and including the Amida Mound, and the 5.8 km-long city walls of Diyarbakır with their numerous towers, gates, buttresses, and 63 inscriptions. The site also includes the Hevsel Gardens, a green link between the city and the Tigris that supplied the city with food and water, the Anzele water source and the Ten-Eyed Bridge.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Diyarbakır Fortress and Hevsel Gardens Cultural Landscape</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2049</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1518</http_url><id_number>1518</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1518.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.5000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>43.5666666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site is located on a secluded plateau of northeast Turkey overlooking a ravine that forms a natural border with Armenia. This medieval city combines residential, religious and military structures, characteristic of a medieval urbanism built up over the centuries by Christian and then Muslim dynasties. The city flourished in the 10th and 11th centuries CE when it became the capital of the medieval Armenian kingdom of the Bagratides and profited from control of one branch of the Silk Road. Later, under Byzantine, Seljuk and Georgian sovereignty, it maintained its status as an important crossroads for merchant caravans. The Mongol invasion and a devastating earthquake in 1319 marked the beginning of the city’s decline. The site presents a comprehensive overview of the evolution of medieval architecture through examples of almost all the different architectural innovations of the region between the 7th and 13th centuries CE.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Archaeological Site of Ani</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2110</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1519</http_url><id_number>1519</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1519.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.7083333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>28.7236111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in southwestern Turkey, in the upper valley of the Morsynus River, the site consists of two components: the archaeological site of Aphrodisias and the marble quarries northeast of the city. The temple of Aphrodite dates from the 3rd century BC and the city was built one century later. The wealth of Aphrodisias came from the marble quarries and the art produced by its sculptors. The city streets are arranged around several large civic structures, which include temples, a theatre, an agora and two bath complexes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Aphrodisias</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2170</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2018</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1572</http_url><id_number>1572</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1572.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.2232419444</latitude><location></location><longitude>38.9223638889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the Germuş mountains of south-eastern Anatolia, this property presents monumental round-oval and rectangular megalithic structures erected by hunter-gatherers in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic age between 9,600 and 8,200 BCE. These monuments were probably used in connection with rituals, most likely of a funerary nature. Distinctive T-shaped pillars are carved with images of wild animals, providing insight into the way of life and beliefs of people living in Upper Mesopotamia about 11,500 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Göbekli Tepe</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2237</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1985</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/356</http_url><id_number>356</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_356.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tr</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.0084700000</latitude><location>City and Province of Istanbul</location><longitude>28.9799300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Istanbul bears unique testimony to the Byzantine and Ottoman civilizations. Throughout history, the monuments in the centre of the city have exerted considerable influence on the development of architecture, monumental arts and the organization of space, in both Europe and Asia. Thus, the 6,650&amp;nbsp;m terrestrial wall of Theodosius II with its second line of defences, created in AD 447, was one of the leading references for military architecture even before St Sophia became a model for an entire family of churches and later mosques and before the mosaics of the palaces and churches of Constantinople influenced Eastern and Western Christian art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Istanbul was built at the crossroads of two continents; it was successively the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman Empire, and it has constantly been associated with major events in political history, religious history and art history in Europe and Asia for some 20 centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time, however, Istanbul is a large metropolis. With its population of some 3&amp;nbsp;million inhabitants, this historic city has undergone population growth in the past 30 years, which has profoundly changed its conservation conditions. The threat of pollution arising from industrialization and rapid and initially uncontrolled urbanization have jeopardized the historical and cultural heritage of the old town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site covers four zones, illustrating the major phases of the city's history using its most prestigious monuments:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the Archaeological Park, which in 1953 and 1956 was defined at the tip of the peninsula; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the S&amp;uuml;leymaniye quarter, protected in 1980 and 1981; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the Zeyrek quarter, protected in 1979; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the zone of the ramparts, protected in 1981. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ancient city and the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire are both represented: by the hippodrome of Constantine (324) in the Archaeological Park, by the aqueduct of Valens (378) in the S&amp;uuml;leymaniye quarter, and by the ramparts built starting in 413 upon the order of Theodosius II, located in the last of the four zones.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The capital of the Byzantine Empire is highlighted by several major monuments. In the Archaeological Park there are the churches of St Sophia and St Irene, which were built in the reign of Justinian (527-65); In the Zeyrek quarter there is the ancient Pantocrator Monastery which was founded under John II Comnenus (1118-43) by the Empress Irene; in the zone of the ramparts there is the old church of the Holy Saviour in Chora (now the Kariye Camii) with its marvellous mosaics and paintings from the 14th and 15th centuries. Moreover, the current layout of the walls results from modifications performed in the 7th and 12th centuries to include the quarter and the Palace of the Blachernes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The capital of the Ottoman Empire is represented by its most important monuments: Topkapı Saray and the Blue Mosque in the archaeological zone; the Sehzade and S&amp;uuml;leymaniye mosques, which are two of the architect Ko&amp;ccedil;a Sinan's major works, constructed under S&amp;uuml;leyman the Magnificent (1520-66) in the S&amp;uuml;leymaniye quarter; and the vernacular settlement vestiges of this quarter (525 wooden houses which are listed and protected).&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;With its strategic location on the Bosphorus peninsula between the Balkans and Anatolia, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, Istanbul has been associated with major political, religious and artistic events for more than 2,000 years. Its masterpieces include the ancient Hippodrome of Constantine, the 6th-century Hagia Sophia and the 16th-century Süleymaniye Mosque, all now under threat from population pressure, industrial pollution and uncontrolled urbanization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Areas of Istanbul</site><states>Turkey</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2255</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The oasis of Merv in the Karakum Desert has supported a series of urban centres since the 3rd millennium BC. The earliest Bronze Age centres (c 2500-1200 BC) were located in the north of the oasis, where the Murghab river came to the surface and could easily be utilized. With the development of more advanced irrigation techniques, the centres moved further south, and there is a series of important Early Iron Age sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic urban centre developed around 500 BC to the east of the oasis, where it was well sited to take advantage of routes to the east. It consisted of a series of adjacent walled cities, occupying an area of more than 1200ha. The oldest of these, Erk Kala, is attested in written sources from the Achaemenian period (519-331 BC), most notably on the famous trilingual inscription of Darius the Great at Bisitun in western Iran&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oasis formed part of the empire of Alexander the Great, and Pliny the Elder suggested in his Natural History (VI, 16-17) that the Hellenistic city was founded by Alexander himself. The Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter (281-261 BC) rebuilt it and named it Margiana Antiochia; it is identified with Erk Kala and Gyaur Kala. It was occupied for some 1500 years, throughout the Parthian and Sasanian periods and into the early Islamic period. It has been suggested that Greek and Roman soldiers, survivors of the crushing Parthian defeat of the Romans at Carrhae in 53 BC, may have been settled at Margiana. Islam became dominant with the death of the last Sasanian king, Yazdigird III in 651. However, Merv was little more than an industrial zone in the 8th-10th centuries, although the central mosque continued in use as late as the 11th-12th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The medieval city of the Seljuks developed to the west of Gyaur Kala, replacing it as the urban centre as the latter declined. It was walled by Sultan Malikshah (1072-92), and further suburban developments to the north and south were later also walled by Sultan Sanjar (1118-57).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, extending over more than 600ha, was the capital of the Great Seljuk Empire (11th-13th centuries), and was one of the principal cities of its period. Its famous libraries attracted scholars from all over the Islamic world, including the astronomer-poet Omar Khayyam and the geographer Yaqut al Hamavi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This brilliant flowering came to a violent end in 1221- 22, when it was sacked by the Mongols, who slew many of its inhabitants and destroyed the complex water system. It survived in a much diminished form, as part of the empire of Timur (1370-1405) The new and much smaller city, known today as Abdullah Khan Kala was built on another site to the south by Timur's successor, Shah Rukh (1408-47).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century Merv came under the domination of the Uzbek Turks, who ruled from Bukhara, and a century later it was incorporated into the Persian empire. An increase in population in the 18th century led to the creation of a fortified extension, known as Bairam Ala Khan Kala, now mostly ruined.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/886</http_url><id_number>886</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_886.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tm</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion (ii): The cities of the Merv oasis have exerted considerable influence over the cultures of Central Asia and Iran for four millennia. The Seljuk city in particular influenced architecture and architectural decoration and scientific and cultural development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Criterion (iii): The sequence of the cities of the Merv oasis, their fortifications, and their urban lay-outs bear exceptional testimony to the civilizations of Central Asia over several millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>37.7008300000</latitude><location>Mary Vilayet</location><longitude>62.1775000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The sequence of the cities of the Merv oasis, their fortifications and their urban layouts bear exceptional testimony to the civilizations of Central Asia over several millennia. They exerted considerable influence over the cultures of Central Asia and Iran for four millennia. The Seljuk city in particular influenced architecture and architectural decoration and scientific and cultural development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oasis of Merv in the Karakum Desert, at the crossing point of the Amu Darya on the main east-west route to Bukhara and Samarkand, has supported a series of urban centres since the 3rd millennium BC. The earliest Bronze Age centres (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 2500-1200 BC) were located in the north of the oasis. With the development of more advanced irrigation techniques, the centres moved further south and east of the oasis. It consisted of a series of adjacent walled cities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The oasis formed part of the empire of Alexander the Great. The Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter (281-261 BC) rebuilt it and named it Margiana Antiochia; it is identified with Erk Kala and Gyaur Kala. Islam became dominant with the death of the last Sassanian king, Yazdigird III, in 651.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The medieval city of the Seljuks developed to the west of Gyaur Kala. It was walled by Sultan Malikshah. The city was the capital of the Great Seljuk Empire, and was one of the principal cities of its time. Its famous libraries attracted scholars from all over the Islamic world. In 1221-22, when it was sacked by the Mongols, and in the 16th century, Merv came under the domination of the Uzbek Turks, and a century later it was incorporated into the Persian Empire. An increase in population in the 18th century led to the creation of a fortified extension, known as Bairam Ala Khan Kala, now mostly ruined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The five earliest settlements, in the northern part of the oasis, are Kelleli, Adji Kui, Taip, Gonur, and Togoluk. Kelleli is an area of settlement with two major sites: Kelleli 3, which has a double external wall with towers flanking four symmetrical entrances and an area of houses that has been cleared in the south-western sector, and Kelleli 4, which also has a double outer wall with towers. Both sites are poorly preserved, but they contain important evidence of middle Bronze Age Margiana. Adji Kui is from the same period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taip is constituted of two close but distinct mounds consist of a walled square area with a large courtyard building in the south. The largest and well-preserved site in the Murghab delta is Gonur Depe. The Toguluk area was densely occupied during the Bronze Age. Excavations have revealed the remains of several large fortified buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two Iron Age centres are Yaz/Gobekli Depes and Takhirbaj Depe. Takhirbaj Depe is the most prominent site in the whole area. Yaz Depe is of special importance for the fact that it has produced abundant ceramic finds that provide the basic typology for the period. Nearby is the well-preserved Partho-Sassanian rectangular fortress of Gobekli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic urban centre consists of three principal elements: Erk Kala, Gyaur Kala, and the medieval city of Sultan Kala or Marv al-Shahijan. Erk Kala is a walled and moated polygonal site with walls surviving to some 30&amp;nbsp;m and an internal citadel. Gyaur Kala is roughly square in plan, with walls about 2&amp;nbsp;km long. In the interior are the remains of a number of important structures: the central Beni Makhan mosque and its cistern, the Buddhist stupa and monastery, the 'Oval Building' in the north-west quarter. Sultan Kala was walled in the 11th century, with its Mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar and the unique walls of the medieval city and of the citadel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The walls and moat of the 15th century, but only a few walls of the palace, that survive in the citadel, are of exceptional interest in that they continue the remarkable continuous record of the evolution of military architecture from the 5th century BC to the 15th-16th centuries AD. There are many fine mosques and mausolea from this period in the oasis.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Merv is the oldest and best-preserved of the oasis-cities along the Silk Route in Central Asia. The remains in this vast oasis span 4,000 years of human history. A number of monuments are still visible, particularly from the last two millennia.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>State Historical and Cultural Park “Ancient Merv”</site><states>Turkmenistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1038</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2005</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of Kunya-Urgench are believed to go back to the 6th or 5th centuries, the early Achaemenid period. Evidence of this is provided by the Kyrkmolla Fortress. In 712, Kunya-Urgench was invaded by Arabs and was named Gurgandj. Being at the crossing of trade routes, the town prospered, becoming a major centre from the 10th to 14th centuries. It was the capital of Khorezm from the 12th century and the second city after Bukhara in Central Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city was destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1221, but it was rebuilt and described as the finest city of the Turks with fine bazaars and impressive buildings. It suffered heavily from destruction by the Timurid troops between 1372 and 1388, and never gained its previous position again. In the 16th century, the capital function was transferred to Khiva, and the city was finally abandoned. The Amu Darya River changed its course at the same time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city experienced modern development when it was newly colonized by Turkmen from 1831. The new development however took place outside the old town, which was later utilized as a graveyard.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1199</http_url><id_number>1199</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1199.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tm</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii): &lt;/em&gt;The tradition of architecture expressed in the design and craftsmanship of Kunya-Urgench has been influential in the wider region to the south and southwest i.e. in Iran and Afghanistan, and later in the architecture of the Mogul Empire (India, 16th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii): &lt;/em&gt;Kunya-Urgench provides an exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition (the Islamic culture of the Khorezm) and is unique in its state of preservation. The society that created this centre has disappeared; however we note that most of visitors are in fact pilgrims from the region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>42.1831800000</latitude><location>Dashoguz Vilayet (Province)</location><longitude>59.0849400000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kunya-Urgench provides exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition (the Islamic culture of the Khorezm) and is unique in its state of preservation. The tradition of architecture expressed in the design and craftsmanship of Kunya-Urgench has been influential in the wider region to the south and south-west (Iran and Afghanistan) and later in the architecture of the Mughal Empire (16th-century India).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origins of Kunya-Urgench go back to the 6th or 5th centuries, the early Achaemenid period. In 712, Kunya-Urgench was invaded by Arabs and named Gurgandj. Being at the crossing of trade routes, the town prospered, becoming a major centre from the 10th-14th centuries. It was the capital of Khorezm from the 12th century and the second city after Bukhara in Central Asia. The city, destroyed by Genghis Khan in 1221 but rebuilt, was described as the finest city of the Turks with fine bazaars and impressive buildings. It was ravaged by Timurid troops between 1372 and 1388 and never regained its position. In the 16th century, the capital was transferred to Khiva, and the city was finally abandoned (the Amu Darya River changed its course at the same time). The city was newly colonized by Turkmen from 1831: however, the new development took place outside the old town, which later served as a graveyard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site has three distinct sections:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The southern section is limited on its east, south, and west sides by the remains of the 14th-century fortification walls. In the south-east corner there are the remains of the fortress of Ak-Kala. The centre of the section is partly occupied by the fortress of Tash-Kala, with the gate of a ruined caravanserai and the remaining base of the Mamunminaret. In the south-eastern corner there is the ruined fortress of Khorezm-bag, built as a residence for Khan Muhammed Emin in the mid-19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From Tash-Kala, a road leads to the northwest, passing by most other monuments in this section, all built from brick. These include the remains of the Kyrkmolla Fortress, dated to the 5th century BC, the period of the city's foundation. Kutlug-Timur Minaret is the most visible landmark of the site with its 60&amp;nbsp;m height and its brick surface has fine geometric patterns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Il-Arslan Mausoleum is relatively small with a square plan and conical roof. The roof has geometric patterns in brick, and the front gate is surrounded by terracotta inscriptions. Tekesh Mausoleum has a similar form, but is bigger. Also here, the roof is decorated in brick patterns with some turquoise tiles still in position. Seyet Akhmet Mausoleum is simpler in its architecture. The present structure has been rebuilt after the original collapsed in 1993. Turabek-Khanum Mausoleum has an octagonal floor plan, with tall niches opening outward. The entrance is a tall gated structure. The original conical outer roof shell has collapsed. The interior has an exceptional spatial composition crowned with a dome of extremely refined blue and white decoration in a delicate geometric pattern.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The northern section consists of a large Muslim graveyard in the middle of modern urban development. In the centre of the graveyard there is a group of three buildings. Najm-ad-Din al-Kubra Mausoleum was built in the first half of the 14th century. It was named after Ahmed Ibn Omar Najm-ad-Din al-Kubra al-Khorezmi (born in 1145), the founder of the Kubravid School of Sufism, as well as being a painter, physician and chess master. The Sultan Ali Mausoleum is located opposite to the previous, and is linked with the name of Sultan Ali, who ruled in the 16th century. The Piryar Vali Mausoleum is a small complex built in the 13th-14th centuries. It contains the burial places of several distinguished persons. At the entrance in the east, the Dash Mosque, built in the early 20th century, has been converted into a site museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The western section is a small area in the western part of the old town. The monument of Ibn Khajib was built in honour of Ibn Khajib, a talented disciple of Najm-ad-Din al-Kubra. The ensemble was built in several phases from the 14th to 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Kunya-Urgench is situated in north-western Turkmenistan, on the left bank of the Amu Daria River. Urgench was the capital of the Khorezm region, part of the Achaemenid Empire. The old town contains a series of monuments mainly from the 11th to 16th centuries, including a mosque, the gates of a caravanserai, fortresses, mausoleums and a 60-m high minaret. The monuments testify to outstanding achievements in architecture and craftsmanship whose influence reached Iran and Afghanistan, and later the architecture of the Mogul Empire of 16th-century India.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kunya-Urgench</site><states>Turkmenistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1376</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2007</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Traces of human activity dating back to the 4th-2nd millennia BCE show that long before the beginning of the Parthian Empire the area of Nisa was already colonized by sedentary populations. It is believed that there was a large settlement there as early as the 1st millennium BCE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nisa underwent a major development in the mid 3rd century BCE, when impressive buildings were erected by the Parthians, who decided to build a royal residence, probably the first of the Parthian dynasty. &lt;br /&gt; The name of the site, Mithradatkert, and an indication of the date of its foundation are known from an inscription written on one of the 2,700 administrative ceramics (ostraka) found at Nisa. Mithradatkert means &amp;lsquo;the fortress of Mithidrat,' referring to King Mithradat I (174-138 BCE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition, some ancient sources, such as Isidorus of Kharax, mention the city of Parthaunisa as an administrative and economic centre for the Arsacid dynasty. From their royal residence (Old Nisa) and the adjacent city (New Nisa), the Arsacid dynasty carried out huge conquests over a very large territory stretching from the Indus to the Euphrates. Nisa became a major city located in a strategic point, at the crossroads of many cultures - from Persia, Greece, and Central Asia. &lt;br /&gt; At the local level, the centuries BCE saw the golden age of the fortresses, with the early development stages of its monumental buildings (Old Nisa) and the expansion of its economy. This period seems to have continued for a long time, until the first centuries CE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 224 CE, however, the Parthian kingdom collapsed. Ardashir, the Parthian governor-general in Persia at the beginning of the Sassanid dynasty, checked Parthian expansion and conquered their cities and territories. Destruction and diminished populations in Nisa led to its partial abandonment, although it continued to be an important centre until the Islamic period (12th-14th century CE).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1242</http_url><id_number>1242</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1242.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tm</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.9997222222</latitude><location>Bagyr settlement, Etrap of Rukhabad, Akhal Vilayet</location><longitude>58.1986111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Parthian Fortresses of Nisa consist of two tells of Old and New Nisa, indicating the site of one of the earliest and most important cities of the Parthian Empire, a major power from the mid 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. They conserve the unexcavated remains of an ancient civilization which skilfully combined its own traditional cultural elements with those of the Hellenistic and Roman west. Archaeological excavations in two parts of the site have revealed richly decorated architecture, illustrative of domestic, state and religious functions. Situated at the crossroads of important commercial and strategic axes, this powerful empire formed a barrier to Roman expansion while serving as an important communication and trading centre between east and west, north and south.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Parthian Fortresses of Nisa</site><states>Turkmenistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1471</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In 1932, what are now the northern and southern sectors of the forest were gazetted as Kasatora and Kayonza Crown Forest Reserves respectively, covering a total area of 20,700ha. Later, in 1948, the two reserves were combined and extended into the Impenetrable Central Crown Forest Reserve covering 29,800ha (Forest Act, 1947, amended 1964). Two local forest reserves were then incorporated into the central reserve in 1961, increasing the gazetted area to 32,080ha. In the same year, the entire reserve was gazetted an animal sanctuary (Game Preservation and Control Act, 1959, amended 1964) in an effort to grant additional protection for the mountain gorillas. Bwindi was finally upgraded to a national park in 1991 (Statutory Instrument No.3, 1992, National Parks Act, 19521, along with the creation of two other mountain national parks in Uganda: Rwenzori Mountains and Mgahinga Gorilla. This final change was accompanied by incorporation of the 1,OOOha Mbwa tract.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/682</http_url><id_number>682</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_682.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ug</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-1.0805555560</latitude><location>Districts of Kabale, Kisoro and Rukungiri</location><longitude>29.6613888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bwindi, in the Kigezi Highlands of south-west Uganda, adjacent to the border of the Democratic   Republic of the Congo, is characterized by steep hills and narrow valleys with a general incline from the north and west to the south-western corner. The park constitutes an important water catchment area serving the surrounding densely populated agricultural land and is one of the few large expanses of forest in East Africa where lowland and montane vegetation communities meet. Three major tributaries of the lshasha River drain into Lake Edward to the north, and the Ndego, Kanyamwabo and Shongi rivers flow southwards towards Lake  Mutanda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In geological terms, the area is associated with upwarping of the western rift valley and its underlying rocks are phyllites and shales, with some quartz, quartzite and granite outcrops. The soils are mainly humic red loams. Due to the steepness of the slopes, the soils are very susceptible to erosion in areas where trees are cleared. Combined with its probable role as a Pleistocene refuge, the forest hosts an extremely high biodiversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bwindi is the most diverse forest in East Africa for tree species (more than 163) and ferns (more than 104), as well as other taxa. A further 16 species have only a very restricted distribution in south-west Uganda, and one species, &lt;em&gt;Lovoa swynnertonii&lt;/em&gt; , is globally threatened. The forest gets the name 'impenetrable' from the dense cover of herbs, vines and shrubs inhabiting the valley floor. Bwindi has one of the richest fauna communities in East Africa, including over 214 species of forest bird, 7 species of diurnal primate, 120 species of mammals and 202 species of butterfly. Highly significant is the presence of almost half of the world's population of mountain gorillas. Bwindi is also an important locality for the conservation of Afromontane fauna, in particular those endemic to the mountains of the western rift valley. Overall, Bwindi contains nine globally threatened species: mountain gorilla, common chimpanzee, l'Hoest's monkey &lt;em&gt;Cercopithecus l'hoesti&lt;/em&gt; , endangered species of African elephant, African green broadbill, Grauer's rush warbler, Chaplin's flycatcher, African giant swallowtail and cream-banded swallowtail. Buffalo were poached to extinction in the late 1960s, as were leopard more recently.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;No archaeological sites are known inside the park, although the wider Kigeti region may have been occupied from as early as 37,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of forest clearance dates back 4,800 years, most likely due to the presence of the Batwa (hunter-gatherer) people manipulating vegetation with fire. This is the earliest evidence for cultivation anywhere in tropical Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Bwindi lies in one of the country's most densely populated rural areas in different locations around the forest. Approximately 10,000 families belonging to the Bachiga, Bafumbira and Barwanda (all Bantu) peoples cultivate the land immediately surrounding the park. Commercial logging has never taken place in Bwindi due to the rugged terrain.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in south-western Uganda, at the junction of the plain and mountain forests, Bwindi Park covers 32,000 ha and is known for its exceptional biodiversity, with more than 160 species of trees and over 100 species of ferns. Many types of birds and butterflies can also be found there, as well as many endangered species, including the mountain gorilla.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Bwindi Impenetrable National Park</site><states>Uganda</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>806</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1999-2004</danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;All terrain above 2,200m (7,OOOft) was gazetted as a forest reserve in 1941 (Forest Act, 1947 ammended 19641, although from the outset there were calls for it to be gazetted as a national park. This occurred in 1991 (Statutory Instrument No.3, 1992, National Parks Act, 1952) along with the creation of two other mountain national parks in Uganda: Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684</http_url><id_number>684</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_684.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ug</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>0.2236111110</latitude><location>District of Kabarole, Kasese and Bundibugyo</location><longitude>29.9241666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Covering an area of 99,600&amp;nbsp;ha, 70% of which exceeds an altitude of 2,500&amp;nbsp;m, the Rwenzori mountains comprise an extremely steep and rugged mountain range which includes three mountains: Albert, Alexandra and Africa's third highest peak, Margherita (5,109&amp;nbsp;m). The highest reaches of the mountains are covered by snow fields and glaciers which provide a permanent source of water for the surrounding areas. In the east, the park is contiguous with the Part National des Virunga in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mountains consist of ancient rocks which were extruded from the surrounding plains during the formation of the western rift valley. These Precambrian rocks have produced soils of low fertility, except on parts of the northern ridge where volcanic ash from the Fort Portal plateau was deposited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rwenzori are well known for their unusual flora, which includes many species endemic to the Albertine Rift in the higher-altitude zones. Most significant are the giant heathers, ground-sells, ericas and lobelias of the tree heath and alpine zones. Vegetation depends largely on altitude, with five major zones being distinguishable: a broken montane forest zone occurs below 2,400m; a bamboo forest zone occurs (in pure stands in many places) up to an altitude of 3,000&amp;nbsp;m; a tree heath vegetation zone of giant heathers, frequently over 10m in height, extends up to 3,800m at the same altitude, although on better soils, a tangled undergrowth punctuated by a mixture of small trees predominates; and an Afro-alpine moorland zone upwards to 4,400m.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains 89 species of bird, 4 species of diurnal primate, and 15 species of butterfly. Although none of these are unique to the Rwenzori, many are endemic to the Albertine Rift region, and a high level of subspecific endemism occurs, including the Rwenzori colobus monkey, hyrax and leopard. A recent study of invertebrate life forms listed 60 species in the alpine zone, 25 of which were new to science. This is indicative of a much more extensive fauna waiting to be discovered. Although low in number, the following globally threatened animals still occur in the Rwenzori: elephant, common chimpanzee and I'Hoests monkey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rwenzori Mountains are the homelands of the Bakonjo and Baamba peoples. The Bakonjo are a Bantu-speaking people who have lived on the mountain for many generations, and whose culture is adapted to the steep slopes and climate of Rwenzori.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1910, the colonially imposed political boundary between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda divided the Bakonjo, Baamba and the related Banande people of the Congolese sector, who have never fitted comfortably into this artificial division. The Rwenzori area is home to some 300,000 Bakonjo people. No people currently live within the park, although cultivation is evident in many places up to its border. Traditional uses of forest resources were permitted under the former Forest Reserve designation, including the extraction of building materials, fibres, firewood and medicinal plants. These activities have mainly been carried out on a sustainable basis, and new agreements have been made respecting these harvesting rights. Illegal hunting of small game no longer continues, possibly due to a decline in animal populations. In the 1960s coffee, mountaineering and the Kalimbe mine brought prosperity and improved health services and infrastructure to the region. However, apart from agriculture, the park is the main source of income for the local communities.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Rwenzori Mountains National Park covers nearly 100,000 ha in western Uganda and comprises the main part of the Rwenzori mountain chain, which includes Africa's third highest peak (Mount Margherita: 5,109 m). The region's glaciers, waterfalls and lakes make it one of Africa's most beautiful alpine areas. The park has many natural habitats of endangered species and a rich and unusual flora comprising, among other species, the giant heather.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Rwenzori Mountains National Park</site><states>Uganda</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>808</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2010</danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Baganda belong to the Bantu-speaking people and date their political civilization from about the 13th century AD. Today, the Baganda are the major ethnic group in Uganda, their 6 million people constituting about 28% of the population. The Buganda region covers about 66,350km&amp;sup2;. From Kintu, the first legendary Kabaka, to Muteesa I there were 35 Kabakas. Precise dates, however, are known only from Suuna II (1836-56), who established his palace at Kasubi. He was succeeded by his son Muteesa I who did likewise, constructing the present tomb structure as his palace in 1882. He became a very powerful Kabaka, the first to be influenced by foreign cultures. He adopted some Islamic religious practices learnt from ivory and slave traders from Zanzibar. He also showed interest in Europe after acting as host in 1862 to John Hanning Speke, the first European visitor. In 1875 he asked Henry Morton Stanley, the explorer, for teachers of European learning and religion. Some remaining artefacts reflect this pivotal period in local history when the Baganda were first exposed to Arab traders and European explorers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Muteesa I died in 1884, he broke two traditions: his body was buried whole and it was buried in his palace, Kasubi, not somewhere else. This practice was followed when, in 1910, the remains of his successor, Mwanga II (ob. 1903), were brought back from the Seychelles and also buried there, establishing Kasubi as an important burial place of the Kabakas of Buganda. This status was reinforced when his son and successor, Daudi Chwa II, died in 1939 and was also buried at Kasubi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;His son and successor, Edward Muteesa II, was first in conflict with Britain and then, after independence in 1962 when he became President, with his own Prime Minister. Kasubi was stormed in 1966 and the President went into exile, but when he died in 1969 his remains were returned and buried at Kasubi in 1971. Four successive Kabakas of Buganda were therefore buried in the same tomb house at Kasubi, the building which is at the core of this nomination. Each prince and princess who is a descendant of the four Kabakas is also buried there behind the main shrine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1967 and 1993 the site was controlled by central government, but the traditional institutions of kingship were restored in 1993. Kabaka Ronald Mutebi II was crowned as the Kabaka of Buganda, and in 1997 the Kasubi tombs were returned to the Buganda kingdom. Buganda is today one of four kingdoms in Uganda. The site is now not only the most important cultural shrine for the Baganda but also the most attractive tourist site in the country.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1022</http_url><id_number>1022</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1022.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ug</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;Criterion i The Kasubi Tombs site is a masterpiece of human creativity both in its conception and its execution. Criterion iii The Kasubi Tombs site bears eloquent witness to the living cultural traditions of the Baganda. Criterion iv The spatial organization of the Kasubi Tombs site represents the best extant example of a Baganda palace/architectural ensemble. Built in the finest traditions of Ganda architecture and palace design, it reflects technical achievements developed over many centuries. Criterion vi The built and natural elements of the Kasubi Tombs site are charged with historical, traditional, and spiritual values. It is a major spiritual centre for the Baganda and is the most active religious place in the kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>0.3486111110</latitude><location>Kampala District</location><longitude>32.5513888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Kasubi site bears eloquent witness to the living cultural traditions of the Baganda. The spatial organization of the Tombs represents the best extant example of a Baganda palace/architectural ensemble. Built in the finest traditions of Ganda architecture and palace design, it reflects technical achievements developed over many centuries. The built and natural elements of the tombs are charged with historical, traditional, and spiritual values. It is a major spiritual centre for the Baganda and is the most active religious place in the kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Baganda belong to the Bantu-speaking people and date their political civilization from about the 13th century AD. Today, the Baganda are the major ethnic group in Uganda. The present tomb structure dates to around 1882. Muteesa I became a very powerful Kabaka, the first to be influenced by foreign cultures. He adopted some Islamic religious practices learnt from ivory and slave traders from Zanzibar. He also showed interest in Europe after acting as host in 1862 to John Hanning Speke, the first European visitor. Some surviving artefacts reflect this pivotal period in local history when the Baganda were first exposed to Arab traders and European explorers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Muteesa 1st died in 1884 he was buried in his palace, Kasubi, establishing Kasubi as an important burial place of the Kabakas of Buganda. After independence in 1962 Muteesa II became president, with his own prime minister. Kasubi was stormed in 1966 and the president went into exile, but when he died in 1969 his remains were returned and buried at Kasubi in 1971. Four successive Kabakas of Buganda were therefore buried in the same tomb house at Kasubi, the building which is at the core of this World Heritage site. Each prince and princess who is a descendant of the four Kabakas is also buried there behind the main shrine.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kabaka Ronald Mutebi II was crowned as the Kabaka of Buganda, and in 1997 the Kasubi tombs were returned to the Buganda kingdom. Buganda is today one of four kingdoms in Uganda.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Kasubi Tombs site is situated on a hill within Kampala. It consists of three main zones: the main tomb area, located at the western end of the site on top of the hill; an area located behind the main tombs containing a number of buildings and graveyards; and a large area on the eastern side of the site used primarily for agricultural purposes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The structure was constructed of wooden columns and invisible walls of fired brick. Beyond is a small courtyard containing a circular building with the royal drums.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The D-shaped main courtyard (Olugya) lies through a gap in a reed fence. This fence encloses the courtyard and links nine buildings, five of them houses for the widows of the Kabakas, the other four respectively a twins' house, two tombs, and a mortuary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beyond the Olugya is scattered a large number of buildings - houses, royal tombs and ones for agricultural purposes - and a royal cemetery. The whole area is sacred and is not open to visitors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since 1938 the building has suffered several processes of restoration and modification, primarily to meet threats of structural failure. It was completely reconstructed in 1938-40, when modern materials were introduced, such as some concrete columns. During the 1990s, changes incurred by most of the buildings have slightly changed the architectural value of the site; which suffers badly from rain, drainage problems, and termites, with a constant threat of fire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the smaller buildings show deficiencies. One building burnt down in 1998 has been rebuilt but is without a thatch roof for lack of funds. The original reed fence around the whole site has long since disappeared; the living fence of bark-cloth trees around the site has suffered quite badly as an obvious target in the endless search for firewood. The site has, nevertheless, to an extent been preserved out of fear and respect for its sacred and religious nature.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi constitute a site embracing almost 30 ha of hillside within Kampala district. Most of the site is agricultural, farmed by traditional methods. At its core on the hilltop is the former palace of the Kabakas of Buganda, built in 1882 and converted into the royal burial ground in 1884. Four royal tombs now lie within the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the main building, which is circular and surmounted by a dome. It is a major example of an architectural achievement in organic materials, principally wood, thatch, reed, wattle and daub. The site's main significance lies, however, in its intangible values of belief, spirituality, continuity and identity.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi</site><states>Uganda</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1192</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/527</http_url><id_number>527</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_527.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ua</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.4525800000</latitude><location>Kiev</location><longitude>30.5168600000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;St Sophia, a Greek-cross church, is one of the major edifices representing the culture of Eastern Christianity in the 11th century, inspired by Byzantine models. the stylistic features of its decoration were spread throughout Kievan Russia in the 11th century by the icon painters working in Kiev. Kiev-Pechersk Lavra is of outstanding significance in the Ukrainian national heritage, and the ancient monastic foundation plays a very important role in the spiritual and intellectual life of the Russian world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of St Sophia Cathedral was begun in the first half of the 11th century, probably in 1037 by Yaroslav the Sage. It was meant to replace Kiev's very first church, the Dessiatinnaya (Our Lady of the Tithes), built by his great-grandmother Duchess Olga in 952. Conceived in &lt;em&gt;opus mixtum&lt;/em&gt;, with 12 columns dividing the interior into five naves, the church represents a perfect fusion between symbolic image and architecture: the big central gilt cupola and twelve smaller cupolas which crown it evoke Christ and the 12 Apostles in a pyramidal composition so strongly expressed that it was not diminished in the restoration of the onion domes in the 18th century&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A complex of monastic buildings surrounds the church. Built originally of wood in 1633, the buildings were destroyed by fire in 1697 and reconstructed in stone. The four-storey bell tower, overhung by a gilt onion cupola, the Metropolitan's house, the refectory, the west gate, the tower at the south entrance, the Brothers' building, and the seminary were built. A stone enceinte encircled these buildings, which are typical of Ukrainian Baroque style, the influence of which can also be seen in contemporary restoration work on the cathedral. Designated an 'Architectural and Historical Reserve of the State' in 1934, St Sophia was spared the widespread devastation of the Second World War. It is now administered as a monument museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In a wooded area on two hills overlooking the right bank of the Dnieper River is Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, a monastery complex consisting of numerous monuments and grottoes. Now the area is surrounded by the urban agglomeration of Greater Kiev, which has undergone rapid expansion since 1980.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Lavra boasts very ancient origins and rapidly became the seat of a community governed by the abbot St Theodosius. With the support of the Princes of Kiev, the monastery immediately began to prosper. Devastated by the Mongols and the Tatars, Lavra was almost entirely rebuilt in the 17th century and afterward. A print shop was founded in 1615, mainly issuing devotional literature and history. The Lavra played a highly important intellectual role: these were times of great prosperity, when pilgrims flocked to the site, and the grounds were filled with numerous Baroque monuments. The Clock Tower and the Refectory Church are two of the main landmarks in a monastic landscape totally transformed by the construction or the renovation of numerous churches. Declared a 'Historical and Cultural Reserve' in 1926, the Lavra was very severely damaged in 1941 when its oldest edifice, the Dormition Cathedral, was almost fully destroyed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today the major elements of the very old historic heritage are Trinity Church, whose 12th-century structure is hidden by the extremely rich Baroque decor, and especially the catacombs, which include the Near Caves and the Far Caves, whose entrances are respectively at All Saints' Church and at the Church of the Conception of St Anna. Over the years the monks' cells became a necropolis where hundreds of their mummified bodies have been preserved.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the monuments of the Lavra had new cultural functions in 1926: the Metropolitan's residence is now the State Museum of Ukrainian Decorative Folk Art, the printshop houses the Book and Bookbinding Museum, the Refectory Church is a museum of Christianity, and the Church of the Exaltation of the Cross is the museum of the history of the catacombs.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Designed to rival Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, Kiev's Saint-Sophia Cathedral symbolizes the 'new Constantinople', capital of the Christian principality of Kiev, which was created in the 11th century in a region evangelized after the baptism of St Vladimir in 988. The spiritual and intellectual influence of Kiev-Pechersk Lavra contributed to the spread of Orthodox thought and the Orthodox faith in the Russian world from the 17th to the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kiev: Saint-Sophia Cathedral and Related Monastic Buildings, Kiev-Pechersk Lavra</site><states>Ukraine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>617</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1998</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The settlement on the banks of the Poltava river below Zamovka hill began in the mid 5th century AD, at the crossing point of important trade routes linking the Baltic, central Europe, the Mediterranean, and Asia. It gradually developed by the 13th century into an organized and well fortified town known as L'viv. It was the main town of the lands of the Eastern Slavs on the Bug, Sian, and Dnister rivers (Halychyna/Galicia), which entered history as a political entity in the 10th century, when it became a vassal state of the kingdom of Kiev (Kyiv). Kniaz (King) Roman Mstyoslavovych, who inherited the lands in 1199, united the territories of Halychyna and Volyn' in a single state, which continued after the collapse of the Kievan kingdom. L'viv was rebuilt and extended by Kniaz Lev Danylovych (1264-1301).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;L'viv had become the capital of the joint kingdom in 1272 and remained so until that, too, disappeared in 1340, when it was annexed to Poland by Casimir III the Great. However, the town maintained its paramountcy in western Ukraine, and its strategic and commercial importance brought it many privileges that ensured a monopoly over trade with the east. It was made the seat of a Catholic archbishopric in 1412.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city attracted a multi-ethnic population, and the different groups lived in separate communities. The Ukrainian, Armenian, and Jewish communities were self-governing, unlike the Catholic (German, Polish, Italian, and Hungarian) groups. There was intense rivalry between them, which resulted in the creation of many architectural and artistic masterpieces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prosperity of L'viv was not materially harmed by frequent epidemics, fire, or wars. However, it was badly hit by the Ottoman siege in 1672 and had not recovered when it was captured and sacked by Charles XII of Sweden in 1704. Notwithstanding, some important religious buildings, especially monasteries, were built during the 18th century. With the First Partition of Poland in 1772 L'viv became the capital of the new Austrian province.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under Austrian rule (which continued until 1918), the fortifications were dismantled and many religious foundations were closed down, their buildings being used for secular purposes; there was also considerable reconstruction of medieval buildings. The revolutionary year of 1848 saw serious damage in the centre of the city as a result of military action. In 1918 L'viv became part of the new Republic of Poland, but it returned to Ukraine after World War II.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/865</http_url><id_number>865</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_865.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ua</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; In its urban fabric and its architecture, L’viv is an outstanding example of the fusion of the architectural and artistic traditions of eastern Europe with those of Italy and Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v):&lt;/em&gt; The political and commercial role of L’viv attracted to it a number of ethnic groups with different cultural and religious traditions, who established separate yet interdependent communities within the city, evidence for which is still discernible in the modern townscape.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>49.8416300000</latitude><location>Halychyna, L’viv Oblast'</location><longitude>24.0319800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The political and commercial role of L'viv attracted to it a number of ethnic groups with different cultural and religious traditions, who established separate yet interdependent communities within the city, still to be seen in the modern townscape. In its urban fabric and its architecture, L'viv is an outstanding example of the fusion of the architectural and artistic traditions of Eastern Europe with those of Italy and Germany.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlement on the banks of the Poltava River below Zamovka hill began in the mid-5th century AD, at the crossing point of important trade routes linking the Baltic, central Europe, the Mediterranean, and Asia. It gradually developed by the 13th century into an organized and well fortified town known as L'viv. It was the main town of the lands of the Eastern Slavs on the Bug, Sian, and Dnister, when it became a vassal state of the Kingdom of Kiev. King Roman Mstyoslavovych united Halychyna and Volyn' in a single state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;L'viv had become the capital of the joint kingdom in 1272 and remained so until that disappeared in 1340, when it was annexed to Poland by Casimir III the Great. It was made the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishopric in 1412. The Ukrainian, Armenian, and Jewish communities were self-governing, unlike the Catholic (German, Polish, Italian and Hungarian) groups. There was intense rivalry between them, which resulted in the creation of many architectural and artistic masterpieces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was badly hit by the Ottoman siege in 1672 and sacked by Charles XII of Sweden in 1704. With the First Partition of Poland in 1772, L'viv became the capital of the new Austrian province. Under Austrian rule, the fortifications were dismantled and many religious foundations were closed down, their buildings being used for secular purposes; there was also considerable reconstruction of medieval buildings. The revolutionary year of 1848 saw serious damage in the centre of the city as a result of military action. In 1918 L'viv became part of the new Republic of Poland, but it returned to Ukraine after the Second World War.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The heart of the city is the High Castle and the area around it, which developed in the later Middle Ages. Only the castle mound still survives, with five churches. The Seredmistia (Middle Town) preserves intact its original layout, an exceptional example of town planning in Eastern Europe at that time. Among the notable features are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Rynok Square with a tower at its centre and around it fine houses in Renaissance, Baroque, and Empire style, many of them retaining their original medieval layout. There is a fountain with figures from classical mythology at each corner of the square, dating from 1793;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Uspenska (Assumption Church) complex, exceptional in that it combines Renaissance building in stone with the local tradition of tripartite wooden places of worship, consisting of narthex, nave, and chancel;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Armenian Church complex - the church itself (1363), the bell tower (1571), the column of St Christopher (1726), Armenian Benedictine convent, and Armenian archbishops' palace (17th-18th centuries);&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Latin Metropolitan Cathedral in Gothic style, with some Baroque features;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fortified complex of the Bernardine Monastery, which combines Italian and German Renaissance elements with Mannerist details;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Jesuit Church (1610-30) and its college, and the Dominican Church, one of the most grandiose Baroque buildings in L'viv, with monastery complex and bell tower;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Parts of the 14th-century defensive walls, with the City and Royal Arsenals and Gunpowder Tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ensemble of the Church of St Yuri the Dragon Fighter lies outside the medieval city on a hillside terrace. The existing church was built from stone and brick, combining Italian Baroque with the traditional Ukrainian spatial layout. It is richly decorated with monumental sculpture and carvings.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of L''viv, founded in the late Middle Ages, was a flourishing administrative, religious and commercial centre for several centuries. The medieval urban topography has been preserved virtually intact (in particular, there is evidence of the different ethnic communities who lived there), along with many fine Baroque and later buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>L'viv – the Ensemble of the Historic Centre</site><states>Ukraine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1632</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1330</http_url><id_number>1330</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1330.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ua</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>48.2966666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>25.9247222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans represents a masterful synergy of architectural styles built by Czech architect Josef Hlavka from 1864 to 1882. The property, an outstanding example of 19th-century historicist architecture, also includes a seminary and monastery and is dominated by the domed, cruciform Seminary Church with a garden and park. The complex expresses architectural and cultural influences from the Byzantine period onward and embodies the powerful presence of the Orthodox Church during Habsburg rule, reflecting the Austro-Hungarian Empire policy of religious tolerance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans</site><states>Ukraine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1785</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2013</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1411</http_url><id_number>1411</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1411.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ua</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.6108333333</latitude><location></location><longitude>33.4913888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site features the remains of a city founded by Dorian Greeks in the 5th century BC on the northern shores of the Black Sea. It encompasses six component sites with urban remains and agricultural lands divided into several hundreds of chora, rectangular plots of equal size. The plots supported vineyards whose production was exported by the city which thrived until the 15th century. The site features several public building complexes and residential neighbourhoods, as well as early Christian monuments alongside remains from Stone and Bronze Age settlements; Roman and medieval tower fortifications and water supply systems; and exceptionally well-preserved examples of vineyard planting and dividing walls. In the 3rd century AD, the site was known as the most productive wine centre of the Black Sea and remained a hub of exchange between the Greek, Roman and Byzantine Empires and populations north of the Black Sea. It is an outstanding example of democratic land organization linked to an ancient polis, reflecting the city&amp;rsquo;s social organization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</short_description><site>Ancient City of Tauric Chersonese and its Chora</site><states>Ukraine</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1895</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1343</http_url><id_number>1343</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1343.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ae</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>24.0677777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>55.8063888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Cultural Sites of Al Ain (Hafit, Hili, Bidaa Bint Saud and Oases Areas) constitute a serial property that testifies to sedentary human occupation of a desert region since the Neolithic period with vestiges of many prehistoric cultures. Remarkable vestiges in the property include circular stone tombs (ca 2500 B.C.), wells and a wide range of adobe constructions: residential buildings, towers, palaces and administrative buildings. Hili moreover features one of the oldest examples of the sophisticated aflaj irrigation system which dates back to the Iron Age. The property provides important testimony to the transition of cultures in the region from hunting and gathering to sedentarization.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cultural Sites of Al Ain (Hafit, Hili, Bidaa Bint Saud and Oases Areas)</site><states>United Arab Emirates</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1762</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/371</http_url><id_number>371</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_371.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.6263888900</latitude><location>Shropshire, England</location><longitude>-2.4727777780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Coalbrookdale blast furnace and Ironbridge exerted great influence on the development of techniques and architecture. Ironbridge Gorge provides a fascinating summary of the development of an industrial region in modern times. Mining centres, transformation industries, manufacturing plants, workers' quarters and transport networks are sufficiently well-preserved to make up a coherent ensemble whose educational potential is considerable. The Coalbrookdale blast furnace perpetuates &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; the creative effort of Abraham Darby I, who discovered coke iron in 1709. It is a masterpiece of man's creative genius in the same way as Ironbridge, which is the first known metal bridge, built in 1779 by Abraham Darby III from the drawings of the architect Thomas Farnolls Pritchard.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ironbridge Gorge is located in the county of Shropshire, some 30km northwest of Birmingham in the the narrow Severn valley upstream from its confluence with the Caldebrook River in Coalbrookdale. Ironbridge Gorge is an example representative of the main techniques of the industrial age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is an extraordinary concentration of mining zones, foundries, factories, workshops and warehouses, which coexists with an old network of lanes, paths, roads, ramps, canals and railroads, as well as substantial remains of traditional landscape and housing, the forests of the Severn Gorge, ironmasters' houses, workers' living quarters, public buildings and infrastructure equipment of the 18th and 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since 1968, the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust has coordinated actions in the areas of discovery, conservation and exploitation of the valley's heritage in addition to providing sound management of museums, monuments and sites and thereby acting as a pioneer in the field of industrial archaeology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the area there are five major areas of interest:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Coalbrookdale&lt;/em&gt;: This is where in 1709 the Quaker Abraham Darby I developed the coke-based iron production technique which began the great 18th century steel revolution. There still remains a high concentration of 18th- and 19th-century dwellings, warehouses, churches and chapels in the town. The Great Warehouse contains an iron museum.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ironbridge&lt;/em&gt;: The locality where mining and metallurgical activity began in the 17th century draws its name from the iron bridge erected in 1779, which also serves to designate the entire region of the Severn Gorges. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Hay Brook valley&lt;/em&gt;: Downstream from Madeley in the low valley of this small tributary of the Severn River, a large open air museum was set up on Blists Hill. Extraction galleries, shafts with their head-frames and blast furnaces have been preserved.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Jackfield&lt;/em&gt;: A small town located on the south bank of the Severn made its living from coal mining, clay production and navigation. It was the valley's port of registry.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Coalport&lt;/em&gt;: This town is located at the far east end of the protected zone on the north bank of the Severn, which is spanned by a metal bridge from 1780-1818. The high point of this town is the porcelain manufacturing plant founded by John Rose at the end of the 18th century which closed down only in 1926. Today it is a porcelain museum. &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ironbridge is known throughout the world as the symbol of the Industrial Revolution. It contains all the elements of progress that contributed to the rapid development of this industrial region in the 18th century, from the mines themselves to the railway lines. Nearby, the blast furnace of Coalbrookdale, built in 1708, is a reminder of the discovery of coke. The bridge at Ironbridge, the world's first bridge constructed of iron, had a considerable influence on developments in the fields of technology and architecture.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ironbridge Gorge</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>425</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/374</http_url><id_number>374</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_374.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>53.1397222200</latitude><location>Gwynedd, North Wales</location><longitude>-4.2769444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The castles and fortified towns of Gwynedd are the finest examples of late 13th-century and early 14th-century military architecture in Europe. Their construction, begun in 1283 and at times hindered by the Welsh uprisings of Madoc ap Llewellyn in 1294, continued until 1330 in Caernarvon and 1331 in Beaumaris. They have only undergone minimal restoration and provide, in their pristine state, a veritable repertory of medieval architectural forms: barbicans, drawbridges, fortified gates, chicanes, redoubts, dungeons, towers and curtain walls.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The royal castles bear unique testimony of construction in the Middle Ages. The accounts that have survived specify the origin of the workmen, who were brought in from all regions of England, and describe the use of quarried stone on the site. They outline financing of the construction works and provide an understanding of the daily life of the workmen and population and thus constitute one of the major references of medieval history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Throughout his reign (1272-1307) Edward I, King of England, worked to expand and defend his domain, implementing at the same time a military and settlement policy whose traces are still visible from the Pyrenees to Scotland. Above all in Wales, it is the major illustration of the great construction policy of his reign: a series of superb castles, which in some cases are combined with new towns surrounded by fortified walls, are the examples of the medieval urban planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1283 he undertook a castle-building programme of unprecedented scale. What he did was to station garrisons so as to quell any possible revolts, foster the settlement of castral towns by settlers and finally illustrate in a more symbolic than strategic fashion English power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 20 years, 10 fortresses were built, not to mention those restored after being wrested from the enemy. From among this series of constructions, located close together, are Beaumaris Castle, on the south-east coast of the island of Anglesey; the fortified structures of Caernarvon and Conway castles on the north-west coast of Wales; and Harlech Castle, north of Cardigan Bay.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The typological, technical and stylistic coherence of these constructions are explained by the fact that all were built by the same man, the king's chief architect in Wales. Beaumaris and Harlech, begun in 1283, are of virtually the same design (the massive square of the inner wall is surrounded by an octagonal wall flanked by towers) both being the work of the Savoyard architect James de Saint George, the greatest military engineer of his time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Beaumaris and Harlech represent a unique artistic achievement in that they combine the double-wall structure which is characteristic of late 13th-century military architecture with a highly concerted central plan and in terms of the beauty of their proportions and masonry. These are the masterpieces of James de Saint George who, in addition to being the king's chief architect, was governor of Harlech from 1290 to 1293.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Caernarvon and Conway ensembles, where the royal castle, the ordinary residence of the governor and garrison are the keystone of the military installation which also comprises an adjacent fortified town, are very instructive regarding Edward I's policy in Wales. The castral towns, of a regular layout, were inhabited by English settlers who were able to muster up a militia in times of revolt.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The castles of Beaumaris and Harlech (largely the work of the greatest military engineer of the time, James of St George) and the fortified complexes of Caernarfon and Conwy are located in the former principality of Gwynedd, in north Wales. These extremely well-preserved monuments are examples of the colonization and defence works carried out throughout the reign of Edward I (1272&amp;ndash;1307) and the military architecture of the time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>429</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/425</http_url><id_number>425</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_425.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.8419444400</latitude><location>Oxfordshire, England</location><longitude>-1.3613888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;By their refusal of the French models of classicism, Blenheim Palace and park illustrate the beginnings of the English Romantic movement, which was characterized by the eclecticism of its inspiration, its return to national sources, and its love of nature. The influence of Blenheim on the architecture and the organization of space in the 18th and 19th centuries was greatly felt both in England and abroad.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built by the nation to honour one of its heroes, Blenheim is, above all, the home of an English aristocrat, the 1st Duke of Marlborough, who was also Prince of the Germanic Holy Roman Empire (as commemorated in the decoration of the Great Drawing Room by Louis Laguerre (1719-20). On 13 August 1704 John Churchill, first Duke of Marlborough, with the help of Prince Eugene of Savoy, won a decisive victory over French and Bavarian troops at Blindheim. As an expression of the nation's gratitude Queen Anne bestowed on him the royal property of Woodstock, one of the oldest royal properties set in the heart of a forest, rich in game, 13km to the north-west of Oxford. A new palace, commemorating this victory, of colossal dimensions was built between 1705 and 1722; its name became anglicized as Blenheim.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The works on this outstanding site to begin was entrusted to an ex-soldier and dramatist named John Vanbrugh with the collaboration of an architect, Nicholas Hawksmoor, whose talent was already evident in St Paul's Cathedral in London, Hampton Court, and Whitehall.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main interest of this building is the authenticity of its national character: indeed, the decorative and figurative rhetoric all exalt the triumph of the English armies over the French. The term 'English Baroque' has been used when speaking of Blenheim, but this ambiguous and inadequate expression only goes to prove the difficulty art historians have in defining this unclassifiable building.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The symmetrical plan, with its classic-type spatial organization, is combined with an original elevation: there is something anachronistically defiant in the square towers which stand at the four corners of the main building with their distinct medieval influence. The eclecticism of Vanbrugh, a theatrical taste for stenographic effects which result from the heterogeneous architectural forms used, make Blenheim a pre-Romantic monument whose historical importance cannot be underestimated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The innovative character of the palace is accentuated by the conception of the park whose original layout dates back to Vanbrugh: he regulated the course of the River Glyme and created the Great Bridge, which was never completed. However, it was more especially during the period between 1764 and 1774 that 'Capability' Brown, one of the most famous English landscape gardeners, turned this classical park into a wonderful artificial landscape by the creation of two lakes. During the course of the second half of the 18th century, Gothic or neo-Gothic style buildings were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In what remains of the family property of the Dukes of Marlborough (in the palace is the room where Winston Churchill was born in 1874) the evolution of the park has not been held back by conservation measures and its present state owes much to the transformations which were undertaken by the French landscape architect, Achille Duch&amp;egrave;ne, between 1908 and 1930.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Blenheim Palace, near Oxford, stands in a romantic park created by the famous landscape gardener 'Capability' Brown. It was presented by the English nation to John Churchill, first Duke of Marlborough, in recognition of his victory in 1704 over French and Bavarian troops. Built between 1705 and 1722 and characterized by an eclectic style and a return to national roots, it is a perfect example of an 18th-century princely dwelling.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Blenheim Palace</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>492</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/428</http_url><id_number>428</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_428.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.3813888900</latitude><location>Avon, England</location><longitude>-2.3586111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;After the conquest of Britain in AD 43 by the Romans many of the hot baths constructed in Europe have become major historic cities. Aquae Sulis, constructed in 60-70, continues, under the name of Bath, to be a renowned spa. Its apogee was in the 18th century. The Romans built a temple there dedicated to Sulis, a local divinity whom they associated with Minerva, as well as a hot bath and including two pools, five baths (four Roman and one medieval) and all the standard equipment of &lt;em&gt;tepidaria&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;frigidaria&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;hypocausts&lt;/em&gt;. These hot baths and its source, which yields over 1,200,000 litres of water daily at more than 46&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C, were built between the 1st and 4th centuries, and their gradual rediscovery began in 1755.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the fall of the old Roman city, medieval Bath became a major wool-producing centre. The religious influence of the city was considerable from 1091 to 1206. A cathedral was built during the episcopacy of Robert de Lewes; it was demolished shortly after 1495 and was later reconstructed as an abbey church in the Perpendicular style. The abbey church was still uncompleted at the time of the Reformation and the work was finished with great difficulty shortly before it was dedicated in 1609.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century, the medium-sized city of Avon experienced an extraordinary rebirth under the impetus of three exceptional figures: John Wood, Ralph Allen and Richard 'Beau' Nash, who had the ambition to make it one of the most beautiful cities in Europe, an ideal site where architecture and the landscape would combine harmoniously for the delight of the enlightened cure-takers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The neoclassical style of the grand public buildings (the Rooms, the Pump Room, the Circus, and especially, Royal Crescent) reflected the ambitions of Bath under the reign of George III. Whether of disproportionate or reduced dimensions, the neoclassical constructions of Bath all express the great influence of Palladio, whom Wood, Allen and Adam considered to be their master.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded by the Romans as a thermal spa, Bath became an important centre of the wool industry in the Middle Ages. In the 18th century, under George III, it developed into an elegant town with neoclassical Palladian buildings, which blend harmoniously with the Roman baths.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>City of Bath</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>495</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;New Lanark was founded in 1785 to take advantage of the cotton-spinning patents secured by Richard Arkwright, which allowed yarn to be spun in water-powered mills on an unprecedented scale. Arkwright came to Scotland in 1783 and met David Dale, a leading West of Scotland linen yarn merchant and Glasgow agent of the Royal Bank of Scotland. The splendid latent water power at New Lanark led to Dale to undertake development on his own, and with the quashing of Arkwright's patents in 1785 his involvement ceased.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first mill at New Lanark went into production in 1786 and was soon followed by another. Dale continued to build, the third and fourth mills being designed for Samuel Crompton's mule, which was capable of spinning finer yarn than Arkwright's frame. The fourth mill was not used for spinning in Dale's time, housing instead child apprentices and a mechanics' shop.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Housing had to be provided for the workers. Owing to the restricted site in the gorge of the river Clyde, this was built in the form of blocks three or four storeys in height rather than the two-storey buildings favoured at other Scottish cotton mills. The houses were superior in quality to those general occupied by working people at that time. Rapid technical changes led to increases in the workforce and so new houses were added, the last in 1798 (known as "New Buildings").&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dale was a humane employer, who treated his workers well. He established a school in New Lanark which by 1796 had eighteen teachers for 510 pupils. As the most successful cotton spinner in Scotland his was an important example.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1799 a partnership was formed by Robert Owen, a Welsh cotton spinner, who had married Dale's daughter. Owen tightened up the management of the mill, introducing new standards of book-keeping and factory discipline. He began to remodel the village around 1809. The fourth mill was brought into production, a house being built for the apprentices as well as a foundry and machine shops.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Owen became convinced that by treating his workers as being responsible for their actions and by encouraging them to realize their mutual dependence productivity would rise and a community spirit would develop. He also realized that an educated workforce was more likely to achieve his objectives, and so in 1809 he began the construction of his "New Institution for the Formation of Character." He failed to get the support of his partners for this project, but after several changes in the partnership the building was finally opened in 1816; a school was added in the following year.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of its location, on the route from Lanark to the famous Falls of Clyde, the mills became one of the features of a tour of Scotland. Contact with distinguished visitor and a high level of public consciousness widened Owen's ideas. His vision of a society without crime, poverty, and misery had a wide appeal in the years following the Napoleonic Wars, and he was encouraged by this to write and to travel widely to promote his views. In 1824 a bitter quarrel with his partners over his educational methods led him to leave New Lanark to develop a community at New Harmony, Indiana (USA), on the cooperative lines that he had described in his influential Report to the County of Lanark (1820). This community failed because it lacked the central focus provided by a disciplined factory and Owen left it in 1828, though he continued to develop and promote his ideas until his death in 1858.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mill was sold by the surviving partners to the Walker brothers in 1828 and they continued to spin cotton until they sold it in 1881 to a partnership which introduced net-making and canvas weaving. From them it passed to the Gourock Ropework Company, the world's largest rope and net producers, who made cotton canvas and nets there until 1968.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/429</http_url><id_number>429</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_429.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; When Richard Arkwright&amp;rsquo;s new factory system for textile production was brought to New Lanark the need to provide housing and other facilities to the workers and managers was recognized. It was there that Robert Owen created a model for industrial communities that was to spread across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; New Lanark saw the construction not only of well designed and equipped workers&amp;rsquo; housing but also public buildings designed to improve their spiritual as well as their physical needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi):&lt;/em&gt; The name of New Lanark is synonymous with that of Robert Owen and his social philosophy in matters such as progressive education, factory reform, humane working practices, international cooperation, and garden cities, which was to have a profound influence on social developments throughout the 19th century and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>55.6633333300</latitude><location>South Lanarkshire, Scotland</location><longitude>-3.7830555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;When Richard Arkwright's new factory system for textile production was brought to New Lanark the need to provide housing and other facilities for the workers and managers was recognized. It was there that Robert Owen created a model for industrial communities that was to spread across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. New Lanark saw the construction not only of well designed and equipped workers' housing but also public buildings designed to improve their spiritual as well as their physical needs. It has the most complete integration of architectural design of all the early cotton mill settlements, a type illustrating the most revolutionary element of the Industrial Revolution. The buildings and water-power system express the extension to the outermost limits of the application of materials and techniques to the new industrial age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The name of New Lanark is synonymous with Owen and his social philosophy in matters such as progressive education, factory reform, humane working practices, international cooperation, and garden cities, which was to have a profound influence on social developments throughout the 19th century and beyond. Owenism, utopianism, philanthropy, cooperation, communitarianism, industrial capitalism, concepts of the sublime landscape, and models for modern conservation partnerships were all shaped at New Lanark.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;New Lanark is a small village in a beautiful Scottish landscape. In 1783 Richard Arkwright came to Scotland and met David Dale a leading West of Scotland linen yarn merchant and Glasgow agent of the Royal Bank of Scotland. In 1785, to take advantage of the cotton-spinning patents secured, Arkwright founded New Lanark, which allowed yarn to be spun in water-powered mills on an unprecedented scale.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first mill at New Lanark went into production in 1786. Housing had to be provided for the workers. Owing to the restricted site in the gorge of the River Clyde, this was built in the form of blocks three or four storeys in height. The houses were superior in quality to those general occupied by working people at that time. Dale was a humane employer, who treated his workers well, and he established also a school 10 years later.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1799 a partnership was formed by Robert Owen, a Welsh cotton spinner, who had married Dale's daughter. Owen tightened up the management of the mill. He began to remodel the village around 1809. Owen's philanthropic and idealistic vision of a society without crime, poverty, and misery had a wide appeal in the years following the Napoleonic Wars. Owen left it in 1828, although he continued to develop and promote his ideas until his death in 1858.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1785 and 1968, new buildings were constructed, others were demolished or destroyed by fire, and many underwent radical changes in use, but the appearance of the village is now very close to that of its heyday, the first half of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The model industrial settlement is a phenomenon of the Enlightenment: consideration must also be given to the influence of Owen on later industrialists and planners in the United Kingdom. The nature and layout of New Lanark inspired other benevolent industrialists to follow his example, and this movement laid the foundations for the work of Ebenezer Howard in creating the concept of the Garden City.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today the village provides physical evidence of Robert Owen's model for a New Moral World. New Lanark is a great landscape modified, through the medium of architecture, to meet the needs and vision of a pioneer working community. Contrast and variety are given by individual buildings, but the theme remains good proportion, good masonry, and simplicity of detail. This common building language produces a monumental unity of character remarkably suited to convey today the idealistic message of Dale and Owen.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;New Lanark is a small 18th- century village set in a sublime Scottish landscape where the philanthropist and Utopian idealist Robert Owen moulded a model industrial community in the early 19th century. The imposing cotton mill buildings, the spacious and well-designed workers' housing, and the dignified educational institute and school still testify to Owen's humanism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>New Lanark</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>497</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Henderson-Island has not been declared a protected area as such, although it receives de protection from its isolation, and various restrictions on possession, occupation and transference of lands applied under the Lands and Administration of Estates Ordinance. Some wildlife protection is provided by part IV of the Local Government Regulations.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/487</http_url><id_number>487</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_487.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-24.3666666667</latitude><location>Pitcairn Island group</location><longitude>-128.3333333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Henderson Island is a raised coral atoll which together with Pitcairn, Ducie and Oeno forms part of the Pitcairn Island Group, a Dependent Territory of the United Kingdom in the South Pacific. This is one of the remotest groups of islands in the South Pacific, with no major landmass within a 5,000&amp;nbsp;km radius. Henderson is an elevated coralline limestone (&lt;em&gt;makatea&lt;/em&gt; ) island which rises as an isolated conical mound from a depth of about 3.5&amp;nbsp;km, and is presumably a reef-capped volcano. The surface of the island is in large part reef-rubble interspersed with areas of dissected limestone, surrounded by steep limestone cliffs undercut on all sides except to the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are three main beaches, to the north, north-west and north-east. Tidal range at spring tides is probably about 1&amp;nbsp;m, and tides are semidiurnal. The central depression is considered to be an uplifted lagoon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The island is arid with only one fresh water spring known. It has a very rugged topography, with limestone pinnacles and steep-sided pits, beneath the dense tangled vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coastline is one of steep cliffs with fringing reefs on the north and north-west sides.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation of the island has not been modified to any significant extent, and most of the surface of the island is densely vegetated with tangled scrub and scrub forest 5-10&amp;nbsp;m tall. The central part of the depression is more sparsely covered. The island has a high degree of endemicity for its size, out of a total of 51 native flowering plant taxa, 10 are endemic. There are no native species of land mammal. All four of the island's land birds are endemic, flightless Henderson rail, Stephen's lorikeet (R),Henderson fruit dove and Henderson warbler. Very little information is available on either the ecology or the status of these four birds. 15 seabirds have been recorded, at least nine of which are thought to breed on the island. The island's invertebrate fauna is also little known but about one-third of the insects and gastropods so far collected are endemic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Henderson was colonized by Polynesians between the 12th and 15th centuries, but this period of settlement had little ecological impact and the island has remained uninhabited in modern times.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As a near pristine island ecosystem, it is of immense value for science. The inhospitable nature of the island, together with its remoteness and inaccessibility, has so far effectively ensured its conservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Henderson Island is the world's only forested atoll with its ecology virtually intact, with ongoing geological and biological processes.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Henderson Island, which lies in the eastern South Pacific, is one of the few atolls in the world whose ecology has been practically untouched by a human presence. Its isolated location provides the ideal context for studying the dynamics of insular evolution and natural selection. It is particularly notable for the 10 plants and four land birds that are endemic to the island.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Henderson Island</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>566</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/488</http_url><id_number>488</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_488.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.5080555600</latitude><location>London Borough of Tower Hamlets, England</location><longitude>-0.0761111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The massive White Tower is a typical example of Norman military architecture of the late 11th century. The ensemble of the Tower of London is a major reference for the history of medieval military architecture, as many stone keeps like it were built across England. The tower has also been a monumental symbol of royal power since the time of William the Conqueror in the 11th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An imposing fortress with many layers of history, which has become one of the symbols of royalty, it was built around the White Tower, the influence of which was felt throughout the kingdom. On Christmas Day 1066, following his victory at Hastings, William the Conqueror was crowned king at Westminster Abbey. To command the city on its seaward and most vulnerable side he quickly had an earth-and-timber keep built on top of an artificial mound in the south-east angle of the ancient Roman walls. Ten years later, he replaced these traditional defences with a grand edifice in stone, a sort of palace-fortress, known as the Tower of London.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Built during the 1080s and modified over the centuries, the White Tower, as it is now called, became the centrepiece of the complex of fortifications, courtyards and buildings which extends over 7.3&amp;nbsp;ha. The whole ensemble came to be known as the Tower of London, the name which originally applied only to the keep of 1076. The White Tower (so named because of its whitewashed walls) exemplifies Norman architecture of the time and it is unique for the ambitiousness of its design. The most significant element of the ensemble is associated with tragic moments in the history of the English monarchy, for example the 'Bloody Tower', where the sons of Edward IV were assassinated in 1483.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The White Tower, an impressive parallelepipedal block, rises to more than 27&amp;nbsp;m above the mound. The massive walls were made from Kentish limestone, with ashlars of Caen stone, imported at great expense from the conqueror's Norman domain, laid at the corners and around the doors, windows and arrow-slits. Inside, the three principal levels of the keep incorporates the requirements of both a defensive work and a royal residence, including a chapel.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The massive White Tower is a typical example of Norman military architecture, whose influence was felt throughout the kingdom. It was built on the Thames by William the Conqueror to protect London and assert his power. The Tower of London &amp;ndash; an imposing fortress with many layers of history, which has become one of the symbols of royalty &amp;ndash; was built around the White Tower.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Tower of London</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>567</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1988</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/496</http_url><id_number>496</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_496.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.2800000000</latitude><location>County of Kent, England</location><longitude>1.0833333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Canterbury, in Kent, has been the seat of the spiritual head of the Church of England for almost five centuries. St Martin's Church, St Augustine's Abbey and the cathedral are directly and tangibly associated with the history of the introduction of Christianity to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The influence of the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine was decisive throughout the high Middle Ages in England. The influence of this monastic centre and its scriptorium extended far beyond the boundaries of Kent and Northumbria. Christ Church Cathedral, especially the east sections, is a unique artistic creation. The beauty of its architecture is enhanced by a set of exceptional stained glass windows which constitute the richest collection in the United Kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the urban perimeter of Canterbury, three distinct cultural properties are on the World Heritage List: the modest St Martin's Church; the ruins of St Augustine's Abbey; and the superb Christ Church Cathedral, a breathtaking mixture of Romanesque and Perpendicular Gothic, where Archbishop Thomas Becket was murdered in 1170. These three monuments are milestones in the religious history of the regions of Great Britain before the Reformation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Martin's Church, to the east, located outside the walls of Roman Durovernum, existed in 597 when the monk Augustine was sent from Rome by Gregory the Great to bring Christianity to the Saxon kingdom of Kent. The church was built for the most part before the 8th century. It undoubtedly includes a Roman structure from the 4th century. Of the church located within the city walls, which St Augustine made his cathedral (probably at the very spot where Christ Church now stands) nothing has been conserved. However, ruins of the abbey are still visible, halfway between St Martin's Church and the cathedral. The abbey was dedicated to the Apostles Peter and Paul. In 978 the primitive institution, veritable cradle of Benedictine monasticism in England, was restored following the Scandinavian invasions. The abbey buildings virtually disappeared in their entirety following the dissolution of the Community by Henry VIII in 1538. The Royal Palace that stood in their place was located against the northern side aisle of the nave. It included the gutter wall and a few old portions, but this structure, too, has disappeared.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two distinct structures seem to appear in Christ Church Cathedral, a major building of medieval architecture. To the east, partially covering a huge Romanesque crypt with admirably carved capitals, is some of the most beautiful architectural space of early Gothic art: the choir, the east transept, an unfinished apse, on either side of which stand Romanesque chapels dedicated to St Andrew and St Anselm, Trinity Chapel and the circular Corona Chapel. The two architects, William of Sens, a Frenchman, and William the Englishman, worked at the site from 1174 to 1184.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the west the nave and the facade, with their very pure Perpendicular style, provide balance to the constructions on the eastern side. The architecture and remarkable stained glass and furnishings of Canterbury Cathedral thus provide a complete panorama of Gothic art, from its earliest beginnings to its culmination and decline.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Canterbury, in Kent, has been the seat of the spiritual head of the Church of England for nearly five centuries. Canterbury's other important monuments are the modest Church of St Martin, the oldest church in England; the ruins of the Abbey of St Augustine, a reminder of the saint's evangelizing role in the Heptarchy from 597; and Christ Church Cathedral, a breathtaking mixture of Romanesque and Perpendicular Gothic, where Archbishop Thomas Becket was murdered in 1170.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Canterbury Cathedral, St Augustine's Abbey, and St Martin's Church</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>578</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Edinburgh's origins as a settlement extend back into prehistory, when its castle rock was fortified, and it may have served as a royal palace in the early historic period. The settlement that grew up was made a royal burgh by King David I (who also founded the nearby Abbey of Holyrood) in around 1125. The separate burgh of canongate, founded c 1140, has long been incorporated within Edinburgh. It was just one of the newly chartered towns of the 12th century which set the country's political and economic development on a new plane, but by the late 15th century it was the capital of Scotland. It had become a great architectural symbol of nationhood for Scotland.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Old Town grew along the wide main street stretching from the castle on its rock to the medieval abbey and royal palace of Holyrood. The town was walled from the 15th century onwards. lt suffered badly during the English invasion of 1544, and most of the earlier buildings date from the rebuilding after this event. However, the later 16th century saw a steady increase in trade; by the early 17th century much of the wealth of the nation had come into the hands of the Edinburgh merchant elite, which resulted in considerable new building. The nobility also built town houses, which also contributed to the high quality of the domestic architecture of this period. From as early as the 16th century building control was enforced through the Dean of Guild: for example, as a precaution against fire all roofs had to be of tile or slate from 1621, and in 1674 this was extended to building facades, which had henceforth to be in stone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the end of the 19th century there had been a withdrawal from the Old Town as a result of the growth of the New Town. In 1892 Sir Patrick Geddes proposed that it should be regenerated by attracting back to it the university, the bourgeoisie, and the intelligentsia, by converting the High Street into "a collegiate street and city comparable in its way with the magnificent High Street of Oxford and its noble surroundings." His plan involved the reuse of older buildings where they still had utility, and many buildings were restored under his direction in the Lawnmarket. Although Geddes left Edinburgh before his vision could be fully realized, but his buildings remain. More restoration work was carried out as part of Sir Patrick Abercrombie's 1949 plan, though Geddes's concept of the High Street being reoccupied for residential purposes was abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The New Town developed as a suburban residential area for the nobility and for the merchant classes. The city, the charitable trusts, and the aristocratic landowners who promoted it insisted upon the finest materials being used, since they saw it as an enduring monument. That is why ashlar facing is used almost exclusively, instead of stucco. The New Town consists, in fact, of seven successive major development, each different from but closely related to its predecessors, a continuous programme of construction from 1767 to about 1890.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The First New Town originated in the proposals of Lord Provost Drummond, published in 1752 and embodied in an Act of Parliament the following year, which envisaged the development of the City's lands to the north of the Old Town, linked by an urban viaduct, the North Bridge. The rectangular layout was the work of James Craig, redrawn after consultation with John Adam. The second New Town followed in 1801-2, planned by Robert Reid, the King&amp;bull;s Architect, and William Sibbald, and located to the north of the first. lt breaks away from the strictly rectangular plan with some curved terraces. The Third New Town, the work of Robert Brown from 1813 onwards, essentially continues the approach of its predecessors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This pattern changed with the Fourth New Town, planned by William Henry Playfair. Instead of imposing a grid-iron upon the landscape, the buildings exploit the contours, view, and trees in a romantic manner. The Fifth New Town, built from 1822 on the lands of the Earl of Moray to designs by J Gillespie Graham, cleverly links the first three New Towns as a unified scheme. lt was intended to be a self-contained enclave for aristocrats and professional gentry. The Sixth New Town followed in the 1850s on Lord Provost Learmonth's Dean Estate, to the north of the water of Leith, linked since 1831-32 with queensferry on the other side of the estuary by a bridge designed by Thomas Telford. The final New Town brought the hitherto detached Raeburn estate together with the rest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the original idea was that the New Town should be a purely residential suburb, it rapidly proved to be attractive to business and government, and it rapidly drew this element of the city away from the Old Town. lt was to become the location for some of the finest public and commercial monuments of the neo-classical revival in Europe. Monuments symbolic of Scotland's past were grouped together on Calton Hill, in the aspiration to build the "Athens of the North."&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/728</http_url><id_number>728</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_728.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.9500000000</latitude><location>Lothian Region, Scotland</location><longitude>-3.2166666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh are a remarkable blend of the urban phenomena of organic medieval growth and 18th- and 19th-century town planning. The successive planned extensions of the New Town and the high quality of the architecture set standards for Scotland and beyond.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Edinburgh has been the Scottish capital since the 15th century, and it has two distinct areas: the Old Town, dominated by a medieval fortress built by King David I in the 12th century, and the neoclassical New Town, whose development from the 18th century onwards had a far-reaching influence on European urban planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During wars against the English in the 14th century, just one building was spared from destruction: the Chapel of St Margaret, built by King Malcolm III, within the destroyed medieval military fortress. The Castle Rock bore the core of the town, with the neo-Gothic tower of the Tolbooth Church of St John and the tower of the Church of St Giles. In the palace King James VI of Scotland and James I of England, son of Mary Stuart, was born in 1556.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work on the New Town began in 1752 with the project of the architects John Adam and James Craig, consisting of a rectangular plan with a residential function and a commercial zone in Prince's Street. In 1789, Robert Adam planned the Old College, the University of Edinburgh, which was completed by William Playfair, and extended to an enlarged profile by Sir Rowand Anderson, in 1879. The town was subsequently expanded to the north, when in 1822 Gillespie Graham harmonized the two contrasting historic areas, each with many important buildings, to give the city its unique character.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Holyrood House, the scene of many important events of Scottish history, was originally the guest-house of Holyrood Abbey. It was transformed into a royal residence by James IV, and is at present the official residence of the queen in Scotland. Canongate Tolbooth is a very interesting 16th-century building, the former seat of justice of the Burgh of Canongate; it is easily identified by its imposing turreted steeple and clock.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Edinburgh has many museums and galleries, including the Royal Museum, an impressive early Italian Renaissance palazzo facade containing a great hall of wooden ribbed construction designed on Crystal Palace principles, together with smaller halls of similar design. Scotland's two major museums, situated in the heart of Edinburgh, house rich international collections. The National Gallery of Scotland and the neoclassical Art Gallery, with blind walls with shallow pilasters punctuated by Ionic porticoes, was originally designed as two buildings to house the Academy as well as the National Gallery.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Edinburgh has been the Scottish capital since the 15th century. It has two distinct areas: the Old Town, dominated by a medieval fortress; and the neoclassical New Town, whose development from the 18th century onwards had a far-reaching influence on European urban planning. The harmonious juxtaposition of these two contrasting historic areas, each with many important buildings, is what gives the city its unique character.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old and New Towns of Edinburgh</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>860</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/740</http_url><id_number>740</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_740.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-40.3247222200</latitude><location>Tristan da Cunha Island group, St Helena Dependency</location><longitude>-9.9286111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Gough Island, a volcanic island in the central South Atlantic, is dependent on British Tristan da Cunha, midway between the southern tip of Africa and South America and it includes the 14&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Inaccessible Island, whereas the marine area is extended to 12 nautical miles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gough Island is the least-disturbed major cool temperate island ecosystem in the South Atlantic, and one of the most important seabird colonies in the world. The island is scenically beautiful with spectacular sea cliffs round much of the coastline. Two endemic landbirds are found: the Gough moorhen and the Gough finch. Gough is in the Tristan da Cunha Priority One Endemic Bird Area, as defined by BirdLife International. Its undisturbed nature makes it particularly valuable for biological research, which, with weather monitoring, is the only other activity permitted on the island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Inaccessible Island's values complement those of Gough Island. It is also largely pristine and is one of the few temperate oceanic islands without introduced mammals. It has two birds, eight plants and 10 invertebrates found nowhere else, 70 terrestrial plant and animal species are restricted to the islands and 60 marine species are endemic to the island group .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gough Island has had a long and complicated volcanic history. Five major phases of activity have left distinctive rock masses. Numerous different centres helped to build up the land mass that now exists, and some of them continued activity into comparatively recent tines; the most recent minor eruption probably took place about 2300 years ago. No activity has been recorded since men began to visit the island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gough Island is the eroded summit of a Tertiary volcanic mass separated from the volcanic formations of the Tristan group. The island is mountainous, with steep cliffs forming much of the coastline, and an undulating plateau rising to 910&amp;nbsp;m above sea level. The eastern side of the island is dissected by a series of deep, steep-sided valleys known as glens, which are separated by narrow, serrated ridges. The western side of the island consists of rounded slopes, extending from the central plateau to western sea cliffs. The southern area of the island is the only land below 200&amp;nbsp;m. Boulder beaches are found beneath the cliffs, and there are numerous offshore islets, stacks and rocks - most within 100&amp;nbsp;m of the main island, and none at a distance greater than 1&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gough Island has been described as a strong contender for the title 'most important seabird colony in the world', with 54 bird species recorded in total, of which 22 species breed on the island, 20 being seabirds. Four species are threatened. There are three endemic genera. About 48% of the world's population of the northern rockhopper penguin &lt;em&gt;Eudyptes chrysocome moseleyi&lt;/em&gt; (classed as vulnerable) breed on Gough. Atlantic petrel &lt;em&gt;Pterodroma incerta&lt;/em&gt; (also vulnerable) is endemic to Gough and the Tristan group of islands. Gough is also a major breeding site of the great shearwater &lt;em&gt;Puffinus gravis&lt;/em&gt; with up to 3&amp;nbsp;million pairs breeding on the island. The main southern ocean breeding sites of little shearwater &lt;em&gt;Puffinus assimilis&lt;/em&gt; are Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island, with breeding pairs numbering several million. The endangered wandering albatross &lt;em&gt;Diomedea dabbenena&lt;/em&gt; is virtually restricted to Gough, with up to 2,000 breeding pairs. The last survivors of the southern giant petrel &lt;em&gt;Macronectes gigantous&lt;/em&gt; also breed on Gough, with an estimated 100-150 pairs, is classed as vulnerable. Gough moorhen &lt;em&gt;Gallinula comeri&lt;/em&gt; (also vulnerable) is found in fern bush vegetation areas. Estimates of population size vary from 300-500 pairs to 2,000-3,000 pairs. About 200 pairs of Gough finch &lt;em&gt;Rowettia goughensis&lt;/em&gt; (vulnerable) have been recorded, although recent estimates suggest that there may be 1,000 pairs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gough Island houses two endemic species of land birds, the gallinule and the Gough rowettie, as well as to 12 endemic species of plants, whereas Inaccessible Island has two birds, eight plants and at least ten invertebrates endemic to the island. The marine area can be split into two distinct algal zones. Subantarctic fur seal and southern elephant seal are the only two native breeding mammals. The former breeds at beaches all round the island, whereas the latter are restricted to the island's sheltered east coast. Two other marine mammals are found within the reserve, southern right whale and dusky dolphin. Reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fish and native terrestrial mammals are absent from the island, although the introduced house mouse is widespread and abundant. The largest stacks support vascular plants and breeding birds.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Tristan archipelago was discovered by Trist&amp;atilde;o d'Ancunha in 1506, was visited periodically by Dutch sailors and annexed to Britain in 1816. Both Gough and Inaccessible Islands were exploited by sealers in the last decade of the 18th and early decades of the 19th centuries. Sealers stayed on Gough Island for considerable periods, subsisting on fish, seabirds, eggs, wild plants and cultivated potatoes (no longer present on Gough). Whaling occurred between 1830 and 1870, and Tristan islanders visited Inaccessible between the 1850s and 1890s to harvest seals and the introduced goats and pigs, but the islands remained uninhabited.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Gough Island has never been permanently populated and the only inhabitants are the six scientists working at the meteorological station which has functioned since 1956. The only man-made structure on the island is the meteorological station and its associated generators, storerooms, communication facilities and helicopter landing site. Inaccessible Island has been uninhabited except for a two-year farming settlement 1936-38 but has been regularly visited from Tristan for birds, eggs, driftwood, guano and apples. The last pigs, sheep and cattle were removed in the 1950s. Since 1949 its coastal waters within 50nm are fished for the Tristan rock lobster &lt;em&gt;Jasus tristani&lt;/em&gt; by a single licensee. This, with crayfish fishing, is the island groups' main source of revenue.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2004</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site, located in the south Atlantic, is one of the least-disrupted island and marine ecosystems in the cool temperate zone. The spectacular cliffs of Gough and Inaccessible Islands, towering above the ocean, are free of introduced mammals and home to one of the world’s largest colonies of sea birds. Gough Island is home to two endemic species of land birds, the gallinule and the Gough rowettie, as well as to 12 endemic species of plants, while Inaccessible Island boasts two birds, eight plants and at least 10 invertebrates endemic to the island.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gough and Inaccessible Islands</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>874</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1997</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Greenwich has been favoured by humankind since the Bronze Age at least, as demonstrated by the burial mounds and the large 1st-4th century AD Roman villa that have been discovered in the modern Park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It has long associations with royalty. In the 8th century it was owned by Ethelrada, niece of Alfred the Great. In the 15th century the estate was the property of Duke Humphrey, uncle of Henry VI, and it was first developed as a royal residence when that king and his wife, Margaret of Anjou, built the Palace of Placentia, where the Tudor monarchs Henry VIII, Mary I, and Elizabeth were all born. James I of England and VI of Scotland settled the palace upon his wife, Anne of Denmark, who in 1616 commissioned the building of the Queen's House from Inigo Jones, Surveyor of the King's Works. The project was suspended when the queen's health failed the following year (she died in 1618), but Jones resumed work for Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I, around 1630. It was completed just before the outbreak of the Civil War in 1640.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Interregnum, Parliament used the palace as a biscuit factory, and also kept Dutch prisoners there, so it was in a sadly deteriorated condition when the monarchy was restored. Charles II commissioned Andre Le Notre to design the park (although the eventual layout probably owes more to Sir William Boreman). He also commissioned a new palace from John Webb. Part of Placentia was demolished in 1664 to make way for a wing of the new palace.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the accession of William II and Mary II as joint monarchs in 1688 the days of Greenwich as a royal residence ended, because its situation was inimical to the king's asthma. However, in 1692 the queen ordered that building of the palace should continue, but in a new form, as a hospital for retired seamen. The master plan was devised by Sir Christopher Wren, assisted by his pupil Nicholas Hawksmoor. The complex took many years to complete, and was to involve the services of other leading architects, including Colen Campbell, Thomas Ripley, James "Athenian" Stuart, and John Yenn.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1807 the Queen's House became a school for young seamen, with the addition of long colonnades and wings, the work of Daniel Asher Alexander. During the 17th century study of the role of astronomy in navigation developed rapidly, and in 1675 Wren and the scientist Robert Hooke designed and built the turreted Royal Observatory on the bluff overlooking the old palace for John Flamsteed, the first English Astronomer Royal. Greenwich established its pre-eminence in this field and it was here that in 1884 the Greenwich Meridian and Greenwich Mean Time were adopted as world standards for the measurement of space and time. In the 18th century the little town of Greenwich attracted aristocrats and merchants, who built villas there, some of which survive (the most important is probably the Ranger's House). Although the departure of the royal court and the rise of dockyardrelated industries robbed the town of its fashionable character, it remained prosperous, favoured in particular by sea captains, naval officers, and merchants. Its earlier timber-framed houses were gradually replaced during the 18th and 19th centwies by two- and three-storeyed brick terraces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since 1937 the Queens' House and its associated buildings have housed the National Maritime Museum. The Royal Naval College has been located in the former Royal Naval Hospital since 1873. It will. be vacating the buildings during 1997; at the time of writing this evaluation the future tenants have not been decided, but there are strong indications that the buildings will. be shared by the Museum and the new University of Greenwich.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/795</http_url><id_number>795</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_795.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;The Committee decided to inscribe this property on the basis of cultural &lt;em&gt;criteria (i), (ii), (iv) and (vi)&lt;/em&gt;, considering that the public and private buildings and the Royal Park at Greenwich form an exceptional ensemble that bears witness to human artistic and scientific endeavour of the highest quality, to European architecture at an important stage of its evolution, and to the creation of a landscape that integrates nature and culture in a harmonious whole.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.4811666667</latitude><location>London Borough of Greenwich, England</location><longitude>-0.0037777778</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Maritime Greenwich is an unique ensemble of buildings and landscape of exceptional artistic value, the work of a number of outstanding architects and designers. At the same time, it is of considerable scientific significance by virtue of the contributions to astronomy and to navigation. The public and private buildings and the Royal Park at Greenwich form an exceptional ensemble bearing witness to human artistic and scientific endeavour of the highest quality, to European architecture at an important stage of British design evolution, and to the creation of a landscape that integrates nature and culture in a harmonious whole.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Prehistoric burial mounds and a large Roman villa (1st-4th centuries AD) have been discovered within the World Heritage site. In the 8th century it was owned by Ethelrada, niece of Alfred the Great. In the 15th century the estate was the property of Duke Humphrey, uncle of Henry VI. The king and his wife, Margaret of Anjou, built the Palace of Placentia, where the Tudor monarchs Henry VIII, Mary I and Elizabeth were all born. James I of England and VI of Scotland settled the palace upon his wife, Anne of Denmark, who in 1616 commissioned the building of the Queen's House from Inigo Jones, Surveyor of the King's Works. During the Interregnum, Parliament used the palace as a biscuit factory, and also kept Dutch prisoners there. Charles II commissioned Andre Le N&amp;ocirc;tre to design the park, as well as a new palace from John Webb. In 1675 Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke designed and built the turreted Royal Observatory on the bluff overlooking the old palace for John Flamsteed, first English Astronomer Royal. In 1884 the Greenwich Meridian and Greenwich Mean Time were adopted as world standards for measuring space and time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the departure of the royal court and the rise of dockyard-related industries robbed the town of its fashionable character, it remained prosperous, favoured in particular by sea captains, naval officers, and merchants. Its earlier timber-framed houses were gradually replaced during the 18th and 19th centuries by two- and three-storeyed brick terraces.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The focus of the Greenwich ensemble is the Queen's House, the work of Inigo Jones and the first true Renaissance building in Britain, a striking departure from the architectural forms that preceded it. It was inspired by Italian style, and it was in its turn to be the direct inspiration for classical houses and villas all over Britain in the two centuries that followed its construction. Since 1937 the Queen's House and its associated buildings have housed the National Maritime Museum.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Royal Naval College, the most outstanding group of Baroque buildings in Britain, is also the most complex of Christopher Wren's architectural projects. The four main components, aligned on the Queen's House, are arranged symmetrically alongside the Thames. Trafalgar Quarters, a colonnaded brick structure, was built in 1813 as living accommodation for the officers of the Royal Hospital. The complex now houses the University of Greenwich.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Greenwich Royal Park is formal in plan, arranged symmetrically on either side of its main north-south axis, which is aligned on the Queen's House. The Old Royal Observatory is sited on the brow of Greenwich Hill and dominates the landscape. Above is an octagonal room which was used by the Royal Society for meetings and dinners. This is surmounted by the famous time-ball, which indicates Greenwich Mean Time daily at 13.00. Adjacent is the former New Physical Observatory (1890-99), which is cruciform in plan and crowned by a terracotta dome.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area also includes a number of handsome private houses of the 17th-19th centuries: Vanbrugh Castle, the home of Sir John Vanbrugh, the architect of Blenheim Palace; the Ranger's House, built in 1700-20; the Trafalgar Tavern, an elegant building in Regency style, fronting on the Thames. St Alfege's Church is one of the outstanding works of Nicholas Hawksmoor, built in 1711-14 to replace a collapsed medieval structure. Also there is the Cutty Sark, a tea-clipper built in 1869 and the fastest ship in the world at that time. The vessel is berthed in a special dry-dock and maintained as a museum.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ensemble of buildings at Greenwich, an outlying district of London, and the park in which they are set, symbolize English artistic and scientific endeavour in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Queen's House (by Inigo Jones) was the first Palladian building in England, while the complex that was until recently the Royal Naval College was designed by Christopher Wren. The park, laid out on the basis of an original design by André Le Nôtre, contains the Old Royal Observatory, the work of Wren and the scientist Robert Hooke.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Maritime Greenwich</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>939</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Discovered in 1505 by the Spanish captain Juan Bermud&amp;eacute;z, Bermuda was later stocked by the Spanish as a place of refuge in cases of shipwreck. The permanent settlement of St George (which had been claimed for the English Crown in 1609) began in August 1612 with the arrival of a governor, a clergyman, and 60 settlers, to be joined a few months later by 600 more people. A watchtower was built on Fort George Hill and the foundations of several forts were laid to guard the entrances to St George's Harbour and Castle Harbour.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 1615 the population had shrunk to 150 as most of the colonists moved to the main island when administration of the colony passed from the Virginia Company to the Somers Island Company. The Crown assumed responsibility for the colony in 1684, of which St George remained the capital until the mid 19th century. During this period African and Indians were brought to Bermuda; their descendants make up the majority of the multi-racial society of the present day. For the next century the economy of the island was centred on the cedar tree, which was used for ship construction. Land was granted to the Town's inhabitants in 1693, and the haphazard way in which they built their houses is reflected in the present-day layout of streets and lanes. Encouragement was given to proprietors to build in stone in the early 18th century. It was at this time that wharves and warehouses were built on the waterfront.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mid 18th century was a period of economic stagnation for the Town, but military activities during the American Revolution (1776-83) saw the beginning of a boom. St George was to remain a strategic military location for the next two centuries until the US naval base closed in 1995. The Corporation of St George was formed in 1797 and, despite of the loss of capital status, the Town continued to prosper. Free black Bermudans took on an increasingly important role: at the time of emancipation in 1834, 45% of the population were free blacks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The four years of the American War between the States turned St George once again into a boom town. Fortunes were made when blockade runners supplied arms and ammunition to the Confederate ports, notably Wilmington (South Carolina) in exchange for cotton, for transhipment to England. The economy picked up again with the development of the tourist industry in the latter half of the 19th century. However, the Town and its Corporation were conscious of the threats that tourism offered to its heritage, and efforts to save historic buildings began as early as 1920. St George was a garrison town from its earliest days, and military installations developed on the eastern side of the Town. The first of many barracks were built on Barrack Hill in 1780, and ancillary buildings, such as residences for senior officers, officers' messes, hospitals, a garrison chapel, etc, followed during the course of the 19th century. These were constructed in the standard British military style but using local materials.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The related fortifications began in the early 17th century, with forts on Paget, Governor's, Charles, and Castle Islands. These were repeatedly reconstructed and strengthened during the course of the 17th and 18th centuries. At the end of the American Revolution, Britain made St George's Island its main naval base, to replace those lost in the Thirteen Colonies. Detachments of the Corps of Royal Engineers radically redesigned and rebuilt the existing fortifications in the 1780s and 1790s. Work began on the dockyard began at the turn of the century, necessitating further drastic changes in the system of fortifications, with the construction of Forts George, Victoria, St Catherine, Albert, and Cunningham (on Paget Island).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The advent of rifled artillery in the 1850s led to yet further modifications and strengthening. Fort Cunningham became the most heavily armed and defended fort in Bermuda. Further modifications were necessary in the 1880s to take account of the advent of gun steel, which made possible the manufacture of more efficient and reliable artillery. These continued to serve until the coastal defence came to an end in 1956. They thus span the entire range of British coastal defences over a period of three and a half centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/983</http_url><id_number>983</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_983.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The Historic Town of St George with its related fortifications is an outstanding example of a continuously occupied, fortified, colonial town dating from the early 17th century and the oldest English town in the New World.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>32.3794444400</latitude><location>St George, Bermuda</location><longitude>-64.6777777800</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of St George with its related fortifications is an outstanding example of a continuously occupied, fortified, colonial town dating from the early 17th century and the oldest English town in the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St George is a picturesque and outstanding example of the earliest colonial English urban settlement in the New World. Its associated fortifications graphically illustrate the development of English military engineering from the 17th to 20th centuries, being adapted to take account of the development of artillery over this period. Discovered in 1505 by the Spanish captain Juan Bermud&amp;eacute;z, Bermuda was later stocked by the Spanish as a place of refuge in cases of shipwreck. The permanent settlement of St George began in August 1612 with the arrival of a governor, a clergyman, and 60 settlers, to be joined a few months later by 600 more people. A watchtower was built on Fort George Hill and the foundations of several forts were laid to guard the entrances to St George's Harbour and Castle Harbour. The Crown assumed responsibility in 1684 for the colony, of which St George remained the capital until the mid-19th century. During this period Africans and Indians were brought to Bermuda; their descendants make up the majority of the multiracial society of today. For the next century the economy of the island centred on the cedar tree, used for ship construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mid-18th century was a time of economic stagnation for the town, but military activities during the American Revolution (1776-83) saw the beginning of a boom. The Corporation of St George was formed in 1797. St George was to remain a strategic military location for the next two centuries until the US naval base closed in 1995. The economy picked up again with the development of the tourist industry in the later 19th century. The Town and its Corporation's efforts to save historic buildings began as early as 1920.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St George was a garrison town from its earliest days, and military installations developed on the eastern side of the town. The first of many barracks were built on Barrack Hill in 1780, such as residences for senior officers, officers' messes, hospitals, a garrison chapel, etc., followed during the course of the 19th century. These were constructed in standard British military style but using local materials. At the end of the American Revolution, Britain made St George's Island its main naval base. Work on the dockyard began at the turn of the century, with drastic changes in the system of fortifications, with the construction of forts George, Victoria, St Catherine, Albert, and Cunningham (on Paget Island). The fortifications continued to serve until the coastal defence came to an end in 1956.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architecture of Bermuda is unique, and has changed little in its basic elements since the end of the 17th century. The simple, well proportioned houses, of one or two storeys, are constructed with load-bearing masonry walls, rendered and painted in pastel colours, and roofs of stone slabs painted white. Some of the houses, such as Bridge House, the Hunter Building, or Whitehall, are impressive mansions, dating in their present form from the 19th century and embellished with imposing balconies and verandas. There are several churches, the most important of which is St Peter's Church, the oldest Anglican Church site in continuous use in the Western Hemisphere. The Ebenezer Methodist Church of 1840 is a fine building in neoclassical style.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site also comprises the fortifications on the Island and a number of small islands commanding access to the Town and Castle Harbour. The related fortifications, representing almost the complete range of British coastal fortifications and artillery overseas, are mostly ruined or exist as no more than archaeological sites. They are on Castle Island, Southampton Island, St David's Island, Governor's Island, Paget's Island, Ferry Island and Coney Island. On St George's Island there is Gate's Fort, Alexandra Battery, Fort Albert, Fort St Catherine. Fort Victoria is one of the few land forts at Bermuda. The town itself is defended by two forts, the Western Redoubt, Fort St George, Martello Tower, magazine, and lime-kiln built in the 1820s.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Town of St George, founded in 1612, is an outstanding example of the earliest English urban settlement in the New World. Its associated fortifications graphically illustrate the development of English military engineering from the 17th to the 20th century, being adapted to take account of the development of artillery over this period.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of St George and Related Fortifications, Bermuda</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1147</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;From at least 1675, and probably earlier, iron ore was extracted on the mountains of Blaenavon. However, the area was virtually unsettled and used only for small-scale iron mining and grazing.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1788 Lord Abergavenny leased the common lands, "Lord Abergavenny's Hills," to Thomas Hill, Thomas Hopkins, and Benjamin Pratt. These three entrepreneurs saw the opportunity to build a major new ironworks at Blaenavon, putting into practice the latest technology and organization of the Industrial Revolution in a new and resource-rich setting. By 1789 the Ironworks consisted of three blast furnaces utilizing steam power, making it the second largest ironworks in Wales and one of the largest in the world. Iron ores, fireclay, coal, and limestone were supplied by the company's own mineral properties. By 1796 the furnaces were producing 5400 tons of iron a year. Houses were built beside the company's ironworks, mines, and quarries for key workers, and a dense network of primitive railways was created to carry raw materials to the works and products towards markets. Population grew rapidly through the migration of workers from rural areas of Wales, from the industrial Midlands, Ireland, Scotland, and rural England. A rapidly created industrial landscape grew up of iron-ore patches, coal mines, limestone quarries, iron forges, brick works, tramroads, watercourses, and workers' houses, all controlled by the Blaenavon Company.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 1812 there were five furnaces capable of making 14,000 tons of iron a year. New primitive railway connections were made with the Brecknock and Abergavenny Canal through the 2.4km long Pwll-Du tunnel, the longest ever built on a horse-drawn railway. The Garn-Ddyrys Forge, to convert pig iron to wrought iron, was built on the mountain north of Blaenavon in 1817. Adit mining for iron ore and coal developed on a larger scale, replacing surface scouring, and shaft mines were introduced, with sophisticated drainage, haulage, and ventilation arrangements. New sources of limestone were explored and larger quarries opened. During the 1840s and 1850s the scattered housing of the workers and the works' school, church and chapels were complemented by the evolution, on land outside the company's ownership, of a town with a variety of urban functions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1860s, the Company brought into production a new steelworks across the valley at Forgeside, making the old ironworks increasingly redundant and protecting it from redevelopment. In 1878, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas and Percy Gilchrist invented at Blaenavon the Basic Bessemer or Thomas process, which was of world-wide importance in permitting phosphoric iron ores to be used in bulk steelmaking. The scale of production expanded, and the iron products of Blaenavon and the skills of its workforce continued to be exported throughout the world. Big Pit was sunk to serve the new works, and the new settlement of Forgeside was built. The population of Blaenavon parish, which had been minuscule before the Ironworks was built, had grown to 11,452 in 1891. The social development of the area created a thriving urban culture with many chapels, schools, pubs, and tradesmen, and a Workmen's Hall and Institute was built in 1895 to provide social and educational facilities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Relative decline in steelmaking from around the turn of the century permitted the growth of coal production for export. Demand for the high-quality steam coals of South Wales continued to grow, and the industry reached a peak in 1913, at which time coal mining employed directly 250,000 people in Wales, or one in four of the adult male population. Big Pit was enlarged, and after the nationalization of the British coal industry in 1947 it was further expanded. Nevertheless, employment in the area was falling, and the population has declined continuously since its peak in 1921 of 12,500 to the present 6,000 inhabitants. Steel production ceased in 1938, and Big Pit, the last substantial working colliery, closed in 1980.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Economic and social decline has meant that much of the fabric of the town is in need of investment, but the development of new industries, the opening of Big Pit as a mining museum in 1983, and the conservation of Blaenavon Ironworks have contributed to economic regeneration. The town and the surrounding landscape have survived little altered to represent the story of their past.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/984</http_url><id_number>984</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_984.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; The Blaenavon landscape constitutes an exceptional illustration in material form of the social and economic structure of 19th century industry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The components of the Blaenavon industrial landscape together make up an outstanding and remarkably complete example of a 19th century industrial landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.7763888900</latitude><location>Blaenavon,40 km NE of Cardiff, Wales</location><longitude>-3.0880555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Blaenavon landscape constitutes an exceptional illustration in material form of the social and economic structure of 19th-century industry. The area around the Blaenavon ironworks provides an extraordinarily comprehensive picture of the South Wales coal and iron industry in its heyday in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when it was one of the world's largest iron and steel producers. All the necessary elements can be seen &lt;em&gt;in situ&lt;/em&gt; : coal and ore mines, quarries, a primitive railway system, furnaces, the homes of the workers, and the social infrastructure of their community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From at least 1675, iron ore was extracted on the mountains of Blaenavon. However, the area was virtually unsettled and used only for small-scale iron mining and grazing. In 1788 Thomas Hill, Thomas Hopkins, and Benjamin Pratt built a major new ironworks at Blaenavon, putting into practice the latest technology and organization of the Industrial Revolution in a new and resource-rich setting. By 1789 the ironworks consisted of three blast furnaces using steam power, making it one of the largest in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1817 adit mining for iron ore and coal developed on a larger scale, replacing surface scouring, and shaft mines were introduced, with sophisticated drainage, haulage, and ventilation arrangements. Population grew rapidly through the migration of workers from rural areas of Wales, from the industrial Midlands, Ireland, Scotland and rural England. Blaenavon parish, which had been minuscule before the ironworks was built, had grown to 11,452 in 1891. The social development of the area created a thriving urban culture. A rapidly created industrial landscape grew up of iron-ore patches, coal mines, limestone quarries, iron forges, brick works, tram roads, watercourses and workers' houses, all controlled by the Blaenavon Company, which was reorganized as a joint stock company in 1836.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 1840s and 1850s the scattered housing of the workers and the works' school, church and chapels were complemented by the evolution, on land outside the company's ownership, of a town with a variety of urban functions. There were three principal clusters of buildings in the area, one around the Ironworks, one along the east-west axis, now King Street, and one around St Peter's Church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Relative decline in steelmaking from around the turn of the century permitted the growth of coal production for export. Steel production ceased in 1938, and Big Pit, the last substantial working colliery, closed in 1980. Big Pit is now a museum of coal mining of international significance, and one of only two mining museums in the United Kingdom where visitors can be taken underground. The conservation of Blaenavon Ironworks has contributed to economic regeneration. The town and the surrounding landscape have survived little altered to represent the story of their past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The improvement of transport systems was a key component of the Industrial Revolution and was vital to the success of the coal and iron industries with their bulky goods and requirement to exploit new regions. Much evidence remains in the landscape of the transport systems by which Blaenavon Ironworks was supplied with raw materials and its products were conveyed to the coast.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In an upland setting like that of Blaenavon, which lies high on the watershed, the careful management of water was vital to provide sufficient and reliable supply, even in drought, to operate water-balance lifts, carry out scouring, and feed steam engines. Surface and underground drainage was also of the utmost importance for mining operations. Watercourses and drains can be seen in many places on the hills above Blaenavon, often with relationships to one another.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A variety of workers' housing remains within the Blaenavon landscape. The company usually built dwellings very close to its ironworks, mines, quarries or transport routes. Adjacent to the Ironworks stands Stack Square and Engine Row, a small group of solidly constructed stone cottages.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The area around Blaenavon is evidence of the pre-eminence of South Wales as the world's major producer of iron and coal in the 19th century. All the necessary elements can still be seen - coal and ore mines, quarries, a primitive railway system, furnaces, workers' homes, and the social infrastructure of their community.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Blaenavon Industrial Landscape</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1148</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The worsted trade began in Bradford in the mid 18th century as the centre of a semi-rural production system, but it did not develop rapidly until the advent of steam power. The result was an urban population explosion: between 1780 and 1850 it rose from 8500 to nearly 104,000. The living conditions of the workforce was abysmal, and the life expectancy for both men and women was little over twenty years, in a town recognized as one of the most polluted in England.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Titus Salt joined his father as a partner in his wool business in 1824. His success in spinning Donskoi wool from Russia and then spinning and weaving Peruvian alpaca wool made him very wealthy and influential. He became Mayor of Bradford in 1848 and committed himself to reducing Bradford's pollution problems. When the town council refused to take any action, he resolved to remove his operations away from Bradford.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Land was acquired a few miles away which met Salt's requirements. It had access to a plentiful supply of soft water for washing the wool. The transportation links were excellent: the river Aire and the Leeds and Manchester Canal by water and the Midland Railway line by land. The site lay almost equidistant from the two major ports of Liverpool in the west and Hull in the east. Almost the entire operation could be brought under a single roof using the most up-todate technology and the vertical integration of the process. Technological developments made it possible for the building to be fireproofed. For this workers there would be a healthier environment and access to the open countryside.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Having selected the site for his new town to the north-west of Bradford city centre, Salt commissioned the leading Bradford architects Henry Lockwood and Richard Mawson to design and supervise the realization of his visionary plan. To ensure that the new mill would meet the highest standards of cleanliness and safety, Salt enlisted the services of the celebrated engineer William Fairbairn. The Mill, work on which began in 1851 and which was opened in 1853, incorporated every recent structural and mechanical innovation in its equipment and design.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Titus Salt was business man enough to ensure that the mill itself was given top priority in construction, but work began as soon as it was completed on the first workers' cottages. Until they were ready, workers were brought in by train from Bradford, and even after they were completed workers continued to travel in from surrounding districts. Salt's new village eventually had over 800 dwellings in wide streets with a large dining hall and kitchens, baths, and washhouses, an almshouse for retired workers, a hospital and dispensary, an educational institute and a church. There was ample recreational land and allotments, in order to improve the diet of the workers.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;He gave his new village his own name, coupled with that of the nearby river, and the streets were named after members of his own family (as well as the Queen and her Consort and the architects). However, this pardonable self-promotion in no way detracts from his achievement. He had a genuine philanthropic concern for his workers and succeeded in providing them with a healthy and secure environment (not unconscious, of course, of the economic benefits that this bestowed).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Salt and his model village were given national and international recognition. Many tributes paid to him on his death in 1876, shortly after the last house in the village was completed, from the highest to the lowest, and some 100,000 people lined the route of his funeral cortege.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After his death, the firm was taken over by three of his sons, but its profits declined, to the extent that it was wound up in 1892. Four Bradford businessmen bought the Mill and the village in 1893, one of them (James Roberts) becoming sole owner in 1899. Roberts sold his assets in 1918 for &amp;pound;2 million to another syndicate which was reformed in 1923 as Salts (Saltaire) Ltd. The village was sold in 1933 to the Bradford Property Trust, enabling their occupants for the first time to purchase them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Following booming business in the inter-war years and full operations during World War II, the Mill progressively declined, finally closing down in 1986. Many of the major buildings became semi-redundant and fell into disrepair, and this had an adverse effect on the entire village. With the formation of the Saltaire Village Society in 1984 serious efforts began to regenerate the entire area. The Mill itself was purchased in 1987 by Jonathan Silver, whose enthusiasm and imagination turned it into a major cultural centre.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1028</http_url><id_number>1028</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1028.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Saltaire is an outstanding and well preserved example of a mid 19th century industrial town, the layout of which was to exert a major influence on the development of the “garden city” movement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The layout and architecture of Saltaire admirably reflect mid 19th century philanthropic paternalism, as well as the important role played by the textile industry in economic and social development.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.8391666700</latitude><location>West Yorkshire, England</location><longitude>-1.7883333330</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Saltaire is an outstanding and well-preserved example of a mid-19th-century industrial town, the layout of which was to exert a major influence on the development of the 'garden city' movement. The creation of Saltaire was one of the first successful solutions to the problems of the unprecedented urban growth of industrialization. The planned model settlement, which was a complex and self-contained socio-economic unit, represents an important stage in the development of modern town planning. The layout and architecture of Saltaire also admirably reflect mid-19th century philanthropic paternalism, as well as the important role played by the textile industry in economic and social development.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Saltaire is a complete and well-preserved industrial village of the second half of the 19th century. Its textile mills, public buildings and workers' housing are built in a harmonious style of high architectural quality and the plan survives intact, giving a vivid impression of the philanthropic paternalism of the Victorian age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The worsted trade began in Bradford in the mid-18th century but did not develop rapidly until the advent of steam power. The result was an urban population explosion: between 1780 and 1850 it rose from 8,500 to about 104,000. The living conditions of the workforce were abysmal, and life expectancy for both men and women was little over 20 years, in a town recognized as one of the most polluted in England. Titus Salt, a wealthy and influential businessman, became Mayor of Bradford in 1848 and committed himself to reducing Bradford's pollution problems. Land was acquired with access to a plentiful supply of soft water for washing the wool. The transportation links were excellent: the site lay equidistant from Liverpool in the west and Hull in the east. Salt commissioned Bradford architects Henry Lockwood and Richard Mawson and the engineer William Fairbairn to design and supervise the realization of his visionary plan.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Work on the mill work began in 1851 and it was opened in 1853. Salt's new village eventually had over 800 dwellings in wide streets with a large dining hall and kitchens, baths and washhouses, almshouse for retired workers, hospital and dispensary, educational institute and church, ample recreational land and allotments, in order to improve the diet of the workers. He had a genuine philanthropic concern for his workers and succeeded in providing them with a healthy and secure environment (not unconscious, of course, of the economic benefits that this bestowed). Many tributes were paid to Titus Salt on his death in 1876. After his death, the firm was taken over by three of his sons. Then the village was sold in 1933 to the Bradford Property Trust, enabling their occupants for the first time to purchase them. The mill closed down in 1986. Many buildings became semi-redundant and fell into disrepair, with an adverse effect on the entire village. The first move towards regeneration was the creation of the Saltaire Village Society in 1984. In 1989 the Saltaire Town Scheme was established by Bradford Metropolitan District Council and English Heritage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The integrity of Saltaire as a model industrial village is total: there have been no changes to its layout and appearance since work began in the 1850s. The village is laid out on a gridiron pattern, so as to make the maximum possible use of the land: the streets were organized on a north-south orientation, those in the second phase running east-west. Almost all the public and community buildings were constructed along Victoria Road, leading to the mill.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The houses, built between 1854 and 1868, are fine examples of 19th-century hierarchical workers' homes. All are constructed of hammer-dressed stone with slate roofs. Each was equipped with its own water and gas supply and an outside lavatory. They vary in size from 'two-up two-down' terraces to much larger houses with gardens, for the use of the managers. They are all 'through' terraces, allowing light and air to penetrate and rubbish to be evacuated without passing through the houses. The mill is an imposing building in a grand Italianate style. The Dining Room was built in 1854: it also served as a schoolroom for 750 children, hospital, public meeting hall, and place for religious services (including the church) until custom-built properties had been erected within the village. At the end of the village there is Roberts Park, a landscaped open space of 6&amp;nbsp;ha with a cricket ground, promenade, bandstand, refreshment rooms, and facilities for swimming and boating.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Saltaire, West Yorkshire, is a complete and well-preserved industrial village of the second half of the 19th century. Its textile mills, public buildings and workers' housing are built in a harmonious style of high architectural standards and the urban plan survives intact, giving a vivid impression of Victorian philanthropic paternalism.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Saltaire</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1201</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1029</http_url><id_number>1029</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1029.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (viii):&lt;/em&gt; The coastal exposures within the site provide an almost continuous sequence of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous rock formations spanning the Mesozoic Era and document approximately 185 million years of Earth history. The site includes a range of internationally important fossil localities &amp;ndash; both vertebrate and invertebrate, marine and terrestrial - which have produced well preserved and diverse evidence of life during Mesozoic times.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>50.7055555600</latitude><location>Dorset and East Devon, England</location><longitude>-2.9898888890</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the south coast of England, the property comprises eight sections along 155&amp;nbsp;km of coast. The property has a combination of geological, palaeontological and geomorphological features. These include a variety of fossils, a beach renowned for its pebbles and textbook examples of common coastal features such as sea stacks and sea caves. The area has been studied for more than 300 years and has contributed to the development of earth sciences in the UK.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site includes a near-continuous sequence of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous rock exposures, representing much of the Mesozoic era (251-66&amp;nbsp;million years ago) or approximately 185&amp;nbsp;million years of the Earth's history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site contains a range of important Mesozoic fossil localities. A large number of vertebrate, invertebrate and plant fossils have been discovered. Among the finds are fossil dinosaur footprints, including flying reptiles and marine reptiles. The area has yielded a rich source of ammonites, which have been used to zone the Jurassic. Well-preserved remains of a late Jurassic fossil forest are exposed on the Isle of Portland and the Purbeck coast: many trees are preserved with their associated soils and pollen, a boon for palaeo-ecologists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is also renowned for the study of beach formation and evolution on a retreating coastline. Chesil Beach, stretching from West Bay to Portland, is one of the best-studied beaches in the world. The beach is famous for the volume, type and grading of pebbles. The Fleet Lagoon is one of the most important saline lagoons in Europe, its sediments providing evidence of late Holocene beach evolution, and changes in sea level, climate and vegetation. The Isle of Purbeck is notable for its well-developed coastal landforms, including cave-bay sequences and textbook examples of bays, stacks and rock arches.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Migratory wildfowl habitat occurs in the area, with a relatively diverse invertebrate fauna.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The academic interest in the site derives in particular from the textbook examples of landforms and the diversity of these landforms in a relatively confined area, making the site an ideal location for initiating students of earth sciences. Although the natural integrity of the site has been somewhat compromised by quarrying, stone from the site has contributed to the construction of another World Heritage site - the Tower of London.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The cliff exposures along the Dorset and East Devon coast provide an almost continuous sequence of rock formations spanning the Mesozoic Era, or some 185 million years of the earth's history. The area's important fossil sites and classic coastal geomorphologic features have contributed to the study of earth sciences for over 300 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Dorset and East Devon Coast</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1202</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The construction in 1721 at Derby in the English East Midlands of a water-driven mill to manufacture silk thread was a very significant event in the Industrial Revolution. The large mill building was five storeys high and housed machines driven from a common power source, thus laying the foundations of the modern factory.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was the work of Richard Arkwright (1732-92), who in the 1760s successfully developed a machine for spinning cotton. His search for backers to finance a patent and further develop his machine brought him to the Derby area, where he formed a partnership with silk manufacturer Jedediah Strutt (1726-97) and his partner Samuel Need.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;They selected Cromford, a village upstream of the river Derwent from Derby, for their first mill, work on which began in 1772. Between 1772 and 1775 much of Arkwright's time (and hence the work of the mill) was devoted to experimentation, as a result of which he was able in 1775 to file his second patent, which was devoted primarily to mechanization of the pre-spinning processes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This was put into operation in the second Cromford Mill, built in 1776-77 and financed by local lead merchant Peter Nightingale, who purchased the Cromford Estate on which the mill and a residence for Arkwright were built. Arkwright also made provision for his workforce, mostly children. In order to attract them and their parents, he developed the village of Cromford. Weavers were invited to live in the houses that he built, their children working in the spinning mills and the parents weaving calico from Arkwright's cotton on the topmost floors. This ingenious method of recruiting labour was adopted by the Derwent valley factory owners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Once the second Cromford Mill was in operation a period of intensive activity began. Mills were built by Arkwright and his family and by Strutt in other parts of Derbyshire between 1777 and 1783. Royalty agreements licensing the use of the Arkwright machinery and process led to similar mills springing up in other parts of the country and overseas. Meanwhile, the Cromford operation expanded, and it was joined by another large installation, the Masson Mill at Matlock Bath, which was in operation by the mid 1780s.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Jedediah Strutt and his brothers established their mills further down the Derwent Valley. His first mill was built around 1776/7 in Belper. The destruction of this and a second one on the same site by fire led to the building of the fireproof North Mill in 1804. From 1781 onwards work went ahead on a second group of Strutt mills, this time at Milford, further down the river. Like Arkwright in Cromford, the Strutts created housing and other facilities for their workers in Belper and Milford. The Strutt business prospered during the first quarter of the 19th century, when it was the largest cotton factory enterprise in England, but thereafter it declined as the centre of the cotton industry moved to Lancashire.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Evans brothers (Thomas, Edward, and William) began building a cotton mill at Darley Abbey, just north of Derby, in 1782, in the beginning possibly in partnership with Richard Arkwright. It was completed around 1786, but burned down two years later. Its replacement was constructed immediately and was considerably enlarged between 1796 and 1805 and again between 1818 and 1821. The company diversified its production, eventually giving up spinning, under the Evans family until 1903, then under two successive owners until 1969, when the mill was sold for other uses. It is now the home for a number of small businesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like Arkwright and the Strutt brothers, the Evans family provided a community for their workers. Sir Richard Arkwright died in 1792 and the business passed to his son, Richard Arkwright junior, who sold all its holdings apart from the Cromford and Masson Mills. The late 1820s saw the beginning of a progressive decline in the fortunes of both mills. Cotton manufacture came to an end on the Cromford site in the 1870s: parts of it continued in use for other industrial purposes, but even these came to an end in 1979, by which time it had suffered two fires and much alteration. It is now home to a range of small businesses, as well as a popular heritage attraction. The Masson Mill, by contrast, was modernized in the late 1880s and was in continuous operation until 1992.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1030</http_url><id_number>1030</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1030.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; The Derwent Valley saw the birth of the factory system, when new types of building were erected to house the new technology for spinning cotton developed by Richard Arkwright in the early 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; In the Derwent Valley for the first time there was large-scale industrial production in a hitherto rural landscape. The need to provide housing and other facilities for workers and managers resulted in the creation of the first modern industrial towns.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.0288888900</latitude><location>Derbyshire, England</location><longitude>-1.4880555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Derwent Valley in central England saw the birth of the factory system, when new types of building were erected to house the new technology for spinning cotton developed by Richard Arkwright in the early 19th century. There was large-scale industrial production in a hitherto rural landscape. The need to provide housing and other facilities for workers and managers resulted in the creation of the first industrial towns.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The valley contains a series of 18th- and 19th-century cotton mills and an industrial landscape of high historical and technological significance. The industrial-scale production and the workers' housing associated illustrate the socio-economic development of the area. The construction in 1721 at Derby in the English East Midlands of a water-driven mill to manufacture silk thread was a very significant event in the Industrial Revolution. This was the work of Richard Arkwright, who in the 1760s successfully developed a machine for spinning cotton. He formed a partnership with silk manufacturer Jedediah Strutt. They selected Cromford, a village upstream of the river Derwent from Derby, for his first mill, work on which began in 1772. Arkwright also made provision for his workforce, mostly children. In order to attract them and their parents, he developed the village of Cromford. Weavers were invited to live in the houses that he built, their children working in the spinning mills and the parents weaving calico from Arkwright's cotton on the topmost floors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Evans brothers began building a cotton mill at Darley Abbey, just north of Derby, in 1782, in the beginning in partnership with Richard Arkwright. It was completed around 1786, but burned down two years later. Its replacement was constructed immediately and was considerably enlarged. The company diversified its production, eventually giving up spinning, and it is now the home for a number of small businesses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like Arkwright and the Strutt brothers, the Evans family provided a community for their workers. The late 1820s saw the beginning of a progressive decline in the fortunes of both mills. In 1979 it had suffered two fires and much alteration. It is now home to a range of small businesses, as well as a popular heritage attraction. The Masson Mill, by contrast, was modernized in the late 1880s and was in continuous operation until 1992. Now the complete property consists of a continuous strip 24&amp;nbsp;km long, from the edge of Matlock Bath in the north almost to the centre of Derby in the south. It includes four industrial settlements:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Cromford Mill Complex and Matlock Bath, including Masson Mill, Upper Mill (1771) and Lower Mill of 1776; there are a number of other industrial buildings within the complex with various original functions: warehouses, workshops, a loom shop, mill managers' houses, etc. The Cromford Canal, built in the 1790s, ran 23.5km to join Erewash Canal, as part of a through route to Manchester.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Belper is located halfway between Cromford and Derby and is formed by Belper North Mill (1804) and East Mill (1912). Its houses are built from gritstone or locally made brick and roofed with Welsh slate. They are laid out in rows, largely on an east-west alignment and in various forms as the company experimented with different designs. There is also the Chapel and Chapel Cottage (1788).&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;In Milford (1781) little remains of the industrial buildings following a radical clearance operation around 1960, but much of the industrial housing survives intact. The houses, many of them in rows because of the topography of the area, are in a range of styles. Some are earlier farmhouses that were purchased by the company and converted into multiple dwellings. The public buildings established by the Strutts include schools, churches, and public houses.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Darley Abbey lies 2km north of Derby City Centre. It was an industrial hamlet, with fulling mills, corn mills, and a forge, by the mid-17th century, and these had grown by the early 1770s to five water-powered mills - a paper mill, a corn mill, two flint mills (for porcelain production) and a leather mill.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Derwent Valley in central England contains a series of 18th- and 19th- century cotton mills and an industrial landscape of high historical and technological interest. The modern factory owes its origins to the mills at Cromford, where Richard Arkwright's inventions were first put into industrial-scale production. The workers' housing associated with this and the other mills remains intact and illustrate the socio-economic development of the area.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Derwent Valley Mills</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1203</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The history of Kew Gardens is very complex. In 1772 two contiguous royal estates were combined: Richmond (the western half of today's gardens) and Kew (the eastern half). Three other estates (private residences and gardens) were also included. The palace built by Henry VII at Richmond in the 16th century, which could be reached by boat from the capital, proved an attractive venue for the court during the summer months. The Kew estate became the property of the Capel family, who made its gardens into a much admired attraction by the mid 16th century. The Capels sold the lease to Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1731.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The gardens of Richmond and Kew were substantially remodelled at the end of the 18th century. Queen Caroline entrusted the alterations at Richmond to the king's gardener, Charles Bridgeman (who died in 1738), and the architect and landscape gardener William Kent (1685- 1748) - two well-known figures in the early years of landscape gardening, which at the time was a novel approach to the art of gardens. Following the death of the Prince of Wales (1751), Princess Augusta was assisted by Lord Bute and William Chambers (1723-1796), who gave botanical, architectural and gardening advice, and set in motion a highly active period for the estate. William Chambers revived the fashion for &amp;lsquo;Chinoiseries' which gained popularity throughout England and then spread to the continent in the form of Anglo-Chinese gardens. It is generally accepted that Princess Augusta and Lord Bute established the first botanic garden at Kew in 1759. This modest 4-hectare garden, originally for medicinal plants, was developed thanks to the efforts of the gardener William Aiton.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was not until the arrival of Sir Joseph Banks as head of the botanic garden of Kew in 1773 that the institution won an international reputation. Banks shared with George III a determination to use exotic and native plants for economic purposes, thereby determining the future line of development of the gardens. In the following decades, plant researchers travelled all over the world to bring back new species (from India, Abyssinia, China and Australia) and Kew became the centre of botanic economics for Great Britain and its colonies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1764, Lancelot &amp;lsquo;Capability' Brown began to leave his imprint on the Richmond gardens, opening up large vistas and carrying out informal plantations. William Chambers was working in the neighbouring gardens of Kew. The botanic gardens were developed, an arboretum was founded and the small glasshouses increased in number. In 1802, the wall separating the two estates of Richmond and Kew was demolished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The deaths of Sir Joseph Banks and of George III in 1820 plunged the gardens into a period of decline that was destined to last for around twenty years. Following a parliamentary enquiry and a strong campaign of support, the gardens were saved from irremediable closure. The appointment of Sir William Hooker as the first official director ushered in a period of revitalisation (1841-1885).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;William Nesfield, assisted by Decimus Burton, remodelled the gardens at Richmond and Kew, which now formed a single landscaped ensemble. From this period date the construction of the two remarkable glasshouses (Palm House and Temperate House), the foundation of the herbarium and the creation of the national arboretum. Kew helped provide a new impetus for scientific research in the interest of the British Empire, which sent seeds, plants and horticultural advice to its colonies (such as Malaysia, India and Sri Lanka).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the change of fashions and the development of the gardens, certain elements of the complex landscape devised by William Nesfield were gradually adjusted to facilitate upkeep, and new projects were undertaken, such as the restructuring of the arboretum, the creation of the Alpine garden, and the Japanese gateway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the number of visitors increased, the scientific collections were enriched (the herbarium was extended in 1903 and then again in 1932) and glasshouses and spaces were altered to house living plant collections (such as the first Alpine House in 1887 and the Rhododendron House in 1925).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;While the Second World War inflicted some material damage on Kew Gardens, the slowdown in its activities, already in evidence with the decline of the British Empire, was confirmed. The bicentenary of the creation of the gardens gave a new impetus which resulted in the restoration and reopening of the Palm House, and the improvement of the Rock Garden, the Azalea Garden and the Order Beds. As these interventions were not sufficient to accommodate the growing collections, some specimens were moved to a 200-hectare garden at Wakehurst (1965). New glasshouses with more advanced technology were built such as the Alpine House (1981), and in particular the Princess of Wales Conservatory (1986). In 1963, the Jodrell Laboratory was rebuilt to a larger design to accommodate the constantly growing number of researchers. The main activities of Kew Gardens today are the conservation of the heritage of the site itself, and the conservation of ecosystems worldwide.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1084</http_url><id_number>1084</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1084.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Since the 18th century, the Botanic Gardens of Kew have been closely associated with scientific and economic exchanges established throughout the world in the field of botany, and this is reflected in the richness of its collections. The landscape features and architectural features of the gardens reflect considerable artistic influences both with regard to the European continent and to more distant regions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; Kew Gardens have largely contributed to advances in many scientific disciplines, particularly botany and ecology. The landscape gardens and the edifices created by celebrated artists such as Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, Lancelot &amp;lsquo;Capability&amp;rsquo; Brown and William Chambers reflect the beginning of movements which were to have international influence.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>51.4819444400</latitude><location>London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, southwest Greater London</location><longitude>-0.2940277780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Since the 18th century, the Botanic Gardens of Kew have been closely associated with scientific and economic exchanges established throughout the world in the field of botany, and this is reflected in the richness of its collections. The landscape features and architectural features of the gardens reflect considerable artistic influences with regard to both the European continent and more distant regions. Kew Gardens have largely contributed to advances in many scientific disciplines, particularly botany and ecology. The landscape gardens and the edifices created by celebrated artists such as Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, Lancelot 'Capability' Brown and William Chambers reflect the beginning of movements that were to have international influence. The architectural ensemble at Kew includes a number of unrivalled buildings. The historic landscape within which these buildings are situated is a remarkable palimpsest of features from the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew are situated along the cultural landscape of the Thames. Since the 17th century, the site has been a place of retreat for the royal family. In the 18th century, internationally renowned architects such as William Chambers and 'Capability' Brown not only created many edifices, but also remodelled the earlier Baroque gardens to make a pastoral landscape in the English style, establishing a fashion that then spread throughout the continent. The first botanic garden at Kew, originally for medicinal plants, was founded in 1759 by Princess Augusta and Lord Bute.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kew Palace is the oldest building on the site (1631). Classical in inspiration, this house (in red brick laid in Flemish bond style) was built on the banks of the Thames. The orangery (now used as a restaurant), the largest Georgian edifice on the site, was built by William Chambers in 1761, and stopped being used for its original purpose and housed a museum until 1959. Queen Charlotte's Cottage was probably originally the residence of the head of the menagerie and was given to Queen Charlotte. In 1802, the wall between the two estates of Richmond and Kew was demolished. The palace built by Henry VII at Richmond in the 16th century, which could be reached by boat from the capital, proved an attractive venue for the Court during the summer months. The Kew estate became the property of the Capel family, who sold the lease to Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1731.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The essential elements of the landscape garden designed by William Nesfield are one of the outstanding features of Kew. This garden is centred on an iron and glass structure, the Palm House (1844-48), designed by the architects Richard Turner and Decimus Burton. From the Palm House there are three vistas: the Pagoda vista, the Sion vista towards the Thames, and a minor vista.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Herbarium, originally an 18th century hunting lodge, houses collections of plants and a library: the former museum of botanic economics (1847) has been converted into a school of horticulture (1990) and a new Jodrell Laboratory (1965) caters for the needs of researchers in plant anatomy, physiology, cytogenetics and biochemistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the number of visitors increased, the scientific collections were enriched and glasshouses and spaces were altered to house living plant collections. The Second World War inflicted some material damage on Kew Gardens. The bicentenary of the creation of the gardens gave a new impetus. The main activities of Kew Gardens today are the conservation of the heritage of the site itself, and the conservation of ecosystems worldwide. Most of the buildings and structures are in a good state of conservation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Joseph Banks and William Hooker, gardeners of great renown, whose revolutionary methodology modernized botany in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, were both directors of Kew Gardens. Kew's exceptional and diverse living collections exemplify the active European cultural tradition of collecting and cultivating exotic plants for aesthetic, scientific and economic purposes. This tradition has also led to recording and monitoring of the very rich local biodiversity for over 120 years, including an exceptional range of birds, insects, lichens and fungi; some of the latter have proved to be new to science.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This historic landscape garden features elements that illustrate significant periods of the art of gardens from the 18th to the 20th centuries. The gardens house botanic collections (conserved plants, living plants and documents) that have been considerably enriched through the centuries. Since their creation in 1759, the gardens have made a significant and uninterrupted contribution to the study of plant diversity and economic botany.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1262</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2012</danger><date_inscribed>2004</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Growth before 1715: The earliest evidence of human activity in the area of Liverpool is from the late Mesolithic period, some 6,000 years ago. There are traces of Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Viking settlements, followed by the Norman conquest. Liverpool was first mentioned in a charter of Prince John ca 1192. King John established Liverpool with the grant of a Charter in 1207 to enable him to mount an expansion into Wales and Ireland. Liverpool became a port for Irish and Scottish trade. Around the middle of the 17th century Liverpool merchants began to develop trade with America. The Great Plague of London caused many merchants come to Liverpool, bringing their money and experience. There was also an increasing number of religious emigrants, eg Puritans, Protestants, and Quakers, to the New World. From the end of the 17th to the early 18th centuries, the increasing wealth resulted in new urban developments, and the construction of docks and warehouses for the harbour. The so-called Old Dock was opened in 1715, becoming the prototype of commercial enclosed wet docks and the catalyst of Liverpool's subsequent rise to the status of a world port.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;18th century: The principal early imported cargoes were tobacco, sugar and rum. After 1700, Liverpool joined Spain, Portugal, Bristol and London in the Triangular Trade, trading with cotton, manufactured goods, black slaves, and other goods between Africa, the West Indies, America and Europe. Liverpool became the most important centre in the world for the organisation of the slave trade. A Northern Triangular Run grew with the opening of Salthouse Dock in 1753, facilitating the export of salt, part of the system of exchange of various products between Newfoundland, and the West Indies, as well as Ireland and the Mediterranean countries. Businessmen and tradesmen came to Liverpool from all parts of Britain to take advantage of the opportunities, and by 1801 Liverpool had become the largest town in England.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the increase of the capacity of the harbour, a reliable transport system was needed: first in improving the navigation of existing rivers, then by the construction of canals. The Mersey and Irwell Navigation opened in 1736. The Sankey Brook Canal from the St. Helens coalfield to the River Mersey (1757) is seen as the first industrial canal in the world. From 1770 to 1816, a canal was cut from Leeds to Liverpool, the longest and most successful in Britain. With the take-off of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century Liverpool's dock facilities became critical to this process, involving the cotton industry of the North West of England, as well as the iron and steelmaking industries in the country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;19th century: When ships were dependent on wind-power, storage of goods was essential, and warehouses became a part of the Liverpool townscape, especially from the late 18th till mid 19th centuries, eg Goree Warehouses (1793), others at King's Dock (1795-1812), Albert Dock Warehouses (1847) for imports, and Waterloo Warehouse (1868) for grain. The importance of coal became marked with the widespread introduction of steam power for production machines and transportation. The first steamship entered the Mersey in 1815, the first trans- Atlantic steamer from Liverpool was the Royal William in 1833, initiating a new era for shipping and leading to increases in tonnage going through Liverpool.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The idea of a railway between Liverpool and Manchester was promoted by a committee of Liverpool businessmen. The line was complete by June 1830; it was the first railway in the world to carry passengers to regular timetables as well as goods. The opening of the railway enabled goods from Liverpool Docks to be transported to other parts of Great Britain more efficiently than before and the port came to depend upon the railways for maintaining its global trading position. The Liverpool Overhead Railway was built 1889-1893, becoming the world's first elevated electric railway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Until the beginning of the 19th century, Liverpool's traders mostly worked from home. As the scale of operations expanded, the scale and character of the centre area changed. Increasing profits from trade justified the construction of large, purely commercial buildings, three and four storeys high and subsequently more. At the same time, there were urban renewal programmes and new streets and areas were constructed in the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The prosperity of Liverpool and its role as a point of emigration to the New World attracted thousands upon thousands of people from across Europe. Many stayed and added to the unsanitary housing conditions in central Liverpool. In response to these problems, Liverpool introduced many advances in health care, becoming a forerunner in the country in mid 19th century. After the abolition of the transportation of slaves in 1807, ships continued to transport emigrants from Liverpool to America in vast numbers. Many European migrants came through Liverpool because it had the necessary shipping lines, choice of destinations and infrastructure, including special emigration trains.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;20th century: At the beginning of the 20th century, Liverpool claimed to be &amp;lsquo;The Second City of the Empire'. The First World War, however, slowed down the development, causing unemployment. Later, the economy recovered, and some fine buildings were constructed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the Second World War, Liverpool suffered from bombing more than any other provincial town in Britain due to its strategic importance. After the war, there has been much rebuilding. Some of the old docks have been modernised and the approach from the sea was improved. The economic drawback continued however, and the city has lost nearly half of its inhabitants (from 850,000 in 1930 to 450,000 today). Nevertheless, the last decade has seen a positive turn, and the city has made major efforts to regenerate its cultural and economic life.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1150</http_url><id_number>1150</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1150.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii):&lt;/em&gt; Liverpool was a major centre generating innovative technologies and methods in dock construction and port management in the 18th and 19th centuries. It thus contributed to the building up of the international mercantile systems throughout the British Commonwealth.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii):&lt;/em&gt; the city and the port of Liverpool are an exceptional testimony to the development of maritime mercantile culture in the 18th and 19th centuries, contributing to the building up of the British Empire. It was a centre for the slave trade, until its abolition in 1807, and to emigration from northern Europe to America.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iv):&lt;/em&gt; Liverpool is an outstanding example of a world mercantile port city, which represents the early development of global trading and cultural connections throughout the British Empire.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>53.4066666700</latitude><location>Liverpool, England</location><longitude>-2.9944444440</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The city and port of Liverpool are exceptional testimony to the development of maritime mercantile culture in the 18th and 19th centuries, and played an important role in the growth of the British Empire. Liverpool is an outstanding example of a world mercantile port city, which represents the early development of global trading and cultural connections throughout the British Empire. The city was also a major centre generating innovative technologies and methods in dock construction and port management in the 18th and 19th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Six areas in the historic centre and docklands of Liverpool bear witness to the development of one of the world's major trading centres in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on its harbour. The first ocean steamship left from Liverpool in 1840; from that date onwards the town became a fundamental link connecting Europe to America. It also became the major port for the mass movement of people: it was a centre for the slave trade until its abolition in 1807, and for emigration from northern Europe to America. Thousands of people from all over Europe gathered here to migrate to the New World.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Liverpool was a pioneer in the development of modern dock technology, transport systems and port management. The listed sites feature a great number of significant commercial, civic and public buildings, including St George's Plateau.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The view of Liverpool's waterfront was once very different from that of today. Where the world-famous riverside now stands was the tidal reach of the Mersey, merging with the Pool from which the town drew its name. The River Mersey is a tidal basin that flows into the Irish Sea and this geographical relationship was the foundation of its emergent overseas trade starting in the days of King John, who granted Liverpool its charter in 1207. The Pool was the safest mooring place for boats, and the borough council petitioned parliament to introduce legislation to build the first commercial wet dock in the world in 1715.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This development of the sea trade led inevitably to the expansion of associated trades such as sail-makers, blacksmiths, riggers and basket-makers. The growth of Liverpool continued dramatically in the 19th century: the population grew from 78,000 in 1801 to 685,000 by 1901. The borough council petitioned for Liverpool to be given city status, which it achieved in 1888, and by the early 20th century it was proclaimed the 'Second City of the Empire'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the First World War, Liverpool experienced economic downturn, yet the city council continued to make improvements with the construction of the East Lancashire Road and the Mersey Queensway Tunnel, which in its time was the longest underwater tunnel in the world. Liverpool was bombed more heavily in the Second World War than any other provincial city in Europe and was almost completely devastated. During the war 1,000 convoys entered Liverpool and the city was the headquarters of the battle of the Atlantic from 1941.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Post-war rebuilding took place and by the 1950s Liverpool was once again the second most important port in the empire in terms of the value of its imports and exports and the most important in terms of its passenger figures. In the late 20th century, after a prolonged period of unemployment and decline, the revival of the fortunes of the city lay in the redevelopment of its dock system. The Albert and Wapping Docks were restored as visitor attractions and a retail centre, and the installation of new dock gates at Canning facilitated the Tall Ships and Mersey River Festival in the 1980s and 1990s. It should not be forgotten also that Liverpool was the heart of a musical revolution during the 1960s.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Six areas in the historic centre and docklands of the maritime mercantile City of Liverpool bear witness to the development of one of the world&amp;rsquo;s major trading centres in the 18th and 19th centuries. Liverpool played an important role in the growth of the British Empire and became the major port for the mass movement of people, e.g. slaves and emigrants from northern Europe to America. Liverpool was a pioneer in the development of modern dock technology, transport systems and port management. The listed sites feature a great number of significant commercial, civic and public buildings, including St George&amp;rsquo;s Plateau.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1331</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger>0</danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological evidence suggests that the mineral resources of Cornwall and West Devon have been exploited for over 3,500 years. Until 1700, tin was the most important ore, its extractive production only being exceeded in Europe by Erzgebirge in the early 15th century. The Romans extracted the ore from tin streams to supply countries across northern Europe and extraction continued in early and later medieval times. In 1201 the importance of the tin industry was recognised by the establishment of a special legal framework that gave privileges to the tinners. It was administered through eight &amp;lsquo;Stannary' areas and persisted until 1838.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the early 16th century, many tin streams were becoming exhausted and miners turned to the exploitation of outcrops. At first the shallow ore was mined in an open cast process. Once this was exhausted, progressively deeper shafts needed to be sunk. These had to be drained of water, usually by water-powered pumps.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 1580s German miners began mining copper ore. The first mines were unsuccessful and it was not until the early 1700s that a successful mine was established at Chacewater. Around the same time, gunpowder was introduced into mines and this greatly increased the speed at which mines could be established and the depth to which channels could be sunk. The development of steam engines allowed water to be pumped from these deep mines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It was Thomas Newcomen from Devon who developed the &amp;lsquo;atmospheric' engine. The fist to be installed in a metal mine was at Great Wheal Vor between 1710 and 1714.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This heralded the beginning of industrialisation of the mining process. The early engines were however expensive and inefficient to run and their number increased only slowly until the more efficient Boulton and Watt engines were brought to the region in 1778. By 1790, 45 engines were working, laying the foundations for the expansion of the industry. The technology was in place to exploit the plentiful deep seams of copper and tin ore.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last great technological leap was the invention of the high-pressure steam engine by Richard Trevithick of Camborne, which was more powerful and efficient. His first machine was constructed in 1800. The early three decades of the 19th century saw much experimentation with engine design, promoting competition amongst engineers and mine owners. And Cornish foundries were developed to meet the growing demand for the engines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of a transport infrastructure and the development of subsidiary industries accelerated the pace of change; by the 1850s Cornish mines dominated the world's copper markets.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of course the extraction of copper and tin as a profitable business was only possible because of the high demand for these minerals, tin for plating and cans and copper for the brass products needed for ships and engines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape was transformed by the mines, engine houses and spoil heaps, by new towns and mining settlements constructed to accommodate the rapidly increasing number of miners, and by ports, harbours, railways and canals. Wealth generated was used to create copious public buildings and fine houses and landscape gardens for the mine owners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time, the technology that allowed the development of the mines was exported around the world to countries which had appropriate mining deposits. As a result, there are important examples of the diagnostic beam-engine houses surviving from 19th century Spain, Mexico, South Africa and Australia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The copper crash of 1866 caused by increasing competition from Chile, Lake Superior and South Australia, precipitated the rapid closure of many copper mines, leaving only the tin mines active. They survived for a few more years until competition form Australia and Malaya led to an unsustainable drop in price. Miners started to emigrate taking their knowledge and technology with them to develop &amp;lsquo;Cornish' mines around the world. By the end of the 19th century, it was mainly arsenic workings that remained, exploiting the arsenical pyrites formerly discarded as waste.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A few mines survived, the last, South Crofty, closing in 1998.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1215</http_url><id_number>1215</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1215.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>50.1361111111</latitude><location>Cornwall and Devon Counties</location><longitude>-5.3836111111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Much of the landscape of Cornwall and West Devon was transformed in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a result of the rapid growth of pioneering copper and tin mining. Its deep underground mines, engine houses, foundries, new towns, smallholdings, ports and harbours, and their ancillary industries together reflect prolific innovation which, in the early 19th century, enabled the region to produce two-thirds of the world’s supply of copper. The substantial remains are a testimony to the contribution Cornwall and West Devon made to the Industrial Revolution in the rest of Britain and to the fundamental influence the area had on the mining world at large. Cornish technology embodied in engines, engine houses and mining equipment was exported around the world. Cornwall and West Devon were the heartland from which mining technology rapidly spread.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1392</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2009</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;In order to link Chester and the Mersey estuary to the Severn and the Midlands canal network, the Ellesmere Canal was conceived in the early 1790s. It was undertaken by a private company under the technical supervision of the engineer William Jessop (1745-1814). The construction of three branches was started from the central point of Ellesmere. The need for water and the rich reserves of coal and limestone in the Dee and Ceiriog valleys, in the foothills of the Welsh mountains, led to the extension of the project in this direction by a fourth section. The works began in 1795.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, linking the northern side of the Dee to the Ellesmere canals, crossing the Rivers Ceiriog and Dee, which have very pronounced valleys, presented two major obstacles. From 1793 onwards, Jessop worked in collaboration with Thomas Telford (1757-1834) for this branch of the canal. Telford was an outstanding engineer and architect who had a remarkable ability for finding new technical solutions to building and civil-engineering problems. He was already well known when he was engaged and had just undertaken the construction of several cast-iron bridges, such as the Longdon aqueduct to cross the Severn. He also proposed a cast-iron bridge to cross the Thames. In the same region he was also employed to build the road from London to Dublin.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The aqueduct over the Ceiriog at Chirk was the first structure to be planned, in 1795, by Jessop and Telford. After considerable discussion a stone structure was preferred. Shortly afterwards, when the crossing of the Dee came up for consideration, the conditions were different. The valley was wider and deeper, and a conventional aqueduct would therefore have been be very costly; furthermore, cast-iron bridges were beginning to prove their qualities. The cast-iron bridge solution proposed by Telford was chosen and construction work began under his supervision. The canal up to Trevor was opened on 26 November 1805. The part which extends the canal to Horseshoe Falls was completed in 1808.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As soon as it had been built the Pontcysyllte aqueduct became famous for its highly innovative technical and architectural boldness. When completed it was recognised as an outstanding success, eliciting praise from engineers and inspiring Romantic artists. After the end of the Napoleonic wars several foreign engineers and scholars came to visit the aqueduct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pontcysyllte aqueduct made Thomas Telford famous. He was recognised in his lifetime as the greatest builder of iron bridges and canals of his time. He became the first president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in London in 1825. Telford and his Pontcysyllte aqueduct had an important influence in the international development of canals at the beginning of the 19th century in Great Britain, Europe and North America. Telford participated in the construction of other very well known canals, such as the Caledonian Canal in Scotland and the G&amp;ouml;ta Canal in Sweden.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The economic influence of the canal for the region was considerable during the first half of the 19th century, enabling the rapid development of coal extraction, metal working, limestone quarries, and the production of lime. The slate quarries of the Welsh mountains and agriculture also benefited from the canal. By 1815 the substantial investments it had required had been repaid and the canal became a highly profitable business. Its direct link with a vast network of canals to the Mersey, through the Midlands, and as far as London, greatly encouraged the use of the canal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The situation here was different from that in other regions because the railway was not a direct competitor to the canal but was instead basically complementary, through small private lines that led up to the canal. However, the activity of heavy cargo transport went into a steep decline at the end of the 19th century as the growth of local heavy industry contracted. Economic traffic dropped to a negligible level even before World War I.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As the landscape environment remained rural and the valleys were pleasant - despite the presence of industry, which never profoundly changed them - canal tourism began as early as 1884. Throughout the first third of the 20th century canal tourism was both regular and organised, in the form of small cruises and stays in countryside locations. However, the crisis of the 1930s, followed by the war, dealt the canal a fatal blow.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1944 the Ellesmere Canal was decommissioned by an Act of Parliament, but its western branch was conserved, under the name of the Llangollen Canal, because of its role in the regional water supply. It was, however, in poor condition and no longer navigable, and the aqueduct therefore no longer carried any boats.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Efforts to encourage pleasure cruising and the preservation of the industrial heritage, led by enthusiastic historians and writers, generated a renewal of interest in the early 1950s. This led to a real lift-off for tourism in the 1960s in Great Britain, which contributed to the restoration of the canal and its maintenance. Since 1954 it has been managed and maintained in a navigable condition by British Waterways. This canal is one of the most popular and frequented in the United Kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the 19th century the canal and its engineering structures were regularly maintained. No structural changes were made; wharves and buildings were, however, built on its banks to meet transport needs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The waterproofing of the Chirk Aqueduct was restored in 1866-68 with the addition of cast-iron plate sections at the ends. Some changes of individual metal parts have been carried out on the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct; its towpath was relaid with cast-iron plates in 1879.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Because of the relatively early decline of its industrial activity at the end of the 19th century, it has not undergone any major transformation. It thus well reflects the Industrial Revolution period and its waterway transport.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fill embankment collapses occurred in 1945, 1960, 1982 and 1985, requiring substantial repair work at certain points on the canal. This was an important point to ensure the maintaining of the integrity of the waterway.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pontcysyllte Aqueduct was completely renovated in 2003-2004 to mark its bicentenary, with every effort being made to respect its technical heritage. The work consisted of removing corrosion on the cast iron, changing defective metal parts by others of the same form and of similar materials, repairing the pier masonry, and completely restoring the towpath and its railings, which were in a poor state of repair.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Pontcysyllte Canal and Aqueduct have inspired canal preservation policy in Great Britain and have made a strong contribution to raising awareness of the heritage left behind by the industrial period.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1303</http_url><id_number>1303</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1303.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>52.9702777778</latitude><location>Wrexham County Borough, County of Denbighshire, Borough of Oswestry, County of Shropshire</location><longitude>-3.0877777778</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in north-eastern Wales, the 18 kilometre long Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal is a feat of civil engineering of the Industrial Revolution, completed in the early years of the 19th century. Covering a difficult geographical setting, the building of the canal required substantial, bold civil engineering solutions, especially as it was built without using locks. The aqueduct is a pioneering masterpiece of engineering and monumental metal architecture, conceived by the celebrated civil engineer Thomas Telford. The use of both cast and wrought iron in the aqueduct enabled the construction of arches that were light and d strong, producing an overall effect that is both monumental and elegant. The property is inscribed as a masterpiece of creative genius, and as a remarkable synthesis of expertise already acquired in Europe. It is also recognized as an innovative ensemble that inspired many projects all over the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1583</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/373</http_url><id_number>373</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_373.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.1788888900</latitude><location>Wiltshire, England</location><longitude>-1.8252777780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Stonehenge, Avebury and their associated sites represent a masterpiece of human creative genius of the Neolithic age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site of Stonehenge and Avebury is the best-known ensemble circular megalithic characteristic of the Neolithic civilization in Britain. A number of satellite sites make it possible to better understand the more famous sites by situating them in a broader context.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Stonehenge, which was built in several distinct phases from 3100 to 1100 BC, is one of the most impressive megalithic monuments in the world on account of the sheer size of the menhirs, and especially the perfection of the plan, which is based upon a series of concentric circles, and also because of its height: from the third phase of construction on, large lintels were placed upon the vertical blocks, thereby creating a type of bonded entablature. For the constructions two different materials were used: irregular sandstone blocks known as sarsens, quarried in a plain near Salisbury and bluestones quarried about 200&amp;nbsp;km away in Pembroke County, Wales. An avenue with a bend in it leads to and away from the exterior circle.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the ritual function of the monument is not known in detail, the cosmic references of its structure appear to be essential. The old theory that the site was a sanctuary for worship of the Sun, although not the subject of unanimous agreement among prehistorians, is nevertheless illustrated by the yearly Midsummer Day ceremony during which there is a folkloric procession of bards and druids at Stonehenge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Avebury (about 30&amp;nbsp;km to the north), although not so well known as Stonehenge, is nevertheless Europe's largest circular megalithic ensemble. Its exterior circle comprises some 100 menhirs. In all, 180 standing stones were put into place before the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, as demonstrated by abundant ceramic samples found on the site. There are four avenues (of which only the southern one, West Kennet Avenue, is still lined with megaliths) leading to the four cardinal points of the 'sanctuary'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Not far from Avebury, among a several satellite sites, are to be found Silbury Hill, where Europe's largest known barrow of prehistoric times is located, as well as Windmill Hill, West Kennet Long Barrow, and Overton Hill.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Stonehenge and Avebury, in Wiltshire, are among the most famous groups of megaliths in the world. The two sanctuaries consist of circles of menhirs arranged in a pattern whose astronomical significance is still being explored. These holy places and the nearby Neolithic sites are an incomparable testimony to prehistoric times.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1633</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/370</http_url><id_number>370</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_370.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.7747222200</latitude><location>County of Durham, England</location><longitude>-1.5761111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on a rocky butte overlooking a bend in the Wear River, the monumental array constituted by the cathedral and its outbuildings to the south, and by the castle which inhibits the main access to the peninsula, to the north, makes up one of the best-known cityscapes of medieval Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The history of Durham is linked to that of the transfer of the body of St Cuthbert, the evangelist of Northumbria, who died in 687. In 998 the Saxon community of monks in Durham dedicated a stone 'White Church' of which there are no remains. Thus, Durham became a privileged cathedral in which the northern Christian traditions were revived thanks to a monastic community which grew out of the Benedict Biscop foundation around the relics of Cuthbert and Bede.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present cathedral (1093-11331) constitutes one of the high points in the history of medieval architecture. The elevation of the nave, with the diminishing proportion of the ground arcades, galleries and clerestories, remains close to the Norman models and the system of decoration is revealing of traditional Romanesque aesthetics, which also marks the sober masses of the harmonious facade flanked by two towers that project slightly and were partially rebuilt during the 13th and 14th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The lantern tower was reconstructed in the 15th century and the crossing of the transept was revaulted on this occasion. The monastic buildings, grouped together to the south of the cathedral, comprise few of their pristine elements but make up a diversified and yet coherent ensemble of medieval architecture which 19th-century restoration, substantial in the cloister and the chapter house, did not denature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architectural evolution of the castle, taking place over eight centuries, is even more complex. Of the original Norman foundation, there remains essentially the typical layout comprising a motte to the east and a large bailey to the west. The construction was begun in 1072 by Waltheof, Earl of Northumberland. It was an effective fortress which regularly faced the onslaught of Scottish troops; in the 17th century the military role of the castle gave way to a more residential character which was further accentuated when the castle became part of Durham University in the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The present castle is a veritable labyrinth of halls and galleries of different periods, and in its north wing it houses various vestiges of the Romanesque epoch, include the castral chapel, built in 1080.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Durham Cathedral, owing to the innovative audacity of its vaulting, constitutes a type of experimental model which was far ahead of its time. It is the largest and most perfect monument of 'Norman' style architecture in England. The small castral chapel for its part marks a turning point in the evolution of 11th-century Romanesque sculpture. Around the relics of Cuthbert and Bede, Durham crystallized the memory of the evangelizing of Northumbria and of primitive Benedictine monastic life.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Durham Cathedral was built in the late 11th and early 12th centuries to house the relics of St Cuthbert (evangelizer of Northumbria) and the Venerable Bede. It attests to the importance of the early Benedictine monastic community and is the largest and finest example of Norman architecture in England. The innovative audacity of its vaulting foreshadowed Gothic architecture. Behind the cathedral stands the castle, an ancient Norman fortress which was the residence of the prince-bishops of Durham.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Durham Castle and Cathedral</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1634</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/426</http_url><id_number>426</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_426.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>51.4997222200</latitude><location>City of Westminster, London, England</location><longitude>-0.1286111110</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Westminster Abbey, the Palace and St Margaret's illustrate in a concrete way the specificities of parliamentary monarchy over nine centuries. Whether one looks at the royal tombs or the chapter house, the remarkable vastness of Westminster Hall, of the House of Lords or of the House of Commons, art is everywhere present and harmonious, making it a veritable museum of the history of the United Kingdom. Westminster Abbey is a unique artistic construction representing a striking sequence of the successive phases of English Gothic art. In addition to its influence on English architecture during the Middle Ages, the abbey has played another leading role by influencing the work of Barry and Pugin at Westminster Palace, in the 'Gothic Revival' of the 19th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;On 16 October 1834, a fire almost completely destroyed the old Westminster Palace. Since 1547, it had been the seat of regular parliamentary assemblies. Previously, it was the principal residence of the kings of England, from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. The construction of a new Westminster Palace by Sir Charles Barry and A.&amp;nbsp;W.&amp;nbsp;N. Pugin began in 1835.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The seat of Parliament, which includes to the south of a central tower, the House of Lords, and to the north the House of Commons, illustrates in colossal proportions the grandeur of the constitutional monarchy and the principle of the bicameral system.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Its facade, situated along the Thames, is 266&amp;nbsp;m long; the Victoria Tower is to the south, and the Clock Tower (Big Ben) to the north. The ensemble is constructed in the Gothic Tudor style, so as to show, by a deliberately English historical reference, the national character of the monument. The construction is grouped around some precious vestiges of medieval times, the main three of which are Westminster Hall (rebuilt in 1394-99 by Henri Yevele, and a key monument of Perpendicular style), the chapel of St Mary of the Crypt and the Jewel Tower.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new Westminster Palace is an outstanding, coherent and complete example of neo-Gothic style, with the magnificent interiors of the Royal Gallery, House of Lords, Central Lobby, House of Commons, library, apartments, etc. The palace is also a vivid symbol of one of the oldest parliamentary institutions in the world. Victoria Tower holds 3&amp;nbsp;million archival documents, including all Acts of Parliament since 1497.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Westminster Abbey, where all the kings of England have been crowned since 1066, is inseparable from the parliamentary history of the kingdom and the throne is an obvious symbol. Prior to 1547, when the king granted the Commons the chapel of St Stephen, they had no seat in the palace and held their meetings in the abbey.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Margaret's, a charming Gothic construction, continues to be the parish church of the House of Commons.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Westminster Palace, rebuilt from the year 1840 on the site of important medieval remains, is a fine example of neo-Gothic architecture. The site &amp;ndash; which also comprises the small medieval Church of Saint Margaret, built in Perpendicular Gothic style, and Westminster Abbey, where all the sovereigns since the 11th century have been crowned &amp;ndash; is of great historic and symbolic significance.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey including Saint Margaret’s Church</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1635</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/372</http_url><id_number>372</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_372.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.1161111100</latitude><location>North Yorkshire, England</location><longitude>-1.5730555560</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Fountains site owes its originality and striking beauty to the fact that a humanized landscape of exceptional value was constituted around the largest medieval ruins of the United Kingdom, to serve as testimony to Cistercian expansion in England. Essential to the ruins of the abbey are the small Fountains Hall Castle, the landscaping, the gardens, and the canal created by John Aislabie in the 18th century, the plantations and vistas of the 19th century, and Studley Royal Church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fountains Abbey was founded in 1132 by 13 monks of St Mary's of York, who were searching for an ideal of life in closer keeping with St Benedict's teachings. In 1133, Fountains was recognized as a daughter house of Clairvaux. From the start the abbey benefited from large donations. In the 13th century its land wealth grew to enormous proportions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When the monastic community was broken up after 1530, Fountains was the richest abbey in the kingdom. These four centuries of prosperity are reflected in the utter magnitude of the ruins of the buildings, which constituted the largest monastic complex in Great Britain. Its construction lasted from the 12th to the 16th century, but the abbey was abolished by Henry VIII.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nave of the abbey church, with its characteristic structure combining Burgundian-type elevation is close to the pristine ideal of Cistercian austerity. The rich array of monastic buildings grouped together to the south also testifies to the deep-seated changes occurring in a community which rapidly grew away from the pristine ideal owing to its land wealth and its spiritual influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Around the cloister, to the east, can be seen the remains of the Chapter House, perpendicular to the gallery, separated from the transept by a vestry. To the south there is a refectory, also running perpendicular to the gallery, flanked by a calefactory and a kitchen. To the west there is an immense storeroom, still standing and the lay brothers' refectory. The monks' dormitory, originally located on the upper floor of the east wing, is no longer there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;All sorts of annex buildings were added in the vicinity of the cluster of regular and characteristic structures making up the Cistercian abbey: the lay brothers' infirmary, a long corridor leading to various quarters, prison, mortuary chamber, the monks' infirmary with separate kitchen, storeroom and chapel. Near the main complex can also be seen the ruins of the abbey's mill, bakery and malt house.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;St Mary's Church in Studley Royal, 1&amp;nbsp;km north of Fountains Abbey, is typical of the neo-Gothic style of the Victorian age. The Anglican Church, built between 1871 and 1878 for the Marquis and Marchioness of Ripon, was the religious masterpiece of architect William Burges. It has a highly decorated interior characteristic of Victorian Anglo-Catholic religious sentiments.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The marquis, who had succeeded to the estate in 1859, was a successful politician and Viceroy of India in 1880-84. A deeply religious man, he disliked Renaissance architecture and looked back with nostalgia to what he saw as the more humanitarian caring Middle Ages.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;John Aislabie inherited the Studley's estate in 1693. A socially and politically ambitious man, he first became the Tory Member of Parliament for Ripon in 1695 and in 1718 became Chancellor of the Exchequer. Aislabie returned to Yorkshire and devoted himself to the creation of the garden he had begun in 1718. After his death in 1742, his son William extended his scheme by purchasing the remains of the abbey. He also extended the landscaped area in the picturesque romantic style, contrasting with the formality of his father's work. Between them, the two created what is arguably England's most important 18th-century water garden. It escaped major reshaping and the garden and park passed to the Vyner family, descendants of the Aislabies. In 1966 the estate was purchased by West Riding County Council and was acquired by the National Trust in 1983.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;In the 18th century a designed landscape of exceptional beauty was created around the ruins of the Cistercian Fountains Abbey, in Yorkshire. The spectacular ruins of the 12th century abbey and water mill, the Jacobean mansion of Fountains Hall, the Victorian masterpiece St Mary’s Church and one of the most magnificent Georgian water gardens ever created, make this a landscape of outstanding merit.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Studley Royal Park including the Ruins of Fountains Abbey</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1930</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1485</http_url><id_number>1485</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1485.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>56.0011111111</latitude><location>N56 00 04 W3 23 20</location><longitude>-3.3888888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This railway bridge, crossing the &lt;span&gt;Forth &lt;/span&gt;estuary in Scotland, &lt;span&gt;had &lt;/span&gt;the world’s &lt;span&gt;longest spans &lt;/span&gt;(&lt;span&gt;541 m&lt;/span&gt;) when &lt;span&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;t opened in 1890&lt;span&gt;. It remains one of the greatest cantilever trussed &lt;/span&gt;bridges and continues to carry passengers and freight. Its distinctive industrial aesthetic is the result of a forthright and unadorned display of its structural components. Innovative in style, materials and scale, the Forth Bridge &lt;span&gt;marks &lt;/span&gt;an important milestone in bridge design and construction during the period when railways came to dominate long-distance land travel.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The Forth Bridge</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2046</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2016</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1500</http_url><id_number>1500</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1500.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.1226694444</latitude><location></location><longitude>-5.3420611111</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The steep limestone cliffs on the eastern side of the Rock of Gibraltar contain four caves with archaeological and paleontological deposits that provide evidence of Neanderthal occupation over a span of more than 100,000 years. This exceptional testimony to the cultural traditions of the Neanderthals is seen notably in evidence of the hunting of birds and marine animals for food, the use of feathers for ornamentation and the presence of abstract rock engravings. Scientific research on these sites has already contributed substantially to debates about Neanderthal and human evolution. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Gorham's Cave Complex</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2087</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Neolithic period in the British Isles is mostly characterized by monumental architecture and a strong development of ritual. Collective burials and ceremonial enclosures appear, revealing a more complex social structure and a mobilization of the efforts of a large number of individuals towards a common goal.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Passage graves such as Maes Howe, built around 3000 BC, were large structures, made of stones ordered to form a passage leading from the outer edge of the mound to the chamber containing the remains of the dead. Whether these graves were meant for the elite or for all the people of the community is still not proven by the specialists, but the large amount of human and animal bones, pottery and other objects discovered in these mounds testify that they were important social and religious centres. The general orientation of these structures also demonstrate the knowledge of the builders in respect to seasonal movements. The passage of Maes Howe, for example, points close to midwinter sunset and the setting sun of winter solstice shines on its chamber.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ring of Brogar, a true circle formed by sixty tall standing stones with an outer ditch in circular form, also seems to have served the purpose of observing solar and lunar events, although conclusive evidence has not yet been brought forth by scientists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the same area, a Neolithic village of stone-built houses connected by passages was discovered and excavated. The earliest settlement started around 3100 BC. The site was then occupied for some 600 years. The buildings visible today are dated between 2900 and 2600 BC. The house styles vary according to the different periods of occupation, but the basic components of the interior remain the same: beds to either side and built into the walls, central hearth, and dresser, also in stone, in the back. Activities include cattle and sheep herding, fishing, and cereal farming, all characteristic of Neolithic communities. This site also has evidence for ritual activity, closely interlinked with domestic activities, which is demonstrated by the presence of scratched shapes close to doors and divisions in the passages connecting the houses, caches of beads and pendants, and buried individuals inside some houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The structures of Orkney were built during the period extending from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. There is evidence for ritual re-use of the religious sites in the Early Iron Age, suggested by the presence of pottery in pits. The settlements, however, had a fairly short life span of about 600 years.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid 12th century AD, Norsemen and Viking crusaders set foot on the islands. Carved runes on the stones of the main chamber of Maes Howe testify to their presence at that time. The site, quite isolated, is at the present time sited within what is essentially a pastoral landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/514</http_url><id_number>514</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_514.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criteria (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv):&lt;/em&gt; The monuments of Orkney, dating back to 3000-2000 BC, are outstanding testimony to the cultural achievements of the Neolithic peoples of northern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>58.9960555600</latitude><location>Mainland Orkney, Scotland&lt;br&gt;&#xd;
&#xd;
&lt;a href=514-loc.htm&gt;Multiple locations&lt;/a&gt;</location><longitude>-3.1886666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The monuments of Orkney bear unique or exceptional testimony to an important indigenous cultural tradition which flourished over 500-1,000 years but disappeared by about 2000 BC. They are an outstanding example of a type of architectural ensemble and archaeological landscape which illustrates a significant stage of human history, during which the first large ceremonial monuments were built. They are testimony to the cultural achievements of the Neolithic peoples of northern Europe, during the period 3000-2000 BC.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Orkney Islands lie 15&amp;nbsp;km north of the coast of Scotland. The island of Mainland is the largest in the archipelago. The Brodgar Rural Conservation Area lies around an isthmus dividing the Loch of Harray to the east and the Loch of Stenness to the west; it includes the sites of Maes Howe, the Stones of Stenness and the Ring of Brodgar. The Neolithic settlement of Skara Brae is on the west coast of Mainland on the southern edge of the Bay of Skaill. It was covered by an immense sand dune until 1850.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Neolithic period in the British Isles is mostly characterized by monumental architecture and a strong development of ritual. Collective burials and ceremonial enclosures appear, revealing a more complex social structure and a mobilization of the efforts of a large number of individuals towards a common goal. Passage graves such as Maes Howe, built around 3000 BC, were large structures, made from stones ordered to form a passage leading from the outer edge of the mound to the chamber containing the remains of the dead. The large amount of human and animal bones, pottery and other objects discovered in these mounds testify that they were important social and religious centres. The general orientation of these structures also demonstrates the knowledge of the builders in respect to seasonal movements. In the same area, a Neolithic village of stone-built houses connected by passages was discovered and excavated.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The house styles vary according to the different periods of occupation, but the basic components of the interior remain the same: beds to either side and built into the walls, central hearth and dresser, also in stone, in the back. Activities include cattle and sheep herding, fishing and cereal farming, all characteristic of Neolithic communities. There is an evidence for ritual reuse of the religious sites in the early Iron Age, suggested by the presence of pottery in pits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-12th century AD, Norsemen and Viking crusaders set foot on the islands. Carved runes on the stones of the main chamber of Maes Howe testify to their presence at that time. The site, quite isolated, is at the present time sited within what is essentially a pastoral landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When it was built 5,000 years ago, the settlement of Skara Brae was further from the sea than it is now, as the sea level was much higher then. The settlement was abandoned some 600 years after it was built, and most of the houses were emptied of their contents. The first written reference to the Ring of Brodgar dates from 1529. The Stones of Stenness were first recorded in 1700. The Norse runic inscriptions at Maes Howe were first recorded in 1862. In the mid-19th century the remains of Skara Brae were revealed when the overlying sand was swept away by a violent storm, and some clearance work took place in 1913. In 1924 a protective breakwater was built. Some restoration work was carried out, respecting the principles of anastylosis as later defined by the Venice Charter (1964), at the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Maes Howe is a Neolithic masterpiece, an exceptionally early architectural accomplishment. With its almost classical strength and simplicity it is a unique survival from 5,000 years ago. It is an expression of genius within a group of people whose other tombs were claustrophobic chambers in smaller mounds. Stenness is a unique and early expression of the ritual customs of the people who buried their dead in tombs like Maes Howe and lived in settlements like Skara Brae. The Ring of Brodgar is the finest known truly circular late Neolithic or early Bronze Age stone ring. Skara Brae has particularly rich surviving remains. It displays remarkable preservation of stone-built furniture and a fine range of ritual and domestic artefacts, which together demonstrate the domestic, ritual, and burial practices of a now vanished 5,000-year-old culture with exceptional completeness.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The group of Neolithic monuments on Orkney consists of a large chambered tomb (Maes Howe), two ceremonial stone circles (the Stones of Stenness and the Ring of Brodgar) and a settlement (Skara Brae), together with a number of unexcavated burial, ceremonial and settlement sites. The group constitutes a major prehistoric cultural landscape which gives a graphic depiction of life in this remote archipelago in the far north of Scotland some 5,000 years ago.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Heart of Neolithic Orkney</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2125</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2017</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/422</http_url><id_number>422</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_422.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>54.4766111111</latitude><location></location><longitude>-3.0824166667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in northwest England, the English Lake District is a mountainous area, whose valleys have been modelled by glaciers in the Ice Age and subsequently shaped by an agro-pastoral land-use system characterized by fields enclosed by walls. The combined work of nature and human activity has produced a harmonious landscape in which the mountains are mirrored in the lakes. Grand houses, gardens and parks have been purposely created to enhance the landscape’s beauty. This landscape was greatly appreciated from the 18th century onwards by the Picturesque and later Romantic movements, which celebrated it in paintings, drawings and words. It also inspired an awareness of the importance of beautiful landscapes and triggered early efforts to preserve them.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>The English Lake District</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2171</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;National Trust took over ownership in 1961. Designated a World Heritage site in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/369</http_url><id_number>369</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_369.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>55.2500000000</latitude><location>County Antrim, Northern Ireland</location><longitude>-6.4852777780</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The site lies on the north coast of the County of Antrim, Northern Ireland, and includes the Causeway Coast extending for about 6&amp;nbsp;km between Causeway Head and Benbane Head. The Causeway Coast has an unparalleled display of geological formations representing volcanic activity during the early Tertiary period some 50-60&amp;nbsp;million years ago. The most characteristic and unique feature of the site is the exposure of a large number of regular polygonal columns of basalt in perfect horizontal sections forming a pavement.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Tertiary lavas of the Antrim Plateau, covering some 3,800&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , represent the largest remaining lava plateau in Europe. The coastline is composed of a series of bays and headlands consisting of resistant lavas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The average height of the cliffs is 100&amp;nbsp;m, and has a stepped appearance due to the succession of five or six lava flows through geological time. This geological succession during the Tertiary period consists of the Lower Basalts, where about six of the 11 lava flows are 67&amp;nbsp;m thick and are exposed between Plaiskin Head and Benbane Head; the Interbasaltic Bed which are exposed along extensive sections of the cliffs east of Giant's Causeway; and the Middle Basalts, which are thick flows ranging from 30&amp;nbsp;m to over 150&amp;nbsp;m. The Giant's Causeway displays the columnar basalt structures and includes the Specific sites of interest include the Giant's Causeway itself (a sea-level promontory of almost entirely regular polygonal columns averaging 45&amp;nbsp;cm in diameter and numbering 40,000 columns), the Giant's Organ (60, 12&amp;nbsp;m high regular columns and the three-tier structured Middle Basalt), Chimney Tops and Hamilton's Seat (a viewpoint). The coastline is also cut through by olivine and theoleiite dykes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to its geological features the site has a range of habitats covering seashore, cliff, scree, grassland, scrub, heathland and marsh.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Giant's Causeway itself (a sea-level promontory of almost entirely regular polygonal columns averaging 45&amp;nbsp;cm in diameter and numbering approximately 40,000 columns); the Giant's Organ (about 60 regular columns, 12&amp;nbsp;m high; Chimney Tops (a number of columns separated from the cliffs by erosion); and Hamilton's Seat (a view point). The coastline is also cut through by olivine and tholeiite dykes, a good example of which can be seen at Roveran Valley Head. Exposure of these columns, in perfect horizontal sections at such a scale creating a pavement, is considered a unique combination of features.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The wreck site of the Armada gallesass &lt;em&gt;Gerona&lt;/em&gt; in Port-na-Spaniagh, below the isolated columns known as the 'Chimneys', is of considerable cultural importance. The sublittoral area is a protected nautical archaeological site, and the treasures and other Armada artefacts recovered by Robert Stenuit and his team between 1967 and 1969 are conserved in the Ulster Museum, Belfast. This collection is a major part of all known recovered Armada artifacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Giant's Causeway featured in the 18th-century geological controversies on the origins of basalts. There is an interesting cultural heritage associated with place names, and other local history such as the kelp (seaweed) and fisheries exploitation carried out by local communities, documented mainly in the 18th to mid-20th centuries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Giant's Causeway lies at the foot of the basalt cliffs along the sea coast on the edge of the Antrim plateau in Northern Ireland. It is made up of some 40,000 massive black basalt columns sticking out of the sea. The dramatic sight has inspired legends of giants striding over the sea to Scotland. Geological studies of these formations over the last 300 years have greatly contributed to the development of the earth sciences, and show that this striking landscape was caused by volcanic activity during the Tertiary, some 50–60 million years ago.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Giant's Causeway and Causeway Coast</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2178</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origins of the name St. Kilda are uncertain, as there has never been a saint called Kilda. Skildar is the Old Icelandic word for &amp;lsquo;shield' which would describe the shape of the islands as they appear to rest on the surface of the water. Archaeological evidence suggests that Hirta has been occupied, almost continuously, for well over 2,000 years. It is certain that the Vikings visited and may have settled the islands. The place names on the islands reflect both the Norse and Gaelic influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first comprehensive account of life on St. Kilda was provided by Martin Martin, who visited the islands in 1697. At this time, St. Kilda was owned by the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan, and would remain with a branch of the family until the time of evacuation in 1930. At the time of Martin's visit there were approximately 180 people on Hirta, living in a main settlement in Village Bay. They kept sheep and cattle and grew crops, but mainly used the products from seabirds and their eggs. They caught the birds by either scaling the cliffs from the bottom, or by lowering themselves down to the cliff ledges where the birds nested. The birds provided them with oil and feathers, which they collected and used as payment in kind for their rent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1822, the Reverend John MacDonald, a renowned evangelical preacher, the &amp;lsquo;Apostle of the North', visited St. Kilda. He set about the foundations of a puritanical religion, built upon by the Reverend Neil MacKenzie who arrived as resident minister in 1830. He decided to try to improve the standard of living of the St. Kildans. The traditional &amp;lsquo;run-rig' system of agriculture was now replaced by a permanent allocation of land to each family. The old village houses were demolished and replaced by a line of black houses on Village Bay. In 1861, MacLeod paid for a new set of cottages, which were built by his masons from Dunvegan. These were erected alongside the black houses, many of which were retained as byres.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1865 the Reverend John Mackay was sent to St. Kilda and set about imposing a strict rule over the islanders. By this time, much of the tradition of music and poetry on the island was forgotten and now it was replaced by the requirements of this strict faith. Other factors in the history of the St. Kildans were the diseases. A smallpox epidemic in 1724 killed most of the population. The population never again exceeded 110, and the traditional economy began to falter. From the 1870s, visitors started coming to the Village Bay. Money was introduced and the St. Kildans came to rely on the tourists for income. By the beginning of the 20th century this uncertain source of income also began to decline. Communication with the mainland was difficult though a post office was opened in 1899.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the First World War, 1918-19, a naval unit stationed on the island bringing radio communication, regular mail, employment and supplies. The naval gun and ammunition store were added in 1918 in response to a German U-boat attack which destroyed the communications mast, the Store and some other buildings. By 1928 the population had fallen to 37. In 1930 the remaining islanders signed a petition requesting evacuation, which was granted. On 29th August 1930 they left the islands. The majority settled to work for the Forestry Commission on the mainland. In 1931 the islands were sold by the MacLeods to the Earl of Dumfries, later to become the 5th Marquess of Bute. He retained the property, unoccupied and managed as a bird sanctuary, until his death in 1956. In January 1957, it was acquired by the National Trust for Scotland.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/387</http_url><id_number>387</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_387.jpg</image_url><iso_code>gb</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>57.8172222200</latitude><location></location><longitude>-8.5766666670</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;St Kilda is of exceptional natural beauty and supports significant natural habitats. It is unique in the very high bird densities that occur in a relatively small area which is conditioned by the complex and different ecological niches existing in the site. There is also a complex ecological dynamic in the three marine zones present in the site that is essential to the maintenance of both marine and terrestrial biodiversity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The cultural landscape of St Kilda is an outstanding example of land use resulting from a type of subsistence economy based on the products of birds, agriculture and sheep farming; reflecting age-old traditions. The built structures and field systems, the cleits and the traditional stone houses of the Highlands bear testimony to over two millennia of human occupation of distant land in extreme conditions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archipelago of St Kilda, the remotest part of the British Isles, in Scotland's Outer Hebrides, is the remains of a Tertiary ring volcano, weathered and glaciated to produce dramatic precipitous cliffs. Two stacks adjoining Boreray are the highest in the country: Stac an Armin (191&amp;nbsp;m) and Stac Lee (165&amp;nbsp;m). the rocks are predominantly gabbro, granophyre, dolerite and basalt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is archaeological evidence of habitation from over 2,000 years ago, concentrated at Village Bay and Gleann Mor, including evidence of Bronze Age occupation and Viking visits. Important changes came in the 19th century, when most of the earlier structures and residential buildings were replaced with new. The church is a relatively plain two-bay oblong structure built in 1826, a schoolroom being added on the north-west side in 1898-1900. As a result of several outside influences, including religious missionaries, a devastating outbreak of smallpox, and tourism, the islands were finally evacuated in 1930.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most common traditional structure on St Kilda is the cleit, of which is about 1,260 have been recorded on Hirta, distributed all over the island, and more than 170 others on the outlying islands and stacks. Cleits are small drystone structures of round-ended rectilinear form, with drystone walls and a roof of slabs covered with earth and turf. Within this basic plan are numerous variations of door position and examples even includes integral adjoining cells. Cleits were usually used to store materials, and their generally open wall construction was designed to allow a through-flow of air. They were used to store birds, eggs and feathers, and harvested crops as well as peat and turf which were both used as fuel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The protected settlement areas on St Kilda are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the Village, the largest settlement, on the south side of the island, overlooking the Village Bay or Loch Hirta;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Gleann Mor settlement, on the north side of the island, on the Glen Bay or Loch a' Ghlinne,&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Geo Chrubaidh settlement, north-west of Gleann Mor;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Claigeann an Tigh Faire, a small site on the west coast.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2004, 2005</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This volcanic archipelago, with its spectacular landscapes, is situated off the coast of the Hebrides and comprises the islands of Hirta, Dun, Soay and Boreray. It has some of the highest cliffs in Europe, which have large colonies of rare and endangered species of birds, especially puffins and gannets. The archipelago, uninhabited since 1930, bears the evidence of more than 2,000 years of human occupation in the extreme conditions prevalent in the Hebrides. Human vestiges include built structures and field systems, the cleits and the traditional Highland stone houses. They feature the vulnerable remains of a subsistence economy based on the products of birds, agriculture and sheep farming.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>St Kilda</site><states>United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2202</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger>P 2004-2014</danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/144</http_url><id_number>144</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_144.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-8.9577800000</latitude><location>Lindi Region, District of Kilwa</location><longitude>39.5227800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara are two archaeological sites of prime importance to the understanding of the Swahili culture, the Islamization of the east coast of Africa and the extensive commerce of the medieval period and the modern era. These are islands, situated close to each other, off the Tanzanian coast. On each island a complex of ruins has been preserved, but those of Kilwa Kisiwani are by far the most important.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site has been occupied from the 9th to 19th centuries and reached its peak in the 13th and 14th centuries. Among the many monuments these are some of the most important:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The vestiges of the Great Mosque, constructed in the 12th century of coral tiles imbedded in a core of puddled clay, but considerably enlarged in the 15th century in the reign of Sultan Soulaiman ibn Mohammed el Malik el Adil (1412-22).&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The remains of the Husuni Kubwa Palace, built between around 1310 and 1333 by the sultan Al Hasan.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;Numerous mosques.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Geraza (Swahili for 'prison') constructed on the ruins of the Portuguese fortress.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;An entire urban complex with houses, public squares, burial grounds, etc.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The ruins of Songo Mnara, at the extreme north of the island of Songo, comprise five mosques and a number of domestic dwellings of puddled clay and wood within the enclosure walls. A poorly identified construction of larger dimensions is known as 'the palace'.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ceramics and small objects gathered during the excavations bear exceptional testimony to the commercial, and consequently cultural, exchanges of which Kilwa, and to a lesser extent, Songo were the theatre. Cowrie shells and beads of glass, carnelian or quartz were mixed with porcelain of the Sung dynasty as a medium of exchange from the 12th century. Chinese porcelain and Islamic monochrome faience continued to be the vectors of a bartering system well after the appearance of a monetary atelier at Kilwa.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The remains of two great East African ports admired by early European explorers are situated on two small islands near the coast. From the 13th to the 16th century, the merchants of Kilwa dealt in gold, silver, pearls, perfumes, Arabian crockery, Persian earthenware and Chinese porcelain; much of the trade in the Indian Ocean thus passed through their hands.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>159</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Protected area since 1940. In 1929, 228,600ha of central Serengeti was declared a game reserve. National park status in 1951 with extensive boundary modifications in 1959. Included with the adjoining Maswa Game Reserve as part of Serengeti-Ngorongoro Biosphere Reserve in 1981. Accepted as part of a World Heritage Site in 1981.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/156</http_url><id_number>156</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_156.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-2.3333300000</latitude><location>Mara, Arusha, and Shinyanga Provinces</location><longitude>34.5666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The area of savannah and open woodland comprises some 1.5 million hectares and contains the largest herds of grazing animals in the world and the carnivores that prey on them, providing a wildlife spectacle that is second to none. The great migrating herds are continuously moving through the entire ecosystem, but the sight is most impressive in May and June, when the animals travel en masse from the central plains to the permanent water holes on the western side of the park. The Serengeti ecosystem contains much more than these dominant species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The annual migration is dominated by wildebeest in enormous numbers - some 190,000 in the 1950s, 1.69 million in 1989, but 1.27 million in 1991; also by Burchell's zebra (some 200,000), Thomson's gazelle, with some eland and topi, each harvesting the grass most suited to it. The herds are followed by prides of lion numbering up to 3,000 individuals, spotted hyena, striped hyena, golden jackal, side-striped jackal and black-backed jackal. The last packs of the endangered wild dog disappeared in 1991. A rabies epidemic killed three of the packs, but there is no agreement on the full cause of the disappearance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are large herds of antelope of many species. On the grasslands are eland, lesser kudu, roan antelope, oribi, Grant's gazelle, hartebeest, steenbock, topi and oryx, also buffalo. In the woodlands are grimmia, impala and Kirk's dikdik. In the swamps are reedbuck and waterbuck. Among the kopjes are klipspringer, as well as giraffe and olive baboon; and on the mountains, mountain reedbuck.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Other characteristic larger mammals are leopard, cheetah (classed as vulnerable), caracal, African elephant (endangered: estimated number 1,357 in 1994), black rhinoceros (critically endangered: there are very few left), hippopotamus and giraffe. Smaller mammals include numerous species of bat, bushbaby, vervet monkey, patas monkey, black and white colobus monkey and olive baboon, aardvark, ground pangolin, cape hare, porcupine, three species of hyrax and many other rodents, bat-eared fox, two species of otter, ratel, zorilla, common genet, large spotted genet, African civet, seven species of mongoose, aardwolf, serval, golden cat, African wildcat and bushpig. Reptiles include Nile crocodile, Nile monitor lizard, African rock python, blacknecked spitting cobra and puff adder.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 500 bird species include 34 raptors, 6 vultures and aggregations of over 20,000 waterbirds. There are ostrich, marabou stork, lesser flamingo, African fish eagle, tawny eagle, lesser falcon (vulnerable), secretary bird, helmeted guineafowl, crowned crane, kori bustard, black-winged pratincole, black-winged plover, Caspian plover, white-winged black tern, Fischer's lovebird, purpuratus, southern ground hornbill, greycrested helmet shrike, &lt;em&gt;Karamoja apalis&lt;/em&gt; (vulnerable), redthroated tit and several birds of restricted distribution such as rufous-tailed weaver.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Serengeti is contiguous with Ngorongoro Conservation Unit, an area of 528,000 ha declared a World Heritage site in 1979. But even the combined Serengeti-Ngorongoro ecosystem of some 2 million hectares does not include the entire ecosystem. It is felt that the Serengeti National Park is sufficiently large to ensure the survival of all the species contained therein if it is maintained as at present, but that it does not by itself ensure the protection of the entire migratory ecosystem.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The vast plains of the Serengeti comprise 1.5 million ha of savannah. The annual migration to permanent water holes of vast herds of herbivores (wildebeest, gazelles and zebras), followed by their predators, is one of the most impressive natural events in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Serengeti National Park</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>174</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Two major cultural traditions merge to form the Swahili civilization on the East African coast. A series of harbour towns developed under influences from the interior of Africa and from the lands across the Indian Ocean. There was a loose confederation of small coastal city states known as the Zenj bar (Black Empire) which operated in the 8th-10th centuries. The best preserved of these towns is Zanzibar, the name of which is derived from the Perso-Arabic word meaning &amp;quot;the coast of the blacks.&amp;quot;&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest of these towns has been excavated at Unguja Ukuu on Zanzibar Island, where 5th century CE Roman and Sassanian-Islamic pottery has been found. Nearby is the early 12th century mosque at Kizimkazi. These are among the many sites that have produced evidence of the existence in the 8th-15th centuries of an extensive and highly developed civilization that probably reached its apogee at Kilwa in the 14th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Swahili economy was destabilized with the arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the 15th century. Following Vasco de Gama's visit in 1499 on his return from India, the Portuguese established a loose suzerainty over the Swahili coast as part of their trading activities. They were forced to settle it permanently when they were challenged by the Turks and later by rival European powers. A church and some merchants' houses were built at Zanzibar, where there had been a fishing village (Shangani) of simple wattle-and-daub houses thatched with palm leaves since the 10th century. They later added a massive fort on the sea front. However, Portuguese influence was limited, and came to an end at the end of the 17th century, when they were driven out of Fort Jesus at Mombasa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Portuguese trading role was gradually taken over by Omani Arabs, dealing in grain, dried fish, ivory, and slaves. The Omani ruler, Seyyid Said, made it the capital of his domain. There was a great increase in the number of buildings in stone, a technique ultimately deriving from the Shirazis of Persia via the great trading centre of Kilwa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The slave trade did not assume large proportions until the later 18th century, when they were required in large numbers for the French sugar plantations in the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Caribbean. Dislocation of the slave trade as a result of wars between the English and the French in the early 19th century led to a substantial proportion of them being used in the clove plantations on Zanzibar Island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 19th century also saw a great expansion in trade in the Indian Ocean region. The ruling Islamic dynasty of Zanzibar and its merchants (Indian, Swahili, Arab, and Africans from the interior) became very rich and embellished the Stone Town with palaces and fine mansions. These were built in a variety of styles and traditions, which were amalgamated and homogenized into a characteristic Swahili architecture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest phase developed after the departure of the Portuguese, when the ruler, Mwinyi Mkuu Hasan, cleared the land on the peninsula beyond his palace. It was settled by Swahili immigrants from other parts of the coast and by Arabs from the Hadhramaut, who built residences in an indigenous style. The Minaret Mosque dates from this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 19th century this Swahili tradition was overwhelmed by new styles brought in by the floods of immigrants. It was at this time that the so-called &amp;quot;Swahili house&amp;quot; emerged, based on the earlier style but with imported details and techniques.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Omanis introduced a completely different tradition, that of massively built multi-storey blocks built in mortared coral and with flat roofs. However, the wet climate of Zanzibar resulted in these roofs being quickly replaced by pitched roofs of corrugated iron or tiles. They were plain in appearance, the only striking external feature being the elaborately carved wooden doors. By contrast, the interiors were richly decorated and furnished.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third architectural component came from India. The Indian traders began by buying Omani houses and adding wide verandahs, but by the latter half of the 19th century they were constructing elaborately decorated houses reminiscent of the Gujarati haveli. However, the characteristic Indian house had a shop on the street frontage, with living quarters in the rear. As the owners became more affluent, they often added a second storey, the residential section being entirely on the upper floor and the lower confined to commercial activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Modern urban development may be deemed to have begun during the reign of Sultan Barghash (1870-88). He had been impressed by the towns of India during his exile there in 1860 and those of Europe in 1875, and he sought to emulate them. His most notable contribution to the architecture of the Stone Town was the House of Wonders, but his greatest legacy was the provision of piped water to the town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The final phase of architectural development came with the arrival of the British in 1890, when Zanzibar became a British protectorate. They imported their colonial architecture but, under the influence of the architect John Sinclair, introduced a number of features derived from the Islamic architecture of Istanbul and Morocco. The British introduced strict building regulations and expanded the public services. Urban planning measures were promulgated from the 1920s onwards.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The last quarter of the 19th century saw increased European missionary activity, resulting in the construction of Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, in the Gothic and Romanesque styles respectively. The Anglican cathedral was inspired by David Livingstone and built on the site of the last slave market, the slave trade having been brought to an end by the British.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Arab ascendancy came to an end with the 1964 revolution and the creation of the United Republic of Tanzania. It led to many profound social and economic changes. Many of the wealthiest Arab and Indian merchants and craftsmen left the country, abandoning their fine houses and commercial buildings. Immigrants from rural areas and the neighbouring island of Pemba were settled by the government in these buildings, which deteriorated as a result of lack of maintenance. New construction in the Stone Town came to an end in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when development was concentrated in the expansion areas. In the 1980s building began again, introducing contemporary styles and materials that were out of harmony with the historic fabric. Only since the creation of the Stone Town Conservation and Development Authority in 1985 has any form of coordination of building been exercised.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/173</http_url><id_number>173</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_173.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion ii&lt;/em&gt; : The Stone Town of Zanzibar is an outstanding material manifestation of cultural fusion and harmonization.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iii&lt;/em&gt; : For many centuries there was intense seaborne trading activity between Asia and Africa, and this is illustrated in an exceptional manner by the architecture and urban structure of the Stone Town.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion vi&lt;/em&gt; : Zanzibar has great symbolic importance in the suppression of slavery, since it was one of the main slave-trading ports in East Africa and also the base from which its opponents such as David Livingstone conducted their campaign.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-6.1630600000</latitude><location>Zanzibar</location><longitude>39.1891700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;For many centuries there was intense seaborne trading activity between Asia and Africa, and this is illustrated admirably by the architecture and urban structure of the Stone Town. Zanzibar also has great symbolic importance in the suppression of slavery because it was one of the main slave-trading ports in East Africa, as well as the base from which its opponents such as David Livingstone conducted their campaign.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two major cultural traditions merged to form the Swahili civilization on the East African coast. A series of harbour towns developed under influences from the interior of Africa and from the lands across the Indian Ocean. There was a loose confederation of small coastal city states known as the Zenj bar (Black Empire) which operated in the 8th-10th centuries. The best preserved of these towns is Zanzibar, the name of which is derived from the Perso-Arabic word meaning 'the coast of the blacks.'&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Swahili economy was destabilized with the arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the 15th century. A church and some merchants' houses were built at Zanzibar, built from simple wattle-and-daub thatched with palm leaves since the 10th century. The Portuguese later added a massive fort on the sea front.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The slave trade, started by the Portuguese, assumed large proportions in the 18th century, when they were required in large numbers for the French sugar plantations in the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Caribbean.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The ruling Islamic dynasty of Zanzibar and its foreign merchants became very rich and embellished the Stone Town with palaces and fine mansions. These were built in a variety of styles and traditions, which were amalgamated and homogenized into a characteristic Swahili architecture. In the 19th century, this Swahili tradition was overwhelmed by new styles brought in by the floods of immigrants: the Minaret Mosque dates from this period. The Omanis introduced a completely different tradition, that of massively built multistorey blocks in mortared coral and with flat roofs. The third architectural component came from India, adding wide verandas, but by the latter half of the 19th century they were constructing elaborately decorated houses reminiscent of the Gujarati haveli.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Modern urban development may be deemed to have begun during the reign of Sultan Barghash (1870-88). His most notable contribution to the architecture of the Stone Town was the House of Wonders, but his greatest legacy was the provision of piped water to the town. The final phase of architectural development came with the arrival of the British in 1890, when Zanzibar became a British protectorate. They imported their colonial architecture but, under the influence of the architect John Sinclair, introduced a number of features derived from the Islamic architecture of Istanbul and Morocco. The last quarter of the 19th century saw increased European missionary activity, resulting in the construction of Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, in the Gothic and Romanesque styles respectively. The Arab ascendancy came to an end with the 1964 revolution and the creation of the United Republic of Tanzania. New constructions built from 1960 to 1970 introduced contemporary styles and materials that were out of harmony with the historic fabric.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historical evolution of the Stone Town is illustrated by the street pattern. This is one of narrow winding streets resulting from the unplanned building of houses and shops. There are few public open spaces, as many of the houses have their own enclosed spaces. The principal construction material is coralline rag stone set in a thick lime mortar and then plastered and lime-washed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vernacular architecture is preponderantly of two-storey buildings with long narrow rooms disposed round an open courtyard, reached through a narrow corridor.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Stone Town of Zanzibar is a fine example of the Swahili coastal trading towns of East Africa. It retains its urban fabric and townscape virtually intact and contains many fine buildings that reflect its particular culture, which has brought together and homogenized disparate elements of the cultures of Africa, the Arab region, India, and Europe over more than a millennium.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Stone Town of Zanzibar</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>192</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Mt Kilimanjaro and the surrounding forests were declared a game reserve by the German colonial government in the early part of this century, and this area was further gazetted as a forest reserve in 1921. This designation has been confirmed by the legislation of subsequent administrations. Part of the area was reclassified as a national park in 1973 by Government Notice 54. Designated a World Heritage site in 1987.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/403</http_url><id_number>403</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_403.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-3.0666700000</latitude><location>Kilimanjaro region</location><longitude>37.3666700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The national park and forest reserve occupy the upper part of Mount Kilimanjaro adjacent to the Kenyan border just north of Moshi. The national park comprises the whole of the mountain above the timberline and six forest corridors stretching down through the montane forest belt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Kilimanjaro is a volcanic massif (last showing signs of major activity in the Pleistocene) which is not only the highest mountain in Africa, rising 4,877&amp;nbsp;m above the surrounding plains to 5,895&amp;nbsp;m, but also one of the largest volcanoes in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It stands alone but is the largest of an east-west belt of volcanoes across northern Tanzania. It has three main volcanic peaks of varying ages lying on an east-south-east axis, and a number of smaller parasitic cones. To the west, the oldest peak Shira (3,962&amp;nbsp;m), of which only the western and southern rims remain, is a relatively flat upland plateau of some 6,200&amp;nbsp;ha, the northern and eastern flanks having been covered by later material from Kibo. The rugged erosion-shattered peak of Mawenzi (5,149&amp;nbsp;m) lies to the east. The top of its western face is fairly steep with many crags, pinnacles and dyke swarms. Its eastern side falls in cliffs over 1,000&amp;nbsp;m high in a complex of gullies and rock faces, rising above two deep gorges, the Great Barranco and the Lesser Barranco. Kibo (5,895&amp;nbsp;m), is the most recent summit, having last been active in the Pleistocene and still has minor fumaroles. It consists of two concentric craters of 1.9&amp;nbsp;km by 2.7&amp;nbsp;km and 1.3&amp;nbsp;km in diameter, with a 350&amp;nbsp;m deep ash pit in the centre. The highest point on the mountain is the southern rim of the outer crater. Between Kibo and Mawenzi there is a plateau of some 3,600&amp;nbsp;ha, called the Saddle, which forms the largest area of high altitude tundra in tropical Africa. There are deep radial valleys especially on the western and southern slopes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since 1912 the mountain has lost 82% of its ice cap and since 1962 55% of its remaining glaciers. Kibo still retains permanent ice and snow and Mawenzi also has patches of semi-permanent ice, but the mountain is forecast to lose its ice cap within 15 years. Evidence of past glaciation is present on all three peaks, with morainic debris found as low as 3,600&amp;nbsp;m. The mountain remains a critical water catchment for both Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania, but as a result of the receding ice cap and deforestation several rivers have dried up, affecting the forests and farmland below.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mountain has five main vegetation zones: savannah bushland at 700-1,000&amp;nbsp;m (south slopes) and 1,400-1,600&amp;nbsp;m (north slopes), densely populated submontane agroforest on southern and south-eastern slopes, the montane forest belt, subalpine moorland and alpine bogs. Above this is alpine desert. The montane forest belt circles the mountain between 1,300&amp;nbsp;m (about 1,600&amp;nbsp;m on the drier north slopes) to 2,800&amp;nbsp;m. Forests above 2,700&amp;nbsp;m are within the National Park. According to a 2001 study there are 2,500 plant species on the mountain, 1,600 of them on the southern slopes and 900 within the forest belt. There are 130 species of tree with the greatest diversity being between 1,800 and 2,000&amp;nbsp;m, as well as 170 species of shrub, 140 species of epiphyte, 100 lianas and 140 pteridophytes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The forest between 1,000&amp;nbsp;m and 1,700&amp;nbsp;m in the south and east has been extensively farmed with remnants of natural forest left only in deep gorges.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The whole mountain including the montane forest belt, part of which extends into the National Park, is very rich in species: 140 mammals (87 forest species), including 7 primates, 25 carnivores, 25 antelopes and 24 species of bat. Above the timberline at least seven of the larger mammal species have been recorded, although it is likely that many of these also use the lower montane forest habitat. The most frequently encountered mammals above the timberline are Kilimanjaro tree hyrax, a vulnerable species, grey duiker and eland, which occur in the moorland, with bushbuck and red duiker found above the timberline in places, and buffalo occasionally moving out of the forest into the moorland and grassland. An estimated 220 endangered African elephants are distributed between the Namwai and Tarakia rivers and sometimes occur on the higher slopes. Insectivores occur and rodents are plentiful above the timberline, especially at times of population explosion, although golden moles (&lt;em&gt;Chrysochloridae&lt;/em&gt; ) are absent. Three species of primate are found within the montane forests, blue monkey, western black and white colobus, and bushbaby, and among mammals there are leopards as well as some of the species listed above. Abbot's duiker, another vulnerable species, is restricted to Kilimanjaro and some neighbouring mountains. The critically endangered black rhinoceros &lt;em&gt;Diceros bicornis&lt;/em&gt; is now extinct in the area and mountain reedbuck &lt;em&gt;Redunca fulvorufula&lt;/em&gt; is probably extinct.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although 179 highland bird species have been recorded for the mountain, species recorded in the upper zones are few in number, although they include the occasional lammergeier, mainly on the Shira ridge, hill chat, Hunter's cisticola and scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird. The white-necked raven is the most conspicuous bird species at higher altitudes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area surrounding the mountain is quite heavily populated, principally by the Chagga people, and the northern and western slopes of the Forest Reserve surrounding the National Park have 18 medium to large 'forest villages'. Although it is illegal, these people still use the forest for many household and medicinal products, for fuelwood, small-scale farming, beekeeping, hunting, charcoal production and logging. Some 12% of the forest is plantation, some almost reaching to the moorland. The &lt;em&gt;shamba&lt;/em&gt; system of tree plantations interplanted with crops comprises over half the planted area but over half of it is not replanted with trees at all.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;At 5,895 m, Kilimanjaro is the highest point in Africa. This volcanic massif stands in splendid isolation above the surrounding plains, with its snowy peak looming over the savannah. The mountain is encircled by mountain forest. Numerous mammals, many of them endangered species, live in the park.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kilimanjaro National Park</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>466</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2006</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The existence of rock paintings in the area was first reported in 1908 by missionaries working near Bukoba. The first published account appeared in 1929 when T.A.M. Nash published an article in the Royal Anthropological Institute Journal. Louis Leakey explored the site in the 1930s and in 1936 put forward an attempt at stylistic classification in his book Stone Age in Africa. The first survey and recording programme was undertaken by H. Fosbrooke in the late 1940s, which resulted in a publication in the Tanganyika Notes and Records Special Publication series. Louis Leakey continued his interest in the site and developed a theoretical scheme of styles, suggesting the art was of great antiquity. Few scholars agreed with these dates and others considered the paintings to be of ethnographic rather than archaeological significance.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Excavations were undertaken by West in 1964 and then by Masao in the late 1970s. More recently Mapunda and Kessy have excavated several sites at Pahi and Baura where remains of Iron Age smelting furnaces, tuiyeres, slag and pottery were recovered.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site was brought to public attention through the publication of Mary Leakey's book Africa's Vanishing Art: The Rock Paintings of Tanzania in 1983. This was based on tracings of some of the images.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The most recent work has been carried out by Fidelis Masao in 1979 and 1980, and by Emmanuel Anati in 1980 and 1981.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Unfortunately the records of all these interventions are scattered and the information gained from them is not easily accessible. The dossier acknowledges the &amp;lsquo;need for the Department of Antiquities to create a database for all the documentation done so far'. Until that is achieved, any overall assessment of the scope and content of the site is possible. The nomination dossier is not even able to say how many sites or images exist on the site, nor how the images in the nominated area relate to rock art in the neighbouring Singida, Iramba and Lake Eyasi area to the west. A survey and statistical analysis are needed to ascertain the scope of the site and the links with, for instance, the Singida area to the west.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1183</http_url><id_number>1183</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1183.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-4.7244444444</latitude><location>Region Dodoma, District Kondoa</location><longitude>35.8338888888</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the eastern slopes of the Masai escarpment bordering the Great Rift Valley are natural rock shelters, overhanging slabs of sedimentary rocks fragmented by rift faults, whose vertical planes have been used for rock paintings for at least two millennia. The spectacular collection of images from over 150 shelters over 2,336 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; , many with high artistic value, displays sequences that provide a unique testimony to the changing socio-economic base of the area from hunter-gatherer to agro-pastoralist, and the beliefs and ideas associated with the different societies. Some of the shelters are still considered to have ritual associations with the people who live nearby, reflecting their beliefs, rituals and cosmological traditions.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Kondoa Rock-Art Sites</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1449</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1984-1989</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Details on history are only provided in the nomination dossier for the archaeological sites - no material is provided for the Maasai pastoral landscape or on the history of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. As the history of the association between the Maasai and the Conservation Area has relevance for an understanding of the present arrangements, ICOMOS has included brief information on the history of the Maasai in this area and of the designation of the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological sites&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remains of hominin fossils in the Olduvai Gorge were first noted in 1911 by Prof. Kattwinkel, a German entomologist, while making observations on butterflies. Under his recommendations, a scientific expedition was led by Prof. Hans Reck, who in 1913-4 recovered fossil specimens that included extinct forms of large mammals. In 1931, Louis Leakey, a British scholar, began work at Olduvai. His work led to the discoveries of the oldest stone tools (Oldowan Industrial techno-complex) that made Olduvai Gorge a type site. In 1959, Mary Leakey made the discovery of the then oldest hominin in eastern Africa (Zinjanthropus boisei) nick-named, "nut cracker man" - the first species of early hominin (now subsumed under the genus Paranthropus) to be found outside of South Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The discovery of the Zinjanthropus boisei skull (now subsumed under the genus Paranthropus) was seen as a major milestone in the history of paleoanthropology, and reinforced the idea, put forward by Leakey and originally proffered by Charles Darwin in 1871, that Africa could be seen as the &amp;lsquo;cradle of humanity' in demonstrating how humans were descended from an ape ancestry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The finds sparked a surge of paleoanthropological interest in East Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1960, further research works in the same horizons yielded the first Homo habilis. This species became the Type Specimen (holotype) of the genus Homo. Morphologically and morphometrically, this large-brained hominin was the first species described as a direct ancestor of later hominins including modern humans (Homo sapiens).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Subsequent research in the late 1980s involved teams of Tanzanian and American scientists under the Institute of Hominid Origins led by Donald Johanson. From 1990 to date, a paleoanthropological research project is ongoing at Olduvai Gorge (Olduvai Landscape Paleoanthropology Project- OLAP) co-led by the University of Rutgers (USA) and the University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the excavated material is stored at Olduvai, and a considerable amount is housed at the National Museum of Kenya.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Laetoli was first studied by the German entomologist, Kohl Larsen in the 1920s and yielded few fossils. In 1974 a team led by Dr. Mary Leakey made the discoveries of the hominin footprints trails and excavations were carried out in 1978 -1979. Also in 1974 the hominin remains were found which are seen to be associated with the footprints.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Research work at Lake Ndutu, which yielded remains of the Ndutu human skull were carried out in 1973 - although the archaeologists are not identified they are known to be A. A. Mturi.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nasera Rock shelter was studied by Michael Mehlman - no date is given.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ngorongoro Crater floor was first recognized to have burial mounds by a cattle rancher, Siedentopf, and his assistant, Rothe. The resources were later examined by Prof. Hans Reck in 1913 and by Dr. Arning in 1915.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Maasai Pastoral Landscape&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;None of the following information is included in the dossier. The Maasai migrated south from Northern Africa, probably in the region of the Nile Valley in Sudan, northwest of Lake Turkana, sometime between the 14th and 16th centuries, before establishing themselves in the Eastern region of Africa in the mid 17th century. They quickly spread south through the Rift Valley, whose fertile grasslands were ideal for their cattle, and around the 17th or 18th centuries reached their present-day territories in Kenya and Tanzania, where they were feared and renowned as warriors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1830 onward, Maasai unity disintegrated into a succession of wars between the various clans, largely over cattle and grazing grounds, which led to territorial losses and gains by their neighbours. By the end of the 19th century, their neighbours and British colonists had displaced the Maasai from the rich lands of the central Rift Valley - the area between Lake Victoria and Mount Kenya. The infamous 1904 Maasai Agreement drawn up by the colonial power had effectively reduced their territory by two thirds. A further wave of forcible 'relocation' took place in 1911-13, confining the Maasai to distant reserves in southern Kenya and Tanzania.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ngorongoro Conservation Area was created in 1959 as a separate part of the Serengeti National Park. The Maasai were allowed to live in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area but were excluded from the National Park. The Maasai elders who agreed to this deal subsequently said they did not know what they were signing. Previously a combination of wildlife experts and palaeontologists, including Louis Leakey and Bernard Grzimek (author of Serengeti Shall Not Die), had campaigned to remove the Maasai from the whole of the Serengeti/Ngorongoro area and make the whole area a national wildlife park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Post independence, tourism was developed around big game watching from game lodges in the Serengeti and Ngorongoro. In the 1990s, when such tourism begun to yield high revenues, there was pressure to increase the game reserves and Ikorongo and Grameti Games Reserves were added to Serengeti's western border and the local people once again removed. Since then there have been moves to create Wildlife Conservation Areas to the north of the Serengeti: the Maasai complained in a case that went to the Tanzanian Human Rights commission.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the Maasai have increased in numbers from around 10,000 in 1960s to just over 60,000 today. There were moves from 1975 to ban agriculture in the area and in 1992 the Government indicated that Ngorongoro should be for wildlife and the Maasai be encouraged to move. In 2003, 200 families were evicted as illegal immigrants. The Maasai are currently only in part of the nominated area (in spite of the fact that the 1959 agreement allowed them to live in the whole).&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/39</http_url><id_number>39</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_39.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-3.1872200000</latitude><location></location><longitude>35.5408300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The open plains of the eastern Serengeti rise to the crater highlands of the volcanic massifs of Loolmalasin (3,587&amp;nbsp;m) and Oldeani (3,168&amp;nbsp;m) dating from the late Mesozoic and early Tertiary.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ngorongoro Crater is one of the largest inactive unbroken calderas in the world which is unflooded. It has a mean diameter of 16-19&amp;nbsp;km, a crater floor of 26,400&amp;nbsp;ha, and a rim soaring to 400-610&amp;nbsp;m above the crater floor. The formation of the crater and other highlands are associated with the massive rifting which occurred to the west of the Gregory Rift Valley. The conservation area also includes Empakaai Crater and Olduvai Gorge, famous for geology and associated palaeontological studies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A variable climate and diverse landforms and altitudes have resulted in several distinct habitats. Scrub heath and the remains of dense montane forests cover the steep slopes. The crater floor is mainly open grassy plains with alternating fresh and brackish water lakes, swamps and two patches of acacia woodland; Lerai Forest, comprising dominant tree species &lt;em&gt;Acacia xanthonhloea&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Rauvolfia caffra&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A population of about 25,000 large animals lives in the crater, mainly ungulates, along with the highest density of mammalian predators in Africa. They include the critically endangered black rhinoceros &lt;em&gt;Diceros bicornis&lt;/em&gt; , which have declined from about 108 in 1964-66 to between 11-14 in 1995, and hippopotamus, which are very uncommon in the area. There are also many other ungulates: wildebeest (7,000 estimated in 1994), Burchell's zebra (4,000), eland, Grant's and Thomson's gazelles (3,000). The crater has the densest known population of lion, which are classed as vulnerable, numbering only 62 in 2001. On the crater rim are leopard and the endangered African elephant, numbering 42 in 1987 but only 29 in 1992, mountain reedbuck and buffalo (4,000 in 1994). However, since the 1980s the crater's wildebeest population has fallen by a quarter to about 19,000 and the numbers of eland and Thomson's gazelle have also declined whereas buffalos increased greatly, probably due to the prevention of fire which favours high fibrous grasses over shorter, less fibrous types.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In summer enormous numbers of Serengeti migrants pass through the plains of the reserve, including 1.7&amp;nbsp;million wildebeest, 260,000 zebra and 470,000 gazelle. Waterbuck mainly occur mainly near Lerai Forest; serval widely in the crater and on the plains to the west. Common in the reserve are lion, hartebeest, spotted hyena and jackal. Cheetah, classed as vulnerable although common in the reserve, are scarce in the crater itself. The endangered wild dog &lt;em&gt;Lycaon pictus&lt;/em&gt; has recently disappeared from the crater and may have declined elsewhere in the Conservation Area as well. The golden cat has recently been seen in the Ngorongoro forest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Ngorongoro has palaeontological and archaeological sites over a wide range of dates. The four major sites are Olduvai Gorge, Laetoli site, Lake Ndutu site and the Nasera Rock Shelter. The variety and richness of the fossil remains, including those of early hominids, has made this one of the major areas in the world for research on the human evolution. Olduvai Gorge has produced valuable remains of early hominids including &lt;em&gt;Australopithecus&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Homo habilis&lt;/em&gt; as well as fossil bones of many extinct animals. Nearby, at Laetoli, are fossil hominid footprints from the Pliocene age.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Actually there is considerable controversy about the exact number of people in the NCA partly because pastoral people, being mobile, are difficult to enumerate, but some Maasai live there.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2010</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ngorongoro Conservation Area spans vast expanses of highland plains, savanna, savanna woodlands and forests. Established in 1959 as a multiple land use area, with wildlife coexisting with semi-nomadic Maasai pastoralists practicing traditional livestock grazing, it includes the spectacular Ngorongoro Crater, the world’s largest caldera. The property has global importance for biodiversity conservation due to the presence of globally threatened species, the density of wildlife inhabiting the area, and the annual migration of wildebeest, zebra, gazelles and other animals into the northern plains. Extensive archaeological research has also yielded a long sequence of evidence of human evolution and human-environment dynamics, including early hominid footprints dating back 3.6 million years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ngorongoro Conservation Area</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1639</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Part of the area was gazetted in 1905 the German colonial administration and four reserves were established in the region by 1912 (total 2S0,000ha). These were combined to form Selou: Game Reserve in 1922, named after captain Frederic Courtney Selous. Further boundary revisions were made afterindependenceto include elephanmigration routes. Accepted as a World Heritage site in December 1982. Designated as a National Project.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/199</http_url><id_number>199</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_199.jpg</image_url><iso_code>tz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-9.0000000000</latitude><location>Coast, Morogoro, Lindi, Mtwara and Ruvuma Regions</location><longitude>37.4000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Selous Game Reserve is an ecosystem (7,400,000&amp;nbsp;ha) and includes Mikumi National Park and Kilombero Game Controlled Area. A large area of the reserve is drained by the Rufiji River and tributaries that include the Luwegu, Kilombero, Great Ruaha, Luhombero and Mbarangardu. The Rufiji is formed by the Luwegu and Kilombero which join at Shughuli Falls. Soils are relatively poor and infertile.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;While there are many habitat types, the deciduous miombo woodland is dominant, providing the world's best example of this vegetation type; as this is thought to be maintained by fire it may be the result of human activities in the past.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The reserve has a higher density and species diversity than any other miombo woodland area, despite long winter drought and poor soils, owing to its size, the diversity of its habitats, the availability of food and water and the lack of settlements. Animal populations in the surrounding areas are often as high, especially in the dry season and contain many of the same species. Some 400 species of animal are known and in 1986 approximately 750,000 large animals of 57 species were recorded. The greatest concentrations are in the north and north-east, also in the inner south. In 1994, in the reserve and surrounding buffer area, there were 52,000 of the endangered African elephant, 50% of the country's total, which is growing again after years of decline due to ivory poaching: 109,000 in 1980 had dwindled to 31,000 by 1989. Within the reserve they totalled 31,735 in 1994 and are found throughout the area. The critically endangered black rhinoceros, which numbered 3,000 in 1981, are now estimated as between 100 and 400 in several small scattered populations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Several animal populations are large (the figures are quoted from a 1994 aerial survey by TWCM): buffalo (138,000), blue and nyasa or white-bearded wildebeest (46,500), impala (29,500), Burchell's zebra (21,500), Lichtenstein's hartebeest (20,000), kongoni (11,700) and common waterbuck (10,000). Grassland species north of the Rufiji include giraffe (2,200), blue wildebeest, buffalo, impala, eland, reedbuck, warthog, lion (vulnerable at 3,000-4,000) and an occasional cheetah, also vulnerable. Hippopotamus (27,000) and crocodile are abundant. Greater kudu, sable antelope (1,600), with eland, impala, nyasa wildebeest and hartebeest are typical of the miombo woodland. Other relatively widespread mammals include yellow baboon, leopard, spotted hyena, the largest population of the wild dog in Africa&lt;em&gt; &lt;/em&gt; (endangered: approximately 1,300). There are also sidestriped jackal, puku, klipspringer, and red and blue duikers. Rarer species include Sanje crested mangabey, Uhehe red colobus (vulnerable), black and white colobus monkey, topi and Sharpe's greysbok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The birdlife is rich: 350 species of bird have been recorded including knob-billed duck, southern ground hornbill and bateleur eagle, Stierling's woodpecker, white-headed lapwing, the endemic Udzungwa forest partridge (classed as vulnerable) and the rufous-winged sunbird (also vulnerable). The adjacent Mikumi lowlands and mountains and Kilombero wetlands and the nearby Udzungwa Mountains are rich in vulnerable bird species which, like the Kilombero weaver, might stray into the reserve. The globally threatened wattled crane, corncrake and lesser kestrel also occur. Reptiles and amphibians are numerous but little studied.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is so large that it can absorb all but the most severe pressures on its resources. There are plans to harness the flood waters of the Rufiji River, with a dam to be constructed at Stieqler's Gorge; but this would affect only relatively small part of the reserve and should not be a matter of Selous concern unless the reservoir draws in large numbers of settlers. Because of difficulties of transportation, the interior of Selous is seldom patrolled, so the estimated numbers of species may be far in excess of the current true situation if poaching has been as serious a problem as elsewhere in East Africa. Much of the infrastructure of the site (roads, guardposts, water systems, etc.) has deteriorated in recent years due to lack of sufficient funding.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Large numbers of elephants, black rhinoceroses, cheetahs, giraffes, hippopotamuses and crocodiles live in this immense sanctuary, which measures 50,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and is relatively undisturbed by human impact. The park has a variety of vegetation zones, ranging from dense thickets to open wooded grasslands.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Selous Game Reserve</site><states>United Republic of Tanzania</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1924</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/27</http_url><id_number>27</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_27.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.2616666700</latitude><location>Colorado</location><longitude>-108.4855556000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Among the American Indian civilizations recognized by ethnologists and prehistorians, that of the Anasazi Indians and of their distant descendants, the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona are indeed quite original, owing in part to the substantial rigours of their natural environment: the south-western part of Colorado with its mesas cut by deep canyons. On the high limestone and sandstone plateau, which in one place reaches an altitude of 2,620&amp;nbsp;m above sea level, the climate is semi-arid, being characterized by irregular precipitation and great differences between day and night temperature. The first signs of regular human occupation go back to the 6th century of the current era. They are principally located on the plateau where partially buried villages, consisting of silos and low dwellings, have existed since this period. Original handicrafts, in which the production of yucca fibre objects play a major role, was to remain characteristic of Anasazi civilization for seven centuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From roughly 750 to 1100 some highly specific features appeared in the human settlements of Mesa Verde. While the plateau villages were increasingly built in an L- or U-shaped layout, the valley villages grew larger. In rock shelters under the refuge of imposing overhanging cliffs, on the side of cuestas deeply lacerated by erosion, composite, both troglodytic and built villages were established having various functions: agricultural, handicrafts or religious - the first &lt;em&gt;kivas&lt;/em&gt; (subterranean or buried structures of a subcircular layout) appeared during this period.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;This civilization reached its apogee between 1100 and the end of the 13th century before suddenly disappearing. Impressive, multi-storey constructions (the best-known being 'Cliff Palace' and 'Long House', with its 181 rooms and 15 &lt;em&gt;kivas&lt;/em&gt;) were erected under the shelter of the cliffs. They are demonstrative of surprising progress in building techniques and a very keen sense for use of space. At the same time, agrarian techniques were improved: irrigation, based on a network of reservoirs and dams, was used to offset the rigours of a climate largely hostile to the cultivation of cereals and starches, staples of the Anasazi diet. This 'golden age', facilitated by control of the natural environment, is further illustrated by the outstanding quality of the handicrafts. As the first explorers of Mesa Verde claimed on many an occasion, the wickerwork, weaving and especially ceramics were of astonishing quality.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Discovered in 1874, the rock-cut villages of Mesa Verde were pillaged by collectors (there was a very large pottery sale in 1889) before being studied and excavated by archaeologists. However, the protection of the site which came into effect in 1906 under the Federal Antiquities Act is one of the most effective and long-standing on the American continent.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;A great concentration of ancestral Pueblo Indian dwellings, built from the 6th to the 12th century, can be found on the Mesa Verde plateau in south-west Colorado at an altitude of more than 2,600 m. Some 4,400 sites have been recorded, including villages built on the Mesa top. There are also imposing cliff dwellings, built of stone and comprising more than 100 rooms.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mesa Verde National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>30</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>P 1995-2003</danger><date_inscribed>1978</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Created a national park on 1 March 1872; accepted as a biosphere reserve in June 1976; and accepted as a World Heritage site in 1978. Protection is provided under several congressional acts.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/28</http_url><id_number>28</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_28.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>44.4605600000</latitude><location>Northwest corner of the State of Wyoming and relatively small adjacent areas of the States of Montana and Idaho</location><longitude>-110.8277800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Yellowstone National Park, established in 1872, covers 9,000&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of a vast natural forest of the southern Rocky Mountains in the North American west. It boasts an impressive array of geothermal phenomena, with more than 3,000 geysers, lava formations, fumaroles, hot springs and waterfalls, lakes and canyons. It is equally known for its wildlife: grizzly bears, bison, wolves and wapiti, North American elk.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is part of the most seismically active region of the Rocky Mountains, a volcanic 'hot spot'. The Yellowstone Plateau, now a forested area of 650,000&amp;nbsp;ha with an average elevation of 2,000&amp;nbsp;m, was formed out of the accumulation of rhyolite magma. The plateau is flanked on the north, east and south by mountains that rise to 4,000&amp;nbsp;m. Crustal uplifts 65&amp;nbsp;million years ago raised blocks of crust to form the southern Rocky Mountains. After that, volcanic outflows of andesitic composition were common to about 40&amp;nbsp;million years ago. Andesitic ashflows and mudflows of the Eocene age covered forests, which became petrified. Some 200 species of petrified plant have been found. A more recent period of rhyolitic volcanism began in the region about 2&amp;nbsp;million years ago, during which time thousands of cubic kilometres of rhyolitic magma filled immense chambers under the plateau and then erupted to the surface. Three cycles of eruption produced huge explosive outbursts of ash. The latest eruptive cycle formed a caldera 45&amp;nbsp;km wide and 75&amp;nbsp;km long, when the active magma chambers erupted and collapsed. The crystallizing magma is the source of heat for hydrothermal features such as geysers, hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yellowstone contains 200-250 active geysers and perhaps 10,000 thermal features. Most of the area was glaciated during the Pleistocene and many glacial features remain. The park lies at the headwaters of three major rivers. Yellowstone River is a major tributary of the Missouri River that flows via the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico. Firehole and Gibbon rivers unite to form the Madison, which also joins the Missouri. Snake River arises near the park's south boundary and joins the Columbia to flow into the Pacific. Yellowstone Lake is the largest lake at high elevation (2,357&amp;nbsp;m) in North America. Lower Yellowstone Falls is the highest of more than 40 named waterfalls in the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is dominated by lodgepole pine. Great elevational differences produce a range of plant communities, from semi-arid steppe to alpine tundra. There are seven species of coniferous tree and some 1,100 species of vascular plant growing in the park, including an endemic grass. The thermal areas contain unique assemblages of thermal algae and bacteria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Six species of ungulate are native to the park. Grizzly bear has been the subject of intensive study and management for 30 years. There are currently some 50 breeding females and 150 cubs have been born in the last three years. Native fishes are protected by regulations that also permit the taking of non-native introduced species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Palaeontological study of Lamar Cave has yielded remains of over 30 species of mammal. This suggests a diversity of fauna in prehistoric times much like that found in Yellowstone today.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological investigations of numerous important sites show that human groups visited the park area for 10,000 years, but none made it a permanent home.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The vast natural forest of Yellowstone National Park covers nearly 9,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ; 96% of the park lies in Wyoming, 3% in Montana and 1% in Idaho. Yellowstone contains half of all the world's known geothermal features, with more than 10,000 examples. It also has the world's largest concentration of geysers (more than 300 geyers, or two thirds of all those on the planet). Established in 1872, Yellowstone is equally known for its wildlife, such as grizzly bears, wolves, bison and wapitis.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Yellowstone National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>31</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Created a national park on 26 February 1919 by an act of Congress. First protected in 1893 as a forest reserve in which mining, lumbering and hunting continued to be allowed; upgraded to a game reserve in 1906, giving protection to the wildlife; redesignated a national monument in 1908. Accepted as a World Heritage site on 24 October _979.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/75</http_url><id_number>75</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_75.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.1008333300</latitude><location>Counties of Coconino and Mohave in the State of Arizona</location><longitude>-112.0905556000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Grand Canyon National Park was created on 26 February 1919 by an act of Congress. First protected in 1893 as a forest reserve in which mining, lumbering and hunting continued to be allowed: upgraded to a game reserve in 1906, giving protection to the wildlife: redesignated a National Monument in 1908.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is dominated by the spectacular Grand Canyon: a twisting, 1.5&amp;nbsp;km deep and 445.8&amp;nbsp;km long gorge, formed during some 6&amp;nbsp;million years of geological activity and erosion by the Colorado River on the raised Earth's crust (2.5&amp;nbsp;km above sea level). It divides the park into the North Rim and South Rim which overlook the 200&amp;nbsp;m to 30&amp;nbsp;km wide canyon; the buttes, spires, mesas and temples in the canyon are in fact mountains looked down upon from the rims. Ongoing erosion by the seasonal and permanent rivers produces impressive waterfalls and rapids of washed-down boulders along the length of the canyon and its tributaries. Exposed horizontal geological strata in the canyon span some 2,000&amp;nbsp;million years of geological history, providing evidence of the four major geological eras, early and late Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The early Precambrian strata, known as the Vishnu Schist formation, are devoid of fossils. The first fossil evidence appears in the late Precambrian Bass Limestone with remains of early plant forms. Subsequent strata dating from the Palaeozoic era catalogue the sequence of local history, with both marine and terrestrial fossils demonstrating the periods in the distant past when the whole region was alternately submerged and raised. The Mesozoic era is less well illustrated within the park, but tracks made by early reptiles are found to the east in the Navajo Indian reservation. They are a few fossil remains of mammals from the early Cenozoic.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Altitudinal range provides a variety of climates and habitats, ranging from desert to mountain conditions. The canyon is a vast biological museum stretching through five different life and vegetation zones: Hudsonian on the North Rim plateau with Colorado blue spruce and Rocky Mountain maple; Canadian near the North Rim, with aspen and Ponderosa and forests of Douglas fir, white fir and aspen at 2,500&amp;nbsp;m; high-altitude Transition (Ponderosa) forests of &lt;em&gt;Pinus ponderosa&lt;/em&gt; and gambel oak; upper Sonoran on and below the South Rim with Utah juniper, pinon pine and sagebrush; and the Lower Sonoran down the canyon and at the bottom (desert cacti, rabbitbrush, mesquite, Morman tea and Manzanita).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Over 1,000 plant species have so far been identified from the park. There are 11 plant species listed as threatened in the United States statutes in the park, including Palmer amsonia, goldenweed, plains cactus, scouler catchfly, wild buckwheats, primrose and clute penstemon. In addition, 15 plant species are recommended for consideration as threatened species under the Endangered Species Act.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Concerning the fauna, 76 mammal, 299 bird and 41 reptile and amphibian species have been identified from the park and some 16 fish species inhabit the Colorado River and its tributaries. Rare or threatened birds are listed under the United States Endangered Species Act of 1973.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains more than 2,600 documented prehistoric ruins, including evidence of Archaic cultures (the earliest known inhabitants), Cohonina Indians along the South Rim, and Anasazi Indians on both the South Rim, North Rim, and within the Inner Canyon. Hualapai and Havasupai Indians moved into the canyons at this time, where they remained undisturbed until the Anglo-Americans arrived in 1860. Archaeological remains show the adaptation of human societies to severe climate and physiographic environment.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Carved out by the Colorado River, the Grand Canyon (nearly 1,500 m deep) is the most spectacular gorge in the world. Located in the state of Arizona, it cuts across the Grand Canyon National Park. Its horizontal strata retrace the geological history of the past 2 billion years. There are also prehistoric traces of human adaptation to a particularly harsh environment.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Grand Canyon National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>81</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2010 P 1993-2007</danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Declared a national park on 6 December 1947 under the May 1934 Act of Congress. The park was accepted as a biosphere reserve in 1976, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979, and was designated a Ramsar site (Wetland of International Significance) in 1987. The total area of the national park was increased in 1989 from its original size of 566, 788ha to its current size.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/76</http_url><id_number>76</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_76.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.5544444400</latitude><location>Southern tip of the Florida peninsula, along the Gulf of Mexico, State of Florida</location><longitude>-80.9963888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Everglades National Park is situated on the southern tip of the Florida Peninsula. The park is bounded by the Gulf of Mexico to the west, the Tamiami Trail and mostly state lands to the north and the Florida Keys to the south and south-east. It includes most of Florida Bay. The biosphere reserve includes Dry Tortugas National Park, a group of seven coral reefs and surrounding shoals, coral reefs and waters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Everglades National Park is a shallow basin tilted to the south-west and underlain by extensive Pleistocene limestone with oolitic and bryozoan facies. The park serves as a vital recharge area for the Biscayne Aquifer, a major source of freshwater for Miami and south-east Florida. It lies at the interface between temperate and subtropical America and between fresh and brackish water, shallow bays and deeper coastal waters, thus creating a complex of habitats supporting a high diversity of flora and fauna. The area of transition from freshwater (glades) to saltwater (mangrove) is a highly productive zone that incubates great numbers of economically valuable crustacea. The vegetation and flora of south Florida have fascinated scientists and naturalists since their discovery and were a primary reason for the establishment of the park. One cause of this fascination is the presence of a high percentage of West Indian species. A noteworthy feature is the rather high degree of local endemism. Hammocks or tree islands are dominated by hardwood species of both tropical and temperate affinities. The most important trees are mangroves, taxa, slash pine and cypress. Prairies can be dominated by sawgrass, muhley grass, or cordgrass in coastal areas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Everglades protect 800 species of land and water vertebrates, including over 14 threatened species, and 25 mammals, over 400 bird species, 60 known species of reptile, amphibian and insect, including two threatened swallowtail butterfly species. Over 20 species of snake have been recorded, including the threatened indigo snake. More than 275 species of fish are known from the Everglades, most inhabiting the marine and estuarine waters. Several species are important game species that attract thousands of anglers to the park. During autumn a continuous procession of songbirds and other migrants fly over or rest on these islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is rich in both prehistoric and historic heritage: it contains 200 known archaeological sites. A Native American group, the Miccosukee tribe of Florida, has a special use permit area inside the park. Fort Jefferson, in Dry Tortugas National Park, is the largest brick masonry fort in America. It was large enough to garrison 1,500 men, but was never involved in battle, although it did secure a post for Union forces during the Civil War and afterwards served as a prison. The park's northern boundary is retained by the Miccosukee Indians under a special use permit for community development.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site at the southern tip of Florida has been called 'a river of grass flowing imperceptibly from the hinterland into the sea'. The exceptional variety of its water habitats has made it a sanctuary for a large number of birds and reptiles, as well as for threatened species such as the manatee.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Everglades National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>82</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1979</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/78</http_url><id_number>78</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_78.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.9486111100</latitude><location>Philadelphia, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania</location><longitude>-75.1500000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Independence Hall in Philadelphia may be considered the birthplace of the United States of America: it was here that the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, the Articles of Confederation uniting the 13 colonies were ratified in 1781, and the Constitution setting out the nation's basic laws was adopted in 1787, after George Washington had presided over the debate, which ran from May to September.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The building was designed by Andrew Hamilton to house the Assembly of the Commonwealth (colony) of Pennsylvania. Finished in 1753, it is a modest brick structure with a steeple that was intended to hold a 2,080&amp;nbsp;lb (943&amp;nbsp;kg) bell. The bell, however, has cracked twice and stands silently on the ground in a special shelter (a reproduction now hangs in the steeple). Independence Hall is important not for its architectural design but for the documents of fundamental importance to American history drafted and debated here that formed the democracy of the United States.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The building has undergone many restorations, notably by Greek revival architect John Haviland in 1830, and by a committee from the National Park Service in 1950, returning it to its 1776 appearance. The universal principles of freedom and democracy have also had a profound impact on lawmakers around the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Independence National Historical Park, located in downtown Philadelphia ('Centre City'), interprets events and the lives of the diverse population during the years when the city was the capital of the United States, from 1790 to 1800. A section of the park where Benjamin Franklin's home once stood is dedicated to teaching about his life and accomplishments. Spanning approximately 18&amp;nbsp;ha, the park has about 20 buildings open to the public.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution of the United States (1787) were both signed in this building in Philadelphia. The universal principles of freedom and democracy set forth in these documents are of fundamental importance to American history and have also had a profound impact on law-makers around the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Independence Hall</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>84</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1980</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;2 October 1968, under Public Law 90-545, when three existing state parks were fused with the addition of about 11,340ha of privately owned land with 19,440ha added 27 March 1978. Inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1980. Comprises part of California Coastal Ranges Biosphere Reserve.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/134</http_url><id_number>134</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_134.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.3738888900</latitude><location>California</location><longitude>-123.9980556000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Redwood National Park comprises a region of coastal mountains bordering the Pacific (to 930&amp;nbsp;m above sea level) north of San Francisco. It is covered with a magnificent forest of sequoia redwood trees, the tallest and most impressive trees in the world. The marine and land life are equally remarkable, in particular the sea lions, the bald eagle and the endangered California brown pelican.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park was established specifically to protect these trees, because it is only here and in Oregon that they now survive. Descendants of the giant evergreens that grew during the age of the dinosaurs, redwoods thrived in moist temperate regions of the world. They take 400 years to mature and some of the survivors are more than 2,000 years old. Their thick, sapless bark protects them from fire, but landslides and wind can topple old trees. Cultural landscapes reflect American Indian history. The Indians used fallen redwood trees to build canoes and houses; commercial logging began during the gold rush era. Logging of redwoods continues and is debated by the timber industry and environmentalists. The trees stand as majestic reminders of the slow evolution of nature.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area transcends two distinctive physiographic environments: the coastline, and the mountains of the Coast Range. The park's 55&amp;nbsp;km coastline consists of steep, rocky cliffs broken by rolling slopes and broad sandy beaches. Gently rounded summits contrast with steep slopes and deeply incised streams. Bedrock is primarily highly deformed Cretaceous deep water marine sandstones, siltstones and shales. Lesser amounts of chert, volcanic greenstones and metamorphic rocks occur as blocks within the sedimentary rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The predominant vegetation type is coastal redwood forest. There are 15,800&amp;nbsp;ha of old-growth redwood, 20,800&amp;nbsp;ha are cut over and the balance comprises other vegetation types. The redwoods are surviving remnants of the group of trees that were once found throughout many of the moist temperate regions of the world, but are now confined to the wet regions on the west coast of North America. As slope and dryness increase, the forest is superseded by prairie vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 75 species of mammal. Freshwater marshes, ponds and streams provide valuable nesting and feeding areas for several species of migratory waterfowl. Several offshore rocks in the area are important nesting sites for seabirds. Threatened birds include the endangered brown pelican, southern bald eagle and American falcon.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological surveys, test excavations, research and consultations conducted over the past 20 years have resulted in the recording of 50 prehistoric archaeological sites, 19 historic sites and at least 21 places of significance to local Indian communities. The archaeological sites span 4,500 years and represent changing settlement and subsistence systems. Historic resources include examples of early trails, homestead and ranching, fishing, dairy, mining and logging industries, and military structure.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The redwood forests represent some 42% of the remaining old growth redwood stands, a small fragment of once extensive cover. Legal protection is total, but sport fishing is allowed. The principal National Park Service zoning classification comprises natural, historic and park development enclaves.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The parks' mosaic of habitats includes prairie/oak woodlands, mighty rivers and streams and 55&amp;nbsp;km of pristine Pacific coastline.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Redwood National Park comprises a region of coastal mountains bordering the Pacific Ocean north of San Francisco. It is covered with a magnificent forest of coastal redwood trees, the tallest and most impressive trees in the world. The marine and land life are equally remarkable, in particular the sea lions, the bald eagle and the endangered California brown pelican.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Redwood National and State Parks</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>147</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The area was declared a national park on 1 July 1941, under enabling legislation of US Congress (44 Statute 635) of 25 May 1926. Kentucky ceded exclusive jurisdiction over park lands by an act of legislature approved on 22 March 1930 and this was accepted by the Secretary of the Interior on 1 May 1944 by authority of the act of 5 June 1942 (56 Statute 317). Exclusive jurisdiction over the remainder of the land was accepted on 1 May 1965. Certain roads through the park are legally open to the public under Deed No.262 of 18 June 1945. Part of the area is endorsed by the Barren River Area Development District resolution of 24 October 1988. Big Woods Old-growth Forest is designated a state natural area by the state of Kentucky. Green River is designated a wild and scenic river and Green River and Mammoth Cave subsurface streams are designated outstanding resource waters by this state. Accepted as a World Heritage site in 1981 and as a biosphere reserve in 1990.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/150</http_url><id_number>150</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_150.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.1872222200</latitude><location>Counties of Barren, Edmonson, and Hart in the State of Kentucky</location><longitude>-86.1030555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Mammoth Cave National Park, located in the state of Kentucky, has the world's largest network of natural caves and underground passageways, which are characteristic examples of limestone formations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park includes by far the longest cave system in the world, with known passages extending some 550&amp;nbsp;km. It is of geological importance due to the 25&amp;nbsp;million years of cave-forming action by the Green River and its tributaries. Almost every type of cave formation is known within the site and the geological processes involved in cave formation are continuing. The long passages with huge chambers, vertical shafts, stalagmites and stalactites, gypsum 'flowers' and 'needles' and other natural features of the cave system are all superlative examples of their types. The park and its underground network of more than 550&amp;nbsp;km surveyed passageways are home to varied flora and fauna (including a number of endangered species).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is the most extensive and diverse cave ecosystem in the world, with over 200 species, mostly invertebrate, indigenous to the network of caves, with 42 species adapted to life in total darkness. Outside the cave, the karst topography is superb, with fascinating landscapes, luxuriant vegetation and abundant wildlife - terrestrial vertebrates include 43 mammal, 207 bird, 37 reptile and 27 amphibian species. All the features of a karst drainage system are found within the site. Fossils are distributed throughout the rocks of the Mississippian age and include brachiopods, crinoids and corals.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Surface features are also important and Big Woods, a temperate deciduous oak-hickory dominated forest, is reputed to be one of the largest and best remaining examples of the ancient forest of eastern North America that once covered Kentucky. The vegetation communities on the surface of the plateau include 84 tree varieties, 28 varieties of shrubs and vines, 29 types of fern, 209 wildflowers, 67 species of algae, 27 species of fungi and 7 species of bryophyte. This temperate deciduous oak-hickory forest is dominated by oaks including white, black and chestnut oaks and hickories including pignut and mockernut, with some beech, maples, tulip tree, ash and eastern red cedar&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The troglodyte fauna includes several endangered species of blind fish, shrimp, bat and freshwater mussel.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Of special concern is the Kentucky cave shrimp, a freshwater species of uncertain status. The geological setting has contributed to the species richness of the area with the cave system being old enough to have viable communities of fauna from three karst regions within an area large enough for speciation to have occurred. Nowhere else do the blind fish and their spring-cave dwelling relative co-exist.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological sites in the area show evidence of four pre-Columbian Indian cultures. Mammoth Cave has been important in the development of human culture, with four distinct cultural periods described: palaeo-Indian, Archaic, Woodland and Mississippian. The early Woodland culture is particularly important because it marked the independent development of organized horticulture in the Western Hemisphere, with primitive agriculture on river floodplains and was the period of the first exploration and mining in Mammoth Cave. Several mummies, sandals, campfire sites, bare foot prints have been found preserved in the stabilizing cave atmosphere.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the site does not include the entire river catchments of waters flowing through the site, so future disturbance is possible, particularly to the south and east of the park, where light industry is replacing agriculture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are no permanent inhabitants in the core area. About 240 people live in the buffer zones with a further 1,500 in the transition area, including about 600 in Park City.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Mammoth Cave National Park, located in the state of Kentucky, has the world's largest network of natural caves and underground passageways, which are characteristic examples of limestone formations. The park and its underground network of more than 560 surveyed km of passageways are home to a varied flora and fauna, including a number of endangered species.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mammoth Cave National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>168</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1981</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;29 June 1938 as a national park; the Pacific Coastal Area and Queets River corridor were added on 6 January 1953. Accepted as a biosphere reserve in June 1976, and as a World Heritage site in 1981.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/151</http_url><id_number>151</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_151.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>47.7483333300</latitude><location>State of Washington</location><longitude>-123.4488889000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Olympic National Park is isolated from other mountain ranges and surrounded by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and Puget Sound; this isolation has allowed the development of endemic species, including Olympic marmot, 4 subspecies of other mammals, 2 subspecies of trout, and 12 species or varieties of plant. 11 major river systems drain the Olympic mountains, offering some of the best habitat for anadromous fish species (such as salmon that live their lives in the sea and migrate to a freshwater river to spawn) in the country.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reflecting the varied topography (from seashore to glacier) and the varied rainfall, the vegetation zones in the site are complex and varied. The park is divided into two segments: a mountainous core and a separate coastal strip. The rugged features of Olympic National Park are the result of the collision of drifting continental plates.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area contains a great wealth of geological formations, affected by high rainfall on the west and low rainfall on the east. The lighter shales, sandstones and basalts, which had been violently sheared and squeezed during this tectonic movement, bobbed up like a cork, forming a dome some 95&amp;nbsp;km in diameter. Deep valleys and canyons were eroded out of this dome and glaciers sculpted the craggy peaks and beautiful cirques to form the spectacular landscape which characterizes the modern Olympics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The mountains contain about 60 active glaciers; the area is unique in because it is the lowest latitude in the world in which glaciers begin at an elevation lower than 2,000&amp;nbsp;m and exist below 1,000&amp;nbsp;m. Glacier-clad peaks interspersed with extensive alpine meadows are surrounded by an extensive old growth forest, among which is the best example of intact and protected temperate rainforest in the Pacific Northwest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coastal strip of the site stretches along 80&amp;nbsp;km of wilderness beach, characterized by rocky headlands, log-strewn beaches, and a wealth of intertidal life; rocky islets along the coast are remnants of a continuously receding, changing coastline, and the arches, caves and buttresses are evidence of the continuous battering of the waves. Tide pools are filled with hundreds of species of invertebrate life, and seals, sea lions, sea otters and several species of whale are often seen in the waves and around the offshore islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main danger to the integrity of the site is, oddly, one of its attractions: the mountain goat. Due to the isolation of the site, mountain goats never dispersed naturally to the Olympics, so their introduction in 1925-29 may be causing significant changes in the natural ecosystem. The mountain goats have reduced plant cover, increased erosion, and shifted plant-community dominants towards more resistant or less palatable species; they have been recorded feeding on at least three of the endemic plants, and some concern has been expressed that these species may be endangered by the mountain goat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The coniferous forest of Olympic is of prime commercial interest and practically all the original forest outside the park has been harvested.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located in the north-west of Washington State, Olympic National Park is renowned for the diversity of its ecosystems. Glacier-clad peaks interspersed with extensive alpine meadows are surrounded by an extensive old growth forest, among which is the best example of intact and protected temperate rainforest in the Pacific Northwest. Eleven major river systems drain the Olympic mountains, offering some of the best habitat for anadromous fish species in the country. The park also includes 100 km of wilderness coastline, the longest undeveloped coast in the contiguous United States, and is rich in native and endemic animal and plant species, including critical populations of the endangered northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet and bull trout.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Olympic National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>169</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;22 May 1926 as a national park (44 Stat. 616) and June 1976 as a biosphere reserve&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/259</http_url><id_number>259</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_259.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>35.5930555600</latitude><location>Counties of Cocke, Blount, and Sevier in the State of Tennessee; and the counties of Swain and Haywood in the state of North Carolina</location><longitude>-83.4355555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Great Smoky Mountains National Park is the most important natural area in the eastern United States and is of world importance as an example of temperate deciduous hardwood forest and thus an outstanding example of the diverse Arcto-Tertiary geoflora era, having a high number of temperate species with some rich mixed stands. During Pleistocene glaciation it was the major North American refuge for temperate and boreal species of flora and fauna, so has a large number of endemic species as well as an extremely rich species composition. With 130 species of tree, it has almost as many species as all of Europe. This has resulted in a rich vegetation mosaic. It harbours many endangered species of animals, and has possibly the greatest diversity of salamanders in the world; it is a centre of endemism for North American molluscs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The dominant topographic feature of the park is the range of the Great Smoky Mountains with 16 peaks over 1,829m. Lesser ridges form radiating spurs from the central ridgeline. In broad aspect, the topography of the park consists of moderately sharp-crested, steep-sided ridges separated by deep V-shaped valleys. Many of the mountain ridges branch and subdivide creating a complex of drainage systems with many fast-flowing clear mountain streams. The park contains 22 major watersheds and the water table is near the surface in almost all sections. Precambrian metamorphic rocks consisting of gneisses and schists, and sedimentary rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The vegetation changes continuously with elevation, slope aspect and soil moisture patterns. Five species are officially listed as endangered on the Fish and Wildlife Service List of Candidate Endangered Plants. A diverse fauna occurs including at least 50 native animals, reflecting the richness of the flora. Several species of bat and over 200 species of bird inhabit the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Heavy precipitation and numerous streams make the mountains ideal for a wide variety of amphibian species; the park also contains a diversity of invertebrates, over 70 species of native fish, spiders, insects and other arthropods, and over 100 species of caddisfly and stonefly.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological sites support the theory that prehistoric people (15,000 years ago) were hunters and gatherers. Present historical and cultural interpretation in the park is based mainly on the structures dating from the mid-1800s to 1920, including the finest collection of log buildings in the United States.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains evidence of four pre-Columbian Indian cultures: Mississippian, Woodland, Archaic and palaeo-Indian. The early Woodland culture period is of special archaeological importance because it shows the first evidence of organized horticulture in North America, with primitive agriculture on river floodplains. These Indians used the caves for shelters and chipped gypsum and mirabilite off the walls: more than 150 archaeological sites have been identified within the national park. Saltpeter deposits were discovered on the cave walls and this valuable nitrate was removed and sent to be processed in gunpowder factories between 1809 and 1819. Three churches and 14 cemeteries still exist in the park and are used by the public.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are no permanent inhabitants in the core area. About 240 people live in the buffer zones with a further 1,500 in the transition area. Only 25% of the population is considered urban and no significant increase in urbanization is expected in the near future. Most people are engaged in agriculture, tourism or service industries.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Stretching over more than 200,000 ha, this exceptionally beautiful park is home to more than 3,500 plant species, including almost as many trees (130 natural species) as in all of Europe. Many endangered animal species are also found there, including what is probably the greatest variety of salamanders in the world. Since the park is relatively untouched, it gives an idea of temperate flora before the influence of humankind.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Smoky Mountains National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>289</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/307</http_url><id_number>307</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_307.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>40.6894444400</latitude><location>New York, New York</location><longitude>-74.0447222200</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Statue of Liberty is a masterpiece of the human creative spirit. Its construction in the studios of Bartholdi in Paris represents one of the greatest technical exploits of the 19th century. It welcomed immigrants at the entrance to New York harbour, and so it is directly and materially associated with an event of outstanding universal significance: the populating of the United States, the melting pot of disparate peoples in the second half of the 19th century. The fact that the statue, whose funds were raised by international subscription, was executed in Europe, by a French sculptor, strengthens the symbolic interest of this world-renowned work.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;During the second half of the 19th century, the population of the United States almost doubled in 30 years, from 38,500,000 inhabitants in 1870 to 76,000,000 in 1900. This prodigious growth is principally due to immigration which reached an unprecedented high at that time. Between 1840 and 1880, 9,438,000 foreigners landed in the United States, among which, besides the British, were Germans, Irish and Scandinavian. Between 1880 and 1914, the number of immigrants reached 22,000,000, this time deriving mainly from southern and eastern Europe.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It is within this context the order was placed for the Statue of Liberty, made in Paris by the French sculptor Fr&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;ric-Auguste Bartholdi, in collaboration with Gustave Eiffel, who conceived and executed the metallic skeleton which was to form the interior framework. The exterior 'envelope' was composed of brass plaques, formed by hammering them in hard wood moulds made from plaster models. These plaques were then soldered and riveted together. After Bartholdi prefabricated the figure in Paris by moulding sheets of copper over a steel framework, it was shipped to the United States in 241 crates in 1885.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Some of the money to erect the statue was contributed by American schoolchildren. It is certain that for millions of immigrants who came to America in the 19th century seeking freedom, it was the fulfilment of their dreams. The sculptor also intended with his work to be an immense and impressive symbol of human liberty, and it is one of the most universal symbols of political freedom and democracy. The people of France gave the statue to the people of the United States over 100 years ago in recognition of the friendship established during the American Revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Statue of Liberty, a woman holding on high a book and a 46&amp;nbsp;m long torch set on Liberty Island, situated at the entrance to New York harbour about 1&amp;nbsp;km from the landing point of the immigrants, was dedicated on 28&amp;nbsp;October 1886 and was designated a National Monument on 15&amp;nbsp;October 1924. On 8&amp;nbsp;September 1937, jurisdiction was enlarged to encompass all of Bedloe's Island and in 1956, the island's name was changed to Liberty Island. On 11&amp;nbsp;May 1965, Ellis Island was also transferred to the National Park Service and became part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;'Liberty Enlightening the World' was extensively restored in time for the spectacular centennial of American independence on 4&amp;nbsp;July 1986, for whom it symbolized the ideals of Washington and Lincoln. It has continued to inspire people across the world.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Made in Paris by the French sculptor Bartholdi, in collaboration with Gustave Eiffel (who was responsible for the steel framework), this towering monument to liberty was a gift from France on the centenary of American independence. Inaugurated in 1886, the sculpture stands at the entrance to New York Harbour and has welcomed millions of immigrants to the United States ever since.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Statue of Liberty</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>346</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Act of Congress of 30 June 1864 (13 Stat. 325) granted Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove to the state of California (regranted to the US government in 1906). Establishment of Yosemite National Park as a forest reservation on 1 October 1890 (26 Stat. 650) excluding Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove. Boundary adjustments were made in 1905. Park extension in 1929 of 4,846.47ha and further extensions in 1930, 1931, 1932, 1937, 1938 and 1984. Designated as a World Heritage site in 1984.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/308</http_url><id_number>308</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_308.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>37.7461111100</latitude><location>California</location><longitude>-119.5966667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Yosemite National Park, on the west slope of the central Sierra Nevada Mountains, is an area of outstanding scenic beauty and great wilderness value. The park represents practically all the different environments found within the Sierra Nevada, including sequoia groves, historic resources, evidence of Indian habitation, and domes, valleys, polished granites and other geological features illustrating the formation of the mountain range.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is dominated by the Sierra Nevada, which is a tilted granite area. Granite underlies most of the park and is exposed as domes, partial domes, knobs and cliffs. There is exceptionally glaciated topography over most of the area including the spectacular Yosemite Valley, a 914&amp;nbsp;m deep cleft carved by glaciers through a gently rolling upland. The valley is a widened portion of the prevailing narrow Merced River canyon which traverses the southern sector of the park from east to west. The massive sheer granite walls present a freshly glaciated appearance with little postglacial erosion. The park is known for its many waterfalls, including the Yosemite Falls and Ribbon Falls, and some 300 lakes, including Emerald and Merced. Other notable canyons in the park are the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne River and the Tenaya Canyon. There are also two major rivers (Merced and Tuolumne). The area was previously heavily glaciated and, although no glaciers are still existent in the park, the marks of their passing are everywhere. Glacial action combined with the granitic bedrock has resulted in unique and pronounced landform features. These include distinctive polished dome structures as well as the related glacial features of hanging valleys, tarns, moraines and U-shaped valleys. Monolithic granitic blocks such as Half Dome and the perpendicular wall of El Capitan are classic distinctive reflections of the geological history of the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The variety of flora is reflected in the existence of six distinct vegetation zones which are governed by altitudinal variation. Notable are three groves of the giant sequoia tree and extensive alpine meadows. There are 1,200 species of flowering plant along with various other ferns, bryophytes and lichens. There is one endemic and eight threatened or endangered species of plant.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park has 67 mammalian species, of which 32 are rodents, 221 species of bird, 18 reptile, 10 amphibian and 11 fish, of which 6 are endemic. One bird species (bald eagle) is endangered and the peregrine falcon is listed as vulnerable. A few non-native species have been accidentally introduced such as beaver and white-tailed ptarmigan. Bighorn sheep were declared extinct in Yosemite in 1914 but were reintroduced in 1986.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are 1,000 designated archaeological sites recorded by visitors, park staff and during systematic archaeological surveys. Yosemite is viewed as a boundary zone between the two major cultural provinces of Central California and the Great Basin. In late prehistoric and historic times Yosemite was occupied by two main tribes of North American Indians. There are 569 designated archaeological sites within the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Yosemite's natural beauty was the impetus, then, for the first implementation of the national park concept as we know it today. Adding to Yosemite's cultural importance are the archaeological features found in the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Much change has however occurred in the Yosemite landscape. Suppression of natural fires and heavy stock and sheep grazing in the past has also altered the original vegetation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Yosemite National Park lies in the heart of California. With its 'hanging' valleys, many waterfalls, cirque lakes, polished domes, moraines and U-shaped valleys, it provides an excellent overview of all kinds of granite relief fashioned by glaciation. At 600–4,000 m, a great variety of flora and fauna can also be found here.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Yosemite National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>347</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/353</http_url><id_number>353</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_353.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.0637777800</latitude><location>New Mexico</location><longitude>-107.9708333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Chaco is an example of a prehistoric or protohistoric culture that is remarkable for its monumental public and ceremonial buildings and its distinctive architecture. The cultural sites of Chaco Culture National Historical Park They are part of the history and traditions of the Hopi, the Pueblo peoples of New Mexico, and the Navajo, who continue to respect and honour them. Chaco Canyon is the area with the highest concentration of archaeological sites of the whole zone.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For over 2,000 years, Pueblo peoples occupied a vast region of the south-western United States. In Chaco Canyon, a major centre of the ancestral Pueblo culture between 850 and 1250, many different clans and peoples created a community for ceremonials, trade, administrative and political activity in the prehistoric Four Corners area. In addition to the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, the World Heritage property includes the Aztec Ruins National Monument and several smaller Chaco sites.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Anasazi, sedentary farmers as they were, occupied the greater part of the south-west of what is now the United States. Within this culture the Chacos appear as an autonomous group. This society is characterized by a very elaborate ground occupation system which includes a constellation of towns surrounded by satellite villages and linked by a road network, so characteristic of Chaco culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The zenith was from around 1020 to 1110. The highly organized reconstruction of old living places, such as Pueblo Bonito and Penasco Blanco, demonstrates their skill in the use of building techniques in a difficult environment. The Chaco people combined pre-planned architectural designs, astronomical alignments, geometry, landscaping and engineering to create an ancient urban centre of spectacular public architecture. Chaco was connected to over 150 communities throughout the region by engineered roads and a shared vision of the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time it illustrates the increasing complexity of the Chaco social structure: circular &lt;em&gt;kivas&lt;/em&gt; having an essentially religious role appeared on a regular basis in the middle of an increasingly differentiated unitary dwelling. More and more roads were built and the signs of extensive trading became more manifest (imports of ceramics and lithic materials, including turquoise). This phase was followed by a period of rapid decadence about 1110. From 1140 to 1200, the Chaco population died out and the pueblos were abandoned.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After 1250, the people migrated from the area, moving south, east and west to join relatives living on the Hopi Mesas, along the Rio Grande, and around Zu&amp;ntilde;i Mountain. The region remained practically uninhabited until the 17th century, when it was taken over by Navajo Indians.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;For over 2,000 years, Pueblo peoples occupied a vast region of the south-western United States. Chaco Canyon, a major centre of ancestral Pueblo culture between 850 and 1250, was a focus for ceremonials, trade and political activity for the prehistoric Four Corners area. Chaco is remarkable for its monumental public and ceremonial buildings and its distinctive architecture – it has an ancient urban ceremonial centre that is unlike anything constructed before or since. In addition to the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, the World Heritage property includes the Aztec Ruins National Monument and several smaller Chaco sites managed by the Bureau of Land Management.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chaco Culture</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>405</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Hawaii National Park, created on 1 August 1916 by Act of the US Congress (39 Stat. 432), consisted of two units each on different islands, one on Hawaii Island and the other on Maui Island. The area of the park was more than doubled as a result of Congressional authorisation in 1922 (45 Stat. 503), in 1928 (45 Stat. 424) and in 1938 (52 Stat. 781). The 'Ola'a Forest Tract was donated in 1951 and 1953 (Executive Order #1640). The park was split into Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (on Hawaii Island) and Haleakala National Park (on Maui Island) in 1961 (75 Stat. 577). Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is protected under 16 U.S.C. 1 (National Park Service Organic Act) and under the terms establishing the park as set out in 16 U.S.C. 395b, and under several sections of 16 U.S.C. 391-396a. Hawaii Volcanoes and Haleakala national parks were accepted as MAB Biosphere Reserves in 1980, and combined to form one cluster, Hawaiian Islands Biosphere Reserve, in April 1983. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is under consideration for inscription on the World Heritage list.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/409</http_url><id_number>409</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_409.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>19.4008333300</latitude><location>Hawaii</location><longitude>-155.1236111000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Lies in the south-east part of the island of Hawaii (Big Island), the easternmost island of the State of Hawaii, and includes the summit and south-east slope of Mauna Loa and the summit and south-western, southern, and south-eastern slopes of the Kilauea Volcano. The park extends from the southern coast, with its volcanic sea cliff headlands to the summit calderas of Kilauea, the most active volcano in the world (with more than 50 recorded eruptions in the last 33 years up to 1985) and Mauna Loa volcanoes. The latter is a massive, flat-domed shield volcano built by lava flow layers and is considered to be the best example of its type in the world, extending from 5,581&amp;nbsp;m below sea level to 4,169&amp;nbsp;m above.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is greatest and the calderas of Kilauea are one of most studied in the world: in fact there is a geologic station dating from 1912.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The climatic gradient varies with altitude from tropical humid to alpine desert.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park contains a high diversity of plant communities with striking life-form and physiognomic differences; 23 distinct vegetation types have been described for the park, ranging from the very diverse tropical rainforest of 'Ola'a to the scrub and grassland of Ka'u and the alpine tundra of Mauna Loa, grouped into five major ecosystems: subalpine, montane seasonal, montane rainforest, submontane seasonal and coastal lowlands. The 'Ola'a Forest tract, over 4,000&amp;nbsp;ha in size, is probably the largest remaining tract of virgin ohia and fern forest in the Hawaiian Islands. The native flora numbering 41 species, with a further 40 listed as rare and warranting special attention.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is rich, in archaeological remains particularly along 'the coast with native villages, temples, graves, paved trails, canoe landings, petroglyphs, shelter caves and agricultural areas. Following the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778-79, Christian influences started in or around 1823, with churches and schools built and the introduction of cattle, goat and &lt;em&gt;pulu&lt;/em&gt; (tree-fern product) harvesting and the encouragement of visitors. Extensive ruins of stone structures dating back to the time of Pa'ao (a high priest) in 1275 are present.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like all natural areas in Hawaii, the park has been subject to considerable biological alteration since man's arrival. Direct removal or alteration of native forest for growing sugar and pineapple plantations, ranching and logging, has altered the native biota of the forest habitats, particularly at low and middle elevations. Except for a single species of bat Hawaiian hoary bat, native mammalian forms are absent. Little is known to date about invertebrate forms. Avian forms present interesting and significant examples of adaptive radiation and of extinction. Most endemic avian species are rare or endangered. Ranching activities and the introduction of species such as the pig, goat and mongoose have had serious biological consequences, including destruction of native ecosystems and widespread extinction of endemic species. Pockets of standing water, created by the wallowing of the feral pigs, provide breeding places for mosquitoes, resulting in serious avian malaria.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The control programs undertaken on the basis of solid scientific research have been a model for removal of alien animals and plants (including illegal narcotics) on oceanic islands.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This site contains two of the most active volcanoes in the world, Mauna Loa (4,170 m high) and Kilauea (1,250 m high), both of which tower over the Pacific Ocean. Volcanic eruptions have created a constantly changing landscape, and the lava flows reveal surprising geological formations. Rare birds and endemic species can be found there, as well as forests of giant ferns.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hawaii Volcanoes National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>472</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1992</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The culture of the Pueblo Indians extended through a wide geographical area of northern Mexico and the southwest United States. It can still be found in a certain number of communities in the States of Chihuahua (Mexico) and Arizona and New Mexico (United States). Taos is the best preserved of the pueblos north of the borders defined by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Located in the valley of a small tributary of the Rio Grande, Taos comprises a group of habitations and ceremonial centres (6 kivas have been conserved). which are representative of a culture largely derived from the traditions of the prehistoric Anasazi Indian tribes, who settled around the present borders of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado. Their culture went into an irreversible decline, and in the later 13th century major sites like Mesa Verde and Chaco (included on the World Heritage List in 1978 and 1987 respectively) were abandoned, perhaps because of major climatic changes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The proliferation of small pueblos in the valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries, when considered along with the disappearance of the Anasazi tribes, was one of the major characteristics of the settlement of the North American continent. Modest rural communities. characterized by common social and religious structures, traditional agricultural practices perfected during the &amp;quot;classical&amp;quot; period. and a systematic use of irrigation, were built. Taos is thought to have appeared before 1400.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the modern historical period the two major characteristics of the Pueblo civilization were mutually contradictory : unchanging traditions deeply rooted in the culture and an ever-constant ability to absorb other cultures. Their faculty for acculturation gradually began to appear following the first Spanish expedition of the Governor of New Galicia, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado. in 1540-1542. Beginning in 1613, the inhabitants of Taos resisted the system of encomiendas which allowed certain Spaniards to exact a tribute in kind from the village. In 1634 the missionary Fray Alonso de Benavides complained to the Pope of their &amp;quot;rebellious&amp;quot; attitude.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entire 18th century was a time of wars in which Taos played an important part in resisting the colonizers. However, the breeds of cattle and types of grain introduced by the conquerors were readily adopted into their agricultural system. Attempts to convert the Pueblos to Christianity were ill-received (during the major Pueblo revolt of 1680 the first church was burned down) but unconsciously the religious mentality of the people changed. A similar dichotomy between an irredentist attitude in principle and an assimilation in fact marked the two subsequent historical stages : from 1821 to 1848, under Mexican administration, and from 1848 to the present, under the US administration. In 1970 the people of Taos obtained the restitution of lands usurped by the Government, which included the sacred site of the Blue Lake. At the same time, their ritual ceremonies include both a Christmas procession and the Hispano-Mexican dance of the Matatchines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today, the village appears at first sight to conform with the description given in 1776 by Fray Francisco Atanasio Dominguez. However, although the earthen enclosure which he likened to one of the Biblical cities survives, numerous modifications can be observed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;To the west, the missionaries' convent and church lie in ruins. A new church was built at a different location of the west side of the north plaza in the 19th century. The multi-tiered adobe dwellings still retain their original form and outline, but details have changed. Doors, which traditionally were mostly used to interconnect rooms, are now common as exterior access to the ground floors and to the roof tops on upper stories. Windows, which traditionally were small and incorporated into walls very sparingly, are now common features. The proliferation of doors and windows through time at Taos reflects the acculturation of European traits and the relaxing of needs for defensive structures. In addition to ovens located outdoors, fireplaces have been built inside the living quarters.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/492</http_url><id_number>492</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_492.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>36.4388900000</latitude><location>New Mexico</location><longitude>-105.5416700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Taos is a remarkable example of a traditional type of architectural ensemble from the pre-Hispanic period of the Americas and unique to this region which has successfully retained most of its traditional forms to the present day. Thanks to the determination of the latter-day Native American community, it appears to be successfully resisting the pressures of modern society.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The culture of the Pueblo Indians extended through a wide geographical area of northern Mexico and the south-western United States. Taos is the best preserved of the pueblos north of the borders defined by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848). Located in the valley of a small tributary of the Rio Grande, Taos comprises a group of habitations and ceremonial centres (six &lt;em&gt;kivas&lt;/em&gt; have been conserved), which are representative of a culture largely derived from the traditions of the prehistoric Anasazi Indian tribes who settled near the present borders of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taos's modest rural community appeared before 1400, characterized by common social and religious structures and traditional agricultural practices. In the modern historical period the two major characteristics of the Pueblo civilization were mutually contradictory: unchanging traditions deeply rooted in the culture and an ever-constant ability to absorb other cultures. Their faculty for acculturation gradually began to appear following the first Spanish expedition of the Governor of New Galicia, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, in 1540-42.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The entire 18th century was a time of wars in which Taos played an important part in resisting the colonizers. The breeds of cattle and types of grain were introduced by the conquerors into their agricultural system. Attempts to convert the Pueblos to Christianity were ill-received but unconsciously the religious mentality of the people changed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Taos Pueblo shows the traditional method of adobe construction: the pueblo consists of two clusters of houses, each built from sun-dried mud brick, with walls ranging from 70&amp;nbsp;cm thick at the bottom to about 35&amp;nbsp;cm at the top. Each year the walls are still refinished with a new coat of adobe plaster as part of a village ceremony. The rooms are stepped back so that the roofs of the lower units form terraces for those above. The units at ground level and some of those above are entered by doors that originally were quite small and low; access to the upper units is by ladders through holes in the roof. The living quarters are on the top and outside, while the rooms deep within the structure were used grain storage. The roofs are made from cedar logs, their ends protruding through the walls; on the logs are mats of branches on which are laid grasses covered with a thick layer of mud and a finishing coat of adobe plaster. It is a massive system of construction but one well suited to the rigours of the climate.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1970 the people of Taos obtained the restitution of lands usurped by the government, which included the sacred site of the Blue Lake. At the same time, their ritual ceremonies include both a Christmas procession and the Hispano-Mexican dance of the Matatchines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two main adobe building complexes retain their traditional three-dimensional layout. Certain features, such as doors and windows, have been introduced over the last century. Taos Pueblo represents a natural evolutionary process: it has adjusted to a changed social and economic climate and reflects the acculturation of European traits and the relaxing of needs of defensive structures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Administration of Taos Pueblo is vested in the Taos tribe, which is deeply conscious of its heritage and of the material expression of that heritage in the buildings of the settlement. The pueblo of Taos has tended to become a seasonal habitat reserved for ceremonial functions and tourist attractions.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in the valley of a small tributary of the Rio Grande, this adobe settlement – consisting of dwellings and ceremonial buildings – represents the culture of the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Taos Pueblo</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>573</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/721</http_url><id_number>721</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_721.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.1666666700</latitude><location>Eddy County, State of New Mexico</location><longitude>-104.3833333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The park covers a segment of the Permian fossil Capitan Reef.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An extensive cave system has developed within the reef as a result of sulphuric acid dissolution and of the 81 known caves, Carlsbad Cavern is the largest and Lechuguilla Cave is the most extensive and decorated cave in the world.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Capitan Reef complex dates back to the Permian period, some 280-225&amp;nbsp;million years ago. The exposed sections of this reef lying within the park are among the best preserved in the world accessible for scientific study. Geologists are able to study the rock formations not only through cave passages which penetrate the reef but also in exposures uncovered through erosion. Fossils include bryozoans, pelecypods, gastropods, echinoderms, brachiopods, fusulinds, sponges, trilobites and algae. Above-ground vegetation communities range from desert to coniferous forest. Some 800 plant species have been identified, of which three are internationally threatened: Sneed pincushion cactus, Lee pincushion cactus and Lloyd's hedgehog cactus. The fauna inventory includes 64 mammals, 331 bird and 44 herpetofauna species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The caves are noted for their migratory bat species, especially the Mexican free-tailed bat. Various species of fungi and bacteria growing in the caves are of particular scientific and medical interest.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Disturbances within the park include permanent damage incurred to speleothems and the cave ecosystem from tourism, decline in bat populations from the use of DDT as well as attempts to eradicate them in Mexico, oil and gas exploration, grazing by trespassing livestock, invasion by exotic fauna and the hunting of puma.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Carlsbad is radically different from the other existing World Heritage caves: Carlsbad Caverns National Park is distinguished by its huge chambers which are far larger than similar other as well as for its decorative mineral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since its initial exploration in 1985, Lechuguilla Cave has been strictly managed, allowing only closely monitored visits by researchers. This cave is particularly noteworthy as an underground laboratory where geological processes can be studied in a virtually undisturbed environment. The only threat that faces the park is oil and gas exploration near its borders.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;This karst landscape in the state of New Mexico comprises over 80 recognized caves. They are outstanding not only for their size but also for the profusion, diversity and beauty of their mineral formations. Lechuguilla Cave stands out from the others, providing an underground laboratory where geological and biological processes can be studied in a pristine setting.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Carlsbad Caverns National Park</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>852</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(vi)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Polynesian voyagers arrived in the isolated Hawaiian Archipelago around 300 AD as part of the great migration around the Pacific that started perhaps around 3,000 years ago from south-east Asia, reached Polynesia by around 200 BC, and then spread across the rest of the Pacific over the next two millennia. The voyagers found the larger islands in what is now Hawaii to have fertile soils, abundant water, and reefs rich with marine life.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The settlers mainly inhabited the main islands to the south-east of the Archipelago, but there is evidence of human use in two within Papahānaumokuākea: Mokumanamana and Nihoa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sites in the two islands have been the subject of only limited archaeological investigation and there are still major gaps in knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earliest studies, undertaken by the Tanager Expedition in 1923-24, completely excavated a number of small caves/rock shelters, partly-excavated some open-air sites and removed human skeletal material found in small niches in the cliffs on Nihoa, as well as two human femurs and a tibia revealed by excavation of a rock shelter on Mokumanamana. All the human bone as well as all cultural material retrieved from the excavations and from surface sites were returned to the Bishop Museum in Honolulu. The human skeletal remains have recently been repatriated to the islands by Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners. In addition to completely stripping all sediments observed in cave/rock shelter sites, the Tanager excavations contributed to the destabilization of sections of dry-stone walling on the islands. This and several earlier non-scientific expeditions to the islands also removed a number of small and highly-distinctive carved stone statues and other artefacts from the surface of Mokumanamana. Some of the images are in Bishop Museum but others appear to have been lost.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Recorded human visitation to the two islands has been minimal since the Tanager Expedition, as the islands were part of the Hawaiian Islands Reservation declared in 1909. Access has effectively been limited to shortterm biological surveys, intermittent low-impact archaeological studies and occasional visits by Native Hawaiian cultural practitioners.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Two archaeologists, one a Native Hawaiian doctoral candidate and the other the US Fish and Wildlife Service archaeologist responsible for the property, were left on Mokumanamana during the ICOMOS mission to continue the former's PhD project there. It is likely that this research will go a considerable way to filling the remaining major gaps in knowledge of Nihoa and Mokumanamana.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although little archaeological research has been done elsewhere in Papahānaumokuākea, (the sum total of archaeological work in the whole areas over eighty years apparently only comes to 18 days), the ICOMOS mission confirmed that any obvious signs of pre-European use would have been easily detected by trained professionals. Moreover, palaeoenvironmental investigations conducted on Laysan Atoll by archaeologists amongst other specialists failed to reveal any sign of pre-European human activity in a sediment core dating back some 7,000 years, more than twice as long as people have been anywhere in remote Oceania and more than four times the length of time people are known to have been in the main Hawaiian islands. Polynesian rats (Rattus exulans) were present on Kure until recently but have been exterminated to protect ground-nesting birds whose eggs are highly vulnerable to rat predation. These rats are a commensal species introduced to the remote Pacific by the first human colonists millennia ago and are today carried around on ships along with European rats (although not to the Marine National Monument, as all visiting vessels are subject to strict mandatory rat-control measures). It is not known whether R. exulans was introduced to Kure in the European or pre-European period, but the species is absent from the rest of the Northwest Hawaiian Islands and is not known to have occurred anywhere in Papahānaumokuākea at the time of European contact. However, the absence of commensal rats does not mean early Polynesians did not visit the more remote north-western islands, as there is no evidence they were ever present on Nihoa or Mokumanamana, where pre- European human occupation is undoubted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When Europeans arrived in Hawaii in the late 18th century they found a thriving society with distinctive and complex social and religious systems. In 1898 Hawaii was acquired by the United States thorough the &amp;lsquo;Newlands Resolution'.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Starting in the 1960s and 70s a resistance movement begin to develop against Western assimilation. This led to a renaissance of Hawaiian culture and the strengthening of bonds with sacred places.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A large body of information on oral history has been published over around a hundred years in local newspapers (e.g., Kaunamano 1862 in Hōkǖ o ka Pakipika; Manu 1899 in Ka Loea Kalai&amp;lsquo;āina; Wise 1924 in Nūpepa Kuoko&amp;lsquo;a). More recent ethnological studies (2003) highlight the continuity of Native Hawaiian traditional practices and histories in the North-western Hawaiian Islands. Only a fraction of these have been recorded, and many more exist in the memories and life histories of kupuna.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1326</http_url><id_number>1326</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1326.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>25.3490700000</latitude><location></location><longitude>-170.1458200000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Papahānaumokuākea is a vast and isolated linear cluster of small, low lying islands and atolls, with their surrounding ocean, roughly 250 km to the northwest of the main Hawaiian Archipelago and extending over some 1931 km. The area has deep cosmological and traditional significance for living Native Hawaiian culture, as an ancestral environment, as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinship between people and the natural world, and as the place where it is believed that life originates and to where the spirits return after death. On two of the islands, Nihoa and Makumanamana, there are archaeological remains relating to pre-European settlement and use. Much of the monument is made up of pelagic and deepwater habitats, with notable features such as seamounts and submerged banks, extensive coral reefs and lagoons. It is one of the largest marine protected areas (MPAs) in the world.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Papahānaumokuākea</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1672</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1435</http_url><id_number>1435</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1435.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>32.6369444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>-91.4063888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Monumental Earthworks of Poverty Point owes its name to a 19th-century plantation close to the site, which is in the Lower Mississippi Valley on a slightly elevated and narrow landform. The complex comprises five mounds, six concentric semi-elliptical ridges separated by shallow depressions and a central plaza. It was created and used for residential and ceremonial purposes by a society of hunter fisher-gatherers between 3700 and 3100 BP. It is a remarkable achievement in earthen construction in North America that was unsurpassed for at least 2,000 years.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monumental Earthworks of Poverty Point</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1978</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1466</http_url><id_number>1466</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1466.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>29.3280555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>-98.4600000000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The site encompasses a group of five frontier mission complexes situated along a stretch of the San Antonio River basin in southern Texas, as well as a ranch located 37 kilometres to the south. It includes architectural and archaeological structures, farmlands, residencies, churches and granaries, as well as water distribution systems. The complexes were built by Franciscan missionaries in the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century and illustrate the Spanish Crown’s efforts to colonize, evangelize and defend the northern frontier of New Spain. The San Antonio Missions are also an example of the interweaving of Spanish and Coahuiltecan cultures, illustrated by a variety of features, including the decorative elements of churches, which combine Catholic symbols with indigenous designs inspired by nature.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>San Antonio Missions</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2027</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1987</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/442</http_url><id_number>442</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_442.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.0327777800</latitude><location>Virginia</location><longitude>-78.5038888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Monticello and the University of Virginia are directly and materially associated with the ideals of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), better known for his political career, the brilliance of which overshadowed his reputation as a writer and architect. These works of perfection, where the difficult passage from Utopia to reality is harmoniously achieved, are directly inspired by the very same principles which led to Jefferson's Declaration of Independence (1776) and his project for the abolition of slavery (1800).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The integration of the buildings into the natural landscape, the originality of the plan and design, and the refined proportions and decor make Monticello an outstanding example of a neoclassical work of art, while the University of Virginia is an outstanding example of a great educational institution from the Age of Enlightenment.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The two major works of Thomas Jefferson in Charlottesville are Monticello and the University of Virginia. Monticello (1769-1809) is a perfect example of a neoclassical &lt;em&gt;villa rustica&lt;/em&gt;, based on a Roman design, revised by Palladio and amended by the Physiocrats. The University of Virginia is a fine example of the architectural ideal of the Age of Enlightenment put to use in the great educational programme of the third President of the United States.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Construction of Monticello began in 1769. The very personal conception of the house clearly shows the various influences experienced by its designer: that of Palladio, evidencing in the perfect proportions of the pedimented porticos, and that of the contemporary neoclassical architecture. The interior spatial organization and the low elevation were borrowed from contemporary Parisian town house design. The western facade is dominated by an octagonal dome. Only the harmonious volume of the villa emerges from the foliage of the park where, towards the end of his life, Jefferson planted orchards, vegetable and flower gardens.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Jefferson's most ambitious and last architectural undertaking was the construction of the University of Virginia. Elaborating this project, which is based on educational ideals that are both encyclopaedic and democratic, he departed from pre-existing British or American college planning schemes. The rational layout of this 'academic village' is inspired both by the principles of hygiene laid down by the hospital builders and by a symbolic architecture expressed by the hierarchy of volumes and the repertory of forms.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A half-scale copy of the Pantheon in Rome, which houses the library, dominates the academic village. The 10 pavilions housing the professors of the 10 schools that make up the university are deliberately based on a distinctive design and are intended to serve as an encyclopaedia of classical and neoclassical architectural designs. However, the connecting colonnades serve to give a feeling of unity to this space. The later construction of a building at the south end has unnecessarily transformed this triumphal way into an enclosed space.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), author of the American Declaration of Independence and third president of the United States, was also a talented architect of neoclassical buildings. He designed Monticello (1769–1809), his plantation home, and his ideal 'academical village' (1817–26), which is still the heart of the University of Virginia. Jefferson's use of an architectural vocabulary based upon classical antiquity symbolizes both the aspirations of the new American republic as the inheritor of European tradition and the cultural experimentation that could be expected as the country matured.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Monticello and the University of Virginia in Charlottesville</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2126</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/198</http_url><id_number>198</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_198.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>38.6586111100</latitude><location>St. Louis, Illinois</location><longitude>-90.0613888900</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Cahokia Mounds State historic site is the most comprehensive affirmation of the pre-Columbian civilizations in the Mississippi region. It is an early and eminent example of pre-urban structuring, which provides an opportunity to study a type of social organization, on which written sources are silent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The archaeological site of Cahokia, so named for a subtribe of the Illini who occupied the area when the French arrived, serves as a point of reference for the study of pre-Columbian civilizations in the area of the Mississippi from approximately 900 to 1600. Within the vast zone of plains and plateaux the occupation of the land and the population development underwent an original evolution during the last phase of prehistory, characterized at once by agricultural advances and by a social system which favoured urban concentration. Anthropologists have estimated a sedentary population of an average of 10,000 inhabitants whose social and professional organization, lifestyle and funerary rites have been brought to light by a series of excavations.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Fascinating information about the people who once built the great prehistoric city of Cahokia was revealed accidentally during excavations in the early 1960s. Dr Warren Wittry was studying excavation maps when he observed that numerous large oval-shaped pits seemed to be arranged in arcs of circles. He theorized that posts set in these pits lined up with the rising Sun at certain times of the year, serving as a calendar, which he called Woodhenge. Fragments of wood remaining in some of the post pits revealed that red cedar, a sacred wood, had been used for the posts. The most spectacular sunrise occurs at the equinoxes, when the Sun rises due east. The post marking these sunrises aligns with the front of Monks Mound, where the leader resided, and it looks as though Monks Mound gives birth to the Sun.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The limits of the site are defined by a number of earthwork levees comparable to the enceinte of the protohistoric European oppida. Within this circumvallation, space is rationally distributed between living quarters, zones of specialized activities and public ceremonial areas. Small gardens were attached to each living unit but the cultivated lands were essentially found outside the circumvallation, where a series of small satellite villages were located.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architecture of Cahokia is based on the exclusive use of two materials: earth and wood. The omnipresent forms are those of mounds, when either served as mottes or as funerary tumuli. The dwellings consisted of posts or of wooden palisades. The wooden palisades could serve equally as well as defensive enclosures. In the 12th century, the entire central sector of the site, including the largest (Monks) mound, which is a testament to the sophisticated engineering skills of these people. It had been encircled by such a palisade, which took the form of a bastioned enceinte. Excavation results suggest the existence of a markedly hierarchical social structure, incorporating an interior city where the centre of power was located.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The third circle (AD 1000) was reconstructed in 1985 at the original location. Red ochre pigment found in some of the postholes suggests the posts may have been painted.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Associated with Round Top, Mound 60 is a large, rectangular platform mound known as the Fox Mound. These two mounds seem to be united by a platform as a contour line surrounds them both on the map. The contour may, however, only represent a blending of the slope wash, or talus slopes, of the two mounds coming together. They probably were a unit because the relationship to each other is matched by other paired mounds at the site. They seem strongly reminiscent of the association of platform charnel-house mounds and conical burial mounds in this ethno-historic period of the south-eastern United States.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Cahokia Mounds, some 13 km north-east of St Louis, Missouri, is the largest pre-Columbian settlement north of Mexico. It was occupied primarily during the Mississippian period (800–1400), when it covered nearly 1,600 ha and included some 120 mounds. It is a striking example of a complex chiefdom society, with many satellite mound centres and numerous outlying hamlets and villages. This agricultural society may have had a population of 10–20,000 at its peak between 1050 and 1150. Primary features at the site include Monks Mound, the largest prehistoric earthwork in the Americas, covering over 5 ha and standing 30 m high.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2191</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1983</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/266</http_url><id_number>266</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_266.jpg</image_url><iso_code>us</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>18.4666666700</latitude><location>San Juan, Puerto Rico</location><longitude>-66.1250000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The entire historic site of San Juan with its different monumental components maintains, at the present, a balance between constructed and non-constructed zones. The Fortaleza is tangibly associated with the history of the New World and its explorers and colonists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;For the explorers and the colonists of the New World who came from the east, Puerto Rico was an obligatory stopping-place in the Caribbean. From this evolved its primordial strategic role at the beginning of the Spanish colonization. The island was for centuries a stake disputed by the Spanish, French, English and Dutch. The fortifications of the bay of San Juan, the magnificent port to which Puerto Rico owes its name, bear witness to its long military history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;San Juan had the first municipal government in the New World outside Santo Domingo, as well as the first military presidios in Spanish America. By the 19th century, the old city had become a charming residential and commercial district. The city itself, with its institutional buildings, museums, houses, churches, plazas and commercial buildings, is part of the San Juan Historic Zone which is administered by municipal, State and Federal agencies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;La Fortaleza is one among several, of the fortresses which protect it. Over the centuries, San Juan in fact protected Spain's empire against Carib Indians, pirates and the warships of other countries. This vast, coherent defensive system with ramparts, fortlets and fortresses, attesting formerly to its effectiveness and today to its historic significance. The principal components of this defensive system are, starting in the south:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; La Fortaleza, founded in 1530-40, enlarged at various periods, and heavily modified after 1846, is an exemplary monument of Hispano-American colonial architecture. It served at once as an arsenal, prison, and residence for the Governor-General of the island;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; El Morro, built to protect San Juan Bay, is situated on a rocky peak of land on the western extremity of the island. The fort is a triangular bastion perfectly conceived according to the strategy of the second half of the 18th century, when it was entirely remodelled. It eventually developed into a masterpiece of military engineering with stout walls, carefully planned steps and ramps for moving men and artillery. By the end of the 18th century, more than 400 cannon defended the fort, making it almost impregnable.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; San Crist&amp;oacute;bal, with its dependencies, is another accomplished example of the military architecture of the second half of the 18th century.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt; San Juan National Historic Site includes forts, bastions, powder houses, wall and El Ca&amp;ntilde;uelo Fort, also called San Juan de la Cruz - defensive fortifications that once surrounded the old colonial portion of San Juan, Puerto Rico. El Ca&amp;ntilde;uelo Fort is located at the Isla de Cabras at the western end of the entrance to San Juan Bay.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Europe and North America</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Between the &lt;span&gt;16th and 20th &lt;/span&gt; centuries, a series of defensive structures was built at this strategic point in the Caribbean Sea to protect the city and the Bay of San Juan. They represent a fine display of European military architecture adapted to harbour sites on the American continent.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>La Fortaleza and San Juan National Historic Site in Puerto Rico</site><states>United States of America</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2192</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1995</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;On 8 October 1678 Don Pedro, Prince Regent of Portugal, commissioned his chief minister Manuel Lobe, named Governor of Rio de Janeiro, with founding a settlement on the R&amp;iacute;o de la Plata, on the island of St Gabriel. Work began in 1680, to the alarm of the Spaniards in Buenos Aires, who attacked and sacked the new town before the year was out. The so-called Provisional Treaty, signed in Lisbon in 1681, restored the town to Portugal, but prohibited any constructions beyond those already in place. The Portuguese returned in 1683, but the town did not begin to develop until the 1690s, which saw the erection of the Master Church and the Franciscan convent church.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1704-05, during the war of the Spanish succession, the growing town was besieged by the Spanish, to be razed to the ground after it was taken. The two powers signed in 1715 a Treaty of Friendship and Peace at Utrecht under the terms of which Portuguese sovereignty was not only recognized over Sacramento but also over the land surrounding it. Reconstruction began immediately, and by 1718 there were over a thousand inhabitants. From the time that Antonio Pedro de Vasconcellos took over as Governor in 1722 Sacramento became the powerhouse of material, commercial, and cultural development in the colony. lt was, for example, the starting point in the 1730s for the remarkable journeys of Cristovao Pereira de Abreu that opened up the routes to Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. The success of Sacramento as a commercial entrepot had a decisive influence on the development of Buenos Aires and its region, and played a role in the creation of the Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires. The town successfully withstood another Spanish siege in 1735-37, and when Vasconcellos retired after 27 years as Governor he saw it transformed into a strongly defended and prosperous community.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town changed hands again in 1762, when it was taken over by the Spanish, but returned to Portugal the following year, after vet another treaty was signed by the two rival powers. The successful siege of 1777 saw Sacramento definitively incorporated in the Spanish empire under the terms of the Treaty of San lldefonso; part of the fortifications were dismantled and a few houses demolished, but the urban fabric for the most part survived. Spanish settlers moved into the town, mainly from Galicia, Asturias, Castile, and Leon. Sacramento was the scene of a number of the events that took place when revolutionary fervour led to the wars of independence. led by Jose Artigas from 1810 onwards. Full Independence was achieved in 1828, but not before grievous damage had been wrought on the Main Church by an explosion during a short period of Portuguese occupation. Between 1839 and 1851 the new nation was engaged in the "Great War" against its neighbor, Argentina, and Sacramento suffered from vet another bitter siege. What remained of its defences were finally demolished in 1859, and a period of judicious reconstruction and expansion began. However, much influence had passed to the national capital, Montevideo.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historical importance of Sacramento was first recognized in 1924, when there was an unsuccessful attempt to nave part of the town designated a National Monument, with substantial controls over development and a generous allocation from the national budget. Subsequent attempts to protect the historic quality of the town failed again in 1929, 1938, and 1947.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/747</http_url><id_number>747</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_747.jpg</image_url><iso_code>uy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-34.4677777800</latitude><location>Department de Colonia</location><longitude>-57.8533333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Historic Quarter of the City of Colonia del Sacramento bears remarkable testimony in its layout and its buildings to the nature and objectives of European colonial settlement, in particular during the seminal period at the end of the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Dom Pedro, Prince Regent of Portugal, commissioned his chief minister Manuel Lobo, named Governor of Rio de Janeiro, in 1678 to found a settlement on the R&amp;iacute;o de la Plata, on the island of St Gabriel. Work began in 1680 and in 1690 Master Church and the Franciscan convent were built.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1704-5, during the War of the Spanish Succession, the town was razed to the ground after it was taken. Reconstruction began immediately, and by 1718 there were over 1,000 inhabitants. From the time that Antonio Pedro de Vasconcellos took over as Governor in 1722, Sacramento became the powerhouse of material, commercial and cultural development in the colony. The success of Sacramento as a commercial entrepot had a decisive influence on the development of Buenos Aires and its region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town changed hands again in 1762 when it was taken over by the Spanish, but returned to Portugal the following year, after yet another treaty was signed by the two rival powers. The successful siege of 1777 saw Sacramento definitively incorporated in the Spanish Empire under the terms of the treaty of San Ildefonso; part of the fortifications were dismantled and a few houses demolished, but the urban fabric for the most part survived. Between 1839 and 1851 the new nation was engaged in the 'Great War' against its neighbour, Argentina. What remained of its defences was finally demolished in 1859. However, much influence had passed to the national capital, Montevideo. The historical importance of Sacramento was first recognized in 1924, when there was an unsuccessful attempt to have part of the town designated a National Monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The old Portuguese town, Nova Colonia do Santissimo Sacramento, was built on the extreme west side of a peninsula near the R&amp;iacute;o de la Plata. The town itself was bounded by water on its north, west and south sides and to the east by the former lines of defensive walls and bastions.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Today the historic area is defined by the axis of Calle Ituzaingo. The range of buildings is wide in both time and style, and the town has preserved its urban layout and a remarkable collection of structures bearing witness to its more than three centuries of Portuguese, Spanish, and Uruguayan history. Its form is organic, adapted to the topography of the site. It also exercised an unquestioned influence on architectural development in colonial style on either side of the R&amp;iacute;o de la Plata, where there are examples of Portuguese influence. A number of distinguished Portuguese architects served the Portuguese state in the former Colonia del Sacramento.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The foundation of the town was in fact a somewhat delayed consequence of the claims of the two great colonial powers, Portugal and Spain, in South America, who competed for the power to export the riches of the mines in Peru and the fruits of the agricultural areas in Brazil.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Founded by the Portuguese in 1680 on the R&amp;iacute;o de la Plata, the city was of strategic importance in resisting the Spanish. After being disputed for a century, it was finally lost by its founders. The well-preserved urban landscape illustrates the successful fusion of the Portuguese, Spanish and post-colonial styles.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Quarter of the City of Colonia del Sacramento</site><states>Uruguay</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>881</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2015</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1464</http_url><id_number>1464</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1464.jpg</image_url><iso_code>uy</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-33.1177777778</latitude><location></location><longitude>-58.3316666667</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on land projecting into the Uruguay River west of the town of Fray Bentos, the industrial complex was built following the development of a factory founded in 1859 to process meat produced on the vast prairies nearby. The site illustrates the whole process of meat sourcing, processing, packing and dispatching. It includes buildings and equipment of the Liebig Extract of Meat Company, which exported meat extract and corned-beef to the European market from 1865 and the Anglo Meat Packing Plant, which exported frozen meat from 1924. Through its physical location, industrial and residential buildings as well as social institutions, the site presents an illustration of the entire process of meat production on a global scale.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Fray Bentos Industrial Landscape</site><states>Uruguay</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2025</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1990</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/543</http_url><id_number>543</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_543.jpg</image_url><iso_code>uz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>41.3783300000</latitude><location>Khorezm region, Khiva</location><longitude>60.3638900000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;A coherent and globally preserved urban ensemble, the inner city of Khiva, Itchen Kala, bears exceptional testimony to the lost civilization of Khorezm. Several monuments of Itchen Kala, such as the Djuma Mosque, constitute remarkable types of architectural ensembles, whereas the &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt;, of majestic proportions but simple in design, are exceptional examples of a type of Muslim architecture specific to central Asia. The domestic architecture of Khiva is one of the major elements of interest of Itchen Kala by virtue of its design and its construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Khiva oasis, which lies south of the Amu Darya river (the Oxus of the ancients), was the final halt for caravans before crossing the desert to Persia. In the 4th century AD, the town was at the heart of Khorezm (Greek Choresmia), an Iranian kingdom whose prosperity was linked with the legendary efficient of its hydraulic techniques, which were capable of transforming the 'black sands' of the region into lush grazing lands, gardens, and orchards. It was first conquered by the Arabs in 712, and then by the Mongols in 1221. In 1379 it fell into the hands of Timur (Tamerlane the Great), staying under Mongol control, until taken by Uzbeks in 1512, when it was the capital of the new state, and from 1643 of a khanate. During the 19th century it was independent, not becoming a Russian protectorate until 1873.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, which is rectangular in plan, is divided into two parts: Dichan Kala, the outer town (formerly fortified), and Itchan Kala, the inner town with 10&amp;nbsp;m high walls. Little has survived that is earlier than the 17th century, apart from the Djuma Mosque, although it was largely rebuilt in 1788-89. Most of the public buildings are grouped round the main east-west axis, commanded at either end by the successive residences of the khans of Khiva. To the north-west, Kunya Ark, the 'ancient fortress', was established in 1686-88 by Arang-Khan; originally a formidable redoubt, it was converted in the early 19th century into a sumptuous palace by Alla-Ulli-Khan. The Tach-Kauli Palace to the north-east, was built in 1830-38, also for Alla-Ulli-Khan. Other exceptional monuments are the Mausoleum of Pahlavan Mahmud (1247-1325) and the Mausoleum of Sayid All-Uddin, which has retained its 14th-century layout intact.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, the outstanding qualities of Itchan Kala derive not so much from the individual monuments, splendid though many of them are, than from the incomparable urban composition of the city, and from the harmony with which the major constructions of the 19th and 20th centuries were integrated into a traditional structure. For example, south of Kunya Ark are to be found Kalta Minor and the Medresseh of Muhammad-Amin-Khan, while south-east of the Djuma Mosque and the Mausoleum of Pahlavan Mahmud is located the Medresseh of Islam-Khodja (1908-10), with its elegant minaret, at 45&amp;nbsp;m the highest in Khiva. The Medresseh of Alla-Kuli, built in 1835 in an awkward space near the east gate of the inner town, is a celebrated example of harmonious blending into an ancient urban fabric.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Itchan Kala is the inner town (protected by brick walls some 10 m high) of the old Khiva oasis, which was the last resting-place of caravans before crossing the desert to Iran. Although few very old monuments still remain, it is a coherent and well-preserved example of the Muslim architecture of Central Asia. There are several outstanding structures such as the Djuma Mosque, the mausoleums and the madrasas and the two magnificent palaces built at the beginning of the 19th century by Alla-Kulli-Khan.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Itchan Kala</site><states>Uzbekistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>638</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2001</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Located on the crossroads of the great trade routes that traversed Central Asia, Samarkand has a multi-millennial history. Archaeological excavations in present-day Samarkand have brought to light the remains of settlements related to the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. The ancient Afrosiab (the predecessor of Samarkand) had a strategic location at the time of the formation of the first large states in Central Asia, such as Khorezm, Baktria, and Sogd, and it was the capital of Sogdiana. It was part of the Achaemenid Empire (6th-4th centuries BCE) and that of Alexander the Great (4th century BCE). Situated at the crossing of trade routes from China, Afghanistan, Iran, India, and the Caucasus, the city became prosperous and an important centre of silk trade in the 2nd century CE. The city was part of a Turkish kingdom in the 6th century, and was conquered by Kuteiba-ibn-Muslim in 712 CE, starting the penetration of Islamic culture into the region of the present-day Uzbekistan (Maverannahr or Transoxiana). The Arabs rulers turned the ancient temples into mosques, administrative centres, places of learning, courts, and treasuries.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Samanids of Iran occupied the place from the 9th to 10th centuries and Turkic peoples from the 11th to 13th centuries; it was part of the Kingdom of Khwarezm in the 13th century, until it was devastated by the Mongol invasion of Genghis Khan in 1220. The city emerged as a major centre through the efforts of Timur the Lame (Tamerlane) (1369-1404). It was rebuilt on its present site, south-west of Afrosiab, and became the capital of Timur's powerful state and the repository of the material riches from conquered territories that extended from Central Asia to Persia, Afghanistan, and India. It remained a cultural capital of the Timurids until the end of the 15th century, during the reign of Ulugh Bek (1409-49) and his successors. Timur built a citadel, the Blue Palace (Kuk- Saray), and other important buildings. The period was characterized by a new synthesis of arts; local traditions were influenced from other regions of the empire (Persian Khorasan, Khorezm), resulting in the construction of major religious ensembles, such as Bibi-Khanum Mosque in front of the main city gates, the Gur Emir complex, and the Grave of Emir near the palace of Muhammad Sultan. The eastern gates of the town linked with the city centre, known as Registan Square, where Ulugh Bek started the construction of a major complex in 1447.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century, during the Uzbek occupation (1500), Samarkand became the Khanate of Bukhara and gradually lost its earlier importance, though some notable construction works were still undertaken in the 17th century. These included the Madrassah of Shir-Dor built by Yalandtush Bahadur on Registan Square opposite the Ulugh Bek Madrassah, followed by the Tilla Kari Madrassah, a new Friday mosque, to complete the ensemble. In the 18th century, the city suffered a serious economic decline.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1868 the Russians conquered Samarkand, making it a provincial capital (1887) and thus reviving its economy. The Caspian Railway was brought to the town in 1888, linking the European part of Russia and Central Asia and again reinforcing the role of Samarkand as an important trade centre. The Russian administration constructed schools, churches, and hospitals, and the western part of Samarkand was redeveloped according to current townplanning ideas. The period, however, also led to the destruction of the city walls and gates, as well as of several monuments, such as Timur's citadel. At the beginning of the 20th century the city thus included three main sectors one next to the other: the archaeological area of the ancient city (Afrosiab), the medieval Timurid city, and the modern city, the construction of which started in the 1870s. The city was the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1924 to 1930 and later an administrative centre.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/603</http_url><id_number>603</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_603.jpg</image_url><iso_code>uz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion i &lt;/em&gt;: The architecture and townscape of Samarkand, situated at the crossroads of ancient cultures, are masterpieces of Islamic cultural creativity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion ii &lt;/em&gt;: Ensembles in Samarkand such as the Bibi Khanum Mosque and Registan Square played a seminal role in the development of Islamic architecture over the entire region, from the Mediterranean to the Indian subcontinent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iv &lt;/em&gt;: The historic town of Samarkand illustrates in its art, architecture, and urban structure the most important stages of Central Asian cultural and political history from the 13th century to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.6686100000</latitude><location>Samarkand Region</location><longitude>67.0000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Samarkand illustrates in its art, architecture and urban structure the most important stages of Central Asian cultural and political history from the 13th century to the present day. Ensembles such as the Bibi Khanum Mosque and Registan Square played a seminal role in the development of Islamic architecture over the entire region, from the Mediterranean to the Indian subcontinent.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Samarkand is a crossroad and melting pot of the world's cultures. Founded in the 7th century BC as ancient Afrosiab, Samarkand had its most significant development in the Timurid period from the 14th to 15th centuries. Located on the crossroads of the great trade routes that traversed Central Asia, Samarkand has a multi-millennial history. Archaeological excavations have brought to light the remains of settlements from the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. Afrosiab had a strategic location at the time of the formation of the first large states in Central Asia, such as Khorezm, Bactria and Sogd, and it was the capital of Sogdiana. It was part of the Achaemenid Empire (6th-4th centuries BC) and that of Alexander the Great (4th century BC). The city became prosperous and an important centre of silk trade in the 2nd century AD.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city was part of a Turkish kingdom in the 6th century, and was conquered by Kuteiba-ibn-Muslim in 712 CE, starting the penetration of Islamic culture into the region. The Arabs rulers turned the ancient temples into mosques, administrative centres, places of learning, courts, and treasuries. The Samanids of Iran occupied the place from the 9th to 10th centuries and Turkic peoples from the 11th to 13th centuries; it was part of the Kingdom of Khwarezm in the 13th century, until it was devastated by the Mongol invasion of Genghis Khan in 1220. The city emerged as a major centre through the efforts of Timur the Lame (Tamerlane, &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; . 1336-1405). It was rebuilt on its present site, south-west of Afrosiab, and became the capital of Timur's powerful state and the repository of the material riches from conquered territories that extended from Central Asia to Persia, Afghanistan, and India. It remained a cultural capital of the Timurids until the reign of Ulugh Bek (1409-49) and his successors. Timur built a citadel, the Blue Palace (Kuk-Saray), and other important buildings. The period was characterized by a new synthesis of arts; local traditions were influenced from other regions of the empire (Persian Khorasan, Khorezm). The eastern gates of the town linked with the city centre, known as Registan Square, where Ulugh Bek started building a major complex in 1447.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 16th century, during the Uzbek occupation (1500), Samarkand gradually lost its earlier importance, although some notable construction works were still undertaken in the 17th century. In 1868 the Russians conquered Samarkand, making it a provincial capital (1887) and thus reviving its economy. The Caspian Railway came to the town in 1888, linking European Russia and Central Asia and reinforcing the role of Samarkand as an important trade centre. Russia constructed schools, churches, and hospitals, and the western part of Samarkand was redeveloped according to current town planning ideas. The period, however, also led to the destruction of the city walls and gates, as well as of several monuments, such as Timur's citadel. At the beginning of the 20th century the city included three main sectors: the archaeological area of the ancient city (Afrosiab), the medieval Timurid city, and the modern city, which was the capital of the Uzbek SSR from 1924 to 1930 and later an administrative centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site consists of series of monuments, the most important of which are the Shakhi-Zinda ensemble, Hazrat-Hizr Mosque, and remains of the city walls in the Afrosiab archaeological area; the Bibi-Khanum ensemble; the Registan ensemble; the ensembles of Gur-Emir and Rukhabad; Ulugh-Bek's Observatory; the ensembles of Abdi-Darun and Ishrat-khona; and the City Garden ensemble in the 19th-century town.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic town of Samarkand is a crossroad and melting pot of the world's cultures. Founded in the 7th century B.C. as ancient Afrasiab, Samarkand had its most significant development in the Timurid period from the 14th to the 15th centuries. The major monuments include the Registan Mosque and madrasas, Bibi-Khanum Mosque, the Shakhi-Zinda compound and the Gur-Emir ensemble, as well as Ulugh-Beg's Observatory.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Samarkand  – Crossroad of Cultures</site><states>Uzbekistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>715</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have revealed traces of occupation by farming communities dating from the first millennium BC. In later periods, Hellenistic cities arose.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town of Shakhrisyabz was constructed according to a model typical of the High Middle Ages, with a central structure similar to that of Samarkand and Bukhara. The town continued to develop throughout the 9th and 10th centuries, despite the incessant conflicts between the Samanid dynasties and then between Turkish tribes.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the mid-14th century, a great empire was built up by Timur, who lavished constant attention on the town of his birth. Until his death in 1405, he ordered the construction of encircling walls, the grandiose Ak-Sarai palace, mosques, baths, and caravanserais, deporting the finest architects and artisans, captured during his military campaigns, to Shakhrisyabz.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the fall of the Timurid dynasty, the town was relegated to a position of secondary importance, dependent on the Khanate of Bukhara.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/885</http_url><id_number>885</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_885.jpg</image_url><iso_code>uz</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iii &lt;/em&gt;: Shakhrisyabz contains many fine monuments, and in particular those from the Timurid period, which was of great cultural and political significance in medieval Central Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iv&lt;/em&gt; : The buildings of Shakhrisyabz, notably the Ak-Sarai Palace and the Tomb of Timur, are outstanding examples of a style which had a profound influence on the architecture of this region.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>39.0500000000</latitude><location>Kashkadarya region</location><longitude>66.8333300000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Shakhrisyabz contains many fine monuments, and in particular those from the Timurid period, which was of great cultural and political significance in medieval Central Asia. The buildings of Shakhrisyabz, notably the Ak-Sarai Palace and the Tomb of Timur, are outstanding examples of a style which had a profound influence on the architecture of this region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The historic centre contains a collection of exceptional monuments and ancient quarters which bear witness to its centuries of history, and particularly to its apogee under the empire of Timur in the 15th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have revealed traces of occupation by farming communities dating from the 1st millennium BC. In later periods, Hellenistic cities arose. The town of Shakhrisyabz was constructed according to a model typical of the high Middle Ages, with a central structure similar to that of Samarkand and Bukhara. The town continued to develop throughout the 9th and 10th centuries, despite the incessant conflicts between the Samanid dynasties and then between Turkish tribes. In the mid-14th century, a great empire was built up by Timur, who lavished constant attention on the town of his birth. Until his death in 1405, he ordered the construction of encircling walls, the grandiose Ak-Sarai Palace, mosques, baths and caravanserais, deporting the finest architects and artisans, captured during his military campaigns, to Shakhrisyabz. After the fall of the Timurid dynasty, the town was relegated to a position of secondary importance, dependent on the Khanate of Bukhara.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The World Heritage site consists of a number of monuments, including:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Ak-Sarai Palace&lt;/em&gt; : Construction of the 'White Palace', as it was known, began in 1380, the year following Timur's conquest of Khorezm, whose artisans were deported to work on the palace and provide its rich decoration. The dimensions of this magnificent edifice can be deduced from the size of the gate-towers, traces of which still survive: two towers each 50m in height, and an arch with a span of 22m.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Dorus Saodat complex&lt;/em&gt; . This vast complex was destined as a place of burial for the ruling family and contained, in addition to the tombs themselves, a prayer hall, a mosque, and accommodation for the religious community and pilgrims. The main facade was faced with white marble. The tomb of Timur, also of white marble, is a masterpiece of the architecture of this period.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;Chor-su bazaar and baths&lt;/em&gt; : In the town centre, the covered Chor-su bazaar was built at the crossroads of two main streets, in the form of an octagon with a central cupola, with no particular decoration but with an eye to the exterior effect of bold architecture. This construction dates from the 18th century, as do the baths, rebuilt on the site of the 15th-century baths and still in use today. The baths are heated by an elaborate network of underground conduits.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In addition to its monuments, the town also offers a variety of interesting constructions of a more modern period, including the Mirhamid, Chubin, Kunduzar and Kunchibar mosques. Period houses reflect a more popular architectural style, with rooms typically laid out around a courtyard with veranda.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The historic centre of Shakhrisyabz contains a collection of exceptional monuments and ancient quarters which bear witness to the city's secular development, and particularly to the period of its apogee, under the rule of Amir Temur and the Temurids, in the 15th-16th century.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Shakhrisyabz</site><states>Uzbekistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1037</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have revealed that the settlement on the site of latter-day Bukhara became part of the Kushan state as early as the 2nd millennium BC. In the 4th century BC it was incorporated into the Ephtalite state. Before the Arab conquest, Bukhara was one of the largest cities of central Asia, owing its prosperity to its site on a rich oasis and at the crossroads of ancient trade-routes. The ancient Persian city covered an area of nearly 40 hectares, with the ark (citadel), the residence of its rulers, in the north-west quarter (where it survives as a huge rectangular earthen mound).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It became a major cultural centre of the Caliphate of Baghdad in 709. In 892 Emir Ismail ibn Amad (892-907) created an independent state and chose Bukhara as the capital of the powerful Sarnanid kingdom. There followed a period of great economic and cultural growth, when the city grew enormously in size, especially under the rule of the Karakhanids from the 11th century onwards. In 1220 the city was sacked by the Mongol horde of Chinghiz Khan (1220) and was not to recover until the second half of the 13th century. In 1370 it became part of the great Timurid Empire, whose capital was at Samarkand. Bukhara was still the second city of Maverannahr, and building was renewed.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The late 15th century saw much feudal strife in the declining Timurid lands, with the result that Bukhara was occupied by Uzbek nomadic tribesmen led by Khan Sheibani, under whose dynasty it became the centre of the Uzbek state. The Bukhara khanate was assiduous in promoting economic and cultural development in its territory, and the city was the main beneficiary of the new construction that ensued.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the centuries that followed the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598 there was a succession of short-lived dynasties and from the late 17th century the resulting weakness led to continual raids and pillage by neighbouring rulers. It was not until 1753 that Bukhara became the capital of a new Mangut dynasty that was to survive until 1920. During this period the city was a major trade entrepot for the whole of central Asia (although it was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1868). In 1848 it had no fewer than 38 caravanserais, six trading arcades, 16 public baths, and 45 bazaars. Bukhara was also the largest centre for Muslim theology in the Near East, with over two hundred mosques and more than a hundred medressehs.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/602</http_url><id_number>602</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_602.jpg</image_url><iso_code>uz</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>39.7747200000</latitude><location>Bukhara region</location><longitude>64.4286100000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Bukhara, which is situated on the Silk Route, is some 25 centuries old. It is the most complete example of a medieval city in Central Asia, with an urban fabric that has remained largely intact. Monuments of particular interest include the famous tomb of Ismail Samani, a masterpiece of 10th-century Muslim architecture, and a large number of 17th-century madrasas. The historic part of the city, which is in effect an open-air museum, combines the city's long history in a single ensemble.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological excavations have revealed that the settlement on the site of latter-day Bukhara became part of the Kushan state as early as the 2nd millennium BC. In the 4th century it was incorporated into the Ephtalite state. Before the Arab conquest Bukhara was one of the largest cities of central Asia, owing its prosperity to its site on a rich oasis and at the crossroads of ancient trade routes. It became a major cultural centre of the Caliphate of Baghdad in 709, and in 892 the capital of the independent Samanid Kingdom. A time of great economic growth came to an end with the sack of the city in 1220 by the Mongol horde of Genghis Khan. It slowly recovered, to become part of the Timurid Empire. The internal strife of the late 15th century led to the occupation of Bukhara by nomadic Uzbek tribesmen led by Khan Sheibani, becoming the capital of the Bukhara Khanate. A long period of unrest and short-lived dynasties ended in 1920, when it was absorbed into the Soviet Union; nevertheless, this period saw Bukhara consolidating its role as a major commercial and cultural centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The townscape of latter-day Bukhara represents every stage of the city's history. The earliest monuments include the 10th century Ismail Samani Tomb, the decorated brick minaret of Poi-Kalyan from the 11th century, along with the Magoki Mosque and the Chasma Ayub Shrine. The Timurid period is represented only by the Ulugbek Medresseh. The most celebrated buildings date from the Shebibanid period - the Poi-Kalyan group, the Lyabi-Khauz ensemble, the Kosh Medresseh, and the Gaukushon Medresseh. A little later came the medressehs at important crossroads, such as Taki Sarafon (Dome of the Moneyshangers, Taki-Tilpak-Furushan (Dome of the Headguard Sellers), Tim-Bazzazan, and Tim-Abdullah-Khan. Among the fine buildings erected in the anarchic early 17th century must be included the great new mosque Magoki Kurns (1637) and the imposing Abdullah-Khan Medresseh. It should be stressed, however, that the real importance of Bukhara lies not in its individual buildings but rather in its overall level of urban planning and architecture, which began with the Sheibanid dynasty.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Bukhara, which is situated on the Silk Route, is more than 2,000 years old. It is the most complete example of a medieval city in Central Asia, with an urban fabric that has remained largely intact. Monuments of particular interest include the famous tomb of Ismail Samani, a masterpiece of 10th-century Muslim architecture, and a large number of 17th-century madrasas.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Centre of Bukhara</site><states>Uzbekistan</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2184</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The earliest settlement so far documented is on Efate Island where pottery can be dated to around 3100 BP. It is presumed that similar communities were also present across what became Roi Mata's domain, although the earliest date is 2900 BP.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The end of pottery production around 1500 BP seems to have preceded the introduction between 1200 - 1000 BP from outside the area of a chiefly title system, related to similar systems in western Polynesia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Life in Vanuatu experienced a catastrophic disruption in 1452 AD with the eruption of the Kuwae volcano in the Shepherd Islands to the north.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In about 1600 AD a long period of persistent warfare known as the Great Efate War appears to have come to an end, with the resolution of conflict being attributed to Roi Mata. One result was the exodus of chiefs from Efate to the Shepherd Islands, some suggesting that Roi Mata instigated a kind of social revolution.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After Roi Mata's death and burial on Artok Island, the settlement of Mangaas was abandoned and never resettled. It is suggested that after his death, conflict could have resumed which proved fatal for his community who dispersed or moved elsewhere. At the end of the 19th century, descendents of the lesser chiefs were living on Lelepa Island.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;European contact begun around 1840 and twenty years later there were numerous European settlements including missionaries. From the 1870s Fels Cave had become a tourist attraction with regular visits from British naval vessels.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By 1898 most people had been converted to Christianity. Epidemics subsequently decimated the population of Efate and surrounding islands forcing survivors into a few larger settlements, with European settlers acquiring the vacated land, which they held until independence in 1980. Since independence, 55% of the land on Efate has now been leased to foreign investors.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From 1957 research has been conducted into oral traditions of the area and into the archaeology of Mangaas, Fels Cave and the Artok burial site. In 2005 a brief reconnaissance survey of Artok island was undertaken.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1280</http_url><id_number>1280</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1280.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vu</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-17.6280694444</latitude><location></location><longitude>168.1777194444</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Chief Roi Mata’s Domain is the first site to be inscribed in Vanuatu. It consists of three early 17th century AD sites on the islands of Efate, Lelepa and Artok associated with the life and death of the last paramount chief, or Roi Mata, of what is now Central Vanuatu. The property includes Roi Mata’s residence, the site of his death and Roi Mata’s mass burial site. It is closely associated with the oral traditions surrounding the chief and the moral values he espoused. The site reflects the convergence between oral tradition and archaeology and bears witness to the persistence of Roi Mata’s social reforms and conflict resolution, still relevant to the people of the region.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Chief Roi Mata’s Domain</site><states>Vanuatu</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1511</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2005</danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The city of Santa Ana de Coro was founded in 1527 by the expedition sent from Santo Domingo by Juan de Ampies, factor of the Spanish Crown there. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, The area was inhabited by Caquetios Indians, who irrigated the land by means of a large channel from a dam on the Coro River, which explains the choice of site. The settlement acquired legal status with the creation of a municipal council in 1529.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The land between the Cabo de la Vela and Maracapana, in which Coro is situated, had been granted by the Spanish Crown to the Welser banking family of Augsburg, and the first governor of Coro was a German, Ambroise Alfinger. From Coro expeditions left to explore Lake Maracaibo, the Sierra de Perrija, the Venezuelan Llanos, and the Andean region between Colombia and Venezuela, whilst in the quest for Eldorado expeditions from Coro even reached the sources of the Orinoco. One of its governors, Nicolas de Federman, led a group across the Andes to be present at the foundation of Santa Fe de Bogota. The Welser-financed explorations made an important contribution to the opening up of the region before they were forced to give up their concession in 1556.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Christianization of the province also had its roots in Coro. In 1531 Pope Clement VII created the first bishopric in South America there. This resulted in the small town being elevated to the grade of city. In 1583 work began on the site of the first church on the construction of the cathedral proper. However, Coro was exposed to pirate raids by virtue of its position, and so in the early years of the 17th century the seat of the governor was transferred to Caracas, to be followed in 1637 by the bishopric. The city survived, despite devastation by pirates in 1567, 1595, and 1659, maintaining trade relations the nearby Dutch colony of Cura9ao and other Spanish Caribbean cities. It also developed and consolidated agricultural activities in its hinterland, notably of sugar cane and cocoa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The periodical pirate raids, allied with the disastrous cyclone of 1681, explain why the present-day town has a largely 18th century appearance. Reconstruction was leisurely, but marked by the early introduction of roof tiles and the use of unbaked bricks. Wealthier citizens raised their buildings to two storeys and embellished them with ornate facades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A slave revolt in 1795 had a grave impact on the agricultural economy and consequently on the city itself. However, economic recovery resulted from the introduction of sheep farming and coffee growing. With this recovery, Coro&amp;bull;s political role increased, and it regained its earlier position as seat of a governorship in 1812. This new prosperity was to end with its virtual destruction during the War of Independence in 1821.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the establishment of the Republic and Bolivar&amp;bull;s free immigration policy, a large foreign colony, mainly from the Dutch West Indies, settled in Coro, and it expanded in relative prosperity. The oil boom of the present century has had only a negative effect on the city, but it has benefited in that it has not suffered the fate of neighbouring cities such as Maracaibo or Barquisimeto in losing much of its architectural heritage.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/658</http_url><id_number>658</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_658.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ve</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>11.4000000000</latitude><location>State of Falcon</location><longitude>-69.6833333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Coro is an outstanding example of a historic town, dating from the earliest years of Spanish colonization on the Caribbean coast of South America, which has conserved its original layout and early urban landscape to a remarkable degree. It is the only surviving example of a remarkable fusion of styles over time, and is also important for the large number of ecclesiastical buildings and ensembles that it contains. Although a number of the Spanish colonial settlements on this coast, such as Maracaibo, were originally primarily of earthen construction, Coro is the only one in which such structures have survived intact to the present day.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Santa Ana de Coro is the largest town with buildings of earthen construction in Venezuela, and one of the most important in the Caribbean region. Unlike other towns in this coast, even its public buildings are of earthen construction, not stone. In this, and in its plan, deriving from the towns of Andalusia and the Canary Islands of the 15th century, it exercised considerable influence over other settlements in the region.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city of Coro was founded in 1527 by the expedition sent from Santo Domingo by Juan de Ampi&amp;eacute;s, factor of the Spanish Crown there. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the area was inhabited by Caquetios Indians, who irrigated the lands by means of a large channel from a dam on the Coro River, which explains the choice of site. The settlement acquired legal status with the creation of a municipal council in 1529.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Christianization of the province also had its roots in Coro. In 1531 Pope Clement VII created the first bishopric in South America there. This resulted in the small town being elevated to the grade of city. In 1583 work began on the construction of the cathedral proper on the site of the first church. Unhappily, Coro was exposed to pirate raids by virtue of its position, and so in the early years of the 17th century the seat of the governor was transferred to Caracas, to be followed in 1637 by the bishopric. In 1681 the city was grievously damaged by a disastrous cyclone, which explains why the present-day town has a largely 18th-century appearance. Reconstruction was leisurely, but marked by the early introduction of roof tiles and the use of unbaked bricks: wealthier citizens raised their buildings to two storeys and embellished them with ornate facades.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the historic centre of Coro there are three distinct sectors, corresponding with the official protection zones:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the official National Historical Monuments are concentrated in the historic centre; &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the buildings in the zone of historical and artistic value are colonial, republican or traditional;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the zone of controlled architecture lies to the north, west and south of the previous zone. Its southern sector represents the city's expansion in the 19th century.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Parque Nacional M&amp;eacute;danos de Coro (Coro Dunes National Park) is made up of three zones: an alluvial plain, formed by the delta of the Mitare River and some smaller streams; an aeolian plain, constituted of three type of dunes; and a littoral plain with a belt of mangrove swamps.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;With its earthen constructions unique to the Caribbean, Coro is the only surviving example of a rich fusion of local traditions with Spanish Mudéjar and Dutch architectural techniques. One of the first colonial towns (founded in 1527), it has some 602 historic buildings.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Coro and its Port</site><states>Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>779</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Canaima national park is located in the south-east of Venezuela in Bol&amp;iacute;var State (Piar and Roscio districts). The park protects the Venezuelan (north-western) section of the Guayana Shield. It is bordered by the R&amp;iacute;o Carrao and the Lema Mountain Range to the north, the Pakaraima Range as far as the Brazilian border to the south, the headwaters of the R&amp;iacute;o Venamo and the Roraima Range as far as Roraima-tepui to the east, and the R&amp;iacute;o Caron&amp;iacute; to the west. The nearest city is Ciudad Bol&amp;iacute;var some 600km to the north.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/701</http_url><id_number>701</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_701.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ve</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>5.3333300000</latitude><location>Bolivar State</location><longitude>-61.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Canaima was established as a national park in 1962 and its size was doubled to the present area in 1975. The park is best known for the unique table mountain (&lt;em&gt;tepui&lt;/em&gt; ) formations: there are numerous waterfalls, including Angel Falls with a free drop of 1,002&amp;nbsp;m. The high level of endemism found on the summits of the &lt;em&gt;tepuis&lt;/em&gt; has led to the recognition of Pantepui as a unique biogeographic entity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park protects the headwaters of the Caron&amp;igrave; River which supplies Guri, the country's largest hydroelectric power station and source of 60% of the nation's energy. The savannah portion of the park is inhabited by the indigenous Pem&amp;ograve;n people, many of whom are settled and dependent on three Capuchin missions. A main road from Ciudad Bolivar runs along the eastern border of the park, bisecting its south-east corner and providing easy access for tourists. There are no other metalled roads within the park, the western section being accessible only by air.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Reflecting its former connection between South America and Africa through the former Gondwanaland, Canaima has many geological affinities with western Africa. The cliffs and mesa-like structures in the western Sahara consist of sandstone similar to that of the Roraima &lt;em&gt;tepui&lt;/em&gt; .&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Structurally the &lt;em&gt;tepuis&lt;/em&gt; have similarities with Monument Valley in Arizona where similar plateaus and rock types are found. Canaima's &lt;em&gt;tepuis&lt;/em&gt; , however, are more dramatic in terms of their relief, waterfalls, tropical forest slopes and floral endemicity.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The fauna is diverse, although not very abundant: 118 mammals, 550 birds, 72 reptiles and 55 amphibians have been recorded. There are six species of mammals of conservation concern: giant anteater, giant armadillo, giant otter, bush dog, little spotted cat and margay. The only endemic mammal is the rodent &lt;em&gt;Podoxymys roraimae&lt;/em&gt; . The avifauna is varied and contains over 30 species endemic to Pantepui. The less mobile orders, amphibians, reptiles and fish, exhibit even higher levels of endemism. The forests and savannah have been occupied for 10,000 years by various groups of Amerindians of the Carib family, collectively known as the Pemon. Two archaeological sites, containing various hand-fashioned stone tools estimated to be 9,000 years old, have been found in the park.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The park is sparsely inhabited: many Pemon maintain traditional lifestyles of swidden agriculture, hunting and gathering. They also trade artefacts and now have access to electricity, schools and basic medical care.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Canaima National Park is spread over 3 million ha in south-eastern Venezuela along the border between Guyana and Brazil. Roughly 65% of the park is covered by table mountain (tepui) formations. The tepuis constitute a unique biogeological entity and are of great geological interest. The sheer cliffs and waterfalls, including the world's highest (1,000 m), form a spectacular landscape.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Canaima National Park</site><states>Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>829</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2000</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The origin of the Central University of Venezuela is in the foundation of the Royal and Pontifical University by a decree of Philip V in 1721, promulgated during the Spanish colonial period. It operated in the Santa Rosa Seminary, located in the main square of the city of Caracas, today the Plaza Bol&amp;iacute;var. In 1827 Sim&amp;oacute;n Bol&amp;iacute;var promulgated the new Republican Statutes for the University, and in 1856 it became independent of the Seminary and was transferred to the former San Francisco Convent, two blocks south-west of the Plaza Bol&amp;iacute;var. The University soon started growing and occupied other buildings outside the convent. The dispersion caused problems to the work and it was thus decided to concentrate the university in a new enclosure, a campus in the outskirts of Caracas. The new university demanded a modernization of the institution, in order to correspond with the new requirements of the time.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In 1942 the studies for the new university campus began, focusing first on the faculty of medicine and the clinical hospital, its main element around which the University was organized from the beginning. In the following year a Coordinating Commission was created, composed of representatives of the Ministries of Education, Health, Social Attendance, and Public Works. The Ministry of Public Works appointed the architect Carlos Ra&amp;uacute;l Villanueva. The site of the Hacienda Sosa in El Valle was chosen as the location for the campus. The commission consisted of Dr Armando Vegas as co-ordinator, Villanueva as planner, and the engineer Guillermo Herrera as technician. In October 1943 Government Executive Ordinance No 196 established the Instituto de la Ciudad Universitaria, assigned to the Ministry of Public Works. Dr Frank McVey from the University of Kentucky (USA) was hired to advise on the project.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The first plan, prepared in 1943, consisted of several groups of buildings, including the administration, the different faculties, dwellings for students, faculty, and personnel, as well as facilities for sports and a botanical garden. Villanueva, who was not yet responsible for the project, had not signed this plan. In 1944 he participated in a commission sent to study the university campus of Bogot&amp;aacute;. After this experience it was decided to establish a unique architectural team to control the entire design process of the campus. Villanueva emerged as the principal planner-architect of the team. In 1944 a new plan was prepared, maintaining the academic criteria of the previous project but aiming at a higher complexity within the ensemble and the buildings. The main axis was here provided with an ending, the Olympic Stadium, which was to remain in this location even in future plans.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The construction of the first buildings started in 1945 with the Clinical Hospital and related buildings. The building of the Industrial Technical School was started in 1947, changing its position from what had been initially proposed. Here Villanueva abandoned the symmetry of the medical complex and introduced some of the latest avant-garde ideas in architecture into the projects. Another group that started at the end of the 1940s were the residential buildings, referring to models developed especially in Germany after World War I and consisting of horizontal blocks, separated by open spaces and surrounded by gardens; the buildings had large open balconies that also served as solar protection.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 1949 plan evidenced the first important changes in the urban layout. The covered walk that crossed the campus from south to north, separating the medicine group from the Rector's Office and the Aula Magna, seems also to have separated two historical moments in the planning process. A radically different approach started now with the sports stadium project. The change was expressed in the new way of using reinforced concrete and became apparent in the projects for the Cultural Directive area, including the Plaza del Rectorado, the Covered Plaza, the Aula Magna, the Library, etc. The works were finished and inaugurated in 1953. From here on the project was developed in an organic and dynamic manner. The asymmetric disposition of the structures, the audacity of the forms, and the use of bare concrete structures, conceived as sculptures, characterized the constructions. It led to the creation of a complex, open, and integrated space which was at the same time protected from light and heat.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The project of the Faculty of Architecture in 1953 was another key element in the development of the University. Villanueva gathered in this building, particularly important for him, the development of a complex consisting of varied low volumes contrasted to the high prismatic towers of the Central Library. This building initiated a stage which showed the way for the faculties of Pharmacy, Dentistry, and Economic and Social Sciences. This last faculty was built after the death of Villanueva. This period highlights the idea of integrating the different arts into one ensemble, and several artists were invited to participate in the process. This involved, for example, the finishing of the exteriors, by Alejandro Otero in the Faculties of Architecture and Pharmacy and by Omar Carre&amp;ntilde;o in Dentistry.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Since the death of Villanueva there have been various modifications, including new buildings or provisional structures in the exterior and division of spaces in some interiors. There are also a number of new constructions, such as the building for the Deanship of Engineering designed by Gorka Dorronsoro, who was one of the young collaborators of Villanueva and who clearly had the wish to continue the spirit of the great master. There have also been changes to the buildings designed by Villanueva, some of these unfortunate. The University Cafeteria underwent two enlargements in the 1980s. The great volume of these can be seen as an aggression to the open space of the University City, altering the original spatial relationships.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/986</http_url><id_number>986</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_986.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ve</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion i &lt;/em&gt;:The Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas is a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Ra&amp;uacute;l Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion iv &lt;/em&gt;: The Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas is an outstanding example of the coherent realization of the urban, architectural, and artistic ideals of the early 20th century. It constitutes an ingenious interpretation of the concepts and spaces of colonial traditions and an example of an open and ventilated solution, appropriate for its tropical environment.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>10.4907300000</latitude><location>Municipality of Libertador, Caracas</location><longitude>-66.8906800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The University City of Caracas is an outstanding example, and one of the best in the world, of the modern urban, architectural and artistic concepts of the early 20th century. It therefore illustrates in an excellent way this recent but already significant period in human history. The urban and architectural spaces created by Carlos Ra&amp;uacute;l Villanueva in association with the works of the artists who participated in the 'integration of the arts' are of incomparable quality and character. The essence of the work is in the message and the aesthetic emotion that its authors have managed to transmit.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The origin of the Central University of Venezuela was the foundation of the Royal and Pontifical University by a decree of Philip V in 1721, promulgated during the Spanish colonial period. It operated within the Santa Rosa Seminary. In 1856 it became independent of the seminary and was transferred to the former San Francisco Convent. The university soon started growing and occupied other buildings outside the convent. This dispersal caused problems for its work and so it was decided to concentrate the university in a new ensemble, a campus in the outskirts of Caracas.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Studies for the new university campus began in 1942. In the following year a Coordinating Commission was created, composed of Dr Armando Vegas as coordinator and Carlos Ra&amp;uacute;l Villanueva as planner. Villanueva, founder and professor of the Faculty of Architecture, had participated in a commission sent to study the university campus of Bogot&amp;aacute;, and after this experience he emerged as the principal planner-architect of the new team. Work started on the first buildings in 1945.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The 1949 revised plan produced the first important changes in the urban layout: Villanueva abandoned the symmetrical disposition of the structures. His project is characterized by the application of modern technology, the audacity of the forms, and the use of bare concrete structures, conceived as sculptures. It led to the creation of a complex, open and integrated space which was at the same time protected from light and heat. Since the death of Villanueva there have been various modifications, including new buildings designed by Gorka Dorronsoro, who was one of the young collaborators of Villanueva.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architecture of the university involves the use of spatial elements that have been extracted from Venezuelan colonial architecture, such as bright colours, latticed windows for ventilation, and internal gardens of copious tropical vegetation. It constitutes an outstanding example in a small enclosed space of a utopian world reflecting that time and expressing the quality of modern urbanism, vegetation joined with the use of new materials and modern aesthetics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The University City, an integral part of the modern city of Caracas, is articulated through a zoning scheme; there are several groups that are identified with the unity of their functions: 1, cultural and administrative centre; 2, medicine; 3, engineering, economics, liberal arts and sciences; 4, residential units; 5, botany; 6, architecture; 7, sports; 8, industrial technology school; and 9, services. The campus includes a series of large buildings, in particular the faculties of Architecture, Economy, Pharmacy, and Dentistry, the Library and the Hospital. The most notable buildings are the Aula Magna, with the magnificent 'Clouds' of Alexander Calder, the Olympic Stadium, and the covered plaza.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas is an example of outstanding quality representing the highest ideals and concepts of modern city planning, architecture and art in the mid-20th century. Its particular quality is in the skill of integrating new architectural forms and contemporary art into a spatial and environmental whole, satisfying the functional and ideological requirements of the institution.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Latin America and the Caribbean</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas, built to the design of the architect Carlos Ra&amp;uacute;l Villanueva, between 1940 and 1960, is an outstanding example of the Modern Movement in architecture. The university campus integrates the large number of buildings and functions into a clearly articulated ensemble, including masterpieces of modern architecture and visual arts, such as the Aula Magna with the "Clouds" of Alexander Calder, the Olympic Stadium, and the Covered Plaza.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas</site><states>Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1150</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1994</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;28 April 1962. Established as a historical and cultural relict and national scenic spot under Decision No. 313/VH VP, issued by the Minister of Culture.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/672</http_url><id_number>672</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_672.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.9000000000</latitude><location>Province: Quang Ninh</location><longitude>107.1000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Ha Long Bay, situated in the Gulf of Tonkin, includes some 1600 islands and islets forming a spectacular seascape of limestone pillars. Because of their precipitous nature, most of the islands are uninhabited and relatively unaffected by human influence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The geomorphology of Ha Long Bay is known as a drowned karst landscape due to the exceptional combination of its limestone karst features which have been subject to repeated regression and transgression of the sea over geological time. The limestones of Ha Long Bay have been eroded into a mature landscape of &lt;em&gt;fengcong&lt;/em&gt; (clusters of conical peaks) and &lt;em&gt;fenglin&lt;/em&gt; (isolated tower features) karst features, modified by sea invasion at a later stage.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The smaller islands are fenglin towers of 50m to 100m high with height. Many have vertical walls on all or most sides and these continue to evolve by rock falls and large slab failures.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Marine invasion of Ha Long Bay has added an extra element to the normal process of lateral undercutting of the limestone towers and islands. The most conspicuous feature being the main notch cut into the entire rocky coastline. Notches are a feature of limestone cliffs worldwide, but those of Ha Long Bay are exceptionally well developed and, at many sites, extend into arches and caves. This process of undercutting and subsequent erosion maintains the steep faces of the fenglin karst towers and thereby perpetuates the spectacular nature of the landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;A distinctive feature of Ha Long Bay is the abundance of lakes within the larger limestone islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Extensive limestone caves represent another important feature of Ha Long Bay, with three main types able to be identified: old phreatic caves formed below the water table of the time; old karstic foot caves formed by lateral undercutting of cliffs at base level; and marine notch caves formed at sea level where rock structures are powerfully eroded and eventually reduced to a wave cut platform.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In summary, Ha Long Bay possesses a tremendous diversity of caves and other landforms which derive from the unusual geomorphological process of marine invaded tower karst. These areas provide a unique and extensive reservoir of data for the future understanding of geoclimatic history and the nature of karst processes in a complex environment.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2000</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Ha Long Bay, in the Gulf of Tonkin, includes some 1,600 islands and islets, forming a spectacular seascape of limestone pillars. Because of their precipitous nature, most of the islands are uninhabited and unaffected by a human presence. The site's outstanding scenic beauty is complemented by its great biological interest.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Ha Long Bay</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>796</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Hue served as the administrative centre of southern Vietnam (Dang Trong) in the 17th century and again in the 18th century. Gia Long, first ruler of the Nguyen dynasty, made it the national capital of united Vietnam in 1802, a position that it held until 1945. It was selected because it is situated in the geographical centre of the country and with easy access to the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The new capital was planned in accordance with ancient oriental philosophy in general and Vietnamese tradition in particular; it also respected the physical conditions of the site, especially the Perfume River and Ngu Binh mountain (known as the Royal Screen). The relationship between the five cardinal points (centre, west, east, north, south), the five natural elements (earth, metal, wood, water, fire), and the five basic colours (yellow, white, blue, black, red) underlies the conception of the city, and is reflected in the names of a number of its most important features. The Perfume River is the main axis, dividing the capital into two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The detailed planning was entrusted to Nguyen Van Yen, commander of an army unit specializing in the construction of citadels. Four citadels or defended enclosures made up the city Kinh Thanh (Capital City), for official administrative buildings; Hoang Thanh (Imperial City) for Royal palaces and shrines; Tu Cam Thanh (Forbidden Purple City) for the Royal residences (the two last-named are known collectively as the Dai Noi or Inner City); and Tran Binh Dai, an additional defensive work in the northeast corner of the Capital City, designed to control movement on the river. A fifth fortress, Tran Hai Thanh (Coastal Bastion), was constructed a little later to protect the capital against assault from the sea.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Planning lasted two years, from 1803 to 1805, and it was not until 1832 that construction was complete. The new capital was much larger than its predecessor, Dong Trang, and encompassed several villages as well. Over 30,000 workmen and soldiers were involved in the work, which involved filling in two small tributaries of the Perfume River and digging new moats and canals. The fortress itself was modelled on the European style of Vauban, the first of its type in southeast Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The complex suffered considerably as a result of military operations in 1885, 1947, and 1968.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/678</http_url><id_number>678</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_678.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>16.4694400000</latitude><location>Province: Thua Thien - Hue</location><longitude>107.5777800000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hu&amp;eacute; represents an outstanding demonstration of the power of the vanished Vietnamese feudal empire at its apogee in the early 19th century. The complex of monuments is an outstanding example of an eastern feudal capital and of the planning and construction of a complete defended capital city in a relatively short period. The integrity of town layout and building design make it an exceptional specimen of late feudal urban planning.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Hu&amp;eacute; served as the administrative centre of southern Vietnam in the 17th and 18th centuries. Gia Long, first ruler of the Nguyen dynasty, made it the national capital of united Vietnam in 1802, a position that it held until 1945. It was selected because it is situated in the geographical centre of the country and with easy access to the sea. The new capital was planned in accordance with ancient oriental philosophy in general and Vietnamese tradition in particular; it also respected the physical conditions of the site, especially the Perfume River and Ngu Binh Mountain (known as the Royal Screen). The relationship between the five cardinal points (centre, west, east, north, south), five natural elements (earth, metal, wood, water, fire), and five basic colours (yellow, white, blue, black, red) underlies the conception of the city, and is reflected in the names of some important features. The Perfume River, the main axis, divides the capital in two.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Four citadels or defended enclosures made up the city: Kinh Thanh (Capital City), for official administrative buildings; Hoang Thanh (Imperial City) for royal palaces and shrines; Tu Cam Thanh (Forbidden Purple City) for the royal residences; Dai Noi (or Inner City); and Tran Binh Dai, an additional defensive work in the north-east corner of the Capital City, designed to control movement on the river. A fifth fortress, Tran Hai Thanh, was constructed a little later to protect the capital against assault from the sea. Planning lasted from 1803 to 1805, and it was not until 1832 that construction was complete. The new capital was much larger than its predecessor, Dong Trang, and encompassed several villages as well. The fortress itself was modelled on the European style of Vauban, the first of its type in South-East Asia, but the complex suffered considerably as a result of military operations in 1885, 1947 and 1968.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main enceinte, the Capital City, is square in plan, each side measuring 2,235&amp;nbsp;m. The defensive walls have six projecting bastions on each side and ten gates. The external defensive works comprise a berm, ditch, and glacis. The buildings inside the Capital City include various former ministerial buildings, the Royal College and the Hu&amp;eacute; Museum. The Inner City is rectangular in plan and defended by brick walls, supplemented by a moat and wide berm; there is a single entrance on each of the walls. Inside it is divided by walls into a number of zones - the Great Ceremonies Zone, the Worshipping Zone, the residential zone of the King's Mother and Grandmother, the storage and workshop zone, the garden and school zone for royal princes, as well as the Forbidden Purple City. The palaces within the Inner City are similar in style and design, set on a raised podium, with wooden trusses (usually ironwood), gilded and painted pillars and rafters, brick walls, and roofs of yellow- or blue-glazed cylindrical tiles. Roof edges are straight, and the decoration, both internally and externally, is abundant. Among the most important buildings are the Palace of Supreme Harmony, the royal reception hall; the Mieu Temple, the royal place of worship; the Queen Mother's Palace; and the Pavilion of Dazzling Benevolence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the heart of the complex is the Forbidden Purple City, surrounded by brick walls. There is a single gate in the front wall, reserved for the use of the king, and the other walls have several entrances, each with a specific purpose. Originally there were over 40 buildings within the walls, but most are now in ruins and only their foundations survive.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Outside the Capital City there are several associated monuments of importance. These include the tombs of the Nguyen dynasty to the south of the Perfume River. Other structures along both banks of the river are buildings related to the spiritual life of the dynasty, including the Temple of Literature, the Esplanade of the Sacrifice to the Sun and Earth, the Royal Arena and the Temple of the Roaring Elephant, and the Celestial Lady Pagoda.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Established as the capital of unified Viet Nam in 1802, Hu&amp;eacute; was not only the political but also the cultural and religious centre under the Nguyen dynasty until 1945. The Perfume River winds its way through the Capital City, the Imperial City, the Forbidden Purple City and the Inner City, giving this unique feudal capital a setting of great natural beauty.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Complex of Hué Monuments</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>802</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Archaeological finds and excavations have shown that there was a port and trading centre of the local Sa Huynh people along the Thu Bon river as early as the 2nd century BC. This continued to expand, and by the 15th century Hoi An (known in Vietnam and abroad under various names - Fayfo, Haifo, Kaifo, Faifoo, Faicfo, Hoai Pho) was already the most important port of the powerful Champa Kingdom. It continued after the Vietnamese absorption of the Champa Kingdom in the same capacity, becoming one of the most important centres of mercantile, and hence cultural, exchange in South-East Asia, attracting ships and traders from elsewhere in Asia and from Europe, especially during its most flourishing period from the late 16th century to the early 18th century. It was through Hoi An that Christianity penetrated Vietnam in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;It retained its role as the main port of the central region throughout the 19th century, when the Nguyen dynasty kings operated a &amp;quot;closed trade policy.&amp;quot; By the end of the century, the rise of other ports on the coast of Vietnam, in particular Da Nang, and silting of its harbour, led to the final eclipse of Hoi An. As a result of this economic stagnation, it has preserved its early appearance in a remarkably intact state.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/948</http_url><id_number>948</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_948.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii)&lt;/em&gt; : Hoi An is an outstanding material manifestation of the fusion of cultures over time in an international commercial port.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v)&lt;/em&gt; : Hoi An is an exceptionally well preserved example of a traditional Asian trading port.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>15.8833333300</latitude><location>Hoi An Town, Quang Nam Province</location><longitude>108.3333333000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Hoi An, an exceptionally well-preserved example of a traditional Asian trading port, is an outstanding material manifestation of the fusion of cultures over time in an international maritime commercial centre.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The town is a special example of a traditional trading port in South-East Asia which has been completely and assiduously preserved: it is the only town in Viet Nam that has survived intact in this way. Most of the buildings are in the traditional architectural style of the 19th and 20th centuries. They are aligned along narrow lanes of traditional type. They include many religious buildings, such as pagodas, temples, meeting houses, etc., which relate to the development of a port community. The traditional lifestyle, religion, customs and cooking have been preserved and many festivals still take place annually.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Archaeological finds and excavations have shown that there was a port and trading centre of the local Sa Huynh people along the Thu Bon River as early as the 2nd century BC. This continued to expand, especially during its most flourishing period from the late 16th to the early 18th centuries. It was through Hoi An that Christianity penetrated Vietnam in the 17th century.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;By the end of the century, the rise of other ports on the coast of Vietnam, in particular Da Nang, and silting of its harbour, led to the final eclipse of Hoi An. As a result of this economic stagnation, it has preserved its early appearance in a remarkably intact state, the only town in the country to have done so. The ancient town is situated on the north bank of Thu Bon River. There is a street running east-west along the river's edge and three further streets parallel to the river. They are intersected at right angles by streets and alleys. Within this area there are houses (often combined with shops), religious monuments such as pagodas, temples, communal houses and family cult houses, a ferry quay and an open market.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The architecture of Hoi An, which is almost entirely of wood, is of considerable interest. It combines traditional Vietnamese designs and techniques with those from other countries, above all China and Japan, whose citizens settled there to trade and built houses and community centres to their own designs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The typical house conforms to a corridor plan, the following elements occurring in sequence: house, yard and house. The buildings are:&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul type="square"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;family cult houses, dedicated to the      worship of ancestors;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the community houses, used for worship of      ancient sages, founders of settlements, or the legendary founders of      crafts;&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;the pagodas are almost all from the 19th      century, although inscriptions show them to have been founded in the 17th      and 18th centuries. They conform to a square layout and decoration is      largely confined to the elaborate roofs. In the case of the larger      examples, they constituted nuclei of associated buildings with religious      and secular functions. Some of the larger pagodas also served as meeting      halls. These are located along the main street (Tran Phu). &lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a fine wooden bridge, reminiscent of Japanese examples, with a pagoda on it. It has existed from at least the early 18th century, as an inscription indicates, but it has been reconstructed many times. There is also a number of ancient tombs in Vietnamese, Japanese and Chinese style within the buffer zone.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Hoi An Ancient Town is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a South-East Asian trading port dating from the 15th to the 19th century. Its buildings and its street plan reflect the influences, both indigenous and foreign, that have combined to produce this unique heritage site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Hoi An Ancient Town</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1109</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1999</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Champa Kingdom began in AD 192 when the people of the Tuong Lam area rose up against their Chinese overlords and founded an independent state in the narrow strip of land along the coast of central Vietnam. This state is known from sporadic Chinese records, in which it appeared successively as Lam Ap, Hoan Vuong, and then Chiem Thanh, a transcription of Champapura, meaning "the city of the Cham people." The Cham economy was based on farming (wet-rice agriculture), fishing, and seaborne trade.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Cham came under the influence of the Hindu religion of the Indian sub-continent early in their development, though the exact date is not known. Many temples were built to the Hindu divinities, such as Krishna and Vishnu, but above all Shiva. Mahayana Buddhism must have penetrated the Cham culture later, probably in the 4th century, and became strongly established in the north of the Champa Kingdom, but Shiva Hinduism remained the state religion. There were two sacred cities in the Champa Kingdom, each belonging to a large clan. My Son (the name in Vietnamese means "Beautiful Mountain") was sacred to the Dua clan (Narikelavansa in Sanskrit), who worshipped the mythical king Srisanabhadresvara and governed Amaravati, the northern part of the kingdom; it was also the capital of the whole Champa Kingdom. Whilst the religious significance of My Son was important, its location, in a small valley surrounded by high mountains gave it strategic significance as an easily defensible stronghold.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Successive kings in the 6th to 8th centuries favoured My Son and endowed it with fine temples. Between 749 and 875 the Cau clan were in power, and for a time the capital was moved to Vivapura in the south of the territory. Nevertheless, My Son retained its religious importance, and resumed its paramountcy in the early 9th century during the reign of Naravarman I, who won many battles against the Chinese and Khmer armies.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the beginning of the 10th century the influence of Buddhism began to wane, to the advantage of My Son, where Hinduism had always been strong. By the reign of Giaya Simhavaram in the later 10th century it had achieved parity with Buddhism in the Cham Kingdom. It was at this time that most of the finest surviving architectural monuments were built there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the 11th century was a period of continuous warfare and My Son, along with other sacred sites in the Champa Kingdom, suffered grievously. It was Harivarman IV who brought peace to the kingdom. He had moved his capital to Do Ban towards the end of the century but he undertook the restoration of My Son. Warfare broke out again in the 12th century, when Jaya Indravarman IV attacked the Khmer Empire and sacked its capital. This resulted in an immediate reprisal, and the Champa Kingdom was occupied by the Khmers from 1190 to 1220.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;From the 13th century the Champa Kingdom slowly declined and was absorbed by the growing power of Vietnam. It ceased to exist as an entity in the later 15th century, when worship ceased at My Son.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/949</http_url><id_number>949</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_949.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (ii)&lt;/em&gt; : The My Son Sanctuary is an exceptional example of cultural interchange, with the introduction the Hindu architecture of the Indian sub-continent into South-East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii)&lt;/em&gt; :The Champa Kingdom was an important phenomenon in the political and cultural history of South-East Asia, vividly illustrated by the ruins of My Son.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>15.5166666700</latitude><location>Duy Phu Commune, Duy Xuyen District, Quang Nam Province</location><longitude>108.5666667000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Champa Kingdom was an important phenomenon in the political and cultural history of South-East Asia, vividly illustrated by the ruins of My Son. The sanctuary is an exceptional example of cultural interchange, with the introduction of the Hindu architecture of the Indian subcontinent into South-East Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;My Son, a valley surrounded by mountains, was chosen as the site for a religious centre for the capital of the Champa Kingdom. The sanctuary area is one of the most famous Champa architectural and sculptural monuments in Viet Nam.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Champa Kingdom began in AD 192. The Cham economy was based on farming (wet-rice agriculture), fishing, and seaborne trade. When the Cham came under the influence of the Hindu religion many temples were built to the Hindu divinities, such as Krishna and Vishnu, but above all Shiva. Mahayana Buddhism must have penetrated the Cham culture later, probably in the 4th century, and became strongly established in the north of the Champa Kingdom.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;While the religious significance of My Son was important, its location in a small valley surrounded by high mountains gave it strategic significance as an easily defensible stronghold. Successive kings in the 6th to 8th centuries favoured My Son and endowed it with fine temples. In the later 10th century, most of the finest surviving architectural monuments were built there.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Most of the 11th century was a period of continuous warfare and My Son, along with other sacred sites in the Champa Kingdom, suffered grievously. Harivarman IV had moved his capital to Do Ban towards the end of the century and he undertook the restoration of My Son. From 1190 to 1220 the Champa Kingdom was occupied by the Khmers. From the 13th century the Champa Kingdom slowly declined and was absorbed by the growing power of Viet Nam. It ceased to exist as an entity in the later 15th century, when worship ceased at My Son.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site represents the ancient settlement and sanctuary area; eight groups of tower temples have been singled out. In date they cover the period from the 10th to the 13th centuries, and this long date range is reflected in different architectural styles. All are constructed in fired brick with stone pillars and decorated with sandstone bas-reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu mythology.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The main tower (&lt;em&gt;kalan&lt;/em&gt; ) symbolizes the sacred mountain (&lt;em&gt;meru&lt;/em&gt; ) at the centre of the universe. The square or rectangular base (&lt;em&gt;bhurloka&lt;/em&gt; ), representing the human world, is built from brick or stone blocks and decorated with reliefs. Above this rises the main tower (&lt;em&gt;bhuvakola&lt;/em&gt; ), constructed entirely in brick, with applied columns and a false door facing east.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The interiors are plain, with small niches for lamps; the Shivalingam was situated on a plinth in the centre. It symbolized the spirit world. The towers were separated from their roofs (&lt;em&gt;suarloka&lt;/em&gt; ) by a decorated frieze. Many of these roofs were originally covered with gold or silver leaf.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The predominant style of the architecture and sculptural decoration of the My Son temples derives directly from India.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Between the 4th and 13th centuries a unique culture which owed its spiritual origins to Indian Hinduism developed on the coast of contemporary Viet Nam. This is graphically illustrated by the remains of a series of impressive tower-temples located in a dramatic site that was the religious and political capital of the Champa Kingdom for most of its existence.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>My Son Sanctuary</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1110</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2010</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;The Viet or Kinh, the majority ethnic group in contemporary Vietnam, see themselves as a people that go back to the creation of the world, for which they have their own cosmogony. According to legend the foundation of the Empire dates back to the 3rd millennium BCE, when some fifteen kings and queens met to elect the first Emperor of the Nam Viet (the lands of the southern Viet).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In the 6th century BCE an independent kingdom was established, known as Van Lang, which straddled modern Guandong and northern Vietnam. The earliest written evidence indicating permanent human settlement in the Red River Delta dates from 211 BCE. A rural society with extensive hydraulic knowledge developed here, at the crossroads of cultural influences from the Chinese area to the north and civilizations in South-East and southern Asia.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Under the pressure of the Han Dynasty, the Viet Kingdom was reduced to the lower Red River Valley, which was finally conquered in 111 BCE. It then became one of the kingdoms of the southern marches of the Chinese Empire, and remained under its political and cultural control for almost one thousand years. The last phase of this long period of Vietnamese history is referred to as the Dai La Period. It was at this time that the first Chinese citadel was erected on the site of Hanoi, as indicated by the presence of wells and remains from the 7th-10th centuries CE.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Chinese domination of the Delta and the lower Red River Valley ended in the 10th century with the return of an autonomous dynasty (Dinh-Le) and the establishment of the independent Kingdom of Dai Viet in the lower Red River Valley. The development of a new citadel, Thang Long, on the site where the former had stood, confirmed this independence in the early 11th century (Ly Dynasty). The Citadel surrounded the enlarged Forbidden City built in brick in 1029 and was itself surrounded by a defensive wall. As the seat of power and the royal residence, a Chinese layout was adopted for the Citadel. It does, however, also illustrate the geomantic principles specific to Viet history and culture.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;At the same time as the Dai Viet Kingdom asserted itself at the end of the 1st millennium CE, the Kingdom of Champa, a people with cultural influences from the Indian Ocean, developed in the centre and south of modern Vietnam. It was in contact with the powerful and rapidly expanding Khmer Empire, and it was an essential link between the spread in South-East Asia of cultures from India and southern Asia, Buddhism in particular.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The long history of this region of the lower Red River, and especially the Citadel that forms the nominated property, is characterized by the continuous interaction between Viet peoples and the various Chinese dynasties and their Confucian and Taoist traditions, and also with the Kingdom of Champa to the south, marked byBuddhist traditions. It was an essentially agrarian civilization, with considerable expertise in drainage, dykes, and agricultural hydraulics.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Buddhist culture spread during the Ly (1010-1225) and Tran (1225-1400) Dynasties and played an essential role in the development of institutions and social and religious life. The Dai Viet Kingdom extended its influence and expanded. A change to the Le Dynasty (1428-1789) led to a return to Confucian values and to more rapid development, especially in the 15th century. Hanoi was at this time one of the most important South- East Asian ports. The erection of Kinh Thien Palace, in the heart of the Forbidden City, marked the apogee of the architecture and urban planning of the Viet culture itself. The Citadel reached its maximum size in the 16th- 17th centuries, whilst a district of artisans and traders serving the rulers also developed. Thang Long Citadel, and especially the Forbidden City, played an essentially political and administrative role, along with the expression of royal etiquette. It was also the period of conquest of the Kingdom of Champa to the south, giving the dynasty a truly Imperial dimension.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;However, a political change gradually took place, starting in the mid-17th century. The Emperor played an increasingly symbolic role, with the real power being exercised by two powerful families, the Trinh in the north and the Nguyen in the south. The latter prevailed at the beginning of the 18th century and established a new dynasty, with its new capital in the more centrally located Hu&amp;eacute;.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Thang Long still remained the northern Citadel, the Emperor's residence when travelling to the region. Its fortification system was rebuilt (1805), based on the European model of Vauban.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;French colonial troops were present in modern southern Vietnam from the 1860s onwards. They undertook the conquest of the north in the 1880s. Thang Long once again became the centre of power. It was in particular the headquarters of the colonial power for the vast regional ensemble of French Indochina (modern Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia). Many palaces were rebuilt in a European style, generally Neoclassical, such as Kinh Thien Palace, the former heart of the Forbidden City (1886). The Governor's Palace (in the buffer zone) was built and the fortifications were razed so as to permit a European type of urban development, including wide boulevards around and within the ancient Citadel (end of the 19th century).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;After the First War of Independence (1954) and the division of Vietnam into two entities, the Viet Min power settled in Hanoi and the ancient Forbidden City became the military headquarters for North Vietnam. During the Second War, against South Vietnam and the United States, the D67 underground command bunker was installed within the area of Kinh Thien Palace (1967).&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The Ministry of Defence gradually abandoned its use of the property between 1994 and 2004, handing it over for cultural and historic uses. The site at 18 Hoang Dieu Street, initially chosen for the construction of the National Assembly, was found to be of exceptional archaeological value (2002). The project was maintained, but on a smaller portion of the initial site.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1328</http_url><id_number>1328</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1328.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>21.0394444444</latitude><location></location><longitude>105.8372222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Thang Long Imperial Citadel was built in the 11th century by the Ly Viet Dynasty, marking the independence of the Dai Viet. It was constructed on the remains of a Chinese fortress dating from the 7th century, on drained land reclaimed from the Red River Delta in Hanoi. It was the centre of regional political power for almost 13 centuries without interruption. The Imperial Citadel buildings and the remains in the 18 Hoang Dieu Archaeological Site reflect a unique South-East Asian culture specific to the lower Red River Valley, at the crossroads between influences coming from China in the north and the ancient Kingdom of Champa in the south.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Central Sector of the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long - Hanoi</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1689</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2011</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1358</http_url><id_number>1358</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1358.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.0780555556</latitude><location></location><longitude>105.6047222222</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The 14th -century Ho Dynasty citadel, built according to the feng shui principles, testifies to the flowering of neo-Confucianism in late 14th century Viet Nam and its spread to other parts of east Asia. According to these principles it was sited in a landscape of great scenic beauty on an axis joining the Tuong Son and Don Son mountains in a plain between the Ma and Buoi rivers. The citadel buildings represent an outstanding example of a new style of south-east Asian imperial city.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Citadel of the Ho Dynasty</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1775</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(viii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>1</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/951</http_url><id_number>951</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_951.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>17.5372222222</latitude><location></location><longitude>106.1512500000</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates>2015</secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park, inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2003, covered 85,754 hectares. With this extension, the site covers a total surface area of 126,236 hectares (a 46 % increase) and shares a boundary with the Hin Namno Nature Reserve in the Peoples Democratic Republic of Laos. The Park’s landscape is formed by limestone plateaux and tropical forests. It features great geological diversity and offers spectacular phenomena, including a large number of caves and underground rivers. The site harbours a high level of biodiversity and many endemic species. The extension ensures a more coherent ecosystem while providing additional protection to the catchment areas that are of vital importance for the integrity of limestone landscapes.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2059</unique_number></row><row><category>Mixed</category><criteria_txt>(v)(vii)(viii)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2014</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1438</http_url><id_number>1438</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1438.jpg</image_url><iso_code>vn</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>20.2566666667</latitude><location></location><longitude>105.8963888889</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Asia and the Pacific</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated near the southern margin of the Red River Delta, the Trang An Landscape Complex is a spectacular landscape of limestone karst peaks permeated with valleys, many of them partly submerged and surrounded by steep, almost vertical cliffs. Exploration of caves at different altitudes has revealed archaeological traces of human activity over a continuous period of more than 30,000 years. They illustrate the occupation of these mountains by seasonal hunter-gatherers and how they adapted to major climatic and environmental changes, especially the repeated inundation of the landscape by the sea after the last ice age. The story of human occupation continues through the Neolithic and Bronze Ages to the historical era. Hoa Lu, the ancient capital of Viet Nam, was strategically established here in the 10th and 11th centuries AD. The property also contains temples, pagodas, paddy-fields and small villages. &lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Trang An Landscape Complex</site><states>Viet Nam</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>2179</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)(v)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1982</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/192</http_url><id_number>192</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_192.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ye</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.9269400000</latitude><location>Hadramaut Governorate, in the Wadi Hadramaut, Seiyun District</location><longitude>48.6266700000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The old walled city of Shibam and Wadi Hadramaut constitute an outstanding example of human settlement and land use. The domestic architecture of Shibam is an outstanding characteristic example of houses in the Arab and Muslim world. The rigorous city planning based on the principle of vertical construction is exceptional and an example of a traditional but vulnerable culture&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Sometimes called the 'Chicago of the desert' or the 'Manhattan of the desert', the old city of Shibam presents to historians and urbanists one of the earliest and most perfect examples of rigorous planning based on the principle of vertical construction.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city is built on a hillock, which has allowed it to escape the devastating floods of Wadi Hadramaut and to become the capital of the territory after the destruction of ancient pre-Islamic capital, Shabwa, in AD 300. Its plan is trapezoidal, almost rectangular; and it is enclosed by earthen walls within which a block of dwellings, also built from earth, have been laid out on an orthogonal grid. The highest house is eight storeys high and the average is five.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The impressive structures for the most part date from the 16th century, following a devastating flood of which Shibam was the victim in 1532-33. However, some older houses and large buildings still remain from the first centuries of Islam, such as the Friday Mosque, built in 904, and the castle, built in 1220.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;In Shibam there are some mosques, two ancient sultan's palaces, a double monumental door and 500 more buildings, separated or grouped, but all made uniform by the material of which they are constructed: unfired clay.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Surrounded by a fortified wall, the 16th-century city of Shibam is one of the oldest and best examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction. Its impressive tower-like structures rise out of the cliff and have given the city the nickname of ‘the Manhattan of the desert’.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old Walled City of Shibam</site><states>Yemen</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>213</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iv)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/385</http_url><id_number>385</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_385.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ye</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>15.3555555600</latitude><location>Governorate of the capital Sana’a</location><longitude>44.2080555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Within its partially preserved wall, Sana'a is an outstanding example of a homogeneous architectural ensemble whose design and detail illustrate an organization of space characteristic of the early centuries of Islam which has been respected over time. The houses of Sana'a, which have become vulnerable as a result of contemporary social changes, are an outstanding example of a unique, traditional human settlement. Countless partial studies have been made of the houses of Sana'a, with the objective of eventual demolition. The beauty of the urban landscape of Sana'a, whose overall appearance should remain intact, attests that they should be preserved integrally.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The City of Sana'a, capital of Yemen since 1962, is a fine example of artistic and pictorial quality, now considered to be a homogenous ensemble made up of tower-houses built from rammed earth. Its history covers a period of over 2,000 years. Given official status in the 2nd century BC when it was an outpost of the Yemenite kingdoms, Sana'a (Arabic for 'fortified place') was associated with all the major historical events that took place in Arabia Felix. The site of the cathedral and the martyrium constructed during the period of Abyssinian domination (525-75) bear witness to Christian influence whose apogee coincided with the reign of Justinian.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The remains of the pre-Islamic period were largely destroyed as a result of profound changes in the city from 628. Beginning with the early years of the Hegira, Sana'a became a major centre for the spread of the Islamic faith. The Great Mosque is said to have been constructed while the Prophet was still living, with materials recovered from the Ghumdan Palace and the cathedral.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The successive reconstructions of Sana'a under Ottoman domination, beginning in the 16th century, respected the proportions and balance of the medieval city while changing its appearance. At the same time, a new city grew up to the west of the first settlement and is contiguous with it. The new city covers a similar surface area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The houses in the old city are of relatively recent construction and have a traditional structure. The stone-built ground floor houses provisions and livestock. A staircase leads to the upper floors which normally comprise, successively, a large common room, which served as a meeting room for business affairs; the divan, used exclusively for festivities and family gatherings; smaller, private living quarters; and, last, on the top floor, the mafraj, a room where men meet in the afternoon. Large windows line three walls of the room forming a kind of loggia. The only differentiating feature of these tower-like houses is the size and number of floors (there may be as many as nine), and the quality of the ornamental and painted decoration of the windows, friezes and coping.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Situated in a mountain valley at an altitude of 2,200 m, Sana’a has been inhabited for more than 2,500 years. In the 7th and 8th centuries the city became a major centre for the propagation of Islam. This religious and political heritage can be seen in the 103 mosques, 14 &lt;em&gt;hammams&lt;/em&gt; and over 6,000 houses, all built before the 11th century. Sana’a’s many-storeyed tower-houses built of rammed earth (&lt;em&gt;pisé&lt;/em&gt;) add to the beauty of the site.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Old City of Sana'a</site><states>Yemen</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>444</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(ii)(iv)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger>Y 2000</danger><date_inscribed>1993</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;It is not certain when Zabid was founded, but it was large enough to become the centre of a province (mihlaf) when Moslem power was established in this fertile region in AD 631; it was originally called al-Husayb, but it is not certain when the name was changed. Its development is due to the founder of the Ziyadite dynasty, Ibn Ziyad, who was sent to the region by the Caliph al-Mamun in 820 to quell a rebellion. He gave it its circular plan, built the fortifications, and brought water to it through a network of canals. The Great Mosque was built and the earlier al-Asa'ir mosque enlarged by later Ziyadids, who ruled the Tihama until 1012. It was sacked on two occasions during this period by religious revolutionaries, but rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Like the rest of Yemen, Zabid under its successive Banu Nagah and Mahdid rulers suffered during the troubled period between 1021 and 1159. The palace and part of the fortifications were destroyed and the town contracted in size. Following the pacification of the region by Turansah, brother of Salah ad-Din al-Ayyubi ( Saladin) , Yemen became the centre of one of the leading powers in the east under the Rasulids, first as governors and then as rulers of the region. From 1216 until 1429, Rasulid rulers encouraged learning and built schools for teaching the Koran and the sciences (madrasas), along with the necessary hostels for students, all over the region: of the 62 madrasas recorded in Zabid, 22 still survive. They also built residences for themselves and restored and enlarged existing public buildings.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Zabid lost its political and economic importance under the Tahirid dynasty (1454-1538), but retained its role as a university. With the establishment of Ottoman rule, Zabid was completely neglected in favour of the capital city, Sana'a.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/611</http_url><id_number>611</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_611.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ye</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>14.1953333333</latitude><location>Province d'al-Hudayda</location><longitude>43.3155277778</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Zabid was of great importance in the Arab and Muslim world for many centuries because of its Islamic University. In the 13th-15th centuries it was also the capital of Yemen during the Rasulid period. Its architecture profoundly influenced that of the Yemeni coastal plain: the domestic architecture of Zabid is the most characteristic example of the Tihama style of courtyard house, which is to be found over a wide area of the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The city, which is roughly oval in plan, is situated on a flat clay area sloping gently towards the north. It is not certain when it was founded, but it was large enough to become the centre of a province when Muslim power was established in this fertile region in AD 631; it was originally called al-Husayb, but it is not certain when the name was changed. Its development is due to the founder of the Ziyadite dynasty, who was sent to the region by the Caliph al-Mamun in 820 to quell a rebellion. The Tihama was sacked on two occasions during this period by religious revolutionaries, but rebuilt.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Between 1021 and 1159 the palace and part of the fortifications were destroyed and the town contracted in size. From 1216 until 1429, Rasulid rulers encouraged learning and built schools for teaching the Koran and the sciences (&lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; ), along with the necessary hostels for students, all over the region: of the 62 &lt;em&gt;madrasas&lt;/em&gt; recorded in Zabid, 22 still survive. Zabid lost its political and economic importance under the Tahirid dynasty (1454-1538), but retained its role as a university. With the establishment of Ottoman rule, Zabid was completely neglected in favour of the capital city, Sana'a.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;With the exception of Sana'a, Zabid has the highest concentration of mosques in any Yemeni city: 86 in all. The core of the town of Zabid is its first mosque, the Mosque of Asa'ir. The Great Mosque lies to the west of the town, possibly on the site of the ancient &lt;em&gt;musalla&lt;/em&gt; , an open place for prayer used for meetings. The souk (market) spread from the Asa'ir Mosque towards the Great Mosque. A network of streets and alleys, some as little as 2&amp;nbsp;m wide, spreads over the town, occasionally opening out into small squares. The only large open space is that in front of the citadel. Each of the 'blocks' formed by the streets has a passage allowing access to the houses.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The basic unit of each house is a rectangular room (&lt;em&gt;murabba&lt;/em&gt; ), open on one of its longer sides to an irregularly shaped courtyard, which is surrounded by high blank walls on the street side. The corners of these courtyards are occupied by wells, latrines, washing places and kitchens. This type of structure, built from baked brick, predominates in Zabid, but there are small areas of humbler huts of unbaked clay roofed with straw or constructed of reused wooden planks. They nonetheless conform to the basic room plus courtyard module.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Zabid's domestic and military architecture and its urban plan make it an outstanding archaeological and historical site. Besides being the capital of Yemen from the 13th to the 15th century, the city played an important role in the Arab and Muslim world for many centuries because of its Islamic university.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Historic Town of Zabid</site><states>Yemen</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>725</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2008</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1263</http_url><id_number>1263</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_1263.jpg</image_url><iso_code>ye</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>12.5000000000</latitude><location></location><longitude>53.8333333333</longitude><long_description></long_description><region>Arab States</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Socotra Archipelago, in the northwest Indian Ocean near the Gulf of Aden, is 250 km long and comprises four islands and two rocky islets which appear as a prolongation of the Horn of Africa. The site is of universal importance because of its biodiversity with rich and distinct flora and fauna: 37% of Socotra&amp;rsquo;s 825 plant species, 90% of its reptile species and 95% of its land snail species do not occur anywhere else in the world. The site also supports globally significant populations of land and sea birds (192 bird species, 44 of which breed on the islands while 85 are regular migrants), including a number of threatened species. The marine life of Socotra is also very diverse, with 253 species of reef-building corals, 730 species of coastal fish and 300 species of crab, lobster and shrimp.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Socotra Archipelago</site><states>Yemen</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>1548</unique_number></row><row><category>Natural</category><criteria_txt>(vii)(ix)(x)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1984</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Mana Pools National Park 1963: Chewore Safari Area and Sapi Safari Area 1964: Dande Safari Area 1968: Urungwe Safari Area 1976: no information on Doma Safari Area. Much of the area had been protected as a non-hunting area since 1930. Designated as a World Heritage site in 1984.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/302</http_url><id_number>302</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_302.jpg</image_url><iso_code>zw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-15.8194444400</latitude><location>Urungwe District, Mashonaland North region</location><longitude>29.4080555600</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;On the banks of the Zambezi, great cliffs overhang the river and the floodplains. The area is home to a remarkable concentration of wild animals, including elephants, buffalo, leopards and cheetahs. An important concentration of Nile crocodiles is also be found in the area&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Mana Pools, Sapi and Chewore (which total some 6,766&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ) are part of the Miombo woodland/savannah biogeographic realm. They front the lower Zambezi River, and include large areas of the rugged Zambezi escarpment (which rises to over 1,000&amp;nbsp;m from the valley floor). The area contains the last remaining natural stretch of the Middle Zambezi. The Mana Pools are former channels of the Zambezi. Much of the Chewore is heavily dissected and the Mupata Gorge (some 30&amp;nbsp;km long) occurs along the northern border of this part of the area. Above the Mupata Gorges the river is broad and sandy, flowing through numerous channels, sandbanks and islands.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Well-grassed Brachystegia communities dominate the mountainous escarpment and higher Chewore areas with small but significant riparian communities along the numerous streams. The valley floor is dominated by mopane woodlands or dry highly deciduous thickets known as Jesse. On the younger sandier alluvial deposits along the Zambezi are well-developed tracts of winterthorn with more diverse woodlands containing &lt;em&gt;Kigelia africana&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Trichelia emetica&lt;/em&gt; on the higher deposits.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The nominated site has a rich and varied fauna with large mammal populations include threatened animals which concentrate on the flood plains during the dry season when water elsewhere is scarce and when the numerous winterthorn trees shed their protein-rich pods. The fauna includes elephant which number in thousands, hippopotamus, lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, spotted hyena, honey badger, warthog, bushpig, plains zebra, and many antelopes including mixed herds of greater kudu, bushbuck, nyala, eland, waterbuck, sable antelope, grysbok and steenbok.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Nile crocodile are numerous. Birdlife on the river and in the bush is prolific with over 380 species recorded including Nyasa lovebird, yellow-spotted nicator, rock pratincole, banded snake-eagle and Livingstone's flycatcher. Common fish include tigerfish, bream, vundu, nkupi, chessa, cornish jack and lungfish.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There are two further contiguous areas, Dande Safari Area (523&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ) established in 1968, and the Urungwe Safari Area (2,870&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ) established in 1976. Much of the area had been protected as a non-hunting area since 1930.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area is of limited agricultural potential. There is virtually no permanent human habitation.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;On the banks of the Zambezi, great cliffs overhang the river and the floodplains. The area is home to a remarkable concentration of wild animals, including elephants, buffalo, leopards and cheetahs. An important concentration of Nile crocodiles is also be found in the area.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Mana Pools National Park, Sapi and Chewore Safari Areas</site><states>Zimbabwe</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>339</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(v)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>2003</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description>&lt;p&gt;Evidence for the early history of the area comes from archaeological excavations and from analysis of the rock paintings. These indicate a long and perhaps continuous use of the caves from the Stone Age right through to the early historical period first by hunters and gatherer societies and then by Iron Age settlers practicing agriculture. In the Zimbabwean context the separation between the prehistoric and the historic periods is not clearly defined.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The sites first appear in the records of missionaries, mineral seekers and explorers who document the arrival and establishment of the present Ndebele group of people during the first half of the 19th century under the leadership of the King Mzilikazi. Mhlahlandlela, on the northern fringes of the Matobo Hills, was one of the earliest settlements. The first Bulawayo was established soon after. Around the same time the Nguni people, fleeing Zululand, arrived in the area.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Resistance by the local people to the early colonists is well documented. During confrontations in 1893 and 1896 between Cecil Rhodes and the Ndebele leaders, the Matobo Hills played a pivotal role in providing refuge to local people who derived inspiration from the oracles of the Mwari shrines.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The majority of the area which now forms the Rhodes Matopos National Park was declared a conservancy in 1926.&lt;/p&gt;</historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/306</http_url><id_number>306</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_306.jpg</image_url><iso_code>zw</iso_code><justification>&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (iii)&lt;/em&gt; : The Matobo Hills has one of the highest concentrations of rock art in Southern Africa. The rich evidence from archaeology and from the rock paintings at Matobo provide a very full picture of the lives of foraging societies in the Stone Age and the way agricultural societies came to replace them.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (v)&lt;/em&gt; : The interaction between communities and the landscape, manifest in the rock art and also in the long standing religious traditions still associated with the rocks, are community responses to a landscape.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Criterion (vi)&lt;/em&gt; : The Mwari religion, centred on Matoba, which may date back to the Iron Age, is the most powerful oracular tradition in southern Africa.&lt;/p&gt;</justification><latitude>-20.5000000000</latitude><location>Matebeleland, South Province</location><longitude>28.5000000000</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The Matobo Hills have one of the highest concentrations of rock art in Southern Africa. The rich evidence from archaeology and from the rock paintings at Matobo provide a very full picture of the lives of foraging societies in the Stone Age and the way agricultural societies came to replace them. The interaction between communities and the landscape, manifest in the rock art and also in the long-standing religious traditions still associated with the rocks, are community responses to a landscape. The Mwari religion, centred on Matobo, which may date back to the Iron Age, is the most powerful oracular tradition in southern Africa.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The large boulders provide abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from the early Stone Age right through to early historical times, and intermittently since. They also feature an outstanding collection of rock paintings. The Matobo Hills continue to provide a strong focus for the local community, which still uses shrines and sacred places closely linked to traditional, social and economic activities.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The landscape is visually and ecologically distinguished from the surrounding dry savannah. A profusion of distinctive granite landforms, densely packed into a comparatively tight area, rise up to form a sea of hills. Their forms have resulted from the varied composition and alignment of the granites, which responded differently to millions of years of weathering, leaving inselbergs (large individual vertical rocks), kopjes, crenellated ridges, dwalas or hump-backed domes, and what look like randomly heaped boulders.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The discrete and often small sheltered spaces, formed between this dense collection of rocks, have fostered a wide variety of microclimates, allowing the development of an extremely diverse range of habitats. The resulting species rich vegetation has in turn provided much sustenance for a wide range of fauna. The valley between the rocks contains numerous streams and springs supporting a wide range of flora. Out of 189 mammal species indigenous to Zimbabwe, 88 have been recorded in the Matobo Hills, plus a further 70 pairs of bird species.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;These natural attributes have also been the dynamic focus for people living in the area since the early Stone Age. In fact within natural caves, and on boulders and cliff faces are to be found a dramatic corpus of rock art.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The earlier paintings, dated back at least 13,000 years, are essentially naturalistic interpretations of people, animals and trees. They are associated with hunting and gathering and are mostly executed using a red ochre pigment, mixed with an as yet unknown binder. The later paintings associated with farming communities used white pigment from kaolin or quartz. This distinction is common within the region, but stylistically Matobo is part of a rock-art 'region' stretching from South Africa to Tanzania. It is also impressionistic in that many of the paintings distorted body proportions to convey a sense of movement, or size to convey importance. In many sites there are layers of paintings superimposed one on top of the other. Images in the later paintings also appear to display a complex cosmology linked to religious beliefs.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;An abundance of archaeological evidence has been amassed from the shelters for the Stone Age and Iron Age, which when combined has contributed a great deal to the understanding of the pre-colonial history of the region. However, the Matobo Hills also contain very important historical sites and sites from the colonial and post-colonial periods.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Matobo is the home of the wide-ranging oracular cult of the High God, Mwari, whose voice is believed to be heard from the rocks. This powerful oracle links the indigenous communities to the hills where the ancestral spirits live in sacred forest, mountains, caves, hollow trees and pools. Within the Matobo Hills, certain places have become known as shrines.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>1</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The area exhibits a profusion of distinctive rock landforms rising above the granite shield that covers much of Zimbabwe. The large boulders provide abundant natural shelters and have been associated with human occupation from the early Stone Age right through to early historical times, and intermittently since. They also feature an outstanding collection of rock paintings. The Matobo Hills continue to provide a strong focus for the local community, which still uses shrines and sacred places closely linked to traditional, social and economic activities.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Matobo Hills</site><states>Zimbabwe</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>345</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(i)(iii)(vi)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/364</http_url><id_number>364</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_364.jpg</image_url><iso_code>zw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.2833333300</latitude><location></location><longitude>30.9333333300</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Great Zimbabwe bear a unique testimony to the lost civilization of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries. A unique artistic achievement, this great city has struck the imagination of African and European travellers since the Middle Ages, as evidenced by the persistent legends which attribute to it a biblical origin. The entire Zimbabwe nation has identified with this historically symbolic ensemble and has adopted as its emblem the steatite bird, which may have been a royal totem.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The impressive ruins of Great Zimbabwe ('stone houses', which cover an area of some 80&amp;nbsp;ha, lie 30&amp;nbsp;km from Masvingo (formerly Fort Victoria)&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The pioneering works of David Randall-MacIver in 1905-6, corroborated since by numerous finds of dated archaeological artefacts and by radiocarbon analysis, have proved that Great Zimbabwe was founded in the 11th century on a site which had been sparsely inhabited in the prehistoric period, by a Bantu population of the Iron Age, the Shona. In the 14th century, it was the principal city of a major state extending over the gold-rich plateaux; its population exceeded 10,000 inhabitants. In about 1450, this capital was abandoned, not as a result of war, but because the hinterland could no longer furnish food for the overpopulated city, and deforestation made it necessary to go farther and farther to find firewood. The resulting migration benefited Khami, which became the most influential city in the region, but signalled waning political power.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;When in 1505 the Portuguese settled in Sofala, the region was divided between the rival powers of the kingdoms of Torwa and Mwene-Mutapa. From the 11th to 15th centuries, the wealth of Great Zimbabwe was associated with gold trading, controlled by the Arabs, and extensive trade activities on the east coast of Africa where Kilwa was the main trading centre. In addition to jewellery that had escaped greedy European gold hunters at the end of the 19th century, archaeological excavations in Great Zimbabwe unearthed glass beads and fragments of porcelain and pottery of Chinese and Persian origin which testify to the extent of trade within the continent. A 14th-century Arab coin from Kilwa was also found; it was reissued in 1972.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The territory managed by the National Museums and Monuments Administration includes the three main areas of Great Zimbabwe :&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;ul class="unIndentedList"&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Hill Ruins, forming a huge granite mass atop a spur facing north-east/south-west, were continuously inhabited from the 11th to 15th centuries, and there are numerous layers of traces of human settlements. This acropolis is generally considered a 'royal city'; the west enclosure is thought to have been the residence of successive chiefs and the east enclosure, where six steatite upright posts topped with birds were found, considered to serve a ritual purpose.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Great Enclosure below the hill to the south dates from the 14th century. In the form of an ellipsis, it is marked off by a wall of cut granite blocks laid in regular courses. Inside the Great Enclosure, a series of living quarters in brick have been noted. The brick (daga) was made from a mixture of granitic sand and clay. Huts were built within the stone enclosure walls. Inside each community area other walls mark off each family's area, generally comprising a kitchen, two living huts and a court.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;li&gt;The Valley Ruins are a series of living ensembles scattered throughout the valley. Each ensemble has similar characteristics: many constructions are in brick (huts, indoor flooring and benches, holders for recipients, basins, etc.) and drystone masonry walls provide insulation for each ensemble. Finds made in the inhabited areas and the dumping ground have furnished precise information about the farming and pastoral activities of the inhabitants at the time of Great Zimbabwe's heyday and about earthenware and smiting craft activities.&lt;/li&gt;&#xd;
&lt;/ul&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;The ruins of Great Zimbabwe &amp;ndash; the capital of the Queen of Sheba, according to an age-old legend &amp;ndash; are a unique testimony to the Bantu civilization of the Shona between the 11th and 15th centuries. The city, which covers an area of nearly 80 ha, was an important trading centre and was renowned from the Middle Ages onwards.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Great Zimbabwe National Monument</site><states>Zimbabwe</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>417</unique_number></row><row><category>Cultural</category><criteria_txt>(iii)(iv)</criteria_txt><danger></danger><date_inscribed>1986</date_inscribed><extension>0</extension><historical_description></historical_description><http_url>https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/365</http_url><id_number>365</id_number><image_url>https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/sites/site_365.jpg</image_url><iso_code>zw</iso_code><justification></justification><latitude>-20.1583333300</latitude><location>Western Region, Matabeleland</location><longitude>28.3766666700</longitude><long_description>&lt;p&gt;Khami, which still has a considerable archaeological potential, is a site of great interest and provides a testimony adding to that of Great Zimbabwe, developing immediately afterward to the abandonment of this capital.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The site is located to the west of the Khami River and downstream from the dam built in 1928-29. It is scattered over more than 2&amp;nbsp;km, from Passage Ruin to North Ruin. The archaeological zone, which was protected against plundering thanks to its 'Royal Reserve' status until the death of King Lobengula in 1893, was not seriously disturbed by the rampant prospecting of the treasure hunters of the Rhodesia Ancient Ruins Company Ltd. It was explored in the 20th century by David Randall-MacIver, Gertrude Caton-Thompson and more recently by K.&amp;nbsp;R. Robinson, whose work has provided in-depth knowledge of the site's history.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;Although the site is located in a zone where a fairly important human presence can be traced back roughly 100,000 years, it does not appear to have been inhabited continuously until the Iron Age. According to radiocarbon dating methods the city grew between around 1450 and 1650, which fully confirms the study carried out on built-up structures and small archaeological artefacts.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;As is the case in Great Zimbabwe, here several sectors can be distinguished that are clearly differentiated in terms of use. The chief's residence (&lt;em&gt;mambo&lt;/em&gt;) was located towards the north, on the Hill Ruins site, which is a hill created largely of alluvial land used to level the terraces, contained by bearing walls. In this sector some highly significant imported goods were found: 16th century Rhineland stoneware, Ming porcelain pieces which date back to the reign of Wan-Li (1573-1691), Portuguese imitations of 17th-century Chinese porcelain, 17th-century Spanish silverware, etc.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;There is a possibility that Khami was visited by Portuguese merchants and even missionaries, because a monumental cross consisting of small blocks of granite can still be seen traced on the rocky ground of Cross Hill, a small hillock immediately north of the mambo residence.&lt;/p&gt;&#xd;
&lt;p&gt;The population of Khami was spread over several hectares and lived in huts made from cob surrounded by a series of granite walls. The typology of the fences and walls is similar to that of the latest constructions in Great Zimbabwe. Worthy of note are the many decorative friezes, having chevron and checkered patterns, and the great number of narrow passageways and deambulatory galleries, not all of which are covered.&lt;/p&gt;</long_description><region>Africa</region><revision>0</revision><secondary_dates></secondary_dates><short_description>&lt;p&gt;Khami, which developed after the capital of Great Zimbabwe had been abandoned in the mid-16th century, is of great archaeological interest. The discovery of objects from Europe and China shows that Khami was a major centre for trade over a long period of time.&lt;/p&gt;</short_description><site>Khami Ruins National Monument</site><states>Zimbabwe</states><transboundary>0</transboundary><unique_number>418</unique_number></row></query>